Mammalian Physiology

Nervous System Peripheral and Central

UNLV
UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA LAS VEGAS

PHYSIOLOGY, Chapter 6 Berne, Levy, Koeppen, Stanton

Objectives
Describe the organization of the nervous system Describe the central nervous system Discuss the different cell types in the nervous system Describe characteristics of axons Describe neuronal pools Discuss the peripheral nervous system
Sensory receptors Somatic motor nerves

Basic Nervous System Functions

Sensory Input provides the central nervous system with information about the internal and external environment Integration - CNS takes all the incoming information, interprets it, then selects an appropriate response Motor Output - executes the central nervous system commands to effect the appropriate physical response

Organization of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord Integration and command center

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Neurons outside the CNS Paired spinal and cranial nerves Sensory division Afferent fibers transmit impulses from receptors to CNS Motor division Efferent fibers transmit impulses from CNS to effector organs

Organization of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System

CNS is comprised of brain, brain stem, and spinal cord Important structures include: -Medulla cardiovascular & respiratory control -Cerebellum motor control, motor learning -Hypothalamus autonomic and endocrine control -Basal ganglia motor control -Cerebral cortex sensory perception, cognition, learning & memory, voluntary movement -Spinal cord sensory input, reflexes, somatic and autonomic motor output
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CNS Environment
Local environment is controlled by -blood-brain barrier -buffering of neuroglia (astrocytes) -exchange between CSF and brain ECS Blood-brain barrier limits movement large molecules (proteins) and charged ions from the blood into the brain (Capillary endothelial cells of CNS have tight junctions)

CSF has lower concentration of K+, glucose , and protein, but higher concentration of Na+ and Cl- than does blood (Table 6-5)
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Regions of the Brain and Spinal Cord

White matter dense collections of myelinated fibers Gray matter mostly soma and unmyelinated fibers Sensory neurons enter via the dorsal root Motor neurons exit via the ventral root

Histology of Nerve Tissue

The two principal cell types of the nervous system are:
Neurons excitable cells that transmit electrical signals Supporting cells cells that surround and wrap neurons

The supporting cells (neuroglia or glial cells):

Provide a supportive scaffolding for neurons Segregate and insulate neurons Guide young neurons to the proper connections Promote health and growth

Neuroglia: Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched glial cells They cling to neurons and their synaptic endings, and cover capillaries Functionally, they:
Support and brace neurons (glial filaments in cytoplasm) Anchor neurons to their nutrient supplies (capillaries & pia matter) Control the chemical environment (take-up K+ & neurotransmitters)

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Neuroglia: Microglia
Small, ovoid cells with spiny processes
Phagocytes that monitor the health of neurons Remove cellular debris when CNS is damaged

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Neuroglia: Ependymal Cells

Range in shape from squamous to columnar
Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal column Form the epithelium that separates CNS from cerebral spinal fluid in the ventricles Lie between the brain extracellular space and theCSF

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Neuroglia: Oligodendrocytes
Branched cells that wrap CNS nerve fibers produce myelin sheath for neurons in the CNS One oligodendrocyte myelinates many neurons CNS version of Schwann cells

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Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Structural units of the nervous system
Composed of a body, axon, and dendrites Long-lived, amitotic (non-divisible), and have a high metabolic rate

Their plasma membrane functions in:

Electrical signaling Cell-to-cell signaling during development

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Neurons (Nerve Cells)

Basic Elements -Soma (cell body) -Dendrites -Axon

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Development of Neurons
The nervous system originates from the neural tube and neural crest The neural tube becomes the CNS There is a three-phase process of differentiation:
Proliferation of cells needed for development Migration cells become amitotic and move externally Differentiation into neuroblasts

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Axonal Growth
Guided by:
Scaffold laid down by older neurons Orienting glial fibers Release of nerve growth factor by astrocytes Neurotropins released by other neurons Repulsion guiding molecules Attractants released by target cells N-CAM nerve cell adhesion molecule Important in establishing neural pathways Without N-CAM, neural function is impaired Found in the membrane of the growth cone

NCAM

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Nerve Cell Body (Soma)

Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus Is the major biosynthetic center Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature) Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER) Contains an axon hillock cone-shaped area from which axons arise

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Dendrites of Motor Neurons

Short, tapering, and diffusely branched processes Extensions of neuronal cell body They are the receptive, or input, regions of the neuron Electrical signals are conveyed as graded potentials (not action potentials) (calcium spikes) Account for 90+% of surface area

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Axons
Structure
Slender processes of uniform diameter arising from the hillock Long axons are called nerve fibers Normally there is only one unbranched axon per neuron Axonal terminal branched terminus of an axon Lack rough endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi apparatus

Function
Generate and transmit action potentials Secrete neurotransmitters from the axonal terminals Axonal transport

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Axonal Transport
Distribution of membrane and cytoplasmic components from soma to points along the axon (especially to axon terminus) Energy supplied by glucose Fast axonal transport
Membrane-bound organelles and mitochondria Synaptic vesicles 400 mm/day

Slow axonal transport

Cytoplasmic prioteins 1 mm/day

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Axonal Transport
Transport facilitated by microtubules
Organelles attach to microtubules Movement triggered by calcium

Microtubule motor proteins are required for transport

Kinesin and Dynein

Axonal transport is bidirectional

Anterograde axonal transport (soma to axonal terminals)
Kinesin replenishment of synaptic vesicles and enzymes responsible for neurotransmitter synthesis

Retrograde axonal transport (axonal terminals to soma)

Dynesin return of synaptic vesicles to soma for lysosomal degradation

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Myelin Sheath
Whitish, fatty (protein-lipoid), segmented sheath around most long axons It functions to:
Protect the axon Electrically insulate fibers from one another Increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission

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Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma Formation

Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS A Schwann cell:
Envelopes an axon in a trough Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath

Neurilemma remaining nucleus and cytoplasm of a Schwann cell

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Nerve Fiber Classification

Nerve fibers are classified according to:
Diameter Degree of myelination Speed of conduction

Functional:
Sensory (afferent) transmit impulses toward the CNS Motor (efferent) carry impulses away from the CNS Interneurons (association neurons) shuttle signals through CNS pathways

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Synaptic Transmission
Neurons communicate across synapses using neurotransmitters
Released from presynaptic membrane Binds to receptor on post synaptic membrane Acetylcholine is neurotransmitter in PNS

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Types of Synapses
Axodendritic synapses between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another Axosomatic synapses between the axon of one neuron and the soma of another Other types of synapses include:
Axoaxonic (axon to axon) Dendrodendritic (dendrite to dendrite) Dendrosomatic (dendrites to soma)

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Synaptic Transmission
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)
Cause depolarization which may or may not reach threshold [ Na+ permeability] Temporal summation: summing several EPSPs from one presynaptic neuron Spatial summation: summing EPSPs from several different presynaptic neurons

Inhibitory postsynpatic potentials (IPSP)

Cause hyperpolarization [ Cl- permeability, K+ permeability]

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Termination of Synaptic Transmission

Neurotransmitter bound to a postsynaptic neuron:
Produces a continuous postsynaptic effect Blocks reception of additional messages Must be removed from its receptor

Removal of neurotransmitters occurs when they:

Are degraded by enzymes (ie. Acetylcholinesterase) Are reabsorbed by astrocytes or the presynaptic terminals Diffuse from the synaptic cleft

Synaptic Delay
Neurotransmitter must be released, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors Synaptic delay time needed to do this (0.3-5.0 ms) Synaptic delay is the rate-limiting step of neural transmission

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Neural Integration: Neuronal Pools

Functional groups of neurons that:
Integrate incoming information Forward the processed information to its appropriate destination

Serial Processing
Input travels along one pathway to a specific destination Works in an all-or-none manner Example: spinal reflexes

Parallel Processing
Input travels along several pathways Pathways are integrated in different CNS systems One stimulus promotes numerous responses Example: a smell may remind one of the odor and associated experiences

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Organization of a Neuronal Pool in the CNS

Each input fiber divides numerous times providing innumerable terminal fibrils to synapse with the cell bodies (dendrites) of the neurons in the pool Input Output

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Neuronal Pools
Simple neuronal pool
Input fiber presynaptic fiber Discharge zone neurons most closely associated with the incoming fiber Facilitated zone neurons farther away from incoming fiber

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Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

Divergent one incoming fiber stimulates ever increasing number of fibers
Within a pathway to amplify the signal Into multiple tracts to send the signals to separate areas

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Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

Convergent opposite of divergent circuits, resulting in either strong stimulation or inhibition Convergence of signals
Multiple inputs from a single neuron Inputs from multiple neurons

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Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

Reverberating circuit chain of neurons containing collateral synapses with previous neurons in the chain making a positive feedback loop continuous output signal - control of rhythmic activities such as sleep-wake cycle, breathing, walking etc

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Types of Circuits in Neuronal Pools

Parallel after-discharge incoming neurons stimulate several neurons in parallel arrays which stimulate a common output cell complex neural functions such as calculations

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Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory (afferent) division
Sensory afferent fibers carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain Visceral afferent fibers transmit impulses from visceral organs to the brain

Motor (efferent) division

Transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs Somatic nervous system
Conscious control of skeletal muscles

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Two divisions sympathetic and parasympathetic Regulates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

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Sensory (Afferent) Receptors

Classification
Special
Vision, hearing, taste, smell, balance

Superficial
Touch, pressure, vibration, tickle, heat, cold, pain, itch

Deep
Position, kinesthesia, deep pressure, deep pain

Visceral
Hunger, nausea, distension, visceral pain

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Sensory Transduction
Response of a sensory receptor to a stimulus
Chemoreceptor Mechanocreceptor Photoreceptor

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Sensory Coding
Stimulus intensity
Mean frequency of discharge (temporal summation) Number of receptors activated (spatial summation)

Stimulus frequency
Intervals between discharges

Pattern of nerve impulses Adaptation

Accommodation to stimulus (slow or rapid)

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Neural Integration
Integration: summation of information coming into the neuron. Spatial summation summation of information coming into different places on the neuron. Temporal summation summation of information coming into the neuron with time.

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Sensory Coding
Increasing frequency of discharge in response to increasing stimulus intensity Adaptation signal stops when stimulus becomes constant Different pattern of discharge

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Sensory Coding
Pattern of discharge synchronized with stimulus frequency

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Somatic Motor Neurons

- motor neuron efferent extrafusal muscle fibers - voluntary control - efferent motor neuron intrafusal muscle fibers - muscle spindle proprioception Motor unit -motor neuron, axon, and all the muscle fibers it innervates All the muscle fibers in a motor unit are the same type (I, IIa, IIb) Muscle fibers contract on an all or none basis each fiber contracts fully when stimulated Force increases incrementally by
Recruitment (activating additional motor units) Summation (increasing frequency of stimulation)

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Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

Fiber types classified by: -Speed of contraction -Energy producing pathways -Fatigue resistance -Fiber diameter Fiber type determined by neural input pattern -Slow-twitch = tonic innervation pattern -Fast-twitch = phasic innervation pattern Fiber type also determined by trophic nerve substances (axonal flow)
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Motor Unit Recruitment

Size Principle Weaker motor units recruited first, those with smallest diameter axons: type I type IIa type IIb Type I 0 to 50% maximum force Type IIa 20% to 100% max force Type IIb 80% to 100% max force

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Size Principle for Recruitment

In response to stretch, small motor neurons recruited first When stretch is released, large motor neurons are deactivated first Large motor neurons are more susceptible to inhibition

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