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MATTER
"
J. J.
THOMSON,
WITH DIAGRAMS
THE RF ORCE
COPYRIGHT, 1904
BY YALE UNIVERSITY
Published, March, 1904
THE RF ORCE
was
was the belief of the testator that any orderly presentation of the facts of nature or history contributed to the end of this foundation more effectively than any
attempt to emphasize the elements of doctrine or of creed; and he therefore provided that lectures on dogmatic or polemical theology should be excluded from the scope of this foundation, and that the subjects should be selected rather from the domains of natural science
and
prominence to astronomy,
chemistry, geology, and anatomy. It was further directed that each annual course should
be made the basis of a volume to form part of a series constituting a memorial to Mrs. Sillimau. The memorial fund came into the possession of the Corporation of Yale University in the year 1902; and the present volume constitutes the first of the series of memorial
lectures.
THE RF ORCE
PREFACE
In these Lectures given at Yale University in May, 1903, I have attempted to discuss the bear-
ing of the recent advances made in Electrical Science on our views of the Constitution of Matter
and the Nature of Electricity; two questions which are probably so intimately connected, that
the solution of the one would supply that of the
other.
A characteristic
and Rontgen Rays and Radio-active Substances, has been the very especial degree in which they have involved the relation between
of Cathode
Matter and
Electricity.
seemed to
me
ing of recent
work on
might be
multitudes of questions which would furnish admirable subjects for further investigation by some
of
my
hearers.
THOMSON.
THE RF ORCE
CONTENTS
CHAPTERI
PAGE
CHAPTER
ELECTRICAL AND BOUND MASS
II
30
CHAPTER
III
68
CHAPTER
IV
...
71
CHAPTER V
THK CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM
90
CHAPTER
VI
.
140
THE RF ORCE
MY
processes going on in the electric field, and of the connection between electrical and ordinary matter
results of recent
The
progress of
electrical
science
has been
greatly promoted
of electricity.
by
mean the
theories
known
as
the one-fluid
theories of electricity.
The
phenomena
there are
two
fluids,
THE RF ORCE
2
tible,
and
electrical
phenomena
are explained
by
The particles of the positive lowing properties. with forces varying inversely other fluid repel each
as the square of the distance
also the particles
The
attraction
and m, of opposite signs between two charges, are in one form of the theory supposed to be
exactly equal
charges,
to
the
repulsion
between
two
and
of the
same
sign, placed in
In anis
supposed
The
bile
supposed to be exceedingly moand able to pass with great ease through confluids are
ductors.
The
state of electrification of a
body
is
determined by the difference between the quantities of the two electric fluids contained by it if it
;
contains
more positive
fluid
than negative
it
is
positively electrified,
it is
uncharged.
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
and
fluid
one place must be accompanied by the departure of the same quantity from some other
place, so that the production of electrification of one sign must always be accompanied by the production of an equal amount of electrification of
On
sist
body
is
of three things
tricity,
negative electricity.
The two
on themselves and on
no action was contemplated between ordinary matter and the electric fluids it was not until a
;
comparatively recent date that Helmholtz introduced the idea of a specific attraction between
ordinary matter and the electric
to explain
i.e.,
fluids.
He did this
when two
in contact
what
is
known
as contact electricity,
copper negatively
Helmholtz
sup-
posed that there are forces between ordinary matter and the electric fluids varying for different
kinds of matter, the attraction of zinc for positive electricity being greater than that of copper, so
THE RF ORCE
4 that
zinc
when
robs
these
the
of copper of some
positive
electricity.
There
is
be illustrated by the consideratheory which may unelectriEed an of tion body. All that the twofluid theory tells
is
that
it
fluids.
It gives
implies that
if
we regard
than the mathematical anything more substantial us into difficulties if leads this and symbols +
;
we
regard them
we
have to suppose that the mixture of the two fluids in equal proportions is something so devoid of
physical properties that
its
been detected.
The
taken by ordi-
nary matter, the particles of which are supposed to repel each other and attract the positive fluid,
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
just as the particles of the negative fluid
do on
supposed to be associated with just so much of the electric fluid that the attraction of the matter
on a portion of the
the same fluid
it is
just
on
by
is
the matter.
ter in a
fluid is at
On
body
known
once determined.
The
services
which the
fluid theories
have
ren-
any physical properties the fluids were mathematical fictions, intended merely to give
;
a local habitation to the attractions and repulsions existing between electrified bodies, and served as
the means by which the splendid mathematical development of the theory of forces varying inversely as the square of the distance which
was
inspired
by the discovery
of gravitation could be
brought to bear on
long as
electrical
we
and
electricity,
THE RF ORCE
The
physicists
and mathe-
who
Theories
kind,
"
indelicate.
It is
not until
we
the physical properties of the fluid that we can hope to distinguish between the rival fluid theories.
arisen.
Let us take a case which has actually We have been able to measure the masses
with given charges of electricity in gases at low pressures, and it has been found that the mass associated with a positive charge is imassociated
mensely greater than that associated with a negaThis difference is what we should tive one.
expect on Franklin's one-fluid
theory,
if
that
electric fluid
We
be struck by the similarity between some of the views which we are led to take
sure,
am
by the
results of the
those enunciated
of the subject.
by Franklin
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
The fluid theories, from their very nature, imply the idea of action at a distance. This idea, although
has
its
made
it
many
mathematicians,
is
one which
many of the greatest physicists have felt utterly unable to accept, and have devoted
much thought and
labor to replacing
it
by some-
thing involving mechanical continuity. Pre-eminent among them is Faraday. Faraday was deeply
influenced
who
away from
their base
and with
no physical connection with their origin. He therefore cast about for some way of picturing to himself the actions in the electric field which
would get
and replace
into
between prominence some continuous connection was able to He forces. the bodies exerting the
THE RF ORCE
do
by the conception of
lines of force.
As
have continually to make powers and possibilities have shall devote been never adequately realized, I
shall
and
as I believe its
FIG. i.
to
surface near a
in Fig. 1
;
THE RF ORCE
LIXES OF FORCE
9
;
the direction of these lines at any point coincides with the direction of the magnetic force, while the
intensity of the force
tration of the lines.
is
indicated
by the concen-
Starting from any point in the field and travelling always in the direction of the magnetic force, we shall trace out a line which
will not stop until
we
the magnet
if
points
extends will be
filled
giving the space a fibrous structure like that possessed by a stack of hay or straw, the grain of the
structure being along the lines of force.
I
have
;
the
same considerations
and we may regard the electric field as full of lines of electric force, which start from positively and end on negatively electrified bodies. Up to
this point the process has
cal,
and could have been employed by those who looked at the question from the point of view of
action at a distance; to Faraday, however, the
lines of force
they were physical realities. Faramaterialized the lines of force and endowed day
abstractions
THE RF ORCE
1Q
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
so as to explain the
phenomena
they
of the electric
field.
Thus he
sup-
in a state of tension, and posed that they were Instead of an inthat repelled each other.
at a distance between tangible action
fied bodies,
two
electri-
Faraday regarded the whole space between the bodies as full of stretched mutually
repellent springs.
The charges
of electricity to
which alone an interpretation had been given on the fluid theories of electricity were on this view
just the ends of these springs,
and an
electric
To make our
of view.
Let us
first
with equal and opposite charges, whose lines of You notice that the force are shown in Fig. 2.
lines of force are
A B, the
line
joining the bodies, and that there are more lines of force on the side of than on nearest to
on
tension
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
are
side,
A toward
overpower those pulling away from B, so will tend to move toward B] it was in that
way
that
Let us
now
curved lines of
such as
PQ\
it is
in a state
FIG.
2.
how
We
if
we remember
the lines are more concentrated in the region beand tween than on the other side of
PQ
AB
PQ]
side
thus the repulsion of the lines inside will be greater than the repulsion of those out-
PQ
and the
line
THE RF ORCE
12
two
and
of
similarly
elec-
in Fig. 3.
electrified;
Let us suppose
since the
B are positively
start
lines
force
from
end on negatively electrified bodies, positively and will travel away and the lines starting from
to
join
some
body or
bodies possessing
the
FIG.
3.
negative charges corresponding to the positive and B] let us suppose that these ones on
charges are a considerable distance away, so that the lines of force from were not would, if
under
Consider
now
force attached to
and
B approach each
other
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
since these lines repel each other the lines of force
on the side of
nearest
B will be
pushed
to the
opposite side of
A,
now be
thus the
pulls exerted on
in the rear
by
the lines of
and
will
be pulled away
from B.
We
we may
if
we
repulsion between
tions
and
B as
due to the
attrac-
on
and
of the
The
sion
of
are clearly
shown
in the case
you
the plates are straight except near the edges of the plates
this
is
what we
downward
pressure exerted
THE RF ORCE
J4
ELECTRICITY
lines of force
AND MATTER
line in this part of
by the
exerted
above a
by those below
it.
near the edge of the plate, however, the pressure of the lines of force below will exceed the pressure from those above, and the line of force will
its
this
bulging
is
very
plainly
shown
in Fig. 4.
So
been
it is,
however,
method
so
as
to
make
it
We
of any small closed curve in the electric field we draw the lines of force, these lines will form a
if
we
the positively electrified surface from which they start and forward on to the negatively electrified
surface on
by the tube
at its origin
equal to the negative charge enclosed by it at its end. By properly choosing the area of the
small curve through which
force,
we draw
the lines of
we may
is
the tube
arrange that the charge enclosed by equal to the unit charge. Let us call
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
15
may be regarded
electricity
as the termination of a
We regard
di-
same
we draw any
number
sum
is
what Maxwell
What Maxwell
called
the electric displacement in any direction at a point is the number of Faraday tubes which pass through a unit area through the point drawn at
right angles to that direction, the
;
number being
reckoned algebraically i.e., through in one direction being taken as positive, while those which pass through in the opposite
direction are taken as negative,
is
the
number passing through negatively. For my own part, I have found the conception
THE RF ORCE
IQ
of
to
much more readily Faraday tubes to lend itself the formation of a mental picture of the procon in the
electric field
esses going
electric
than that of
many
years
abandoned the
method.
Maxwell took up the question of the tensions and pressures in the lines of force in
the electric
field,
By
calculating the
could
be explained by supposing that each Faraday tube force exerted a tension equal to R, being
and
that, in
was
pass
in the
medium
through which
the
tubes
pressure equal to
\NR,
a hydrostatic
i.e.,
number passing
right
drawn
angles to
we
the
medium
in
the electric
to
field,
we
see that
they are
equivalent
a tension \
NR
along
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
17
Hitherto
to be at
Moving Faraday Tubes we have supposed the Faraday tubes rest, let us now proceed to the study of
the effects produced by the motion of those tubes. Let us begin with the consideration of a very
simple case
plates, A
that of
two
parallel
positive
other with
negative
after
electricity,
EFG.
This wire will pass through some of the outlying tubes these tubes,
;
when
in
a conductor, contract to
neighboring
disappear.
this
tubes
will
therefore
F
FIG. 5.
on a tube
;
PQ
between the
plates
its
PQ
was
originally in equilibrium
under
and the repulsion exerted by the tubes. The repulsions due to those neighboring cut by G have now, however, disappeared so
tension,
own
EF
that
E FG,
and we
shall
THE RF ORCE
jg
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
have a movement of the whole set of tubes beG. Thus, while the
EF
the tubes bedischarge of the plates is going on, tween the plates are moving at right angles to
themselves.
this
What
physical
?
effect
accompanies
result of con-
movement
of the tubes
The
is
by
EF G
as
to produce a cur-
EF G
we know, accompanied is, charged plate the plates. This force between a magnetic by
;
this
magnetic force
is
the density of
by the production
of magnetic force. I have followed up the consequences of this supposition and have shown that, if the connection between the
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
19
magnetic force and the moving tubes is that given below, this view will account for Ampere's laws
connecting current and magnetic force, and for Faraday's law of the induction of currents. Maxwell's great contribution to electrical theory, that
this view.
the electric displacement at any place changes, Faraday tubes must move up to or away from the
place,
esis,
The law connecting magnetic force with the motion of the Faraday tubes is as follows Faraday tube moving with velocity v at a point
:
a magnetic force whose magniP, produces at tude is 4?r v sin 0, the direction of the magnetic
force being at right angles to the
Faraday tube,
;
and
is
the angle
between the Faraday tube and the direction in which it is moving. We see that it is only
the motion of a tube at right angles to
itself
is
which produces magnetic force; no such force produced by the gliding of a tube along its
length.
THE RF ORCE
20
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
We
and
apply these results to a very simple important case the steady motion of a
shall
charged sphere.
day tubes
uniformly
will, as
when
the sphere
radial
is
at rest,
be
distributed
and
in
direction.
They
If
e is the
centre, the
is
TTp*'
is
magnetic force at
will
be
6V
*
,
the direc-
tion of the force will be at right angles to OP, and at right to the direction of motion of
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
21
be
centre of the
will be accompanied by a magnetic The existence of a magnetic field implies energy; we know that in a unit volume of the
field at
is
there are
~
O7T
units of energy,
where
/x
is
the
magnetic permeability of the medium. In the case of the moving sphere the energy per unit
volume
this
at
D P
is
a^v* i=
all
sin
,-
Typr-
energy for
sphere,
is
we
find that it
amounts to
If
~-
3a
is
where a
the mass of
the sphere, the kinetic energy in the sphere is m v9 in addition to that we have the energy
;
outside the
-z
sphere, which
as
we have
seen
is
od
energy of the
is
m (2u
-\-
-o-
\ ~~
i
0*,
or the energy
the same as
if
the
-f-
2u, 6
- instead of m. a
THE RF ORCE
22
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTKK
is
the electric charge, the mass of the sphere 9,1 $ ~&^L^AAoL_ measured by -^. This is a very important
sult, since it
re-
shows that part of the mass of a I shall later charged sphere is due to its charge. which considerations on have to bring before you show that it is not impossible that the whole mass
body may arise in the way. Before passing on to this point, however, I should like to illustrate the increase which takes
of a
place in the mass of the sphere by some analogies drawn from other branches of physics. The first of
these
is
frictionless liquid.
When
it
we
we have
sphere
not merely to
of the
;
but also the liquid around it the consequence of this is, that the sphere behaves as if its mass were increased by that of a certain volitself,
ume of
the liquid.
is
Green in 1833,
its
In the case of a cylinder moving at right angles to length, its mass is increased by the mass of an
equal volume of the liquid.
elongated body
In the case of an
amount by
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
23
is
increased depends
is
upon the
di-
smaller
than
a
when the body moves point foremost when moving sideways. The mass of such
direction in which
it is
moving. Let us, however, return to the moving electrified sphere. We have seen that in consequence of
its
is
charge
its
mass
is
increased
by -(* oa
thus,
if it
velocity v, the
j
v.
momentum
is
-f-
"^
The
additional mo-
mentum
in the space
surrounding the sphere. There is in this space ordinary mechanical momentum, whose resultant is
is
mind that
this
momentum
way different from ordinary mechanical momentum and can be given up to or taken from the
momentum
of
moving
bodies.
want
to bring
momentum
before you as
electric field
THE RF ORCE
24
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
of a mechanical sys-
take an example, according to Newton's tem. Third Law of Motion, Action and Reaction are
To
momentum
in
any
any
Now,
in the case of
many
electrical
systems there
;
are apparant thus, take the case of a charged body at rest struck by an electric pulse, the charged body when exposed
to the electric force in the pulse acquires velocity
violations
of this principle
momentum is not what it was origiif we confine our attention to the nally. momentum in the charged body, i.e., if we suppose that momentum is necessarily confined to what we
over
it,
its
Thus,
Law
momentum
recognized on
restricted
is,
view
The phenomenon
however,
if
we recog-
momentum
in the electric
for,
the charged
in the
pulse, but none in the body; after the pulse passed over the body there was some momentum
in the
in the pulse,
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
the loss of
25
momentum in the pulse being equal to the gain of momentum by the body. We now proceed to consider this momentum
more
in detail.
I
have in
my
on Electricity and Magnetism" calculated the amount of momentum at any point in the electric
field,
if
is
the
number
of
Faraday tubes passing through a unit area drawn the magnetic at right angles to their direction,
induction,
momentum
0,
volume
the
is
equal to
NB
per unit
sin
the direction of
momentum
of
netic induction
and
also to
Many
parallel to
you will notice that the momentum what is known as Poynting's vector
is
which energy
field.
of
detail.
Let us begin with the simplest, that of an electrified point and a magnetic pole; let A^ Fig. 7,
be the point,
B the pole.
THE RF ORCE
26
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
is
at right angles to
A P, the
the magnetic
will
if
we draw
be perpendicular to the plane thus, a series of lines such that their direc;
ABP
any point coincides with the direction of the momentum at that point, these lines will form
tion at
a series of circles whose planes are perpendicular to the line 12, and whose centres
lie
This distribution
far as
of
momentum,
is
as
direction
spin-
goes,
that possessed
by a top
ning around
A B.
Let us now
find
what
this distribution of
field is
momentum
to.
throughout the
It
is
equivalent
momentum
round
B, the direction of rotation being everywhere the same, there will be a finite moment of momentum round B. Calculating the value
of this
momentum
given above, we
em
obtain the very simple expression as the value of the moment of momentum
about
e being the charge on the point and the strength of the pole. By means of this
y
AB
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
27
expression we can at once find the moment of momentum of any distribution of electrified points
and magnetic
poles.
return to the system of the point and pole, this conception of the momentum of the system
leads directly to the evaluation of the force acting
To
on a moving
pole.
fied
electric
point were to
move from A
A! the
',
momentum is still em, but ifc/ its axis is along A! IB instead of A B. The moment of momentum of the field \
moment
^
\
has thus changed, but the whole moment of momentum of the system comprising
point, pole,
\
\
and
field
must be accompanied
\
j
by an equal and opposite change in the moment of momentum of the pole and FlGt 8 The momentum gained by the point must point.
-
be equal and opposite to that gained by the If is pole, since the whole momentum is zero.
the angle
A
is
moment
of
momentum
angles to
8
em
AB
momentum
of
A,
THE RF ORCE
2g 8
then 8
and
8
axis
1 must be
is
equivalent to
angles to
a couple whose
in
is
at
right
AB
whose moment
and
emAA'sm<f>
Where
velocity of
</>
is
the angle
f
B A A'.
If
is
the
A, A A
s*
v 8 1 and we get T_ e m v sm
AB*
This change in the
momentum may be
sup-
g2
momentum,
.
or
.
We thus
get Jb
rea
or the point
is
acted on by a
of
by the component
the magnetic force at right angles to the direction of motion. The direction of the force acting on the point is at right angles to its velocity and
magnetic force. There is an equal and opposite force acting on the magnetic pole. The value we have found for is the ordinary
also to the
on a
moving charged
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
29
is
may be
written as
ev
Hsm <,
where H's
the
The
force acting
on unit charge
chanical force
is
therefore v
Hsm
<f>,
<f>.
This me-
may be
force
from an
electric
H sin
and we may
by
in
body
is
force v
moving If sin is
<f>
saying that
when
motion in a magnetic
field.
The
relative
forces
called
into
these are
moment
of
momentum
The
of pole
distribution of
momentum
in the system
some respects to about the line A B. We that in a top spinning can illustrate the forces acting on a moving elecand point
is
similar in
trified
top.
Thus,
is
spinning with
AB
THE RF ORCE
30
horizontal, then if
against
AB
it
merely move
in
which
horizontally forward in the direction is pushed, but will also move vertias a charged
cally
FIG. 9.
point would do
it
Maxwell's
Vector Potential
There
is
momentum
a very close connection between the arising from an electrified point and a
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
31
we have given for the moment of momentum due to a charged point and a magnetic pole, we can at once find that due to a charge e of
pression
electricity at
let
a point P, and a
little
magnet
AB
A, the
in this
positive at
pole.
B, and
let
m be
A
is
simple calculation
shows that
moment
of
momen-
tum
in the plane
P A B at right angles to P O,
A
is
the middle point of B, and that the of of the moment momentum is equal magnitude
to
e.
O being
m.
AB
O P.
mi where
<
the angle
AB
is
makes with
This moment of
momentum
to that
equivalent in direction
to a
and magnitude
due
momentum
e. in.
AB
-Qjk
at
P directed
another
P A B, and
momentum
direction at O.
at right
called
P due
to the Magnet.
THE RF ORCE
32
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
we
momentum due to the charge and the magnet is e I at P and a momenequivalent to a momentum
tum
e
Tat
the magnet.
We may evidently
tential at
field is
to-
due to that magnet). e (Vector Potential at arises field the If entirely from electric magnetic
currents instead of from permanent magnets, the
momentum of
point and the currents will differ in some of its features from the momentum when the magnetic
field is
case,
as
due to permanent magnets. In the latter we have seen, there is a moment of mo-
When,
due to
is
entirely
show
that there
momentum, but
vanishes.
that the
moment
of moelec-
line passing
through the
simple
particle
A
e
calculation
field is
momentum
at the electrified
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
point
33
due to
the currents.
field is
due to
per-
manent magnets or to electric currents or partly to one and partly to the other, the momentum
when an
P
is
is
equivalent to a
momentum
Tat
P where
If the
magnetic complete
;
field is entirely
due to currents
this is a
representation of the
momentum
in the field
if
the magnetic field is partly due to magnets we have in addition to this momentum at other
momenta
at these
momentum
any particular magnet is e times the Vector Potential at due to that magnet. The well-known expressions for the electroat
motive forces due to Electro-magnetic Induction follow at once from this result. For, from the
Third
Law
of Motion, the
momentum
of any
self-
Now the contained system must be constant. of the momentum in the momentum consists (1)
field
;
(2) the
momentum
carrying the currents. Since (1) is equivalent to a momentum e 1 at the electrified particle, we see that changes in the momentum of the field must
THE RF ORCE
34
be accompanied by changes in the momentum of be the mass of the electrified the particle. Let
particle, u, v,
axes of
#, y,
z of its velocity, F, G,
U, the com-
ponents parallel to these axes of the Vector Potential at P, then the momentum of the field is
equivalent to
momenta eF,
a?,
to the axes of
y, z
charged point at
P has for
u and F,
components
Mu, Mty
simulta-
F\*
constant, hence if
8w and
F are
0;
neous changes in
MSu + eF=
<*** -4* dt dt
From
this equation we see that the point with the charge behaves as if it were acted upon by a me.
x and equal
=
to
-=-,
i.e.,
by an
In a similar
forces
-j
}
way we
-. -j
}
to
y and
z respec-
These are the well-known expressions of the forces due to electro-magnetic induction, and we see that they are a direct consequence of the
tively.
THE RF ORCE
LINES OF FORCE
principle that action
opposite.
35
will
what he
Electrotonic State
"
;
thus he
regarded a wire traversed by an electric current as being in the Electrotonic State when in a
magnetic
field.
No effects due
detected as long as the field remains constant it is when it is changing that it is operative. This
Electrotonic State of Faraday
is
just the
momen-
tum
existing in the
field.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
IT
WISH
showed
in
we
The
lines
common
the
momentum
is
at a point
at right
and so
is at
right angles to
OP
in
ia
of the centre of
the
sphere.
If the
number
is
medium
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
37
sin 0,
TrpNv
direction
v being
the
sphere and
of
the angle
motion of
the sphere.
momentum
By
NX
length.
TrpNv
sin 0,
or
^n^N*v
sin 0,
and
is
Now this
would be produced
with them, when they move at right angles to their length, a mass of the surrounding medium
4?r /x N* per unit volume, the tubes posno mass themselves and not carrying any sessing of the medium with them when they glide
equal to
through
it
parallel
to
their
own
length.
We
behave veiy much as suppose when moving behave and narrow cylinders long if these water moving endwise, i.e., parthrough
in fact the tubes to
;
carry very little water along with them, while when they move sideways, i.e., at right angles to their axis, each unit length of the
allel to their length,
it
finite
mass of water.
When
the length of the cylinder is veiy great compared with its breadth, the mass of water carried by it
neglected in com-
THE RF ORCE
gg
when moving
side-
it
of the water it displaces, it possesses in virtue would have mass for sideways but none for end-
wise motion.
We shall call
the mass
4?r
/i
carried
energy
E in unit volume
is
proportional to
2
,
M the
be proved as follows
the
;
==E = 27rJV
where
of
is
medium
while M =
specific
inductive
4?r
/u,
capacity
thus,
the
N*,
but
~~j^
V* where
is
light travels
thus
is
by
the
ity of light.
The mass
2
bound ether
the
in unit
volume
is
;
47r/u,j\^
where
N\&
of
thus, the
amount
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
each Farkday tube
is 4?r
pN.
that
we may
mass per unit length of the string. Since the mass of ether imprisoned by a Faraday tube is proportional to the number of Faraday
we
mass and
momentum
Faraday tube depend not merely upon the configuration and velocity of the tube under consideration, but also upon the number
of a
and velocity of the Faraday tubes in its neighborhood. We have many analogies to this in the
case of dynamical systems
;
number
tum
and
of
The following hydro-dynamical system is one by which we may illustrate the fact that the bound mass is proportional to the square of the number
of
Faraday tubes per unit volume. Suppose we have a cylindrical vortex column of
if
strength
locity,
placed in a mass of liquid whose venot disturbed by the vortex column, would
THE RF ORCE
40
The
lines of flow in
in Fig. 11,
where
FIG. 11.
is
umn and
closed
If
remain in the neighborhood of the colwill move with it. Thus, the column
will imprison a
mass of liquid equal to that enthe by largest of the closed lines of flow. is the strength of the vortex column and a the
we
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
41
by the column
is
proportional to
~.
CL
Thus,
if
as proportional to the number of tubes in unit area, the system illustrates Faraday the connection between the bound mass and the
we
take
field.
Affective of Velocity on
I will
tJie
Sound Mass
now
as-
move
out setting
it
in motion.
long, narrow cylinder, shaped like a Faraday tube, would behave when moving through a liquid.
Such a body,
will not, as
if
free to twist in
any
direction,
at first sight,
move
broadside to the direction of motion, setting itself so as to carry with it as much of the fluid through
which
it is
moving
as possible.
Many
illustra-
THE RF ORCE
42
familiar one
first,
but
flutter
down with
their planes
more or
less horizontal.
If
we apply
charged sphere,
we
to the direction of
this principle
all
sphere will tend to set themselves at right angles motion of the sphere, so that if
were the only thing to be considered the Faraday tubes would be forced up into the
i.e.,
equatorial plane,
would
all
to their lengths.
We
the pressure there would be greater than that near the pole. This would tend to thrust the
The
a com-
Faraday tubes
is
They
are not
crowded
they equally distributed, for they are more in the equatorial regions than in the others the excess of
;
the density of the tubes in these regions increasing with the speed with which the charge is moving.
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
43
When
it
a Faraday tube
is
near the poles, so that the displacement of the Faraday tubes from the pole to the equator will increase the amount of ether imprisoned by the
tubes,
It
and therefore the mass of the body. has been shown (see Heaviside, Phil. Mag., April, 1889, "Recent Researches," p. 19) that the
effect of the
motion of the sphere is to displace each Faraday tube toward the equatorial plane, of the sphere at i.e., the plane through the centre right angles to its direction of motion, in such a
way
that the projection of the tube on this plane remains the same as for the uniform distribution of
is
reduced in the
V*-v*
to V,
where
is
the velocvelocity
From
this result
we see
only
when
the
body
is
comparable with
the velocity of light that the change in distribution of the Faraday tubes due to the motion of
the body becomes appreciable.
In " Recent Researches on Electricity and Magnetism," p. 21, 1 calculated the momentum I, in the
THE RF ORCE
44
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTKK
a sphere of radius a, having its space surrounding at the centre moving charged body, and showed that
cos 20)1
;..(!)
the velight,
where
and 6
as before v
and
V are respectively
=
v
j^.
is
given
by the equation
sm
The mass
of the sphere
,
increased in conse-
we
see
from
equation (1) that for velocities of the charged body comparable with that of light the mass of
the body will increase with the velocity. It is evident from equation (1) that to detect the influ-
we must
use exceed-
ingly small particles moving with very high velocities. Now, particles having masses far smaller than the mass of any known atom or molecule are shot out from radium with velocities ap-
proaching in some cases to that of light, and the ratio of the electric charge to the mass for parti-
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
cles of this
45
by Kaufmann,
;
the
velocities
where
particle
:
e is the charge
and
m the
10-7
mass of the
10- 10
1X
2.83
2.72
.62
.77
2.59
2.48 2.36
.975
1.17
1.31
We see
m di-
minishes as the velocity increases, indicating, if we suppose the charge to remain constant, that
the mass increases with the velocity.
results give us the
Kauf mann's
the mass due to the electric charge with the part the second independent of the electrification part of the mass is independent of the velocity. If then we find that the mass varies appreciably
;
we
THE RF ORCE
46
mass due to the charge must be appreciable in comparison with that independent of it. To calculate the effect of velocity on the
electrified
mass of an
on a charged sphere for example is not quite the same as that on a charged ellipsoid but having made the assumption and calculated the theoretical
;
effect of the velocity on the mass, it is easy to deduce the ratio of the part of the mass independent
which
at
any velocity
de-
pends upon the charge. Suppose that the part of the mass due to electrification is at a velocity v equal to f(v) where f(v) is a known function
of v, then
if
M M
v,
vi
1
M the part
two equations from which and m can be determined. Kaufmann, on the assumption that the charged body behaved like a metal sphere,
the distribution of the lines of force of which
when moving has been determined by G. F. C. Searle, came to the conclusion that when the particle
"
electrical
mass
"
was
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
47
He was
care-
depends upon
it is
the assumption
we make
moving
whether
spheri-
and
show
was
electrical,
which he
result.
most probable
In the present state of our knowledge of the constitution of matter, I do not think anything is
gained
by
charged bodies
shot out
round these
particles is
we
on
this supposition
is
the value
calcu-
on page 44.
have
moving
dium
rest,
to the
by rawhen at
or
moving
THE RF ORCE
4g
These results are given in Table (II), the first column of which contains the values of v, the velocities of
the particles
the second
p,
the
number
of
times the mass of a particle moving with this velocity exceeds the mass of the same particle when
at rest,
the third
this quantity
found by
Kaufmann
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
confine our attention to the part of the field
is
49
which
on the
when
the particle
moving slowly,
m=
-$
In
subsequent
lecture
I
e
will
explain
how
the values of
;
me
and
mined
that
5=
e
10-
and
1.2
lO'80 in C. G. S. elec-
trostatic units.
expression for
10~
14
cm, a length very small in comparison with 8 the value 10" c m, which is usually taken as a good
approximation to the dimensions of a molecule. We have regarded the mass in this case as due
to the mass of ether carried along
by the Faraday
As
these tubes
mass of the
the very small size of the particle and the fact that the mass of ether carried by the tubes (being
proportional to the square of the density of the
as
the fourth
THE RF ORCE
50
we
find
by a simple
most
insig-
nificant fraction of
mass
is
confined to a distance
from the particle which is very small indeed compared with the dimensions ordinarily ascribed to
atoms.
In any system containing electrified bodies a part of the mass of the system will consist of the
mass of the ether carried along by the Faraday Now tubes associated with the electrification.
one view of the constitution of matter
to discuss in
a view, I
a later lecture
positive
by
of the mass of
view of the constitution of matter, part any body would be the mass of
and negatively
part of the
electrified constituents.
you
that
it is
not merely a
arises
in this
THE RF ORCE
ELECTRICAL MASS
51
is
just
is
body which
Faraday tubes associated along by with the atoms of the bodj^. In fact, that all mass
the
is
all
momentum, momentum
it
of
This view,
should be
said, requires
the density of the ether to be immensely greater than that of any known substance.
It might be objected that since the mass has to be carried along by the Faraday tubes and since
the disposition of these depends upon the relative position of the electrified bodies, the mass of a
collection of a
number of
would be constantly changing with the positions of these bodies, and thus that
electrified bodies
mass instead of being, as observation and experiment have shown, constant to a very high degree of approximation, should vary with changes in
the physical or chemical state of the body.
These objections do
not,
a case as that contemplated in the preceding theory, where the dimensions of one set of the electrified bodies the negative ones are excessively small with the distances separating the
electrified bodies.
in comparison
various
THE RF ORCE
52
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
concentration of the
When
lines of force
corpuscles
of the
is
on the small negative bodies the so great that practically the whole
is
bound ether
localized
around these
bodies, the
and charge.
amount depending only on their size Thus, unless we alter the number or
character of the corpuscles, the changes occurring in the mass through any alteration in their rela-
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER
III
WE
we
is
lines
of force
when
at rest
phenomena
lines
which
result
when the
state of
motion of the
changing. Let us begin with the case of a moving charged point, moving so slowly that the lines of force are
it,
if we suddenly stop the point. The Faraday tubes associated with the sphere have
must happen
per unit length. Any disturbance communicated to one end of the tube will therefore travel along
it
finite velocity
the tube in
fact
stretched string.
Suppose we have
a tightly
THE RF ORCE
54
right to
left,
and that we suddenly stop one end, A, what will happen to the string ? The end will come to rest at once, but the forces called
into play travel at a finite rate,
its inertia
move
as if nothing
A
it.
Thus,
if
is
ance travels along the string, then when a time, t, has elapsed after the stoppage of A, the parts of
the string at a greater distance than
will be unaffected
Vt from
the position and velocity they would have had the string had continued to move uniformly forward. The shape of the string at successive
if
intervals will
be as shown in Fig.
A
Fio. 12.
its
distance
THE RF ORCE
55
Let us now return to the case of the moving charged particle which we shall suppose suddenly
brought to
rest,
the time occupied by the stoppage find the configuration of the Faraday
t
two
no disturbance can
have reached the Faraday tubes situated outside the outer sphere, these tubes will be in the position they would have occupied if they had moved forward with the velocity they possessed at the
moment
inner sphere,
the particle was stopped, while inside the since the disturbance has passed
over the tubes, they will be in their final positions. Thus, consider a tube which, when the particle
line
be the
t
final position of
OPQ
the time
sphere will occupy the position OP, while the portion P'Q' outside the outer sphere will be in the position it would have occupied if the particle had
rest,
i.e.,
if
'
is
the position
the particle would have occupied if it had not been stopped, P'Q' will be a straight line pass-
THE RF ORCE
gg
ELECTRICITY
'.
AND MATTER
Thus, to preserve its continuity the tube must bend round in the shell between the
ing through
two
spheres,
OPP'Q'.
and thus be distorted into the shape Thus, the tube which before the stop-
FIG. 13.
radial,
has
now
in the
component, and this tangential component implies a tangential electric force. The stoppage of the particle thus produces a
radical change in the electric field
ticle,
due to the
par-
and gives
rise,
and magnetic forces much than those greater existing in the field when the
particle
was moving
steadily.
If
is
we suppose
Faraday tube
then
if
inside it
may
be regarded as
straight,
T is
THE RF ORCE
57
T
Where v
is
P'R
00' sin
vt
sin
was moving before it was stopped, d the angle OP makes with the direction of motion of the
particle,
ticle
t
was stopped
since
R = -y
light,
and
P =Vt
f
.
we have, if r = OP,
ev
=
sin
TTS~-
The
force
moving forward
P a magnetic
be
at right
If equal
to
V T,
of
opposite direction to the magnetic force existing at before the stoppage of the particle ; since its
magnitude
is
"
.
evsinO --^ ro
.
>
it
ev
sin -z
S.
previously
Thus, the
THE RF ORCE
gg
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
of the particle is pulse produced by the stoppage the seat of intense electric and magnetic forces
my
when
The energy
to be equal to
in the pulse
^V
8
'
3
this
energy
is
radiated
outward
into
space.
The amount
upon
the
S,
of
upon
is
stopped instantaneously the whole energy in the field will be absorbed in the pulse and radiated away, if it is stopped gradually only a fraction of the energy will be radiated into space, the remainder will appear as heat at
with
which
is
the
particle
the place where the cathode rays were stopped. It is easy to show that the momentum in the
THE RF ORCE
59
momentum in the field outside the pulse as there is no momentum in the space through which the has the whole momentum in the field pulse passed,
after the particle is stopped
is zero.
case
The preceding investigation only applies to the when the particle was moving so slowly that
were
uniformly however, will
stoppage of the distributed; the same
give us the
effect of
principles,
stopping a charged particle whenever the distribution of the Faraday tubes in the state of
steady motion has been determined.
particle
light;
Let us take, for example, the case when the was initially moving with the velocity of
the rule stated on page 43
shows that
before the stoppage the Faraday tubes were all congregated in the equatorial plane of the
To find the configuration of particle. the Faraday tubes after a time t we proceed as before by finding the configuration at that time
moving
of the tubes,
if
have been
in a plane
Vt
Draw
and
T),
Vt and
V (t
THE RF ORCE
60
ELECTRICITY
is
AND MATTER
stopping the
where r
the outer sphere the configuraparticle; outside tion of the tubes will be the same as if the particle
had not been stopped, i. e., the tubes will be Vt in front of the parand
this plane will
touch the outer sphere. Inside the inner sphere the Faraday tubes will be uniformly distributed, hence to preserve continuity
these tubes
We
two
plane
pulses,
one
pulse
propa-
which the
particle
was
it
mov-
ing
before
was
outward
in all
directions.
The
PIG. 14.
preceding
ap-
method can be
plied
to
the
of
case
when
if
the
charged
its
particle,
instead
being
;
stopped, has
way
thus,
THE RF ORCE
51
merely diminished by
A v, we
can show, as on page 57, that it will give rise to a pulse in which the magnetic force If is given by
the equation
e&v
and the tangential
sin
electric force
e
.
T by
~_
Now
A v sin
the thickness 8 of the pulse is the space passed over by a wave of light during the time the velocity of the particle is changing, hence if 8 1
is
Av
in
the velocity 8
TT
= F8
sin
1,
hence
we have
e
''
VTt~
equal to
/,
e
Av
T_
Av
87
sin
~~
T*
~T~
At*
but
g7
is
we have
._
j sin
T_
^sin
particle
whose motion
is
vary inversely as the distance from the particle. Thus, if a charged body were made to vibrate in
THE RF ORCE
g2
such a
way
that
its
acceleration
went through
waves of electric and periodic changes, periodic out from the charged travel would force magnetic
body.
netic
Theory of Light, be
charged body took place with sufficient rapidity. The method we have been investigating, in which
we
tion of the
in the
moof
way
ing the propagation of a wave of light through have regarded these as arising the ether.
We
we
and
This view of light as due to the tremors in tightly stretched Faraday tubes raises a question
THE RF ORCE
63
The Faraday
tubes stretching through the ether cannot be regarded as entirely filling it. They are rather
to be looked
upon
if
as discrete threads
embedded
structure
but
on the view
we have
taken of a wave of light the wave itself must have a structure, and the front of the
wave, instead of being, as it were, uniformly illuminated, will be represented by a series of bright
specks on a dark ground, the bright specks corresponding to the places where the Faraday tubes
cut the
wave
front.
light
wave
would explain a phenomenon which has always struck me as being very remarkable and difficult
to reconcile with the
a structure.
We
propagation and constitution of a Rontgen ray is the same as in a light wave, so that any
general consideration
The
phenomenon
are able
to
in question is this:
Rontgen rays
very long distances through as and they pass through the gas they gases,
pass
THE RF ORCE
64
ionize tive
it,
so split
tion,
up is, however, an exceedingly small fracless than one-billionth, even for strong rays, of
of molecules in the gas.
the
number
Now, if
the
all
the molecules of the gas are exposed to the same conditions how is it then that so small a propor;
tion of
them
are split
up ?
some
It
those split
up
are in
special condition
amount of
kinetic
the average kinetic of the molecules gas that, in accordenergy of the ance with Maxwell's Law of Distribution of
energy so
much exceeding
Kinetic energy, their number would be exceedingly small in comparison with the whole number of
but
if this
would increase very with the rapidly temperature, so that the ionization produced
by the Rontgen
rays ought to
in-
Recent experiments made by Mr. McClung in the Cavendish Laboratory show that no appreciable
increase in the ionization is produced
by
raising
C.,
15C,
to 200
THE RF ORCE
55
temperature.
The
removed
Rontgen ray
sists of
we suppose that it
con-
intensity separated by considerable intervals where the intensity is very small, for in this case all the molecules in the field,
specks of great
different
same conditions,
and the case becomes analogous to a swarm of cathode rays passing through the gas, in which
case the
lision
number
may be
of the whole
number
of molecules.
To
particle
whose motion
is
accelerated,
we have
and travel out radially with the veof light, both the radial and magnetic forces
but since (see page 25) they are travelling each unit volume of the electro-magnetic field has an amount of momentum equal to the product of
;
THE RF ORCE
gg
force, the
momentum being
at
to both these quantities, there will be right angles the wave due to the acceleration of the charged
particle,
electric or light
wave
momentum
wave.
Thus,
light,
wave of
which
will
it is
passing, the
momentum
in the
wave
be communicated
will, therefore,
it
which
push
Thus,
in the direction
falls
it
when light
sorbing substance,
This repulsion resulting from radiation was shown by Maxwell to be a consequence of the Electro-
it
The
pressure experienced
by the absorbing
sub-
weight of the substance is proportional to its volume. Thus, if we halve the linear dimensions we
reduce the weight to one-eighth while we only reduce the pressure of radiation to one-quarter thus, by sufficiently reducing the size of the absorbing
;
THE RF ORCE
67
body we must arrive at a stage when the forces due to radiation exceed those which, like weight,
are proportional to the
On
this principle,
knowing the
shown that
6 opaque sphere of unit density lO" cm. in diameter the repulsion due to the radiation from
the sun would just balance the sun's attraction, while all bodies smaller than this would be repelled from the sun, and he has applied this principle to explain the
two spheres of unit density about 39 cm. diameter are at the temperature of 27 C. and
all
protected from
external
radiation,
the
re-
spheres will
traction
other.
at-
so
the
Again,
when
light is refracted
and
reflected
and
therefore
the direction of
momentum
it.
is
have
to
is
momentum communicated
to
It is easy
of the light
to the
momentum communicated
THE RF ORCE
gg
ELECTRICITY
is
AND MATTER
surface.
substance
There are many interesting problems connected with the forces experienced by refracting prisms
passing through them which will suggest themselves to you if you consider the changes in momentum experienced by the light
when
light
is
wave
forces
in its course
through the prism. Tangential due to light have not, so far as I know,
These, however,
such, for example, as
must
when
flected
from a metallic
surface.
The waves
radiate
of electric and magnetic force which from an accelerated charge particle cany
energy with them. This energy is radiated into space, so that the particle is constantly losing energy.
The
rate at
which energy
is
radiating from
o
shown to be
where
its acceleration,
and
V the velocity of
If
count this loss of energy by the its motion is being accelerated, we find some interesting results.
ac-
a particle of
rest is acted
mass
and charge
from
upon by a constant
THE RF ORCE
69
as it
would
tion ;
cle
if there were no loss of energy by radiaon the contrary, the acceleration of the partiis initially zero, and it is not until after the
-^
that the
-y
very
if
Thus,
by a wave of electric
e*
which only took a time comparable with -y to pass over the particle, the amount of energy radiated
by the particle would be a very much smaller fraction of the energy in the wave than it would be
if
multiple of
77^
an important application in explaining the greater " " hard Rontgen rays than penetrating power of
" of " soft ones.
The
"
a smaller proportion of the energy in the hard rays will be radiated away by the charged particles
"
so that "
THE RF ORCE
70
" " over which they pass than in the case of the soft
rays.
By
ergy
1*V
is
radiating
is
der an attractive force varying inversely as the square of the distance, we find that in this case
the rate of radiation
is
power
power
of
the energy.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER IV
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF ELECTRICITY
HITHERTO we have been dealing
properties of
sion, the
chiefly
with the
the
lines of force,
in this chapter
we
nature of the charges of electricity which form the shall show beginnings and ends of these lines.
We
what may be
called an atomic
any
up
of a
number
:
of
hydrogen
is
built
up
all
of a
number
of small par-
ticles called
atoms,
If this
each other.
tricity is
ber of tubes start or at which they arrive. Let us first consider the evidence given
by the
laws
of
Faraday
THE RF ORCE
y2
through a
amount of negative electricliquid electrolyte, the the to positive electrode, and of posiity given up
tive electricity given to the negative electrode, is
proportional to the
to the electrode.
number
first
of atoms
coming up
Let us
consider monovalent
on
he showed that
of
when
the same
deliver
number
up
of
atoms
these
substances
their
communicated
is
carriers
in-
dicating that each atom of these elements carries Let us now go to the same charge of electricity.
find again that the ions elements carry the same charge, but that a number of ions of the divalent ele-
We
divalent
ment carry twice the charge carried by the same number of ions of a univalent element, showing
that each ion of a divalent element carries twice
as
much charge
again, a
tri-
valent ion carries three times the charge of a univalent ion, and so on. Thus, in the case of the electrolysis of
by the
THE RF ORCE
73
are always an
by the hy-
drogen atom
as
"
if
fractional parts
of this charge.
accept the hypothesis that the elementary substances are composed of atoms, we cannot avoid
we
the conclusion that electricity, positive as well as negative, is divided into definite elementary portions
which behave
like
atoms of
electricity."
the conduction of electricity through gases, the evidence in favor of the atomic
character of electricity
is
When we consider
it is
because
tricity
through gases than through liquids. Let us consider for a moment a few of the propgaseous conduction.
erties of
When
a gas has
say, by exposure to Rontgen rays it remains in this state for a sufficiently long time after the rays have ceased
We find that
the conductivity out of the gas by the sending gas through a plug of cotton- wool, or through a water-trap. Thus, the conductivity is
we
can
filter
THE RF ORCE
74
be
out of
it; again,
the conductivity
is
due
arising
particles in the
electric field.
We
by
The
lows.
principle of the
If at
method
first
used
is
as fol-
particles
tively,
e,
any time there are in the gas n of these charged positively and n charged negaif
each of these carries an electric charge we can easily by electrical methods determine n e,
and
the gas.
is
this
can be done
plates,
one of which is insulated. Now suppose we suddenly charge up the other plate positively to a
very high potential, this plate will now repel the positive particles in the gas, and these before they
have time to combine with the negative particles will be driven against the insulated plate. Thus,
all
the positive charge in the gas will be driven against the insulated plate, where it can be meas-
ured by an electrometer.
As
THE RF ORCE
75
e
:
in this
way
easily
determine n
if
shall
be able to find
Wilson that the charged particles act as nuclei round which small drops of water condense,
C. T. E.
when
as
damp
air
In dust-free
get a
Aitken showed,
it is
very
difficult to
fog
when damp
no
if
there
however,
supersat-
by a
appreciable effect
present.
when no charged
particles are
cloud
first
and they are thus rendered visible. This is the The drops are, step toward counting them.
however, far too small and too numerous to be counted directly. can, however, get their
We
number number
indirectly as follows
suppose
we have
of these particles
in dust-free air in a
vapor, suppose
now
that
we produce
a sudden
THE RF ORCE
76
the
expansion of the air in the vessel; this will cool air, it will be supersaturated with vapor, and
drops will be deposited round the charged partiNow if we know the amount of expansion cles.
produced we can calculate the cooling of the gas, and therefore the amount of water deposited.
we know the volume of water in the form of drops, so that if we know the volume of one drop we can deduce the number of drops. To find the size of a drop we make use of an investigation
Thus,
by
Sir
In consequence of
the viscosity of the air small bodies fall exceedingly slowly, and the smaller they are the slower they
fall.
if
is
the radius of a
it
falls
given by
the equation
when g
and
thus
p.
is the acceleration due to 981 gravity the coefficient of viscosity of air = .00018;
v
hence
if
1.21
10 6 a2
we
can determine v
we
can determine
THE RF ORCE
77
evidently the velocity with which the cloud round the charged particle settles down, and
is
But v
can easily be measured by observing the movement of the top of the cloud. In this way I
found the volume of the drops, and thence n the number of particles. As n e had been determined
electrical measurements, the value of e could be deduced when n was known in this way I
by
found that
3.4
its
value
10
is
X 10-
Electrostatic C. G. S. units.
Experiments were made with air, hydrogen, and carbonic acid, and it was found that the
ions
strong argument
of electricity.
We can compare the charge on the gaseous ion with that carried by the hydrogen ion in the electrolysis of solutions in the following
way:
We
know
units,
10 10 electrostatic
of
through acidulated water liberates 1.23 c.c. hydrogen at the temperature 15C. and pressure
;
of one atmosphere
c.c.
if
there are
N molecules
c.c.
in a
number
2.46
N,
THE RF ORCE
7g
so that
is
NE= 3X 10
10
10
,
or
E= 1.22 X 10
19
-f-JV:
is
Now,
hence
if
e,
3.4 X10"
10
,
the charge on the gaseous ion will equal the charge on the electrolytic ion. Now, in the kinetic theory of gases methods are
^Y=3.6X10
N,
;
or
Avogadro's Constant, as it
values obtained
is
sometimes called
the
by
this
made
its
near neighbor-
X10 is, however, in good of the best of these deterwith some agreement minations, and hence we conclude that the charge
3.6
The value
19
is
Dr. H. A. Wilson, of the Cavendish Laboratory, by quite a different method, obtained practically
the same value for e as that given above.
His
method was founded on the discovery by C. T. R. Wilson that it requires less supersaturation to
deposit clouds from moist air on negative ions
THE RF ORCE
79
does
on
positive.
choosing cloud deposited on the negative ions alone, so that each drop in the cloud is negatively charged
the supersaturation,
by observing the
rate at
falls
we
weight of each drop. Now, suppose we place above the cloud a positively electrified plate, the plate will
attract the cloud, and we can adjust the charge on the plate until the electric attraction just balances the weight of a drop, and the drops, like Mahomet's
coffin,
hang stationary
in
the
air;
if
is
the
electric force
drop
is
Xe, when
As
is
e is equal to the
can be at once
Townsend showed
gaseous ion
is
that
equal to that
in ordinary electrolysis,
by measuring the
the gaseous ions and comwith the velocity acquired by the ion paring under a given electric force. Let us consider the
cient of diffusion of
it
volume of ionized gas between two horizontal planes, and suppose that as long as we
case of a
THE RF ORCE
8Q
number
varies as
we pass from one layer to another; let x be the distance of a layer from the lower plane, n
the
number
volume
be the coefficient of if layer, then of ions which number the of the diffusion ions,
of this
in one second pass
downward through
unit area
of the layer is
dn
ir*'
so that the average velocity of the particles
down-
ward
is
l)dn n dx
The
force
which
motion
is
the
;
if
on the
ions in a unit
volume
.
is
per ion
is
-r ndx
Now we
which an ion acquires when acted upon by a known force by measuring, as Rutherford and
Zeleny have done, the velocities acquired by the ions in an electric field. They showed that this
velocity
is
ion, so that if A. is
the velocity
when
the electric
THE RF ORCE
81
therefore
-==r-,
e,
force acting on the ion is the velocity for unit force will be
is
.A e
1 n ax
will
therefore be
i
this velocity
dp
^L.
n dx Xe'
we have
seen, however, to
be equal to
D
hence
dn
n dx'
(l\ 1/ V
Now
if
pressure p bears
This ratio
is
the same
if
jV is Avogadro's
pheric pressure
constant,
the
number
of mol-
P
p
P~W
Ne was
PA
Thus, by knowing
of
Ne. In
this
THE RF ORCE
g2
the same in
acid, and the
mean
was
is
1.24
10
10
.
We
the charge on
NE =
1.22
X 10
10
-
show
that
eE, or that
the charge on the gaseous ion is equal to the charge carried by the hydrogen ion in the electrolysis of solutions.
The
proved in a very simple way by H. A. Wilson, who introduced per second into a volume of air
at a very high temperature, a
tity of the vapor of metallic
salts.
got ionized and the mixture of air and vapor acquired very considerable conductivity. The current through the vapor increased at
first
with the
it
through the
not go on indefinitely, gas, for after the current had reached a certain value
but
no further increase in the electromotive force produced any change in the current. The current, as
in all cases of conduction
maximum
which
THE RF ORCE
33
Wilson sparks began to pass through the gas. found that the saturation current through the salt
vapor was just equal to the current which if it passed through an aqueous solution of the salt
would
same amount
of salt as
It is
was fed per second into the hot air. worth pointing out that this result gives
which
is independent of any hypothesis as to the or size of molecules, or of the way in which shape
they act upon each other. If .N" is this constant, e the charge on an ion, then JV e 1.22 10 10 and
we have
seen that e
3.4
l^ 10 so that
,
jV=
3.fc
10 19
Thus, whether
we study
the conduction of
elec-
we
are
atom of
gen
is
charges are integral muljust as the mass of a quantity of hydroan integral multiple of the mass of a
all
which
hydrogen atom.
Mass of the
Carriers of Electricity
We must
now
of the systems
THE RF ORCE
g4
let
us begin with the case of a gas at a very low the motion of the particles is not pressure, where
impeded by
gas.
collisions
we have
a particle of
mass m, carrying a charge e, moving in the plane of the paper, and that it is acted on by a uniform
magnetic field at right angles to this plane. We have seen that under these circumstances the particle will be acted upon by a mechanical force
equal to
The
direction of
paper at right
Since the
angles
force
is
act-
ing
upon
particle will
be that described by a body acted upon by a constant normal force. It is easy to show
is
is
given
, v
by
the equation
mv
may be
The
ticle is
deter-
moving horizontally
THE RF ORCE
35
particle will
be
acted upon
if
e v.
Now,
a
we apply
mechanical force
on the moving
particle.
Let us arrange the direction of JTso that this force is in the opposite direction to that due to the magnet,
until the
this
two
forces
adjustment has been made, since in this case the motion of the particle under the action of the electric and magnetic forces will be the same as when both these
are equal.
tell
We can
when
we have
X
Hence
if
e v,
or
of the particle,
circle into
force,
THE RF ORCE
gg
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
Values of
Low
Pressures
The value
of
way
which
form the cathode rays which are so conspicuous a a gas at low part of the electric discharge through
pressures
;
and
particles emitted
by
metals, (1)
when exposed
to
when
ture of incandescence.
These experiments have led to the very remarkable result that the value of
is
171
which the
may be
may be
sup-
In
in
moving with
veloci-
than the velocity of light, it has been found to have the constant value about
considerably less
10 T, the units being the centimetre, gram, and second, and the charge being measured in electro-
magnetic units.
As
the value of
THE RF ORCE
37
,
4 gen ion in the electrolysis of liquids is only 10 and as we have seen the charge on the gaseous
equal to that on the hydrogen ion in ordinary electrolysis, we see that the mass of a carrier of the negative charge must be only about oneion
is
thousandth part of the mass of hydrogen atom the mass was for a long time regarded as the smallest mass able to have an independent existence.
;
electrification
may have
arisen or
electricity, in
Negative a gas at a low pressure, has thus a structure analogous to that of a gas, the corpuscles
" taking the place of the molecules. The negative electric fluid," to use the old notation, resembles
molecular structure.
Carriers of Positive Electrification
We
the values of
fication.
positive
This has been done by Wien for the electrification found in certain parts of
the discharge in a
vacuum
tube,
and
have
THE RF ORCE
CQ oo
measured
off
by a hot
The
ments form a great contrast to those for the negative electrification, for
instead of having, as
7 constant high value 10 , is found never to have a 4 value greater than 10 the value it would have if
,
In
many
4
,
inis
by
The value of
varies with
the nature of the electrodes and with the gas in the discharge tube, just as
of the
it
would
if
the carriers
positive charge were the atoms of the elements which happened to be present when the
positive electrification
These results
that of
"One
be positive
electricity
we
take
it
to
be
negative.
The
THE RF ORCE
TI1K
The
place to another
effected
by the motion of
cor-
puscles from the place where is a gain of positive electrification to the place where there is a gain
of negative.
A positively electrified
body
is
one
its corpuscles.
We
have
have been determined directly by experiment. We " " than in fact know more about the electric fluid
we know
air or water.
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER V
CONSTITUTION OF THE ATOM
WE
we produce
the
corpuscles
by cathode
rays,
by ultra-violet light, or
from incandescent metals, and whatever may be the metals or gases present we always get the same
kind of corpuscles. Since corpuscles similar in all respects may be obtained from very different agents
and
materials,
is less
than that of any known atom, we see that the corpuscle must be a constituent of the atom of
different substances.
many
That
in fact the
atoms
of these substances
We
have something in common. are thus confronted with the idea that the
atoms of the chemical elements are built up of simpler systems an idea which in various forms has
;
been advanced by more than one chemist. Thus Prout, in 1815, put forward the view that the
atoms of
all
up
of
atoms of hydrogen
weights of
all
if this
THE RF ORCE
91
was no loss of weight when the atoms of hydrogen combined to form the atom of some other element, be integers a result not in ac;
To
suggested that the primordial atom not be the hydrogen atom, but a smaller might
ancy
Dumas
atom having only one-half or one-quarter of the mass of the hydrogen atom. Further support was
given to the idea of the complex nature of the atom by the discovery by Newlands and Mendeleeff of
what
is
known
is
which
when they are arranged in the order of increasing atomic weights. The simple relations
which
exist
ing weight of sodium is the arithmetic mean of those of lithium and potassium, all point to the conclusion that the atoms of the different elements
have something in common. Further evidence in the same direction is afforded by the similarity in
the structure of the spectra of elements in the same
group in the periodic series, a similarity which recent work on the existence in spectra of series of
lines
definite
THE RF ORCE
g2
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
much to emphasize indeed spectroscopic evidence alone has led Sir Norman Lockyer for a long time to
numerical relations has done
;
and establish
The phenomenon
have to speak
of
which
I shall
later,
carries the
argument
still
good reasons for believing that radio-activity is due to changes going on within the atoms of the
radio-active
substances.
If
this
is
so then
we
must
face the
we
markable properties shown by radio-active subIt may thus not be superfluous to constances.
sider the bearing of the existence of corpuscles on the problem of the constitution of the atom and
;
we
are
by
these considerations
is
perfect, it
may perhaps be of
service
by suggesting
us with fur-
atom.
THE RF ORCE
93
The Nature of
the
Unit
from which
the
Atoms
are Built
Starting from the
is
Up
that the atom
hypothesis
an aggregation of a number of simpler systems, let us consider what is the nature of one of
these
puscle,
systems.
We
is
have
so
seen that
the
cor-
whose mass
the
a constituent of the atom, it is natural to atom, the corpuscle as a constituent of the primorregard
is
dial system.
The
and
since
with any charge of electricity we always associate an equal charge of the opposite kind, we should
expect the negative charge on the corpuscle to be
associated with an equal charge of positive electricity.
electrical doublet,
Let us then take as our primordial system an with a negative corpuscle at one
at the other, the
two ends being connected by lines of electric force which we suppose to have a material existence.
For reasons which
will appear later on,
we
shall
very
much
The
near the
THE RF ORCE
94
other part of the system, and corpuscle than at any therefore the quantity of ether bound by the lines
of force, the mass of which of the system, will be very
we regard as the mass much greater near the If, as we have supis
size
will
thus the mass of the system will be practically independent of the position of its positive end, and will be very approximately
close to the corpuscle
if
alone in the
field.
where
e is
a, as
and a
1013
its
radius
cm.
Now
which we regard as our primordial system if these were at rest their mutual attraction would draw
;
them
little
magnets would draw them together if they were free to move, and aggregations of more than one system would be formed.
THE RF ORCE
95
however, the individual systems were originally moving with considerable velocities, the rel-
two systems, when they came near enough to exercise appreciable attraction on each other, might be sufficient to carry the sysative velocity of
tems apart
in spite of their
mutual
attraction.
In
would be
had
fallen
so
into
collision,
relative
prevent them
remaining together under their mutual attraction. Let us consider for a moment the way in which
the kinetic energy of such an assemblage of units have seen (p. 68) that whenwould diminish.
We
is
changing
generates
body
is
losing
energy,
since
it
electrical
come
whenever they
come
absorbed by the surrounding units. There will thus be a steady loss of kinetic energy, and after
a time, although
it
may be
THE RF ORCE
gg
two
In considering the question of the further aggregation of these complex groups, we must remember that the possibility of aggregation will
upon the
velocity
of the
from the
centre,
electri-
inside
it.
cles is the
number
which
had gone to make up the aggregate, and the total negative electrification
Fio. 15
on the corpuscles
our ideas
is
electrifica-
on the sphere.
To
fix
let
us take
THE RF ORCE
97
A, B,
C,
First
they will
be in
when they
from the centre of the sphere that the repulsion between the corpuscles, which will evidently be
radial, just balances the radial attraction excited
electrification of
A simple
is
calculation
shows that
this
when the
Their centrifugal
centre
them
farther
by an amount depending upon the speed with As we which they are rotating in their orbits.
increase this speed the distance of the corpuscles
them
first
and
when
the
atom
THE RF ORCE
QO t7O
not be permanent, if the kinetic aggregate will of the corpuscles inside energy due to the velocity
the sphere relative to the centre of the sphere exceeds a certain value. shall, for the sake of
We
be stable unless
its
corpuscular temperature
is
below
a certain value.
to distinguish
is
We must be careful
between
cor-
the
mean
kinetic
energy of the corpuscles inside the atom, and the molecular temperature, which is the mean kinetic energy due to the motion of the centre of gravity
of the atom.
in
relationship with each other. any would be proportional to each other if the law They
very close
of equipartition of energy
among
physical properties of gases, and in the proof given of it in the kinetic theory of gases, no estimate is
templated by the law it may be that this time is so long that gases are never able to get into this state.
;
THE RF ORCE
99
Let us
now
,
A and
and though not so high, of course, as to make unstable when apart, and suppose, in order to give them the best possible chance of combining, that
the centres of gravity of
close
and
when
quite
and
unite to form a
would
do
if
can easily,
rily
so.
For
as
and
This
in-
and
the corpuscles
energy
is
considerable
lose
cor-
and
positively charged,
and they
of these charges.
When
;
each a positive charge but as there are now free corpuscles with negative charges moving about in
the region in which
and
by
THE RF ORCE
100
and
and remain-
ing in combination with them. thus conclude that unless the corpuscular temperature after union is less than a certain limit-
We
complex formed being unstable, and incapable of a permanent existence. Now, the corpuscular
and temperature of the aggregate formed by will depend upon the corpuscular temperatures of
and
sioned
lar
by the union of
A and B.
If the corpuscu-
and before union were temperatures of the corpuscular temperature after union very high,
would be high
also; if they
were above a
cer-
would be too high for stability, and the aggrewould not be formed. Thus, one congate
AB
complex aggregate's
is
that the corpuscular temperature of their constituents before combination should be sufficiently low.
the molecula/t* temperature of the gas in which and are molecules is very high, comIf
bination
may be prevented by
velocity of
and
point, however,
THE RF ORCE
JQ1
which
wish to emphasize
is,
that
we
cannot
se-
temperature,
i.e.,
by
union will
be impossible unless the corpuscular temperature, i.e., the kinetic energy due to the motion of the
corpuscles inside the atom,
tain value.
is
reduced below a
cer-
this view,
specific example, the reason, on the atoms of hydrogen present on why the earth do not combine to form some other ele-
Thus, to take a
ment, even at the exceedingly low temperature at which hydrogen becomes liquid, is that even at
this temperature the kinetic energy of the corpuscles inside the atom,
i.e.,
ture,
is
too great.
It
what we
no very
inti-
mate connection between the corpuscular and molecular temperatures, and that we may reduce the
latter almost to the absolute zero
without greatly
THE RF ORCE
102
Let us suppose that the first stage has been reached and that we have a number of systems formed by the union of two units. When first
these binary systems, as
we
were
a considerable amount of kinetic energy. This would be so, because when the two units have
of kinetic
As
not be likely to combine with each other or with another unit before they can do so the kinetic
;
We
the discussion
by
saying that
it
decay in the corpuscular temperature probably varies greatly from one binary system to another.
Some of the systems will therefore probably have reached a condition in which they are able
to combine with each other or with a single unit
long before others are able to do so. The systems of the first kind will combine, and thus we shall
THE RF ORCE
1Q3
the appearance of the more complex systems need not be simultaneous with the disappearance of all the simpler ones.
The same
of further aggregations
containing eight units formed before the more persistent of those containing four, three,
one unit have disappeared. With the further advance of aggregation the number of different sys-
in-
Thus, if we regard the systems containing different numbers of units as corresponding to the
different chemical elements, then as the universe
gets older elements of higher and higher atomic weight may be expected to appear. Their appearance, however, will not involve the annihilation of
The number
up
of material furnished
THE RF ORCE
104
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
of the atoms of the latter would not, however, all be used up at once, and thus we may have a very at one and the large number of elements existing
same time.
If,
however, there
is
a continual
fall in
the cor-
elements will disappear in time, and unless there is disintegration of the heavier
tion, the lighter
On
this view,
the lightest known element and hydrogen the atom of hydrogen contains about a thousand
corpuscles, all aggregations of less than a thousand
and are no
longer
Tfie
free.
way
the Corpuscles in
tlie
Kinetic Energy
If the kinetic energy arising
the corpuscles relatively to the centre of gravity of the atom could by collisions be transformed
into kinetic energy
as a whole,
i.e.,
number
of corpuscles in the
atom
is
ex-
THE RF ORCE
105
constant pressure would be very nearly equal to the specific heat at constant volume whereas, as
;
a matter of fact, in no gas is there any approach to equality in these specific heats. conclude,
We
therefore,
that
it
is
diminished.
We
ing
its
68), that a
mov-
velocity
direction.
energy whenever changing either in magnitude or The corpuscles in the atom will thus
The
rate at
which energy
is lost
in this
way by
the corpuscles varies very greatly with the number of the corpuscles and the way in which they are moving. Thus, if we have a single corpuscle
describing a circular orbit of radius a with uniform velocity v, the loss of energy due to radiation per second
is
=^-5,
V or
where
e is the charge
on
the velocity of light. If the corpuscles and instead of a single corpuscle we had two corpuscles at opposite
the same orbit with the same velocity as the sinthe loss of energy per second from the
gle corpuscle,
less
THE RF ORCE
106
corpuscle,
and the smaller the velocity of the cordiminution in puscle the greater would be the the loss of energy produced by increasing the
number
of corpuscles.
The
effect
produced by
is
increasing the
number
of corpuscles
shown
in
the following table, which gives the rate of radiation for each corpuscle for various numbers of
corpuscles arranged
at
equal
angular intervals
orbit.
The
table applies to
is
two
cases
in
and
The
each case
taken as unity.
Number
of corpuscles.
_F
~~IQ
1
~
1
V
TOO
2
3
9.6
4.6
x 10~2
x l(r3
9.6
x ID"4
4.6 x 10-7
4
5
6
1.7x10-^
1.7 x 10- 10
5.6X10-
5.6 x 10~13
1.6 x 10~7
1.6xlO~17
Thus, we see that the radiation from each of a group of six corpuscles moving with one-tenth the
velocity of light of the radiation
is less
THE RF ORCE
1Q7
ing the same orbit with the same velocity, while, when the velocity of the corpuscles is only one-
hundredth of that of
radiation
is
light,
very much
greater.
at
rest, the rate of radiation will be very much inIn the case of an atom containing a large creased.
number
which energy is radiated will vary very rapidly with the way the corpuscles are moving about in the atom. Thus, for example, if we had a large
number
other's heels
would be exceedingly small it would vanish altogether if the corpuscles were so close together
that they formed a continuous ring of negative
electrification.
If the
same number of
particles
though the kinetic energy possessed by the corpuscles in the second case might be no greater
than in the
first,
i.e.,
of cor-
puscular cooling, would be immensely greater. Thus, we see that in the radiation of energy
is
not uniform
we
THE RF ORCE
10g
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
have a process going on which will gradually cool the corpuscular temperature of the atom, and so,
if
the view we have been discussing is correct, enable the atom to form further aggregations and thus tend to the formation of new chemical ele-
ments.
This cooling process must be an exceedingly slow one, for although the corpuscular temperature when the atom of a new element is formed
is
likely to
atom can
yet
we
many
thousands,
we
evidence of any change at all in the atom. I think, however, that some of the phenomena of
radio-activity to
afford, I will
which
I shall
have to allude
later,
not say a proof of, but a very strong in favor of some such secular changes presumption in the atom. taking place
We must
remember,
any atom are receiving and absorbing radiation from other atoms. This will tend to raise the
corpuscular temperature of the atom and thus help to lengthen the time required for that
THE RF ORCE
temperature to
fall
to
the
aggregations of the
the
way
atoms of any particular element will not be equal some of these atoms will be ready to
;
enter
It
is
upon
important to realize
how
large
are
the
amounts of energy involved in the formation of a complex atom or in any rearrangement of the configuration of the corpuscles inside
it.
If
we have
an atom containing
corpuscles each with a in electrostatic e measured units, the total charge quantity of negative electricity in the atom is n e
and there
is
elec-
work required
to sep-
arate the
atom
comparable with
Thus, as the sphere containing the corpuscles. the formed atom has been by aggregation of these
units
v 16 '
a
will be of the
THE RF ORCE
HO
stituents during their whole history, from the time they started as separate units, down to the time they became members of the atom under
consideration.
They
have
radi-
ated
away a large quantity of this energy, but the following calculation will show what an enormous
of kinetic energy the corpuscles in the
amount
cated to them.
*
'-
a
for all the atoms in a
N be the number
N^'-
gram
of the substance
let
is
atoms. If
an atom
NM=
1,
thus
but
if
and therefore
ma'
electrostatic units
e
now when
e is
measured in
<L
10 17 and
3.4
1Q-
10
;
THE RF ORCE
m
(1)
and therefore
N&*y=
=
10.2X10 7 X -.
a
Let us take the case of the hydrogen atom for which n 1000, and take for a the value usually
assumed
i.e.,
jy (M-=
this
1.02
10 19 ergs;
sufficient to lift
amount
of energy
would be
million tons
through a
We
is
lar
ber of corpuscles, so that the greater the molecuweight of an element, the greater will be the
in the
atoms in each
We
the
so
we
more
discuss
some of
phenomena
it is
desirable to consider
way
the corpuscles arrange themselves in the atom. shall begin with the case where the corpuscles
We
are at rest.
The
a sphere of uniform positive electrification which produces a radial attractive force on each cor-
THE RF ORCE
112
distance from the centre puscle proportional to its the and of the sphere, problem is to arrange the
and
their
mutual
re-
two
at
corpuscles,
Flo. 16.
B, we can
see
placed so that
A B
and the centre of the sphere are in the same OB $ the radius of the straight line and OA
sphere.
If there are three corpuscles,
A B C as
O
AB
OA= OB = OC = (\y,
these will be in
or .57
equilibrium
if
placed at the angular points of a regular tetrahedron with its centre at the centre of the sphere.
FIG. 15.
electrification,
and we might suppose that whatever the number of corpuscles the position of equilibrium would be
THE RF ORCE
H3
one of symmetrical distribution over the surface of a sphere. Such a distribution would indeed
technically be one of equilibrium, but a mathe-
number
never
persist.
When
the
number
greater than this limiting number, the corpuscles break up into two groups. One group containing the smaller number of corpuscles is on the surface
of a small
the
body. When the number of corpuscles is further increased there comes a stage when
the equilibrium cannot be stable even with two groups, and the corpuscles now divide themselves
into three groups, arranged on the surfaces of concentric shells
;
and
as
we go on
stages in
increasing the
more groups are necessary for equilibrium. With any considerable number of corpuscles the problem of finding the distribution when in equilibrium becomes too complex for calculation and we have
;
to turn to experiment
and
see if
we
can make a
model in which the forces producing equilibrium are similar to those we have supposed to be at
THE RF ORCE
114
work
Such a model
is
afforded
by a very simple and beautiful experiment first made, I think, by Professor Mayer. In this experiment a number
vessel of water.
The magnets
and are
by
being thrust through small disks of cork. The magnets are placed so that the positive poles are
either all
above or
all
These positive poles, like the corpuscles, other with forces varying inversely as each repel the distance between them. The attractive force
water.
is
(if
the
little
mag-
nets have their positive poles above the water) suspended some distance above the surface of the
water.
the component of which, parallel to the surface of the water, will be radial, directed to 0, the
projection of the negative pole on the surface of
the water, and if the negative pole is some distance above the surface the component of the force to O will be very approximately proportional to
the distance from O.
Thus the forces on the poles of the floating magnets will be very similar to those
acting on the corpuscle in our hypothetical
atom
THE RF ORCE
H5
the chief difference being that the corpuscles are free to move about in all directions in space, while the poles of the floating magnets are constrained to move in a plane parallel to the surface of the
water.
The configurations which the floating magnets assume as the number of magnets increases from two up to nineteen is shown in Fig. 17, which
was given by Mayer.
FIG. 17.
The
configuration taken
up when
the magnets
is also
due to Mayer.
From
this
will
floating
magnets
THE RF ORCE
116
arrange themselves at the corners of a regular polygon, five at the corners of a pentagon, four at
the corners of a square and so on.
When
the
number
is
greater than
five this
Thus, six longer holds. themselves at the corners of a hexagon, but divide into two systems, one magnet being at the centre
and
gon.
five outside it at
Arrangement of Magi
THE RF ORCE
f
.
6
5
THE RF ORCE
Ug
when we reach potassium, and so now consider the arrangements of magnets, and suppose that the number
proportional to the combining weight
is
of an element.
Then,
if
asso-
would be possessed by the elements whose combining weight was on this scale three, but would
not appear again until
weight ten, when it we have the triangular arrangement in the middle and a ring of seven magnets outside. When the
we
number
of magnets
is
increased the
triangular
thirty-five,
appearing in a way analogous to the behavior of the properties of the elements in the Periodic Law. As an example of a property that might
very well be associated with a particular grouping of the corpuscles, let us take the times of vibration of the system, as
shown by the
position of
let
the lines in the spectrum of the element. First us take the case of three corpuscles by themselves in the positively electrified sphere.
The
THE RF ORCE
HQ
Some
of
infinitely long,
we should not
get nine
dif-
ferent periods.
lines in the
spectrum of the
a,
2 A
FIG. 18.
where the
figures
under the
i.e.,
regarding the periods as given by an equation with nine roots, we suppose that there is only one root
giving the period corresponding to the line -4, while corresponding to I> there are two equal roots, three equal roots corresponding to <7, one
THE RF ORCE
120
root, to
two to E. These periods would relations to each other, innumerical have certain
dependent of the charge on the corpuscle, the size of the sphere in which they are placed, or their Each of distance from the centre of the sphere.
these quantities, although
ratio of the periods, will
it
have a great
upon
Now,
corpuscles, instead of
and 35 magnets.
Let us consider
how
the
the
would
affect
The
tween the various periods would be much more persistent, and although it might be modified it
would not be destroyed. Using the phraseology of the Planetary Theory, we may regard the motion of the three corpuscles as " disturbed " by the
other groups.
When
self there
the group of three corpuscles was by itwere several displacements which gave
THE RF ORCE
121
C there
metrical with respect to these groups, so that the three periods will no longer be quite equal. They
would, however, be very nearly equal unless the effect of the other groups is very large. Thus,
in the spectrum,
<7,
would become a
triplet,
come
18
doublets.
Thus, the spectrum would now resemble Fig. b', the more groups there are surrounding the
group of three the more will the motion of the latter be disturbed and the greater the separation
of the constituents of the triplets and doublets.
The appearance as the number of groups increases c. is shown in Fig. 18 Thus, if we regarded
,
the element which contain this particular grouping of corpuscles as being in the same group in the classification of elements according to the Periodic
Law, we should get in the spectra of these elements homologous series of lines, the distances between the components of the doublets and triplets
increasing with the atomic weight of the elements. The investigations of Rydberg, Runge and Pas-
THE RF ORCE
122
chen and Keyser have shown the existence in the series of spectra of elements of the same group
Another point of
periments
is
interest given
is
that there
for the
of potential energy, so that the passage from the that of configuration of greater potential energy to to the kinetic less would give corpuscle. energy
From
in the atom, of
would develop an amount of kinetic energy which if converted into heat would greatly transcend the amount of
fraction in that potential energy
known
An
certain places in it
of magnets
while six
thus, five
form two groups, fifteen three twenty seven magnets form three groups, twenty-eight four,
;
THE RF ORCE
123
and so
on.
If
we
we
we have extreme
fluorine
differences in
properties
between
and sodium.
Then
there
until
is
more or
get to chlorine, which is followed by potassium; the next break occurs at bromine
on.
we
This
effect
seems
So
far
;
we have supposed
the corpuscles to be
however, they are in a state of steady motion and describing circular orbits round the
at rest
if,
from
this
corpuscles farther
sphere, without, in many cases, destroying the character of the configuration. Thus, for example,
if
we have
will, in
when they
angular triangle ; this triangle will, however, be rotating round the centre of the sphere, and the
distance of the corpuscles from the centre will be
THE RF ORCE
124
at rest and will ingreater than when they are crease with the velocity of the corpuscles.
There
are,
however,
many
cases in
which
rota-
These,
in stable steady
motion when
when, however, the velocity of rotation below a certain value, the arrangement of four corpuscles in one plane berotation
;
to place themselves at the corners of a regular tetrahedron, which is the stable arrangement when the cor-
The system
of four corpuscles
unstable unless
a spinning top, the top like the corpuscles being its velocity of rotation exceeds
critical
a certain
value.
initially the
velocity of the
this value,
corpuscles gradually lose their kinetic energy; the square arrangement will persist until the velocity of the corpuscles is
reduced to the
will then
critical
value.
stable,
The arrangement
and there
will
be a convulsion
THE RF ORCE
125
energy.
Similar considerations will apply to many assemblages of corpuscles. In such cases the configuration
when
great rapidity will (as in the case of the four corpuscles) be essentially different from the configuration of the
rest.
same number of corpuscles when at Hence there must be some critical velocity
critical
than the
one,
a configuration
is
stable,
which becomes unstable when the velocity is reduced below the critical value. When the velocity sinks
sets in,
below the
is
critical
value, instability
and there
accompanied by a great diminution in the potential energy and a corresponding increase in the kinetic energy of the corpuscles. This increase
plosion,
in the kinetic energy of the corpuscles
sufficient to
may be
from the original assemblage. These considerations have a very direct bearing on the view of the constitution of the atoms which
we have taken
show that
with atoms of a special kind, i.e., with special atomic weights, the corpuscular cooling caused by
THE RF ORCE
126
ity inside
reached a certain stage, produce instabilthe atom, and produce such an in-
and
it
might be detachment of a portion of the atom. this It would cause the atom to emit energy from derived the potential energy energy being
;
in the
We shall
see
when we
nomenon
a class of
to those
bodies which
just described.
On
formed
aggregation of the unit the of which is the corelement doublet, negative and that it is the combination of the puscle, by
by the
atoms of the lighter elements that the atoms of the heavier elements are produced, we should expect the corpuscles in the heavy atoms to be ar-
ranged as
were in bundles, the arrangement of the corpuscles in each bundle being similar to the
it
arrangement in the atom of some lighter element. In the heavier atom these bundles would act as
subsidiary units, each
bundle corresponding to
THE RF ORCE
J27
one of the magnets in the model formed by the floating magnets, while inside the bundle themselves the corpuscle
of
the magnet.
We
built
sess
must now go on
in the
whether an atom
could posIs
up
any
scope for the electro-chemical properties of the real atom such properties, for example, as those
;
illustrated
by the
classes, electro-positive
and
is
electro-
Why,
for example,
if this
the con-
an atom of sodium or
model of
suggest the possession of such a property as that called by the chemists valency i.e., the property which enables us to divide the elements into
;
groups, called monads, dyads, triads, such that in a compound formed by any two elements of the
first
group the molecule of the compound will number of atoms of each element,
in while in a compound formed by an element the molein the second, the first group with one
THE RF ORCE
12 g cule of the
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
contains twice as
?
compound
many
atoms of
Let us
atom.
A as of B, and so on
now
turn to the properties of the model It contains a very large number of corpus-
We
phenomena
electricity
connected
through gases that one or more of these corpuscles can be detached from the atom.
owing
to
to
enabling them
of the
travel
beyond the
attrac-
They may
be detached also by
atoms or free corpuscles. When once a corpuscle has escaped from an atom the latter will have a posThis will make it more difficult for itive charge.
a second negatively electrified corpuscle to escape, for in consequence of the positive charge on the
atom the
did the
first.
Now we
of,
can
an
atom may vary very much in the atoms of the different elements. In some atoms the velocities of
the corpuscles
may be
may even
be
THE RF ORCE
129
atom
is
ac-
cles.
according as they lost one, two, or three corpusOn the other hand, there may be atoms in
which the
that few,
own
may even be
able to receive
Atoms
of
this
kind
if
placed in a region
The magnitude
of the
negative charge would depend upon the firmness with which the atom held its corpuscles. If a
negative charge of one corpuscle were not sufficient to expel a corpuscle while the negative charge of two corpuscles could do so, the maxi-
mum
unit.
negative charge on the atom would be one If two corpuscles were not sufficient to expel
a corpuscle, but three were, the maximum negative charge would be two units, and so on. Thus, the atoms of this class tend to get charged with
THE RF ORCE
L30
negative electricity and correspond to the electronegative chemical elements, while the atoms of the
class
we
first
corpuscles, acquire
We
might conceive atoms in which the equilibrium of the corpuscles was so nicely balanced
that though they do not of themselves lose a corpuscle,
repulsion exerted
by a
Suppose we have a number of the atoms that readily lose their corpuscles mixed with a number of those that can retain a foreign corpuscle. Let us call an atom of the first class A, one of the second
,
atoms are of
more
than one
the
atoms, and
number
of the
two kinds
ly all the
of atoms present
we
THE RF ORCE
131
the
These oppositely electrified atoms will attract each other, and we shall get the compound
formed.
that lost
If the
A B
two
corpuscles,
and the
atoms the
same
two
of the
compound
HI would be formed.
Thus, from this point of view a univalent elecatom is one which, under the circum-
tro-positive
prevailing when combination is taking has to lose one and only one corpuscle beplace, fore stability is attained a univalent electro-negstances
;
ative
atom
is
more than one corpuscle without driving off other corpuscles from the atom; a divalent electroloses two corpuscles and positive atom is one that
no more, and so on. The valency of the atom thus depends upon the ease with which corpuscles can escape from or be received by the atom
;
this
existing
it
may when
be influenced
combination
by
is
the
circumstances
taking place.
Thus,
it
would be
when once
THE RF ORCE
132
had got outside the atom, to escape being pulled back again into it by the attraction of its positive electrification, if the atom were surrounded by good
were isolated in space. We can understand, then, why the valency of an atom may in some degree be influenced by the physical
conductors than
if it
is
taking place.
On
atoms in a chemical compound is electrical in its to enter into origin, the ability of an element
chemical combination depends upon its atom having the power of acquiring a charge of electricity.
This, on the preceding view, implies either that the
uncharged atom
is
so stable that
one or more additional corpuscles without any of the original corpuscles being driven out. If the
range of stability
stable
is
when
it
atom
will not
be able to receive a charge either of positive or negative electricity, and will therefore not be able
to enter into chemical combination.
Such an atom
THE RF ORCE
133
The view that the forces which bind together the atoms in the molecules of chemical compounds are electrical in their origin, was first proposed
by Berzelius
Faraday.
;
it
was
also the
too,
Helmholtz,
the
to have
little use of this idea, having found the conception of "bonds of apparently This doctrine of bonds affinity" more fruitful.
made but
however, when regarded in one aspect almost with the electrical theory. The theory of bonds when represented graphically supposes
is,
identical
symbol
is
of a bond)
atom atom
at the
a trivalent
at the
end of
and so on
is
and that
when
the chemical
compound
represented by a
graphic formula in this way, each atom must be at the end of the proper number of the lines which represent the bonds. Now, on the electrical
view of chemical combination, a univalent atom has one unit charge, if we take as our unit of the atom is charge the charge on the corpuscle
;
therefore the beginning or end of one unit Faratube the beginning if the charge on the
day
THE RF ORCE
134
atom
tive.
positive, the
end
if
the charge
is
nega-
therefore
the origin or termination of two unit Faraday tubes. Thus, if we interpret the "bond" of the chemist as indicating a unit Fara-
in the mole-
electrical theory.
There
is,
deserves a
consideration
garded as having direction no difference is made on this theory between one end of a bond and
the other.
is
On the electrical theory, however, there a difference between the ends, as one end cor-
responds to a positive, the other to a negative An example or two may perhaps be the charge.
easiest
way
eration.
ral
formula
written
is
no
differ-
THE RF ORCE
135
pound
For
all
let
three Faraday tubes going from the hydrogen atoms to each carbon atom give a positive charge of
three units on each carbon atom.
But
in addition
atoms, there
is
one tube which goes from one carThis means an additional other.
charge on one carbon atom and a negative charge on the other. Thus, one of the carbon
atoms
will have a charge of four positive units, while the other will have a charge of three positive and one negative unit, i.e., two positive units so
;
still
when
by two bonds,
the
compound
THE RF ORCE
136
II
one carbon atom had a charge of four positive units, the other would have a charge of two
Here,
positive
units.
We
as are indicated
by
these considerations
by the
in-
vestigation of
erties,
which are
known
as additive prop-
when
is
calculated i.e, properties which can be the chemical constitution of the molecule
let
known. Thus,
is
the value of
. I
,,
6' 2,
then
if
this con-
&
J2y
Cz is
\px-\r\qy-\-\rz.
to
different
values of
compounds x y z are
to use
different values of
and
neces-
THE RF ORCE
137
due
doubly or the same value however, They use, for the refraction of the carbon atom when singly
is
it is
may be urged
that although
we
can conceive
and the other negatively electrified when the atoms are of different kinds, it is not easy to do
so
when
are in
the molecules of
HI,
point
OK JVj and so on. With reference we may remark that the electrical
state of
an atom, depending as it does on the power of the atom to emit or retain corpuscles, may be very
largely
influenced
the atom.
rapidly moving atoms or which keep striking against it may corpuscles have corpuscles driven out of it by these collisions
when surrounded by
electrified.
On
the
we should expect that, ceteris paribus, the atom would be less likely to lose a corpuscle when it is in a gas than when in a solid or a
THE RF ORCE
138
liquid.
For when
the atom
just
left
velocity to rely
it.
atoms are too far away to exert any forces upon When, however, the atom is in a liquid or a
the attractions of the other atoms which
this
its
solid,
crowd round
cle
has
left
to
avoid falling
As
an instance of this
we may
is
liquid
and gaseous
mercury
One
is
way
mercury and wander about through the interstices between the atoms. These charged corpuscles
when
acted upon
by an
electric
force
and constitute an
electric cur-
conductivity of the liquid mercury inthe dicating presence of a large number of cor-
puscles.
conductivity possessed
molecules
when gaseous.
THE RF ORCE
139
may
few corpuscles when in the gaseous state. Suppose then that we had a great number of atoms
all
ing about and coming into collision with each other; the more rapidly moving ones, since they would make the most violent collisions, would be
more
ones.
likely to
lose
The
faster ones
loss of
their
corpuscles
become
electrified,
while the corpuscles driven off would, if the atoms were not too electro-positive to be able to
retain a negative charge even
when
in the gase-
ous
state, tend to find a home on the more slowly moving atoms. Thus, some of the atoms would
and get positively, others negatively electrified, those with changes of opposite signs would combine to form a diatomic molecule. This argu-
to
very
electro-positive
we should not expect to form molegases. These be many free corcules, but since there would
puscles in the gas
we
THE RF ORCE
CHAPTER VI
RADIO-ACTIVITY AND RADIO-ACTIVE SUB-
STANCES
IN 1896 Becquerel discovered that
uranium
and
its salts
possess the
power
which, like Rontgen and cathode rays, affect a photographic plate, and make a gas through which
electricity.
In 1898
Schmidt discovered that thorium possesses similar This power of emitting rays is called properties.
radio-activity,
power
This property of uranium led to a careful examination of a large number of minerals containing this substance, and M. and
that
these, and notably some specimens of pitch-blende, were more radio-active than equal volumes of pure uranium, although only a fraction
some of
This
in-
or substances
much more
ium
itself,
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
isolate these substances.
141
and perseverance,
M. and Mme.
MM.
Bemont and Debierne, succeeded in establishing the existence of three new radio-active substances
in pitch-blende
:
ba-
rium in the mineral, and closely resembling it in its chemical properties polonium associated with
;
They
deter-
first
of these
and
mined
225.
combining weight, which was found to be Its spectrum has been discovered and examits
ined by Demarcay.
has yet been isolated, nor have their spectra The activity of polonium has been observed.
been found to be
fugitive,
months
These radio-active substances are not confined I have lately found that many to rare minerals.
wells contain a specimens of water from deep have found Geitel and Elster and radio-active
gas,
is
contained in the
soil.
of investigating problems dealing with the nature of the atom, and with the changes that go on in
THE RF ORCE
142
possessed
by
make
ties of
them a matter
of comparative ease.
The
quantity of these substances which can be detected to the corresponding amount of the other elements which have to be detected by the ordinary
is
methods
Thus, changes
which would have to go on for almost geological epochs with the non-radio-active substances, bethey became large enough to be detected, could with radio-active substances prove apprecifore
few hours.
same
is
made up
a,
/3,
and
radiations.
The a radiation is very easily absorbed, being unable to penetrate more than a few millimetres of air at atmospheric pressure, the /8 radiation is
much more
radiation
is
Investigations of the
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
effects of
143
magnetic and
electric
forces on these
by
electric
and magelec-
in
charge to the mass of the carriers of the negative T electricity he found that it was about 10 and that
; ,
the velocity for some of the rays was more than two- third s that of light. He thus proved that the
rays consisted of corpuscles travelling at prodigious speeds.
ft
The a
the
ft
rays,
He
finds,
shows that they carry a, positive charge. and his measurements have been con
m
is
is
X 10*
have
The value of
shows that
THE RF ORCE
!44
for
hydrogen
is
10
3
.
velocity with
which we
One
is
off
radium is a compound containing lighter elements or else that the atom of radium is disintegrating
into such elements.
The
value of
for
the
rays obtained
suggests the existence of a gas heavier than hydrogen but lighter than helium. The y rays, as
far as
we know,
is
by mag-
There
radio-active substance
and a substance emitting secondary radiation under the influence of Rontgen rays
:
is
known
;
to
and y types
and as
possible
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
that closer investigation
positively electrified
145
particles,
may
body struck by
energy
case of the
the
Rbntgen
be a liberation of
such as
we
by the
radiating substances being greater than the energy in the Rontgen rays falling upon it this excess of
;
energy being derived from changes taking place in the atoms of the body exposed to the Rontgen
rays.
for
might lead to a way of doing by external agency what radio-active bodies can do spontaneit
ously,
i.e.,
up
in the
atom.
were a gas
in
order to avoid prejudging the question as to the physical state in which the substance given off by
radium
tion."
exists,
Rutherford called
it
THE RF ORCE
146
tures at
which platinum
is
incandescent without
of
resembles the gases argon and helium, the latter which is almost always found associated with
thorium.
The
a
radio-active
emanation which
is
much more
by thorium, taking about four days to sink to half its activity. There seems every reason for thinking that those emanations are radio-active matter in the
gaseous form they can be wafted from one place to another by currents of air like a gas they diffuse through a porous plug at a rate which shows
; ;
They diffuse gradually through air and other gases. The coeffiis
very high.
has been measured by Rutherford and Miss Brooks and they concluded that the density of
the emanation was about eighty. The emanation of radium has been liquefied by Rutherford and
Soddy
and
I have,
Dewar, been able to liquefy the radio-active gas found in water from deep wells, which very
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
closely resembles the
147
is
emanation and
it.
quite
satisfy every test of the gaseous can be applied to them. It is true that they are not capable of detection by any chemical tests of the ordinary type, nor can they be detected by spectrum analysis, but this is only
seem to
state that
because they are present in very minute quantities quantities far too small to be detected even by
spectrum analysis, a method of detection which is exceedingly rough when compared with the electrical
to
employ for
an ex-
radio-active substances.
It is not, I think,
it is
by the
electrical
method a quantity of a
is
giving off the emanation, whether that portion be on the inside or the outside of the salt; the
emanation coming from the interior of a salt, however, does not escape into the air, but gets entangled
in
If
such a radiois
active salt
at first a
THE RF ORCE
148
ELECTRICITY
AND MATTER
stored
up
water or bubbling air through it. The stored up emanation can also be driven off from salts in the
solid state
by
raising
them
perature.
Induced Radio-Activity
Kutherford discovered that substances exposed from thorium become radio-active,
the emanais
to the emanation
possessed
by
from radium.
This phenomenon
called in-
duced
radio-activity.
The amount
of
induced
radio-activity does not depend upon the nature of the substance on which it is induced thus, paper
;
becomes as radio-active as metal when placed in contact with the emanations of thorium or
radium.
The induced
radio-activity
is
especially
de-
veloped on substances which are negatively electrified. Thus, if the emanation is contained in a
closed vessel, in
is
which a negatively
electrified wire
is
concentrated
on the negatively electrified wire, and this induced activity can be detected on negatively electrified
THE RF ORCE
^49
when
it is
too
electrified surfaces.
the induced radio-activity does not depend on the substance in which it is induced points to its being
is
deposited
it
Further evidence of
by an
exin-
Gates, in
fine
which the
duced
it
wire was, by raising to incandescence, driven off the wire and de-
radio-activity on a
The induced
is
very different
tion, for
drops to half its value in one minute, the induced radio-activity due to it takes about eleven hours to fall in the
nation
is
that
it
same proportion. The emanation due to radium, which is much more lasting than the thorium
emanation, taking about four days instead of one minute to fall to half its value, gives rise to a very
durable induced radio-activity, one fall, in about forty minutes instead ing to half its value The of thorium, eleven hours. of, as in the case
much
less
is
THE RF ORCE
150
for a
radio-activity
due to
due to radium.
Separation of the Active Constituent from Thorium
Rutherford and Soddy, in a most interesting and important investigation, have shown that the
radio-activity of
thorium
is
which they showed could be separated from the rest of the thorium by chemical means. When this
separation has been effected the thorium left be-
its radio-activ-
which
is
now
to be found in the
T h X.
The
it
radio-activity of the
thorium
has recovered
its
original activity.
been going on, the radio-activity of the Th JThas vanished. The time taken for the radio-activity
of the
value
has been shown by Rutherford and Soddy to be equal to the time taken by the thorium from which
been separated to recover half its All these results support the original activity. view that the radio-active part of the thorium, the
the
7i
X has
is
thorium X,
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
151
thorium
itself
so that
if
X were
rium would continually increase. The radio-activ. ity of the thorium X, however, steadily dies away.
This prevents the unlimited increase of the radioactivity of the mixture,
which will reach a steady the increase in the radio-activity due h is balanced by to the production of fresh
value
when
the decay in the activity of that already produced. The question arises as to what becomes of the
Tli
lost their
call
radio-activity.
it, is
ThX,
as
we may
we
have only the ordinary methods of chemical analysis to rely upon, and as these are almost infinitely
less delicate
we
active substances, might take almost geological of the dead TJiX epochs to accumulate enough to make detection possible by chemical analysis.
seems possible that a careful examination of the minerals in which thorium and radium occur
It
It is remark-
constitu-
You
how
closely, as pointed
THE RF ORCE
152
out by Rutherford and Soddy, the production of radio-activity seems connected with changes tak-
Thus, to ing place in the radio-active substance. take the case of thorium, which is the one on
fullest information,we
have
first
and
The radiothe substance forming the a rays. of the emanation is activity accompanied by a further transformation, one of the products being the
substance which produces induced radio-activity. On this view the substance while radio-active
is
to another.
ac-
energy
emits
by the
rays
it
while radio-active.
The very
large
amount of
is strik-
of the
They
out so
much energy
of this
by the salt
itself is sufficent to
much
as 1.5
C.
appears
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
153
gives out enough energy per hour to raise the temperature of its own weight of water from the
freezing to the boiling point.
This evolution of
energy goes on uninterruptedly and apparently without diminution. If, however, the views we
have just explained are true, this energy arises from the transformation of radium into other
forms of matter, and the stock of radium
its
is
when
exhausted
unless, indeed,
by the
radium.
a rough guess as to the probable duration of a sample of radium by combining the
result
We may
make
that a
gram
100
calories per
with the mass of an atom of hydrogen projected 10 9 centimetres per with a velocity of about 2
second
by
for let us suppose that the heat measured ; the Curies is due to the bombardment of the
salt
radium
by these
particles,
and to get a
to the time the radium will last, superior limit of the let us make the assumption that the whole
mass of radium gets transformed into the a parthe emanaticles (as a matter of fact we know that
THE RF ORCE
15 4
tion
a?
particles).
Let
;
be the
then since the gram emits per hour 100 calories, 10 9 ergs, the amount of energy emitted by or 4.2
its life is
4.2
X 10
ergs.
jVis the number of a particles emitted in this the mass of one of them in grams, v time,
is
J Nmv*, but
ergs,
this is
to be equal to
a?
hence
Nm v* = x X 4.2 X 10
is
X 4.2 X
9
;
10*
but
if
the
gram
of radium
1,
Nm =
X
10',
hence
we have
Jg
V * 10 =
18
^ g
10'
From
this estimate
we
life
of a piece of
years.
radium to be of the order of 50,000 This result shows that we could not
expect to detect any measurable changes in the space of a few months. In the course of its life
the
5
gram
of radium will have given out about 10 10 calories, a result which shows that if this
is
energy
transformations must be on a very much greater scale than that developed in any known chemical
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
reactions.
155
On the view we have taken the difference between the case of radium and that of ordinary chemical reactions
is
example
given on page (111) shows how large an amount of energy may be stored up in the atom if we re-
gard
it
as built
up
of a
number
of corpuscles.
and which may be typified by the case of the corpuscles which when rotating with a high
124,
velocity are
stable
when arranged
in a certain
way, which arrangement becomes unstable when the energy sinks below a certain value and is
succeeded by another configuration. top spinaxis is another model of the about a vertical ning
same type.
position
if
This
is
stable
when
this
in
a vertical
its
rotation
when
it
would
fall
THE RF ORCE
156
Let us follow, then, the behavior of an atom of this type, i.e., one which is stable in one configuration of steady motion
when
comes unstable and passes into a different configuration when the kinetic energy sinks below that
value.
amount
Suppose now that the atom starts with an of kinetic energy well above the critical
corpuscles
quence of the radiation from the rapidly moving but as long as the motion remains
;
steady the rate of decrease will be exceedingly slow, and it may be thousands of years before the
critical value.
When it gets
motion will be very easily disturbed and there will probably be considerable
departure from the configuration for steady motion accompanied by a great increase in the rate at
loss by radiation.
The atom
and the
now
emits a
much
greater
number
of rays
kinetic
;
energy rapidly approaches the critical value when it reaches this value the crash comes,
is broken up, there is a in decrease the great potential energy of the sys-
increase
in
the
The
increase in
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
157
the velocity of the corpuscles may cause the disof the atom into two or more systems, corruption
the process
for steady motion depends on its kinetic energy, is repeated for the emanation, but in a
very much shorter time, and is repeated again for the various radio-active substances, such as the
We
changes in the
desirable
atom
One
radium.
We
might
suppose that the radium obtained its energy by absorbing some form o radiation which is passing
through all bodies on the surface of the earth, but which is not absorbed to any extent by any
radio-active.
This radiation
for
radium
THE RF ORCE
158
when surrounded by
thick lead
We are familiar or when placed in a deep cellar. with forms of Rontgen rays, and of rays given out by radium itself, which can produce appreciable effects after passing through several inches of
lead, so that the idea of the existence of
very peneit
seem so improbable as
would have done a few years ago. It is interesting to remember that very penetrating radiation
was introduced by Le Sage more than a century
ago to explain gravitation.
Le Sage supposed
He
and
as-
could pass through masses as large as the sun or the planets without suffering more than a very They were, however, absorbed slight absorption.
to a slight extent
momentum.
mundane
body were
momentum communi-
cated by them to the body would not tend to move it in one direction rather than another, so that
a
body
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
159
bombardment by Le
main
at rest
;
Sage's corpuscles
is
would
re-
if,
however, there
B in
from
a second body
will shield off
the neighborhood of A,
some
of
;
direction
BA
momentum
in this direction as
field,
it
did
when
it
it
was
re-
alone in the
only
ceived enough
it
momentum
;
in this direction to
keep
in equilibrium
hence,
when
move
B.
is
present, the
momentum
upper hand
so that
will
in the direction,
A B,
i.e.,
will be attracted to
Maxwell pointed
momentum from Le
Sage's corpuscles to the body through which they were passing involved the loss of kinetic energy by the corpuscles and that if the loss of momen;
tum were
account for gravitation, the kinetic energy lost by the ultra-mundane corif converted into heat, puscles would be sufficient, the gravitating body white hot. The to
sufficient
to
keep
was urged an argument against Le Sage's by Maxwell as It is not necessary, however, to suppose theory. that the energy of the corpuscles is transformed into heat we might imagine it transformed into a
fact that all bodies are not white hot
;
very penetrating
radiation
THE RF ORCE
1(50
from the gravitating body. simple calculation will show that the amount of kinetic energy
transformed per second in each gram of the gravitating body must be enormously greater than that given out in the same time by one gram of
radium.
waves
momentum
there-
we might
fore replace
Le
Sage's corpuscles
rays.
trating
Rontgen
Those,
if
give
up momentum
similar
consideration
given by Le Sage would show that two bodies would attract each other inversely as the square
of the distance between them.
If the absorption
of these waves per unit volume depended only upon, and was proportional to, the density, the attraction between the bodies would be directly
It
ought to be mentioned that on this view any changes in gravitation would be propagated with
the velocity of light; whereas, astronomers believe they have established that it travels with a
As
in the case of
Le
THE RF ORCE
RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES
of
IQ
ac-
momentum by
lost
momentum
lost,
being the velocity of light. If this energy were transformed into that of rays of the same type as the incident rays, a little reflection will show that
To get such attraction the transformed rays must be of a more penegravitational attraction.
rays.
Again, as
Le
from these
cause of gravitation, must be enormous so great that the energy emitted by radium would be but
an exceedingly small fraction of the energy being transformed within it. From these considerations
magnitude of the energy radiated not a valid argument against the energy being derived from radiation. The reason which induces me to think that the source of the
from radium
energy
is
in the
it is
atom of radium
itself
and not
ex-
ternal to
is,
in all cases in
it,
local-
substance goes on be asked being radio-active for very long. It may how can this statement be reconciled with the fact
ize
a transient property.
No
THE RF ORCE
162
up
their activity
without any appreciable falling off with time. The answer to this is that, as Rutherford and
it
is
only an exceedingly small fraction of the mass which is at any one time radio-active, and that this
radio-active
portion loses
its
activity in a
few
hours, and has to be replaced by a fresh supply from the non-radio-active thorium. Take any of the radio-active substances we have described, the
ThX,
produces
induced
radio-
days and then lose this property. This is what we should expect on the view that the source of
the radio-activity is a change in the atom it is not what we should expect if the source were ex;
ternal radiation.
THE RF ORCE