CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. General:
Air pollution has been aggravated by developments that typically occur as countries become industrialized: growing cities, increasing traffic, rapid economic development and industrialization, and higher levels of energy consumption. The high influxes of population to urban areas, increase in consumption patterns and unplanned urban and industrial development have led to the problem of air pollution. Motor vehicular usage has increased tremendously across the World. In 1950 there were 53 million cars on roads of the World which increased to 500 million by the year 2000. The situation in Pakistan is not different from rest of the World. About 4.3 million vehicles are plying on the roads of Pakistan (Aziz, 2009). According to Pakistan Environment Protection Agency, in Pakistan number of vehicles has jumped from 0.8 million to 4.0 million during last 20 years showing an overall increase of more than 400 percent. The average compound growth of vehicles is about 11 percent per annum. The road Length, which was about 94000 l ip in 1980-81, increased to 232000 m in M7-98 indicating an overall increase of 1 47 percent. Driving forces behind high growth of vehicles are population explosion, gigantic expansion of cities, GDP and household income rise, inconsistent mass transit system, car financing schemes and change in landuse policy popularly known as commercialization policy. At the time of independence in 1947, 32.5 million people lived in Pakistan. The population of Pakistan is estimated as 160 million in 2007 with an average growth rate of 2.6 percent per annum. An estimated time for doubling of population in

Pakistan is 24 years whereas such doubling occurs in America, Canada and Japan in 100 years, 233 years and 350 years respectively.

1.2. Study area:

Grand Trunk (GT) Road, on of the busiest and famous road of Pakistan was built by Pashtun emperor Sher Shah Suri in 16th century in order to link together the remote provinces of his empire. The study reach is a stretch of about 3.3km of N5 (AH 1) GT Road between Co-operative Store intersection and Shalimar intersection. The figure 1 shows the road section which was studied.

Figure 1.1: Study Area of G.T. Road between Co-operative Store intersection and Shalimar intersection.

1.3. Problem statement:

The rapid growth in motor vehicle activity in cities of Pakistan has brought in its wake a range of serious socioeconomic, environmental, health, and welfare impacts. Of these impacts, those resulting from urban air pollution, due to emissions from motor vehicles among other sources, have been the focus of considerable public concern and policy attention. In Delhi, for example, air quality has been poor since the late 1980s. Surveys in the mid-1990s showed 24hr average suspended particulate levels exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guideline limits almost daily, with peak levels as high as 610 times the limit at many sites. Daily average sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide levels exceeded WHO limits on several days annually, at several sites. Ozone has not been monitored regularly, but limited studies in the 1990s showed that short-term WHO limits were exceeded at some locations (Environment Protection Agency Pakistan, 2004). Table 2 contains recent data that show that 24-hr particulate limits continue to be exceeded even in residential areas. Such high air pollution levels occur in Karachi and other major cities of Pakistan, because of the concentration of motor vehicular and other energy-consuming activities in these cities and the high pollution intensity of these activities. And because of the large populations in these cities, significant exposures and health impacts result.
Table 1.1: Motor vehicle growth in Pakistan, 19752005. (Ilyas, 2009)
Year

Trucks 0.22 0.6 3.5 4

Buses 0.05 0.16 1.32 2.1

Jeep, Cars & taxis

M2W vehicles

*Others

Total motor vehicles

1975 1985 1995 2005

0.280 0.86 3.6 8.29

0.05 0.28 6.3 20.50

0.11 0.192 1.2 2.7

0.71 2.092 15.92 37.59

(Motor vehicle numbers, millions) *Others: includes tractors, trailers, M3W vehicles, and miscellaneous vehicles not separately classified. M2W motorized two-/three-wheeler vehicles.

Detrimental impacts of pollutants on human health, agriculture and natural ecosystems will be discussed in Chapter 2.

1.4. Objectives:
The main objectives of this study are;

To quantify the level of vehicular pollution on GT Road. To purpose various strategies for management of On-road Air Quality.

1.5. Methodology:
A framework for air quality modeling is developed. The procedure adopted is as follows; Ambient air temperature and average wind speed was collected from Metrological Department, Lahore. Traffic count survey was performed at GT Road during peak and normal hours. Road cross-section dimensions were measured. Emission factors were collected from a draft report by Air Quality Monitoring Project-Indian Clean Air Programme (ICAP), 2008. Different mathematical models were used in order to quantify the emissions of major air pollutants. Dispersion of the emissions were studied using Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model. Data of Wind rose of Lahore (2008) were collected from E & PHE Division, NESPAK. Which were utilized to study the dispersion pattern. Impacts of air pollution were identified and compared with standards. Mitigation measures were discussed in order to bring the emissions to/ below the desired levels.

1.6. Limitations:
Due to the limited resources and time, the study is primarily focused upon vehicular emission of only 3.3km road. The other limitations are; Only two intersections were studied. Emission factors are not authentic as they have been taken from Indians Vehicle research. Only 2 hours traffic count was performed for two days. Model calibration and verification is not studied as air sampling procedures are not adopted.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

Air pollution is the presence of one or more contaminants in the outer atmosphere, of quantities, of characteristics and for such a duration that is harmful to human health, animals, plans and property. It significantly reduces the enjoyment of life and property. There are different sources of air pollution the major concern here is vehicular pollution.

2.1. Major air pollutants:

The air pollutants that are of major concern are as follows;

Particulate Matter Carbon Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides Sulfur Dioxide Lead Ozone

2.2. Vehicular Pollution:

The emissions from automobile are of major concern in urban setting due to high levels of pollution. The sources of pollution in automobile are; Exhaust gases. Fuel tank emissions. Evaporation from carburetor.

In order to measure the pollutant quantities there are some factors to be consider like Roadway characteristics, traffic loads, fuel, condition of vehicles etc.

Table 2.1: Sectorial oil Consumption 2000-1: Total 19.35 Million Tons

Sector Transport Power Industry Domestic Other Govt. Agriculture

% age 46.2 36.8 10.9 2.6 2.1 1.4

(Source: CNG Sub-Sector by Hilal A Raza, DG, and HDIP on Jan, 11th 2002 A presentation to
the Task Force on Integrated Energy Security Action Plan.)

The comparison of Petrol and Diesel vehicle emission (expressed as lb/1000 Gallons fuel burnt) is given in the table below;

Table 2.2: Comparison of pollutant emitted from Diesel and Petrol Vehicles. Pollutant Aldehyde (HCOH) CO HC NOx SOx Particulates Diesel 10 60 136 222 40 110 Petrol 4 2300 200 113 9 12

2.3. Roadway Characteristics:

Characteristics of a roadway has a correlation with vehicular emissions, the characteristics included are as follows; Signal timings. Number of speed breakers or humps. Idling time of motor vehicles at intersection and at signal. Traffic load.

Number of U-turns. Road roughness, rutting and fatigue cracking. On-site parking.

Road infrastructure like, shoulders, camber, median, lanes, markings, islands, zebra-crossing, curbs, green belts, traffic signals, bus stop, overhead pedestrian bridge, side walk etc.

2.4. Pollution Load Estimation:

There are two methods used for this purpose which are as follows; i. ii. Sampling & analysis of pollutants from source. Emission factor models.

2.5. Emission Factor:

It is a representative value that relates the quantity of a pollutant released to the atmosphere with an activity associated with the release of that pollutant. It is expressed as weight of pollutant per unit weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emitting the pollutant. Emission factors vary with type of vehicle, type of fuel. Different countries have different emission factors, but generally,

(Emission)pollutant = (Activity) * (Emission Factor)pollutant

2.5.1. Parameters affecting Emission Factors

The parameters that affect the emission factor values are as follows; Vehicle/Fuel Characteristics Fuel quality Operating Characteristics Vehicle age and mileage accumulation

Driving mode and engine load Maintenance and tampering

Higher average temperatures, Poor fuel quality, Poor vehicle maintenance culture, more the load of old vehicles , Higher Value of Emission Factor

2.6. Models based on Emission factors:

There are difference models developed by USEPA based on Emission factors, which are as follows; EETM. CHEM. EMFAC.

2.7. Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model:

Plume is the continuous remittance of smoke from a stack or solid waste disposal point, or in our case we have considered our road as a plume source as motor vehicles are continuously plying on the road. The mathematical expression of Gaussian Plume Model is as follows;

Figure 2.1: Gaussian Plume Dispersion Model.

2.8. Metrological factors and air pollution dispersion:

Metrology is scientific study of the Earths atmosphere. It is basically the study of weather. Metrological factors affect the air pollution concentrations at a place. Factors which are of prime concern are; Wind. Temperature. Precipitation.

The motion of causes a dilution of air pollutants. Similarly temperature helps in vertical dispersion of pollutants. Lower wind and lower temperature clamps the pollutants upon the communities where they are produced and result in high concentration build up.

2.9. Wind rose:

Meteorologists use a graphical representation called wind rose to represent wind speed and direction over the period of time and at a specific location. Wind speed and direction is important while predicting the dispersion of pollutants. Most commonly 16 directions are there. The wind rose of Lahore (2008) are shown in the figure below;

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1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW

Frequency in hrs

15 and above 12-14.9 9-11.9 6-8.9 3-5.9 0-2.9

Figure 2.2: Wind Speed and wind direction in the city of Lahore 2008.
Windrose Winter (Nov-Feb)
340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 0 190 3 170 180 6 10 16 160 (k nots ) W ind s peed 0 1.5 3.1 5.1 8.2 (m/s ) 150 140 100 300 350 0 400 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

200

Figure 2.3: Wind Rose for the Winter 2008, Lahore

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Windrose Summer (Mar- Jun)

340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 0 190 3 180 6 10 170 16 160 (knots) W ind speed 0 1.5 3.1 5.1 8.2 (m/s) 150 140 100 300 350 0 400 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

200

Figure 2.4:

Wind Rose for the Summer ( MAR-JUNE) 2008, Lahore

Windrose Summer/Monsoon (Jul-Oct)
340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 260 250 240 230 220 210 200 0 190 3 170 180 6 10 16 160 (knots) W ind speed 0 1.5 3.1 5.1 8.2 (m/s) 150 140 100 300 350 0 400 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

200

Figure 2.5: Wind Rose for the Summer/ Moon soon (July-OCT)

Wind direction is always defined as that from which the wind is blowing, i.e. a north wind comes from north. The position of spoke shows the direction from which the wind was blowing. The thickness of spoke shows the wind speed and its lengths shows percentage of time the wind was blowing from that direction.

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Table 2.3: Wind Speed, Humidity, Pressure, Temperature and Direction 2012 Ambient Temperature
o

Wind Direction

Wind Speed

Humidity

Pressure

C SW SE SE N N N N N N N N N E E S S E NE NE E E SE

m/s 4.9 3.6 4.0 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.9 0.0 2.2 0.9 1.8 2.2 0.9 0.4 4.0 3.6 3.1 3.1

% 40 55 51 44 58 71 73 79 85 89 85 91 97 99 99 99 99 95 76 59 52 62

(mm of Hg) 756.1 756.9 756.6 756.0 757.0 757.3 757.7 758.1 758.0 758.3 758.3 758.7 757.7 758.0 758.6 759.5 760.5 760.1 760.4 760.8 760.8 760.3

29 29 31 29 28 25 24 23 22 21 22 21 20 20 19 19 20 22 25 27 28 26

It is evident from the wind rose of Lahore that most of the times the wind blows from North-West to South-East. Furthermore the average wind speed was 3m/s for most of the time.

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CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS:

This chapter presents the methods and techniques used for this work. Detailed survey was carried out and following data were collected.

3.1. Roadway Characteristics:

Typical Cross-section of roadway is given below;

Figure 3.1: Typical cross section of a road way. Table 3.1: Cross-sectional dimensions of GT-Road near UET,Lahore. Cross-sectional elements Side walk Green belt Shoulder Travel way Shoulder Median Shoulder Travel way Shoulder Green belt Side walk Dimensions 8ft 26ft 3in 2ft 6in 47ft 1ft 6in 4ft 1ft 3in 46ft 3ft 9in 39ft 10ft 8in

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3.2. Signal timings:

The study reach involve two intersections I.e., Co-operative Store Intersection and Shalimar Intersection. The signal time presented in the table below; Table 3.2: Signal timing within the given length of road. Signal color Signal Time (minute) At signal on AFC lane Green Red 1:42 1:08

At signal on UET lane near Govt. High school Shalimar. Green Red 1:56 1:23

3.2.1. Miscellaneous features of the study area:

The given length of road has following features; The oldest Engineering University of Pakistan, i.e., University of Engineering & Technology is situated on GT-Road. The famous Shalimar Garden is situated on GT-Road. Lahore Science museum is on GT-Road. Schools and 5 petrol pumps, 2 old tomb and mosques. KFC, AFC, Gourmet bakery, several motor bike workshops, fruit vendors. It has 1 over-head pedestrian bridge and 10 U-Turns.

3.3.

Traffic count survey:

The traffic count survey was performed on GT-Road was scheduled as given in the table below;

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Table 3.3: Schedule for traffic count survey. Date Dec 5, 2013 Dec 7, 2013 Time 1:30pm to 2:30pm 10:00m to 11:00am Status Peak Hour Normal Hour

The locations selected are given in the figure below;

Figure 3.1: Survey locations (red triangles perpendicular to road) The 4 survey locations that selected are as follows; In front of AFC, PHA, School at Shalimar, show-room opposite to school. The figure below shows the surveyors that were performing the traffic count survey. The Performa used for the traffic count purpose is attached in Annexure I.

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Figure3.2: Surveyors standing in front of AFC and PHA (from left to right)

3.4. Emission factors:

As described in Chapter 1, limitations of this work, the emission factors for different countries are different. Here, the emission factors that were adopted from Indians research work. The reason behind this was that the socio-economic conditions vehicle types etc. of India and Pakistan are to some extent similar. The adopted emission factors are as follows; Table 3.4: Emission factors based on engine capacity.
Engine Capacity Cc 70 150 200 660 800 1000 1300 1600 2600 3000 3500 CO 1.65 5.1 1 4.53 4.53 4.53 3.01 0.87 0.39 3 3.07 Emission Factor (g/km) HC 0.61 2.46 0.26 0.66 0.66 0.66 0.19 0.22 0.1 1.28 2.28 Nox 0.27 0.01 0.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.12 0.45 0.62 2.48 3.03 CO2 24.97 25.05 77.7 106.96 106.96 106.96 126.56 129.09 216.75 333.31 327.29 PM 0.037 0.073 0.015 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.145 0.01 0.655 0.998 Emission Factor (mg/km) Total Total Aldehyde PHM 0.01 1.5752 0.0044 0.0012 0.0085 0.4035 0.6195 0.1428 0.6195 0.1428 0.6195 0.1428 0.0079 0.1324 0.0813 0.1014 0.019 0.3153 0.2169 3.7742 0.2957 8.1284

Models used here was EETM model and Gaussian Plume dispersion Model.

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CHAPTER 4 POLLUTION LOAD ASSESMENT

This chapter presents the results of the vehicular pollution load and the comparison of peak and normal hour concentrations along with different types of vehicles. During survey the pollution that was observed is shown in the figures below,

Figure 4.1: pollution status on GT-Road Lahore.

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The table below presents the total number of vehicle cunted.

Table 4.1:; TOTAL TRAFFIC ON 3.3 KM G.T ROAD REACH PEAK HOURS Type of vehicle Motor Cycle + Chingchi Accord Alto Auto Beleno Belta Centro Charade City Civic Corolla Cultus Cuore Fx Khyber Lancer Landcruiser Liana Mehran Minicars Mira Nissan pick up loader Platz Probox Rush Scooter Swift Vigo Vitz Engine Capacity cc 70 3000 1000 200 1300 1300 1000 1300 1300 1600 1600 1000 800 800 1000 1300 3500 1300 800 660 660 1300 1600 1300 1300 660 150 1300 2600 1000

Peak Hour
6099 1 35 1025 15 3 18 6 100 24 139 104 47 5 4 3 67 4 114 382 4 3 530 5 1 7 7 20 3 25

Normal Hour
5193 3 40 602 9 3 30 17 37 17 99 80 41 6 18 21 15 12 127 144 9 31 2 10 6 15 12 1 17 6

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4.1. EETM Model results:

EETM model was used in order to estimate the pollution loads, the results obtained are as follows; Table 4.2: Comparison of Pollutant emission during different time duration.
Pollutant Peak Conc. (kg/day) 52.11779 15.94893 10.74629 1466.573 1.374467 0.00201 0.035534 Normal Normal Conc. Peak conc. conc. (kg/day) (tons/year) (tons/year) 40.1806 19.02299 14.66592 12.50027 5.821361 4.562598 7.34052 3.922394 2.67929 908.7129 535.2991 331.6802 0.796198 0.50168 0.290612 0.001297 0.000733 0.000473 0.0286 0.01297 0.010439

C0 HC Nox CO2 PM Total Aldehyde Total PHM

Comparison of yearly Normal and Peak hour concentrations.

600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Peak conc. (tons/year)

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Comparison of daily Normal and Peak hour concentrations.

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Peak Conc. (kg/day) Normal Conc. (kg/day)

Table 4.3: Comparison of different types of vehicular emissions/

Vehicle type Pollutant Cars Peak Conc. (kg/day) 15.40843 2.73537 3.620595 700.6103 0.577355 0.001779 0.002466 Normal Conc. (kg/day) 9.716157 1.432827 1.719861 325.4537 0.129443 0.001108 0.000804 Cingchi+bikes Peak Conc. (kg/day) 33.2 12.3 5.4 502.5 0.744 0.0002 0.0317 Normal Conc. (kg/day) 28.275 10.45 4.626 427.9 0.634 0.000171 0.02699 Auto rickshaw Peak Conc. (kg/day) 3.38 0.879 1.69 262.8 0.05 2.79E-05 0.0013 Normal Conc. (kg/day) 1.98 0.516 0.9933 154.358 0.02979 1.69E-05 0.000802

C0 HC Nox CO2 PM Total Aldehyde Total PHM

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Comparison of daily emission conc. from different types of vehicle.

800 700 600 500 Cars Normal Conc. (kg/day) Cingchi+bikes Peak Conc. (kg/day) Cingchi+bikes Normal Conc. (kg/day) Auto rickshaw Peak Conc. (kg/day) Auto rickshaw Normal Conc. (kg/day) Cars Peak Conc. (kg/day)

400
300 200 100 0

Table 4.4: Comparison of pollutant concentrations in terms of tons/year.

Vehicle type Pollutant Cars Peak conc. (tons/year) 5.624075 0.99841 1.321517 255.7228 0.210735 0.000649 0.0009 Normal conc. (tons/year) 3.546397 0.522982 0.627749 118.7906 0.047247 0.000405 0.000294 Cingchi+bikes Peak conc. (tons/year) 12.118 4.4895 1.971 183.4125 0.27156 0.000073 0.011571 Normal conc. (tons/year) 10.32038 3.81425 1.68849 156.1835 0.23141 6.24E-05 0.009851 Auto rickshaw Peak conc. (tons/year) 1.2337 0.320835 0.61685 95.922 0.01825 1.02E-05 0.000475 Normal conc. (tons/year) 0.7227 0.18834 0.362555 56.34067 0.010873 6.17E-06 0.000293

C0 HC Nox CO2 PM Total Aldehyde Total PHM

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Comparison of yearly emission conc. from different types of vehicle.

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 Cars Normal conc. (tons.year) Cingchi+bikes Peak conc. (tons/year) Cingchi+bikes Normal conc. (tons.year) Auto rickshaw Peak conc. (tons/year) Auto rickshaw Normal conc. (tons.year) Cars Peak conc. (tons/year)

Comparison of daily Normal and Peak hour concentrations from cars

1600 1400 1200

1000
800 600 400 200 0

Peak Conc. (kg/day)

Normal Conc. (kg/day)

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Comparison of yearly Normal and Peak hour concentrations from cars.

600 500 400 300 200 Peak conc. (tons/year) Normal conc. (tons.year)

100
0

4.2. Potential Impacts:

The impacts observe are shown in the figure below;

Figure 4.2: Situation of vendors along the road.

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Fruit venors were along the road, and if these fruits are being consumed without proper washing it may be a sort of health hazard. Observed traffic load can cause damage to plant photosynthesis and other impacts on plants and buildings

Figure 4.3: Traffic situation along the road.

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CHAPTER 5 ON-ROAD VEHICULAR POLLUTION DISPERSION MODELLING

Gaussian model was used in order to estimate the zone of impact and concentration of plume on ground. The following assumptions were taken. Average ambient air temperature is 250C. The average wind speed is considered as 3m/s (Reference: NESPAK, 2008) The average diffusion co-efficient in horizontal and vertical dilution under normal stability conditions were taken as 70 and 50m respectively. The results obtained are as follows; Table 5.1: Night time concentrations Concentration at respective distance (ug/m3) Distance(km) 1 2 4 5 7 9 10 CO
7.604566 1.390595 0.492889 0.271814 0.157305 0.126743 7.604566

HC
2.337886 0.427513 0.15153 0.083564 0.048361 0.038965 2.337886

NOx
6.90752E-05 1.26313E-05 4.4771E-06 2.46899E-06 1.42886E-06 1.15125E-06 6.90752E-05

CO2
0.009204 0.001683 0.000597 0.000329 0.00019 0.000153 0.009204

PM
8.49304E-06 1.55306E-06 5.50475E-07 3.03571E-07 1.75683E-07 1.41551E-07 8.49304E-06

5.1. Wind rose and dispersion patter:

As wind rose of Lahore suggests that the wind direction is from NW to SE most of the time so the pollution will disperse accordingly. As U.E.T. and Shalimar

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garden located in North East the dispersion of pollution also divert towards the these places as NE wind in Lahore is dominant after SE & NW winds.

1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 N NE E SE S SW W NW

Frequency in hrs

15 and above 12-14.9 9-11.9 6-8.9 3-5.9 0-2.9

Figure 5.1: Wind Rose of Lahore, 2008 NESPAK.

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CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

Automobiles are large contributor to the environmental pollution. The different fuel consumption and air pollution models discussed in this report help us to estimate how much fuel we are using and the amount of pollutants we are releasing in the atmosphere. As the population and number of vehicles are increasing abruptly, more amounts of pollutants are being discharged. If this trend continues, there will not be any more energy sources left for the future generations. Also, the world will be so polluted that living organisms may not be able to thrive. Hence, we need to understand the importance of saving the environment. Alternate sources of fuels for e.g. renewable sources can be used which also help in reducing the pollution. Our aim must be to preserve the nature and have the environment, along with a sustainable transportation system.

Recommendations:
An integrated Transport policy need to be announced and route rationalization strategy for introduction and operation of public transport is to be made necessary. Financial earning at cost of environment should stop immediately. Hence forth commercialization policy needs to be withdrawn. Requirement for change in landuse may be met through spatial planning which is now mandatory function of City District Government Lahore. Environment protection may be included among kernel functions of City District Government Lahore and therefore sway under separate EDO ( Executive District Officer) Organizational setup as proposed in Devolution Plan 2001 may be adopted to achieve optimum harmony among key tiers of transportation and environment protection

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To ease congestion within City Circular railway around city has to be setup. To reduce congestion, scope and management of bus transit lane is to be thrash out at major roads of city. It not only creates a feeling of superiority among passengers but also helps in reducing unrelenting trend of motorization

Role of decentralized environment Department of City District Government Lahore is required Use of catalytic converter for motor vehicles. Use of alternate fuels. Proper road traffic planning. Introduction pf public transport. Proper maintenance of motor vehicles.

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References:
1. Bajwa, I. and A. Aziz, Fragile Urban Environment and Change in Landuse Policy (Role of City District Government Lahore. In: Rafeeqi, S,A, Lodhi, S,H, Ali, M.(Eds) ,Second International Symposium on Infrastructure Engineering in Developing Countries ,NED University,Karachi,pp.108115, (2004). 2. Fazal, Nouman, Air Quality in Urban areas in Pakistan Vs Transport

Planning: Issues and Management tools. 3. Ilyas. Zafar. A Review of Transport and Urban Air Pollution in Pakistan, June (2009). 4. NESPAK E&PHE Division.

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Annexure I:

Traffic survey Performa:

Type of vehicle Motor Cycle + Chingchi Accord Alto Auto Beleno Belta Centro Charade City Civic Corolla Cultus Cuore Fx Khyber Lancer Landcruiser Liana Mehran Minicars Mira Nissan pick up loader Platz Probox Rush Scooter Swift Vigo Vitz

31