. Introduction 1. General Notes on Style and Stylistics . . 7 ............ 9 2. Expressive Means (EM) and Stylistic Devices (SD) ..........

2 !. General Notes on "unctional Styles o# $an%ua%e ...... &. . . . !2 '. (arieties o# $an%ua%e ) t ................... ! . * +rie# ,utline o# t-e Develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- $iterary (Standard) $an%ua%e t / t 0 t ......................... '1 1. Meanin% #ro. a Stylistic 2oint o# (ie3 .............. 7 2art II. Stylistic 4lassi#ication o# t-e En%lis- (oca5ulary 1. General 4onsiderations 6 t .................... 77 2. Neutral8 4o..on $iterary and 4o..on 4ollo9uial (oca5ulary ... 72 !. Special $iterary (oca5ulary t .................. 71 a) :er.s .. t .t .....; < .=r ............... 71 5) 2oetic and >i%-ly $iterary ?ords .............. 79 c) *rc-aic8 ,5solescent and ,5solete ?ords ............ @! d) +ar5aris.s and "orei%nis.s .................. @7 e) $iterary 4oina%es (Includin% Nonce=?ords) ........... 92 '. Special 4ollo9uial (oca5ulary .................. 17' a) Slan% t 8 t ........................ 17' 5) Aar%onis.s 8 / 8 ........................ 179 c) 2ro#essionalis.s 8 t 8 t .................... 11! d) Dialectal ?ords it t =. .0 ................... 111 e) (ul%ar ?ords or (ul%aris.s ............ .<. .... 11@ #) 4ollo9uial 4oina%es (?ords and Meanin%s) ............ 119 2art III. 2-onetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices General Notes ............................ 12! ,no.atopoeia ... t ........................ 12' *lliteration . e //......................... 121 B-y.e C ...... D. ....................... 12@ B-yt-. 8 8 . ) .......................... 129 2art I(. $exical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices *. Intentional Mixin% o# t-e Stylistic *spect o#. ?ords ... ...... 1!1 E. Interaction o# Di##erent :ypes o# $exical Meanin% ............ 1!@ 1. Interaction o# 2ri.ary Dictionary and 4ontextually I.posed Meanin%s 1!9 Metap-or ............................. 1!9 Metony.y t ........ 0 ............... < ... 1'' Irony 8 ............................ 1'1 2. Interaction o# 2ri.ary and Derivative $o%ical Meanin%s ...... 1'@ Stylistic Devices +ased on 2olyse.antics E##ect8 Feu%.a and 2un .... 1'@ !. Interaction o# $o%ical and E.otive Meanin%s ............ 1 !

InterGections and Excla.atory ?ords ............... 1 ' :-e Epit-et 888/....................... 1 7 ,xy.oron 6H. H H ....................... 112 '. Interaction o# $o%ical and No.inal Meanin%s ........... 11' *ntono.asia ........................... 11' 4. Intensi#ication o# a 4ertain "eature o# a :-in% or 2-eno.enon ...... 111 & Si.ile ............................... 117 I8 J 02erip-rasis .I.....&..............&...=..... 119 KLL& Eup-e.is. ............................. 17! >yper5ole .............................. 171 D. 2eculiar Mse o# Set Expressions .................... 177 :-e 4lic-e .............................. 177 2rover5s and Sayin%s .. ;N ....................... 1@1 Epi%ra.s .............................. 1@' Ouotations ............................. 1@1 *llusions .............................. 1@7 .Deco.position o# Set 2-rases .................... 1@9H 2art (. Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices General 4onsiderations .......................... &191 EP 2ro5le.s 4oncernin% t-e 4o.position o# Spans o# Mtterance $ar%er t-an t-e Sentence .............................. 19! Supra=2-rasal Mnits ......................... 19' :-e 2ara%rap- ........................... 19@ 4. 4o.positional 2atterns o# Syntactical *rran%e.ent .......... 272 Stylistic Inversion .......................... 27! JG Detac-ed 4onstruction ....................... 27 I2arallel 4onstruction ........................ 27@ Q4-ias.us (Beversed 2arallel 4onstruction) .............. 279 Bepetition ............................. 211 Enu.eration . . . ......................... 211 Suspense. . ....... . ..................... 21@ 4li.ax (Gradation) ... < ...................... 219 *ntit-esis .............................. 222 D. 2articular ?ays o# 4o.5inin% 2arts o# t-e Mtterance ($inRa%e) . . . . C 22 8 *syndeton ............................. 221 2olysyndeton . 6 .=8=......................... 221 :-e Gap=Sentence =$inR . .0. .................... 227 E. 2articular Mse o# 4ollo9uial 4onstructions .............. 2!7 EllipsisL. .............................. 2!1 +reaR=in=t-e=Narrative(*posiopesis) .................. 2!! Ouestion=in=t-e=Narrative . . . ................... 2! Bepresented Speec- ......................... 2!1

a) Mttered Bepresented Speec- ................... 2!@ 5) Mnuttered or Inner Bepresented Speec- ............. 2'1 ". Stylistic Mse o# Structural Meanin% ................. 2'' B-etorical Ouestions ( / / . . ................... 2'' $itotes ............................... 2art (I. "unctional Styles o# t-e En%lis- $an%ua%e Introductory Be.arRs ......................... 2'9 *. :-e 5elles=lettres Style ....................... 2 7 1. $an%ua%e o# 2oetry ........................ 2 2 a) 4o.positional 2atterns o# B-yt-.ical *rran%e.ent ........ 2 2 Meter and $ine .8 8J ..................... 2 2 :-e StanSa ...... T. .................... 2 @ "ree (erse and *ccented (erse &. ................ 211 5) $exical and Syntactical "eatures o# (erse ............ 21' 2. E.otive 2rose .......................... 277 !. $an%ua%e o# t-e Dra.a .................... 2@1 E 2u5licists Style ........................... 2@7 1 ,ratory and Speec-es 0 ...................... 2@@ 2. :-e Essay ............................ 29! !. Aournalistic *rticles ........................ 29 U Ne3spaper Style (3ritten 5y (. $. Nayer) .............. 29 1. +rie# Ne3s Ite.s ........................ 29@ 2. *dvertise.ents and *nnounce.ents ................ !71 !.& :-e >eadline ........................... !72 ' :-e Editorial ........................... !7 D Scienti#ic 2rose Style ......................... !77 E. :-e Style o# ,##icial Docu.ents ................... !12 "inal Be.arRs ............/................. !19

PART I INTRODUCTION
I. GENERAL NOTES ON STYLE AND Stylistics

Stylistics, sometimes called lingvo-stylistics8 is a 5ranc- o# %eneral lin%uistics. It -as no3 5een .ore or less de#initely outlined. It deals .ainly 3it- t3o interdependent tasRs; a) t-e investi%ation o# t-e inventory o# special lan%ua%e .edia 3-ic- 5y t-eir ontolo%ical #eatures secure t-e desira5le e##ect o# t-e utterance and 5) certain types o# texts (discourse) 3-ic- due to t-e c-oice and arran%e.ent o# lan%ua%e .eans are distin%uis-ed 5y t-e pra%.atic aspect o# t-e co..unication. :-e t3o o5Gectives o# stylistics are clearly discerni5le as t3o separate #ields o# investi%ation. :-e inventory o# special lan%ua%e .edia can 5e analySed and t-eir ontolo%ical #eatures revealed i# presented in a syste. in 3-ic- t-e co=relation 5et3een t-e .edia 5eco.es evident. :-e types o# texts can 5e analySed i# t-eir lin%uistic co.ponents are presented in t-eir interaction8 t-us revealin% t-e un5reaRa5le unity and transparency o# constructions o# a %iven type. The types of texts that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspect of the communication are called functional styles of language (FS); the special media of language which secure the desirable effect of the utterance are called stylistic devices (S ) and expressive means (!")# $ # # :-e #irst #ield o# investi%ation8 i.e. SDs and EMs8 necessarily touc-es upon suc%eneral lan%ua%e pro5le.s as t-e aest-etic #unction o# lan%ua%e8 synony.ous 3ays o# renderin% one and t-e sa.e idea8 e.otional colourin% in lan%ua%e8 t-e interrelation 5et3een lan%ua%e and t-ou%-t8 t-e individual .anner o# an aut-or in .aRin% use o# lan%ua%e and a nu.5er o# ot-er issues. :-e second #ield8 i.e. #unctional styles8 cannot avoid discussion o# suc- .ost %eneral lin%uistic issues as oral and 3ritten varieties o# lan%ua%e8 t-e notion o# t-e literary (standard) lan%ua%e8 t-e constituents o# texts lar%er t-an t-e sentence8 t-e %enerative aspect o# literary texts8 and so.e ot-ers. In dealin% 3it- t-e o5Gectives o# stylistics8 certain pronounce.ents o# adGacent disciplines suc- as t-eory o# in#or.ation8 literature8 psyc-olo%y8 lo%ic and to so.e extent statistics .ust 5e touc-ed upon. :-is is indispensa5leC #or no3adays no science is entirely isolated #ro. ot-er do.ains o# -u.an Rno3led%eC and lin%uistics8 particularly its 5ranc- stylistics8 cannot avoid re#erences to t-e a5ove .entioned dis= ciplines 5ecause it is con#ronted 3it- certain overlappin% issues. :-e 5ranc-in% o## o# stylistics in lan%ua%e science 3as indirectly t-e result o# a lon%= esta5lis-ed tendency o# %ra..arians to con#ine t-eir investi%ations to sentences8 clauses and 3ord=co.5inations 3-ic- are L3ell=#or.edL8 to use a du5ious ter.8 ne%lectin% anyt-in% t-at did not #all under t-e reco%niSed and received standards. :-is tendency 5eca.e particularly stron% in 3-at is called descriptive lin%uistics. :-e %enerative %ra..ars8 3-ic- appeared as a reaction a%ainst descriptive lin%uistics8 -ave con#ir.ed t-at t-e tasR o# any %ra..ar is to li.it t-e scope o# investi%ation o# lan%ua%e data to sentences 3-ic- are considered 3ell=#or.ed. Everyt-in% t-at #ails to

.eet t-is re9uire.ent s-ould 5e excluded #ro. lin%uistics. +ut lan%ua%e studies cannot avoid su5Gectin% to o5servation any lan%ua%e data 3-atever8 so 3-ere %ra..ar re#uses to tread stylistics steps in. Stylistics -as ac9uired its o3n status 3it- its o3n inventory o# tools (SDs and EMs)8 3it- its o3n o5Gect o# investi%ation and 3it- its o3n .et-ods o# researc-. :-e stylistics o# a -i%-ly developed lan%ua%e liRe En%lis- or Bussian -as 5rou%-t into t-e science o# lan%ua%e a separate 5ody o# .edia8 t-us 3idenin% t-e ran%e o# o5servation o# p-eno.ena in lan%ua%e. :-e si%ni#icance o# t-is 5ranc- o# lin%uistics can -ardly 5e over=esti.ated. * nu.5er o# events in t-e develop.ent o# stylistics .ust 5e .entioned -ere as land.arRs. :-e #irst is t-e discussion o# t-e pro5le. o# style and stylistics in LEVWXVYZ [\Z]V\^_^`[L in 19 '8 in 3-ic- .any i.portant %eneral and particular pro5le.s 3ere 5roadly analySed and so.e o5scure aspects elucidated. Secondly8 a con#erence on Style in $an%ua%e 3as -eld at Indiana Mniversity in t-e sprin% o# 19 @8 #ollo3ed 5y t-e pu5lication o# t-e proceedin%s o# t-is con#erence (1917) under t-e editors-ip o# :-o.as Se5eoR. $iRe t-e discussion in LEVWXVYZ [\Z]V\^_^`[L t-is con#erence revealed t-e existence o# 9uite diver%ent points o# vie3 -eld 5y di##erent students o#=lan%ua%e and literature. :-irdly8 a con= #erence on style and stylistics 3as -eld in t-e Mosco3 State 2eda%o%ical Institute o# "orei%n $an%ua%esL in Marc- 1919. *t t-is con#erence lines 3ere dra3n alon% 3-icstudies in lin%vo=stylistics .i%-t 5e .aintained. *n interestin% sy.posiu. 3as also -eld in Italy8 t-e proceedin%s o# 3-ic- 3ere pu5lis-ed under t-e editors-ip o# pro#essor S. 4-at .an in 1971. * %reat nu.5er o# .ono%rap-s8 text5ooRs8 articles8 and dissertation papers are no3 at t-e disposal o# a sc-olar in stylistics. :-e strea. o# in#or.ation %ro3s lar%er every .ont-. :3o *.erican Gournals appear re%ularly8 3-ic- .ay Reep t-e student in#or.ed as to trends in t-e t-eory o# stylistics. :-ey are Style issued at t-e *rRansas Mniversity (M.S.*.) and $an%ua%e and Style pu5lis-ed in Sout-ern Illinois Mniversity (M.S.*.) (See also t-e 5i5lio%rap-y on p. !2'). It is in vie3 o# t-e ever=%ro3in% si%ni#icance o# t-e exploration o# lan%ua%e potentialities t-at so .uc- attention is paid in lin%vo=stylistics to t-e analysis o# expressive .eans (EMs) and stylistic devices (SDs)8 to t-eir nature and #unctions8 to t-eir classi#ication and to possi5le interpretations o# additional .eanin%s t-ey .ay carry in a .essa%e as 3ell as t-eir aest-etic value. In order to ascertain t-e 5orders o# stylistics it is necessary to %o at so.e len%t- into t-e 9uestion o# 3-at is style. :-e 3ord s t a I e is derived #ro. t-e $atin 3ord &stylus& 3-ic- .eant a s-ort sticR s-arp at one end and #lat at t-e ot-er used 5y t-e Bo.ans #or 3ritin% on 3ax ta5lets. No3 t-e 3ord &style1 is used in so .any senses t-at it -as 5eco.e a 5reedin% %round #or a.5i%uity. :-e 3ord is applied to t-e teac-in% o# -o3 to 3rite a co.position (see 5elo3)C it is also used to reveal t-e correspondence 5et3een t-ou%-t and expressionC it #re9uently denotes an individual .anner o# .aRin% use o# lan= %ua%eC it so.eti.es re#ers to .ore %eneral8 a5stract notions t-us inevita5ly 5eco.in%

va%ue and o5scure8 as8 #or exa.ple8 LStyle is t-e .an -i.sel#L (+u##on)8 LStyle is dept-L (Der5ys-ire)C/ LStyle is deviationsL (EnRvist)C LStyle is c-oiceL8 and t-e liRe. *ll t-ese ideas directly or indirectly 5ear on issues in stylistics. So.e o# t-e. 5eco.e very use#ul 5y revealin% t-e sprin%s 3-ic- .aRe our utterances e.p-atic8 e##ective and %oal=directed. It 3ill t-ere#ore not co.e a.iss to 9uote certain interestin% o5servations re%ardin% style .ade 5y di##erent 3riters #ro. di##erent an%les. So.e o# t-ese o5servations are dressed up as epi%ra.s or sententious .axi.s liRe t-e ones 9uoted a5ove. >ere are so.e .ore o# t-e.. LStyle is a 9uality o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- co..unicates precisely e.otions or t-ou%-ts8 or a syste. o# e.otions or t-ou%-ts8 peculiar to t-e aut-or.L (A. Middleton Murry) L... a true idiosyncrasy o# style is t-e result o# an aut-or&s success in co.pellin% lan%ua%e to con#or. to -is .ode o# experience.L (A. Middleton Murry) LStyle is a contextually .restricted lin%uistic variation.L (EnRvist) LStyle is a selection o# non=distinctive #eatures o# lan%ua%e.L ($. +loo.=#ield) LStyle is si.ply synony.ous 3it- #or. or expression and -ence a super#luous ter..L (+enedetto 4roce) LStyle is essentially a citation process8 a 5ody o# #or.ulae8 a .e.ory (al.ost in t-e cy5ernetic sense o# t-e 3ord)8 a cultural and not an expressive in-eritance.L (Boland +art-es) JL = . /b So.eI lin%uists consider t-at t-e 3ord &style& and t-e su5Gect o# lin%uistic stylistics is con#ined to t-e study o# t-e e##ects o# t-e .essa%e8 i.e. its i.pact on t-e reader. :-us Mic-ael Bi##aterre 3rites t-at LStylistics 3ill 5e a lin%uistics o# t-e e##ects o# t-e .essa%e8 o# t-e output o# t-e act o# co..unication8 o# its attention=co.pellin% #unctionL.1 :-is point o# vie3 -as clearly 5een reac-ed under t-e in#luence o# recent develop.ents in t-e %eneral t-eory o# in#or.ation. $an%ua%e8 5ein% one o# t-e .eans o# co..unication or8 to 5e exact8 t-e .ost i.portant .eans o# co..unication8 is re%arded in t-e a5ove 9uotation #ro. a pra%.atic point o# vie3. Stylistics in t-at case is re%arded as a lan%ua%e science 3-ic- deals 3it- t-e results o# t-e act o# co..unication :o a very considera5le de%ree t-is is true. Stylistics .ust taRe into consideration t-e Loutput o# t-e act o# co..unicationL. +ut stylistics .ust also investi%ate t-e ontolo%ical8 i.e. natural8 in-erent8 and #unctional peculiarities o# t-e .eans o# co..unication 3-ic- .ay ensure t-e e##ect sou%-t. *rc-i5ald *. >ill states t-at L* current de#inition o# style and stylistics is t-at structures8 se9uences8 and patterns 3-ic- extend8 or .ay extend8 5eyond t-e 5oundaries o# individual sentences de#ine style8 and t-at t-e study o# t-e. is stylistics.L1 :-e trut- o# t-is approac- to style and stylistics lies in t-e #act t-at t-e aut-or concentrates on suc-= p-eno.ena in lan%ua%e as present a syste.8 in ot-er 3ords8 on #acts 3-ic- are not con#ined to individual use. :-e .ost #re9uent de#inition o# style is one expressed 5y Sey.our 4-at.an; LStyle is a product o# individual c-oices and patterns o# c-oices (e.p-asis added) a.on%

lin%uistic possi5ilities.L2 :-is de#inition indirectly deals 3it- t-e idiosyncrasies peculiar to a %iven 3riter. So.e-o3 it #ails to e.5race suc- p-eno.ena in text structure 3-ere t-e &individual& is reduced to t-e .ini.u. or even done a3ay 3it- entirely (%ivin% pre#erence to non= individualistic #or.s in usin% lan%ua%e .eans). >o3ever8 t-is de#inition is accepta5le 3-en applied to t-e 3ays .en=o#=letters use lan%ua%e 3-en t-ey seeR to .aRe it con#or. to t-eir i..ediate ai.s and purport. * so.e3-at 5roader vie3 o# style is expressed 5y ?erner ?inter 3-o .aintains t-at L* style .ay 5e said to 5e c-aracteriSed 5y a pattern o# recurrent selections #ro. t-e inventory o# optional #eatures o# a lan%ua%e. (arious types o# selection can 5e #ound; co.plete exclusion o# an optional ele.ent8 o5li%atory inclusion o# a #eature optional else3-ere8 varyin% de%rees o# inclusion o# a speci#ic variant 3it-out co.plete eli.ination o# co.petin% #eatures.L! :-e idea o# taRin% various types o# selection as criteria #or distin%uis-in% styles see.s to 5e a sound one. It places t-e 3-ole pro5le. on a solid #oundation o# o5Gective= criteria8 na.ely8 t-e interdependence o# optional and o5li%atory #eatures. :-ere is no point in 9uotin% ot-er de#initions o# style. :-ey are too .any and too -etero%eneous to #all under one .ore or less satis#actory uni#ied notion. Mndou5tedly all t-ese diversities in t-e understandin% o# t-e 3ord &style& ste. #ro. its a.5i%uity. +ut still all t-ese various de#initions leave i.pression t-at 5y and lar%e t-ey all -ave so.et-in% in co..on. *ll o# t-e.' point to so.e inte%ral si%ni#icance8 na.ely8 that style is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another or members of one subclass from members of other subclasses, all of which are members-of the same general class.' ?-at are t-ese sets o# c-aracteristics typical o# a 3riter or o# a su5class o# t-e literary lan%ua%e 3ill 5e seen in t-e analysis o# t-e lan%ua%e .eans o# a craven 3riter and o# t-e su5classes o# t-e %eneral literary standard. *not-er point t-e a5ove 9uotations -ave in common is t-at all o# t-e. concentrate on t-e #or. o# t-e expression al.ost to t-e detri.ent o# t-e content. In ot-er 3ords8 style is regarded as something that belongs exclusively to the plane of expression and not to the plane $of content# l :-is opinion predo.inantly deals 3it- t-e correspondence 5et3een t-e intention o# t-e 3riter 3-oever -e .ay 5eca .an o# letters8 t-e 3riter o# a diplo.atic docu.ent8 an article in a ne3spaper8 or a scienti#ic treatisecand t-e e##ect ac-ieved. :-e evaluation is also 5ased on 3-et-er t-e c-oice o# lan%ua%e .eans con#or.s 3it- t-e .ost %eneral pattern o# t-e %iven type o# textc a novel8 a poe.8 a letter8 a docu.ent8 an article8 an essay and so on. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e ter. &style&8 5ein% a.5i%uous8 needs a restrictin% adGective to denote 3-at particular aspect o# style 3e intend to deal 3it-. It is su%%ested -ere t-at t-e ter. individual style s-ould 5e applied to t-at sp-ere o# lin%uistic and literary science 3-ic- deals 3it- t-e peculiarities o# a 3riter&s individual .anner o# usin% lan= %ua%e .eans to ac-ieve t-e e##ect -e desires. Deli5erate c-oice .ust 5e distin%uis-ed #ro. a -a5itual idiosyncrasy in t-e use o# lan%ua%e units&Ievery individual -as -is o3n

.anner and -a5its o# usin% t-e.. :-e speec- o# an individual 3-ic- is c-aracteriSed 5y peculiarities typical o# t-at particular individual is called an I d i V I e Y t. :-e idiolect s-ould 5e distin%uis-ed #ro. 3-at 3e call8 individual style8 inas.uc- as t-e 3ord &style& presupposes a deli5erate c-oice. ?-en +u##on coined -is #a.ous sayin% 3-ic-8 due to its epi%ra..atical #or.8 5eca.e a 5y=3ord all over t-e 3orld8 -e -ad in .ind t-e idiolect8 i.e. t-ose 9ualities o# speec- 3-ic- are in-erent and 3-ic- reveal a .an&s 5reedin%8 education8 social standin%8 etc. *ll t-ese #actors are8 -o3ever8 undou5tedly inter3oven 3it- individual style. * .an&s 5reedin% and education 3ill al3ays a##ect -is turn o# .ind and t-ere#ore 3ill naturally 5e revealed in -is speec- and 3ritin%. %ut a writer with a genuine individual style will as much as possible avoid those language peculiarities which point to his breeding and education in order to leave room for that deliberate choice of language means which will secure the effect sought# &t follows then that the individual style of a writer is mar'ed by its uni(ueness# &t can be recogni)ed by the specific and peculiar combination of language media and stylistic devices which in their interaction present a certain system# This system derives its origin from the creative spirit, and elusive though it may seem, it can nevertheless be ascertained# *aturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period# +hen we read novels by Swift or Fielding we can easily detect features common to both writers# These features are conditioned by the general 1 In lin%uistics t-ere are t3o ter.s no3 %enerally reco%niSed and 3idely used c ,lan of expression and plan of content literary canons o# t-e period and cannot t-ere#ore 5e ne%lected. +ut t-e adaptations o# t-ese canons 3ill al3ays 5e peculiar and t-ere#ore distin%uis-a5le. *lexander +loR said t-at t-e style o# a 3riter is so closely connected 3it- t-e content o# -is soul8 t-at t-e experienced eye can see t-e soul t-rou%- -is style8 and 5y studyin% t-e #or. penetrate to t-e dept- o# t-e content.1 :-e idea o# t-is su5tle re.arR can 5e interpreted in t-e #ollo3in% 3ay; c the style of a writer can be ascertained only by analysis of the form, i#e# language media# To analy)e the form in order to discover the idiosyncrasies of a writer$s style is not an easy, but a rewarding tas'# -pproaches to components of individuality such as .) composition of larger-than-the sentence units (see p# ./0), 1) rhythm and melody of utterances, 0) system of imagery, 2) preferences for definite stylistic devices and their co-relation with neutral language media, 3) interdependence of the language media employed by the author and the media characteristic of the personages, are indispensable# :-e lan%ua%e o# a 3riter is so.eti.es re%arded as alien to lin%vo=stylistics. >ere is 3-at (. M. Fir.unsRy 3rites; L:-e lan%ua%e o# a 3riter can -ardly 5e considered an o5Gect o# lin%vo=stylistics. I# analySed outside t-e pro5le. o# style (t-e style o# t-e 3orR8 t-e 3riter8 t-e literary trend or t-e literary era)8 t-e lan%ua%e #alls into a .ass o# 3ords8 collocations and %ra..atical #acts8 3-ic- taRen in isolation 3ill serve as 5ut unrelia5le evidence as to t-e li#e o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e in t-e %iven period o# its

develop.ent.L 2 >o3ever8 o5servations o# t-e 3ays lan%ua%e .eans are e.ployed 5y di##erent 3riters8 provided no clai. is .ade to de#inin% t-e individual style as a 3-ole8 .ay %reatly contri5ute to t-e investi%ation o# t-e ontolo%ical nature o# t-ese .eans 5y t-ro3in% li%-t on t-eir potentialities and 3ays o# #unctionin%. The individuality of a writer$s style is shown in a peculiar treatment of language means# In t-is connection it is 3ort- re#errin% to "lau5ert&s notion on style. >e considers style8 ad it 3ere8 non=personal8 its .erits 5ein% dependent on t-e po3er o# t-ou%-t and on t-e acuteness o# t-e 3riter&s perceptions.! :-e sa.e idea8 only sli%-tly .odi#ied8 is expressed 5y A. Middleton Murry 3-o said t-at L* true style .ust 5e uni9ue8 i# 3e understand 5y t-e p-rase &a true style& a co.pletely ade9uate expression in lan%ua%e o# a 3riter&s .ode o# #eelin%.L In discussin% t-e pro5le. o# individual style let us .aRe it clear #ro. t-e outset t-at t-e pro5le. itsel# is co..on %round #or literature and lin%uistics. >o3ever8 in as .uc- as lan%ua%e is t-e only .edia to acco..odate poetic .essa%es8 it is necessary to %o at so.e len%t- into t-e do.ain o# individual style8 it 5ein% t-e testin% %round #or lan%ua%e .eans. The individual style of an author is fre(uently identified with the general, generic term $style$# %ut as has already been pointed out, style is a much broader notion# The individual style of an author is only one of the applications of the general term $style$# The analysis of an author$s language seems to be the most important procedure in estimating his individual style# This is obvious not only because language is the only means available to convey the author$s ideas to the reader in precisely the way he intends, but also because writers unwittingly contribute greatly to establishing the norms of the literary language of a given period# &n order to compel the language to serve his purpose, the writer draws on its potential resources in a way different from what we see in ordinary speech# :-is peculiarity in t-e .anner o# usin% lan%ua%e .eans in poetry and e.otive prose -as %iven rise to t-e notion o# S t a I e as Deviance.1 Most illustrative o# t-is tendency is Geor%e Saints5ury&s state.ent .ade as #ar 5acR as 1@9 ; LIt is in t-e 5reac- or ne%lect o# t-e rules t-at %overn t-e structure o# clauses8 sentences8 and para%rap-s t-at t-e real secret o# style consists...L2 :-e sa.e idea is expressed 5y G. (andryes8 one o# t-e pro.inent lin%uists o# today8 3-o states t-at L:-e 5elles=lettres style is al3ays a reaction a%ainst t-e co..on lan%ua%eC to so.e extent it is a Gar%on8 a literary Gar%on8 3-ic- .ay -ave varieties.L! :-e idea -as a lon% -istory. In t-e 1927s t-ere arose a trend 3-ic- 3as na.ed #or.alis. in literature and 3-ic- -as crucial relevance to present=day endeavors to analySe t-e role o# #or. in e.5odyin% .atter. Several literary critics representative o# t-is sc-ool as 3ell as a nu.5er o# 3riters .aintained t-e idea t-at lan%ua%e so.eti.es i.poses intolera5le constraints on #reedo. o# t-ou%-t. >ence all Rinds o# innovations J 3ere introduced into t-e lan%ua%e 3-ic- so.eti.es not only disa%ree 3it- t-e esta5lis-ed nor.s o# t-e lan%ua%e8 5ut actually depart #ro. t-e. in principle.

:-e result in .any cases is t-at t-e lan%ua%e steps over t-e t-res-old o# t-e reader&s a5ility to perceive t-e .essa%e. The essential property, indeed, merit of a truly genuine individual style is its conformity to the established norms of the language system in their idiosyncratic variations# This uni(ueness- of the individual style of an author is not easy to observe# &t is due not only to the peculiar choice of words, sentence-structures and stylistic devices, but also to the incomparable manner these elements are combined# &t is hardly possible to underestimate the significance of a minute analysis of the language of a writer when approaching the general notion of his style# The language will inevitably reveal some of the author$s idiosyncrasies in the use of language means# "oreover, the author$s choice of language means reflects to a very considerable extent the idea of the wor' as a whole# *owhere can the linguist observe the hidden potentialities of language means more clearly than through a scrupulous analysis of the ways writers use these means# %ut for the linguist the importance of studying an author$s individual style is not confined to penetration into the inner properties of language means and stylistic devices. The writers of a given period in the development of the literary language contribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period# &t is worth a passing note that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to a great extent maintained on wor's of men-of-letters# ,ne o# t-e essential properties o# a truly individual style is its permanence# It -as %reat po3ers o# endurance. It is easily reco%niSed and never loses its aest-etic value. :-e #or. into 3-ic- t-e ideas are 3rou%-t assu.es a %reater si%ni#icance and t-ere#ore arrests our attention. :-e lan%ua%e o# a truly individual style 5eco.es deauto.atiSed. It .ay 5e said t-at t-e #or.8 i.e. t-e lan%ua%e .eans t-e.selves8 %enerate .eanin%. :-is 3ill 5e s-o3n later 3-en 3e co.e to analySe t-e nature and #unctions o# stylistic devices. :-e idea o# individual style 5rin%s up t-e pro5le. o# t-e correspondence 5et3een t-ou%-t and expression. Many %reat .inds -ave .ade valua5le o5servations on t-e interrelation 5et3een t-ese concepts. :-ere is a lon% list o# 5ooRs in 3-ic- t-e pro5le. is discussed #ro. lo%ical8 psyc-olo%ical8 p-ilosop-ical8 aest-etic8 pra%.atic and purely lin%uistic points o# vie3. >ere 3e s-all only point out t-e .ost essential sides o# t-e pro5le.8 viS. a) t-ou%-t and lan%ua%e are insepara5leC 5) lan%ua%e is a .eans o# .aterialiSin% t-ou%-t. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e stylistics cannot ne%lect t-is interrelation 3-en analySin% t-e individual style o# an aut-or. +ut it is one t-in% to taRe into account a certain p-eno.enon as a part o# a %eneral notion and anot-er t-in% to su5stitute one notion #or anot-er. :o de#ine style as t-e result o# t-inRin% out into lan%ua%e 3ould 5e on t-e sa.e level as to state t-at all 3e say is style. :-e a5surdity o# t-is state.ent needs no co..ent. :-e pro5le. o# t-e correspondence 5et3een .atter and #or. (3-ic- are synony.ous #or t-ou%-t and expression) #inds its .ost e##ective 3ordin% in t-e #ollo3in%; L:o

#inis- and co.plete your t-ou%-tK.. >o3 lon% it taRes8 -o3 rare it is8 3-at an i..ense deli%-tK.. *s soon as a t-ou%-t -as reac-ed its #ull per#ection8 t-e 3ord sprin%s into 5ein%8 o##ers itsel#8 and clot-es t-e t-ou%-t.L1 Naturally suc- a poetical representation o# t-e creative process s-ould not 5e taRen literally. :-ere is a certain a.ount o# e.otional c-ar%e in it and t-is8 as is %enerally t-e case8 o5scures to so.e extent t-e precision 3-ic- a de#inition .ust -ave. >o3ever8 it is 3ell Rno3n t-at t-e searc- #or ade9uate expression o#ten taRes an enor.ous a.ount o# ti.e and .ental e##ort. :-is idea is 5rilliantly expressed 5y (. MayaRovsRy; eVf\`[ g_ hi jVkZl_ X_j`[. E mX_nn jVkZl` c o mVj gXajZ. p\oVj`qr ij`^VmV =YsVo_ X_j` c gZY[l` gV^^ YsVoiY^Vt XajZ. :-e %enuine c-aracter o# t-e individual style o# an aut-or is not necessarily .ani#est #ro. t-e tricRy or ela5orate expressions -e uses. So.e #or.s o# t-e lan%ua%e 3-ic- pass uno5served even 5y an experienced reader due to t-eir see.in% insi%ni#icance in t-e %eneral sys=te. o# lan%ua%e .ay 5e turned into .arRed/ ele.ents 5y t-e creative So.eti.es t-ese &insi%ni#icant& ele.ents o# t-e lan%ua%e scattered in t-e text are t-e 5earers o# t-e aut-or&s idiosyncratic 5ias. :-is is particularly true o# t-e 3ays >e.in%3ay8 "aulRner and ot-er .odern 3riters -ave .ade use o# lan%ua%e .eans8 re#lectin%8 as it 3ere8 t-e %eneral tendency o# trends in .odern En%lis- and *.erican literature. *ccordin% to t-e o5servations o# .any a literary critic8 t-e style o# .odern literary 3orRs is .uc- .ore e.otionally excited8 &dis-eveled&8 inco-erent t-an t-at o# DicRens8 :-acReray8 Gals3ort-y. :-e lan%ua%e o# so.e ultra=.odern 3riters to so.e extent re#lects t-e rapidly increasin% te.po o# t-e present industrial and tec-nical revolution. Sensitive to t-e pulsation o# social li#e in t-e country8 t-ey experi.ent 3it- lan%ua%e .eans so as to .irror t-e vi5ration o# extra=lin%uistic reality. Lin every individual style 3e can #ind 5ot- t-e %eneral and t-e particular. :-e %reater t-e aut-or is8 t-e .ore %enuine -is style 3ill 5e. I# 3e succeed in isolatin% and exa.inin% t-e c-oices 3-ic- t-e 3riter pre#ers8 3e can de#ine 3-at are t-e particulars t-at .aRe up -is style and .aRe it reco%niSa5le. *t t-e sa.e ti.e t-e lin%uist 3ill 5e a5le to discern t-ose potentialities o# lan%ua%e .eans 3-ic- -it-erto 3ere latent or8 at t-e .ost8 used only occasionally. :-e individuality o# a 3riter is s-o3n not only in t-e c-oice o# lexical8 syntactical and stylistic .eans 5ut also in t-eir treat.ent.1 It is really re.arRa5le -o3 a talented 3riter can .aRe us #eel t-e 3ay -e 3ants us to #eel. :-is co=experience is 5uilt up so su5tly t-at t-e reader re.ains una3are o# t-e process. It is still stron%er 3-en t-e aest-etic #unction 5e%ins to .ani#est itsel# clearly and une9uivocally t-rou%- a %radual increase in intensity8 in t-e #ore%round o# certain #eatures8 repetitions o# certain syntactical patterns and in t-e 5roRen r-yt-. o# t-e aut-or&s .ode o# narratin% events8 #acts and situations. +hat we here call individual style, therefore, is a uni(ue combina tion of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer,

which ma'es that writer$s wor's or even utterances easily recogni)able# 4ence, individual style may be li'ened to a proper name# &t# has nominal character# The analogy is, of course, conventional, but it helps to understand the uni(ueness of the writer$s idiosyncrasy# &ndividual style is based on a thorough 'nowledge of the contemporary language and also of earlier periods in its development# Individual style allo3s certain Gusti#ia5le deviations #ro. t-e ri%orous nor.s. :-is8 =needless to say8 presupposes a per#ect Rno3led%e o# t-e invariants o# t-e nor.s. Individual style re9uires to 5e studied in a course o# stylistics in so #ar as it .aRes use o# t-e potentialities o# lan%ua%e .eans8 3-atever t-e c-aracter o# t-ese potentialities .ay=5e. +ut it %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at eac- aut-or&s style s-ould 5e analySed separately8 3-ic- is naturally i.possi5le in a 5ooR on %eneral stylistics. Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen 35t56ire treated are the main distinctive features of individual style# :-e treat.ent o# t-e selected ele.ents 5rin%s up t-e pro5le. o# t-e norm# :-e notion o# t-e nor. .ainly re#ers to t-e literary lan%ua%e and al3ays presupposes a reco%niSed or received s t a n d a r d. *t t-e sa.e ti.e it liRe3ise presupposes vacillations o# t-e received standard. In order to %et a 3orRa5le de#inition o# t-e nor. #or t-e purposes set in t-is 5ooR and8 particularly8 in connection 3it- t-e issue o# individual style8 it 3ill 5e necessary to %o a little 5it deeper into t-e concept. ?e s-all 5e%in 3it- t-e #ollo3in% state.ent .ade 5y *cade.ician $. (. Sc-er5a; L(ery o#ten 3-en speaRin% o# nor.s people #or%et a5out stylistic nor.s (e.p-asis added) 3-ic- are no less8 i# not .ore8 i.portant t-an all ot-ers.L1 :-is pronounce.ent clearly indicates t-at t-ere is no universally accepted nor. o# t-e standard literary lan%ua%e8 t-at t-ere are di##erent nor.s and t-at t-ere exist special Rinds o# nor. 3-ic- are called stylistic nor.s. Indeed8 it -as lon% 5een acRno3led%ed t-at t-e nor.s o# t-e spoRen and t-e 3ritten varieties o# lan%ua%e di##er in .ore t-an one respect (see p. ! ). $iRe3ise it is per#ectly apparent t-at t-e nor.s o# e.otive prose and t-ose o# o##icial lan%ua%e are -etero%eneous. Even 3it-in 3-at is called t-e 5elles=lettres style o# lan%ua%e (see p. !!c!') 3e can o5serve di##erent nor.s 5et3een8 #or instance8 poetry and dra.a. In t-is connection I. (ac-eR o# t-e 2ra%ue Sc-ool o# $in%uistics states t-at Lit is necessary to reGect t-e possi5ility o# t-e existence o# an a5stract8 universal nor. 3-ic- su5ordinates 3ritten and oral nor.s in any o# t-e natural lan%ua%es.L2 :-e sa.e vie3 is expressed 5y M. *. u. >alliday 3-o states; L:-ere is no sin%le universally relevant nor.8 no one set o# expectancies to 3-ic- all instances .ay 5e re#erred.L! :-is point o# vie3 is not8 -o3ever8 to 5e taRen literally. :-e #act t-at t-ere are di##erent nor.s #or various types and styles o# lan%ua%e does not exclude t-e possi5ility and even t-e necessity o# arrivin% at so.e a5stract notion o# nor. as an invariant8 3-ic- s-ould e.5race all variants 3it- t-eir .ost typical properties. Eacstyle o# lan%ua%e 3ill -ave its o3n invariant and variants (see p. !!c!')8 yet all

styles 3ill -ave t-eir o3n invariant8 t-at o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. +ot- oral 0collo9uial) and 3ritten (literary) varieties can also 5e inte%rated into an invariant o# t-e standard (received) lan%ua%e. :-e nor. is re%arded 5y so.e=lin%uists as La re%ulator 3-ic- controls a set o# variants8 t-e 5orders o# variations and also ad.issi5le and inad.issi5le variants.L (E. *. MaRayev) >ere are so.e ot-er de#initions. L:-e nor. is an asse.5la%e (a set) o# sta5le (i.e. re%ularly used) .eans o5Gectively existin% in t-e lan%ua%e and syste.atically used.L L* certain conventionally sin%led out asse.5la%e o# realiSations o# lan%ua%e .eans reco%niSed 5y t-e lan%ua%e co..unity as a .odel.&L (GuR-.an v Se.enyuR) L:-e nor. is a lin%uistic a5straction8 an idea t-ou%-t up 5y lin%uists and existin% only in t-eir .inds.L (*. E. Dar5ys-ire) L:-ere is8 o# course8 no suc- t-in% as t-e nor. to 5e #ound in actual usa%e. It is a concept 3-ic- .ust 5e expressed 5y .eans o# a #or.ula8 and it is a concept a5out t-at 3-ic- is le#t o# uses o# lan%ua%e 3-en all stylistic 9ualities -ave 5een taRen a3ay #ro. t-e..L (*. E. Dar5ys-ire) :-e last o# t-e de#initions ela5orates t-e idea o# t-e nor. as so.et-in% stripped o# its stylistic 9ualities. :-is is not accidental. Many lin%uists -old t-e vie3 t-at anyt-in% 3-ic- can 5e la5eled stylistic is already a deviation #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed nor. (see a nu.5er o# t-e de#initions o# &style& %iven on pa%e 11). :-ey #or%et t-at re%ular deviations #ro. t-e nor. %radually esta5lis- t-e.selves as variants o# t-e nor.C t-e .ore so 5ecause8 as -as 5een stated8 &deviations& o# a %enuinely stylistic c-aracter are not deviations1 5ut typi#ied and #ore%rounded natural p-eno.ena o# lan%ua%e usa%e8 t-ou%- so.eti.es carried to t-e extre.e. So8 #inally8 3e can arrive at t-e conclusion t-at t-e nor. presupposes t-e oneness o# t-e .ulti#arious. :-ere is a conscious attitude to 3-at is 3ell=#or.ed a%ainst 3-at is ill=#or.ed. ?ell=#or.ness .ay 5e represented in a %reat nu.5er o# concrete sentences allo3in% a considera5le ran%e o# accepta5ility. The norm, t-ere#ore8 s-ould 5e re%arded as t-e invariant o# t-e p-one.ic8 .orp-olo%ical8 lexical and syntactical patterns circulatin% in lan%ua%e=in=action at a %iven period o# ti.e. (ariants o# t-ese patterns .ay so.eti.es diver%e #ro. t-e invariant 5ut t-ey never exceed t-e li.its set 5y t-e invariant lest it s-ould 5eco.e unreco%niSa5le or .isleadin%. :-e develop.ent o# any literary lan%ua%e s-o3s t-at t-e variants 3ill al3ays center around t-e axis o# t-e invariant #or.s. :-e variants8 as t-e ter. itsel# su%%ests8 3ill/ never detac- t-e.selves #ro. t-e invariant to suc- a de%ree as to clai. entire independence. wet8 nevert-eless8 t-ere is a tendency to esti.ate t-e value o# individual style 5y t-e de%ree it violates t-e nor.s o# t-e lan%ua%e. *s 3e -ave already cited8 G. Saints5ury considers t-at t-e real secret o# style reveals itsel# in t-e 5reac- or ne%lect o# t-e rules t-at %overn t-e structure o# clauses8 sentences8 and para%rap-s (see p. 1 ). :-is conception is aptly illustrated t-eoretically

in t-e :-eory o# Deviance .entioned a5ove (p. 1 ) and practically= in t-e 3orRs o# certain .odern poets liRe E. E. 4u..in%s and ot-ers 3-o try to 5reaR a3ay entirely #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed and reco%niSed invariants and variants o# t-e %iven nor.. :-ey introduce various patterns 3-ic- are al.ost undecoda5le and conse9uently re9uire special devices #or %raspin% t-e .essa%es.l = Ouite a di##erent point o# vie3 is expressed 5y E. Sapir8 3-o states; L...t-e %reatest c or s-all 3e say t-e .ost satis#yin% c literary artists8 t-e S-aRespeare and >einS8 are t-ose 3-o -ave Rno3n su5consciously -o3 to #it or tri. t-e deeper intuition to t-e provincial accents o# t-eir daily speec-. In t-e. t-ere is no e##ect o# strain. :-eir personal intuition appears as a co.pleted synt-esis o# t-e a5solute art o# intuition and t-e innate8 specialiSed art=o# t-e lin%uistic .ediu..L2 :-is idea is co..on to .any stylists 3-o -old t-at real and %enuine individuality o# style 3ill reveal itsel# not in t-e 5reac- o# t-e rules8 in ot-er 3ords8 not in deviatin% #ro. t-e accepted nor.s8 5ut in t-e peculiar treat.ent o# t-e.. >o3ever8 it .ust 5e repeated t-at so.e deviations8 i# t-ey are .otivated8 .ay occur -ere and t-ere in t-e text. Moreover8 let us repeat once .ore t-at t-rou%- constant repetitions suc- de= viations .ay 5eco.e le%iti.ate variants o# t-e nor. and esta5lis- t-e.selves as .e.5ers o# t-e lan%ua%e syste.. :-e pro5le. o# variants o# t-e nor.8 or deviations #ro. t-e nor. o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 -as received 3idespread attention a.on% lin%uists and is central to so.e o# t-e .aGor current controversies. It is t-e inade9uacy o# t-e concept &nor.& t-at causes t-e controversy. *t every period in t-e develop.ent o# a literary lan%ua%e t-ere .ust 5e a tan%i5le nor. 3-ic- #irst o# all .arRs t-e di##erence 5et3een literary and non= literary lan%ua%e. :-en t-ere .ust 5e a clear=cut distinction 5et3een t-e invariant o# t-e nor. (as an a5straction) and its variants (in concrete texts). *s 3ill 5e seen later al.ost every #unctional style o# lan%ua%e is .arRed 5y a speci#ic use o# lan%ua%e .eans8 t-us esta5lis-in% its o3n nor.s 3-ic-8 -o3ever8 are su5ordinated to t-e nor.= invariant and 3-ic- do not violate t-e %eneral notion o# t-e literary nor.. ,ne o# t-e .ost c-aracteristic and essential properties o# t-e nor. is its flexibility. * too ri%orous ad-erence to t-e nor. 5rands t-e 3riter&s lan%ua%e as pedantic8 no .atter 3-et-er it is a 9uestion o# speec- or 3ritin%. +ut on t-e ot-er -and8 ne%lect o# t-e nor. 3ill al3ays 5e re%arded 3it- suspicion as 5ein% an atte.pt to violate t-e esta5lis-ed si%nals o# t-e lan%ua%e code 3-ic- sa#e%uard and accelerate t-e process o# co..unication. *t t-e sa.e ti.e8 a #ree -andlin% o# t-e nor.s .ay 5e re%arded as a per.issi5le application o# t-e #lexi5ility o# t-e nor.. It .ust 5e acRno3led%ed t-at to dra3 a line o# de.arcation 5et3een #acts t-at illustrate t-e #lexi5ility o# t-e nor. and t-ose 3-ic- s-o3 its violation is not so easy. :-e extre.es are apparent8 5ut 5order cases are 5lurred. :-us L#ootsteps on t-e sand o# 3arL (E. E. 4u..in%s) or L5elo3 a ti.eL (see ot-er exa.ples on p. 112c11!) are clearly violations o# t-e accepted nor.s o# 3ord=5uildin% or 3ord=co.5inations. +ut Lsilent t-underL8 Lt-e ors and i#sL and t-e liRe .ay #ro. one point o# vie3 5e

re%arded as a practical application o# t-e principle o# #lexi5ility o# t-e nor. and #ro. anot-ercas a violation o# t-e se.antic and .orp-olo%ical nor.s o# t-e En%lislan%ua%e. (ariants interactin% 3it- t-e ri%orous rules o# usa%e .ay reveal t-e potentialities o# t-e lan%ua%e #or enric-.ent to a de%ree 3-ic- no arti#icial coina%e 3ill ever 5e a5le to reac-. :-is can 5e explained 5y t-e #act t-at se.antic c-an%es and particularly syntactical ones are rat-er slo3 in process and t-ey reGect any sudden i.position o# innovations on t-e code already in action. :-ere is8 a constant process o# %radual c-an%e taRin% place in t-e #or.s o# lan%ua%e and t-eir .eanin% at any %iven period in t-e develop.ent o# t-e lan%ua%e. It is t-ere#ore .ost i.portant to .aster t-e received standard o# t-e %iven period in t-e lan%ua%e in order to co.pre-end t-e correspondence o# t-is or t-at #or. to t-e reco%niSed nor. o# t-e period. So.e people t-inR t-at one -as to possess 3-at is called a L#eelin% #or t-e lan%ua%eL in order to 5e a5le to understand t-e nor. o# t-e lan%ua%e and its possi5le variants. +ut t-is #eelin% is deeply rooted in t-e unconscious Rno3led%e o# t-e la3s accordin% to 3-ic- a lan%ua%e #unctions8 and even in its -istory8 3-ic- explains .ucconcernin% t-e direction it -as pro%ressed. ?-en t-e #eelin% o# t-e nor.8 3-ic%ro3s 3it- t-e Rno3led%e o# t-e la3s o# t-e lan%ua%e8 is instilled in t-e .ind8 one 5e%ins to appreciate t-e 5eauty o# Gusti#ia5le #luctuations. 2aradoxical t-ou%- it .ay see.8 t-e nor. can 5e %rasped8 nay8 esta5lis-ed8 only 3-en t-ere are deviations #ro. it. It is t-ere#ore 5est perceived in co.5ination 3itso.et-in% t-at 5reaRs it. In t-is connection t-e #ollo3in% re.arRs .ade 5y $L. (. Sc-er5a are 3ort- 9uotin%; L... in order to ac-ieve a #ree co..and o# a literary lan%ua%e8 even one&s o3n8 one .ust read 3idely8 %ivin% pre#erence to t-ose 3riters 3-o deviate 5ut sli%-tly #ro. t-e nor..L LNeedless to say8 all deviations are to so.e extent nor.aliSed; not every existin% deviation #ro. t-e nor. is %oodC at any rate8 not in all circu.stances. :-e #eelin% #or 3-at is per.issi5le and 3-at is not8 and .ainlyca #eelin% #or t-e inner sense o# t-ese deviations (and senseless ones8 as -as 5een pointed out8 are naturally 5ad)8 is developed t-rou%- an extensive study o# our %reat Bussian literature in all its variety8 5ut o# course in its 5est exa.ples.L1 JL L LI say Gusti#ia5le or L.otivatedL 5ecause 5ad 3riters #re9uently .aRe use o# deviations #ro. t-e nor. 3-ic- are not .otivated or Gusti#ied 5y t-e su5Gect .atterc t-at is 3-y t-ey are considered 5ad 3riters.L2 ?-ile dealin% 3it- various 49nceptions o# t-e ter. &style&8 3e .ust also .ention a co..only accepted connotation o# style as esta5lis-.ent o# lan%ua%e. :-is understandin% o# style is up-eld in so.e o# t-e scienti#ic papers on literary criticis.. $an%ua%e and style as e.5ellis-.ent are re%arded as separate 5odies. *ccordin% to t-is idea lan%ua%e can easily dispense 3it- style8 5ecause style -ere is liRened to t-e tri..in% on a dress. Moreover8 style as e.5ellis-.ent o# lan%ua%e 0vie3ed as so.et-in% t-at -inders understandin%. It is8 as it 3ere8

UWVX^Zi oVWXVYZ XaYY]Vt mX_nn_g`]`.c HxaYY]`t [\Z] o q]Vsi). 1/& 1a!98 y 18 Y. 17. I5id. alien to lan%ua%e and t-ere#ore needs to 5e excluded #ro. t-e o5servations o# lan%ua%e sc-olars. :-at is 3-y al.ost all conte.porary 5ooRs on %ra..ar and %eneral lin%uistics avoid pro5le.s o# style or8 at .ost8 touc- upon t-e. in passin%. :-e notion o# style as e.5ellis-.ent presupposes t-e use o# 5are lan%ua%e #or.s deprived o# any stylistic devices8 o# any expressive .eans deli5erately e.ployed. In t-is connect ion Middleton Murry 3rites; L:-e notion t-at style is applied orna.ent -ad its ori%in8 no dou5t8 in t-e tradition o# t-e sc-ool o# r-etoric in Europe8 and in its place in t-eir teac-in%. :-e conception 3as not so .onstrous as it is today. "or t-e old pro#essors o# r-etoric 3ere exclusively en%a%ed in instructin% t-eir pupils -o3 to expound an ar%u.ent or arran%e a pleadin%. :-eir classi#ication Lo# r-etorical devices 3as undou5tedly #or.al and extrava%ant... :-e conception o# style as applied orna.ent ... is t-e .ost popular o# all delusions a5out style.L1 :-e notion o# style as e.5ellis-.ent o# lan%ua%e is co.pletely erroneous. No .atter -o3 style is treated8 it is t-e product o# a 3riter&s deli5erate intention to #ra.e -is ideas in suc- a .anner as 3ill add so.et-in% i.portant8 so.et-in% indispensa5le in order to secure an ade9uate realiSation o# -is ideas. :o call style e.5ellis-.ent is t-e sa.e t-in% as to strip it o# its very essence8 t-at is8 to render unnecessary t-ose ele.ents 3-ic- secure t-e .ani#old application o# t-e lan%ua%e units. No dou5t t-ere are utterances 3-ic- contain all Rinds o# un.otivated stylistic .eans. Moreover8 t-ere are 3riters 3-ose style a5ounds in suc- utterances. +ut t-ey are eit-er t-ose 3-o8 ad.irin% t-e #or.8 use it at t-e expense o# t-e .atter8 or t-ose 3-o8 5y experi.entin% 3it- t-e potentialities o# lan%ua%e .eans8 try to #ind ne3 3ays o# renderin% t-eir ideas. In 5ot- cases t-e reader is #aced 3it- di##iculties in decodin% t-e .essa%e and t-is %reatly -inders understandin%. * very popular notion o# style a.on% teac-ers o# lan%ua%e is t-at style is t e Y - n i 9 u e o# expression. In t-is sense style is %enerally di#ined as t-e a5ility to 3rite clearly8 correctly and in a .anner calculated to interest t-e reader. :-ou%- t-e last re9uire.ent is not a.on% t-e indispensa5le8 it is still #ound in .any practical .anuals o# style8 .ost o# 3-ic- can 5e lu.ped to%et-er under t-e title L4o.position and StyleL. :-is is a purely utilitarian point o# vie3 o# t-e issue in 9uestion. I# t-is 3ere true8 style could 5e tau%-t. Style in t-is sense o# expression studies'-e nor.aliSed #or.s o# t-e lan%ua%e. :-e teac-in% process ai.s at lucidity o# expression. It sets up a nu.5er o# rules as to -o3 to speaR and 3rite 3ell and %enerally discards all Rinds o# deviations as 5ein% violations o# t-e nor.. :-e nor. in t-ese 3orRs is treated as so.et-in% sel#=sustained and8 to a very %reat extent8 in#lexi5le. :-e utilitarian approac- to t-e pro5le. is also #elt in t-e #ollo3in% state.ent 5y E. A. Dunsany8 an Iris- dra.atist and 3riter o# s-ort stories; L?-en you can 3it- di##iculty 3rite anyt-in% clearly8 si.ply8 and e.p-atically8 t-en8 provided t-at t-e di##iculty is not apparent to t-e reader8 t-at is

style. ?-en you can do it easily8 t-at is %enius.L (. &G. +elinsRy also distin%uis-ed t3o aspects o# style8 .aRin% a -ard and #ast distinction 5et3een t-e tec-nical and t-e creative po3er o# any utterance. &:o. lan%ua%e .erits 5elon% correctness8 clearness and #luency8L -e states8 L9ualities 3-ic- can 5e ac-ieved 5y any talentless 3riter 5y .eans o# la5our and routine.L L+ut style (YsVm) c is talent itsel#8 t-e very t-ou%-t.L1 *l.ost t-e sa.e point o# vie3 is -eld 5ot- 5y *. N. GvoSdev and ". $. $ucas. GvoSdev states t-at LStylistics -as a practical value8 teac-in% students to .aster t-e lan%ua%e8 3orRin% out a conscious approac- to lan%ua%eL2 and $ucas declares t-at t-e ai.s o# a course in style are; a) to teac- to 3rite and speaR 3ell8 5) to i.prove t-e style o# t-e 3riter8 and c) to s-o3 -i. .eans o# i.provin% -is a5ility to express -is ideas.! It is i.portant to note t-at 3-at 3e call t-e practical approac- to t-e pro5le. o# style s-ould 5y no .eans 5e re%arded as so.et-in% erroneous. :-e practical side o# t-e pro5le. can -ardly 5e over=esti.ated. +ut s-ould it 5e called stylez :-e a5ility to 3rite clearly and e.p-atically can and s-ould 5e tau%-t. :-is is t-e do.ain o# %ra..ar8 3-ic- today rules out t-e la3s and .eans o# co.position. :-e notion o# style cannot 5e reduced to t-e .erely practical aspect 5ecause in suc- a case a t-eoretical 5acR%round #or practical {ai.s cannot 5e 3orRed out. Moreover8 stylistics as a 5ranc- o# lin%uistics de.ands investi%ation into t-e nature o# suc- lan%ua%e .eans as add aest-etic value to t-e utterance. Aust as t-e interrelation 5et3een lexicolo%y and lexico%rap-y is accepted to 5e t-at o# t-eory and practice8 so t-eoretical and practical stylistics s-ould 5e re%arded as t3o interdependent 5ranc-es o# lin%uistic science. Eac- o# t-ese 5ranc-es .ay develop its o3n approac- and .et-ods o# investi%ation o# lin%uistic data. :-e ter. &style& is 3idely used in literature to si%ni#y literary %enre. :-us8 3e speaR o# classical style or t-e style o# classicis.8 realistic style8 t-e style o# ro.anticis. and so on. :-e use o# t-e 3ord &style& -as so.eti.es 5een carried to unreasona5le len%t-s8 t-us 5lurrin% t-e ter.inolo%ical aspect o# t-e 3ord. It is applied to various Rinds o# literary 3orRs; t-e #a5le8 novel8 5allad8 story8 etc. :-e ter. is also used to denote t-e 3ay t-e plot is dealt 3it-8 t-e arran%e.ent o# t-e parts o# literary co.position to #or. t-e 3-ole8'-e place and t-e role o# t-e aut-or in descri5in% and depictin% events. It is su%%ested in t-is 3orR t-at t-e ter. / style& 5e used to re#er to purely lin%uistic #acts8 t-us avoidin% t-e possi5le a.5i%uity in its application. *#ter all t-e ori%in o# t-e 3ord &style& is a Gusti#ication #or t-e su%%estion. >o3ever8 3e are #ully a3are o# t-e #act t-at suc- a pro= position 3ill 5e re%arded as an encroac-.ent on t-e ri%-ts o# literature to -ave its o3n ter.s in spite o# t-e #act t-at t-ey are t-e sa.e as ter.s in lin%uistics. No3 let us pass to t-e discussion o# an issue t-e i.portance o# 3-ic- -as to 5e Rept clearly in .ind t-rou%-out t-e study o# stylistics8 t-at is t-e dic-oto.y o# lan%ua%e and s p e e Y - or8 to p-rase t-e issue di##erently8 lan%ua%e= as =a=s a ste. and lan%ua%e=in=action. It deserves at least a cursory discussion -ere not only 5ecause t-e

issue -as received a %ood deal o# attention in recent pu5lications on lin%uistic .atters8 5ut also 5ecause8 as 3ill 5e seen later8 .any stylistic devices stand out a%ainst t-e 5acR%round o# t-e distinctive #eatures o# t-ese t3o a5ove=.entioned notions. :-e si.plicity o# t-e issue is to so.e extent deceptive. ,n t-e sur#ace it see.s t-at lan%ua%e=in=action taRes t-e si%ns o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste. and arran%es t-e. to convey t-e intended .essa%e. +ut t-e #act is t-at t-e si%ns o# t-e latter under%o suctrans#or.ations in t-e #or.er t-at so.eti.es t-ey assu.e a ne3 9uality i.posin% ne3 si%ni#ication on t-e si%ns o# t-e lan%ua%e code. :-ere is co.pellin% evidence in #avour o# t-e t-eory 3-ic- de.ands t-at t-e t3o notions s-ould 5e re%arded in t-eir unity8 allo3in%8 -o3ever8 t-at eac- o# t-e. 5e su5Gected to isolated o5servation. $an%ua%e=as=a=syste. .ay #i%uratively 5e depicted as an exploiter o# lan%ua%e=in= action. *ll rules and patterns o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- are collected and classi#ied in 3orRs on %ra..ar8 p-onetics8 lexicolo%y and stylistics #irst appear in lan%ua%e=in=action8 3-ence t-ey are %eneraliSed and #ra.ed as rules and patterns o# lan%ua%e=as=a= syste.. It is i.portant -ere to call attention to t-e process o# #or.ation o# scienti#ic notions. ?-enever 3e notice a p-eno.enon t-at can 5e sin%led out #ro. a .ass o# lan%ua%e #acts 3e %ive it a na.e8 t-us a5stractin% t-e properties o# t-e p-eno.enon. :-e p-eno.ena t-en 5ein% collected and classi#ied are -allo3ed into t-e ranRs o# t-e units o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. It .ust 5e pointed out t-at .ost o5servations o# t-e nature and #unctionin% o# lan%ua%e units -ave 5een .ade on .aterial presented 5y t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. It is due to t-e #ixation o# speec- in 3ritin% t-at sc-olars o# lan%ua%e 5e%an to disinte%rate t-e continuous #lo3 o# speec- and su5Gect t-e #unctionin% o# its co.ponents to analysis. So it is 3it- stylistic devices. +ein% 5orn in speec- t-ey -ave %radually 5eco.e reco%niSed as certain patterned structures; p-onetic8 .orp-olo%ical8 lexical8 p-raseolo%ical and syntactical8 and duly taRen a3ay #ro. t-eir .ot-er8 Speec-8 and .ade independent .e.5ers o# t-e #a.ily8 $an%ua%e. :-e sa.e concerns t-e issue o# #unctional styles o# lan%ua%e. ,nce t-ey -ave 5een reco%niSed as independent8 .ore or less closed su5syste.s o# t-e standard literary lan%ua%e8 t-ey s-ould 5e re%arded not as styles o# speec- 5ut as styles o# lan%ua%e8 inas.uc- as t-ey can 5e patterned as to t-e Rinds o# interrelation 5et3een t-e co.ponent parts in eac- o# t-e styles. Moreover8 t-ese #unctional styles -ave 5een su5Gected to various classi#ications8 3-ic- #act s-o3s t-at t-e p-eno.ena no3 5elon% to t-e do.ain o# lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. >o3ever8 it .ust constantly 5e 5orn in .ind t-at t-e units 3-ic- 5elon% to t-is do.ain are a5stract in t-eir nature. "unctional styles re .erely .odels deprived o# .aterial su5stance8 sc-e.es 3-ic- can 5e .aterialiSed in lan%ua%e #or.s. ?-en .aterialiSed in lan%ua%e #or.s t-ey &5eco.e practical realiSations o# a5stract sc-e.es and si%ni#y t-e variants o# t-e correspondin% invariants o# t-e .odels. :-is relatively ne3 science8 stylistics8 3ill 5e pro#ita5le to t-ose 3-o -ave a sound lin%uistic 5acR%round. :-e expressive .eans o# En%lis- and t-e stylistic devices used

in t-e literary lan%ua%e can only 5e understood (and .ade use o#) 3-en a t-orou%Rno3led%e o# t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.8 i.e. o# t-e p-onetic8 %ra..atical and lexical data o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e8 -as 5een attained. It %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at t-e .ore o5servant t-e student is8 t-e easier it 3ill 5e #or -i. to appreciate t-e peculiar usa%e o# t-e lan%ua%e .edia. Austi#ication #or 5rin%in% t-is pro5le. up is t-at so.e lan%ua%e sc-olars #ri%-ten students out o# studyin% stylistics on t-e %round t-at t-is su5Gect .ay e##ectively 5e studied only on t-e 5asis o# a per#ect co..and o# t-e lan%ua%e. Suc- sc-olars8 a3are o# t-e varia5les and unRno3ns8 usually try in t-eir teac-in% to sidestep anyt-in% t-at .ay t-reaten 3ell=esta5lis-ed t-eories concernin% t-e la3s o# lan%ua%e. *lertness to &t-e #acts o# lan%ua%e=in=action s-ould 5e in-erent8 5ut it can 5e developed to a de%ree necessary #or an aest-etic evaluation o# t-e 3orRs o# .en=o#=letters. *nd #or t-is purpose it is #irst o# all necessary to %et a clear idea o# 3-at constitutes t-e notions & expressive .eans& and &stylistic devices&.
2. EXPRESSIVE MEANS (EM) AND STYLISTIC DEVICES (SD)

In lin%uistics t-ere are di##erent ter.s to den |5y 3-ic- utterances are #ore%round8 i.e. .ade .ore conspicuous8 .ore Le##ective and t-ere#ore i.partin% so.e additional in#or.ation. :-ey are called expressive .eans8 stylistic .eans8 stylistic .arRers8 stylistic devices8 tropes8 L#i%ures o# speec- and ot-er na.es. *ll t-ese ter.s are used indiscri.inately and are set a%ainst t-ose .eans 3-ic- 3e s-all conventionally call neutral. Most lin%uists distin%uis- ordinary (also; su5stantial8 re#erential) se.antic and stylistic di##erences in .eanin%. @)8 ot-ers 5esides t-ese contain speci#. lc. .eanin%s 3-ic- .ay 5e called sty I i s t i c. Suc- .eanin%s %o alon%side pri.ary .eanin%s and8 as it 3ere8 are superi.posed on t-e.. Stylistic .eanin%s are so to say deauto.atiSed. *s is Rno3n8 t-e process o# auto.atiSation8 i.e. a speedy and su5conscious use o# lan%ua%e data8 is one o# t-e indispensa5le 3ays o# .aRin% co..unication easy and 9uicRly decoda5le. +ut 3-en a stylistic .eanin% is involved8 t-e process o# deauto.atiSation c-ecRs t-e reader&s perception o# t-e lan%ua%e. >is attentionis arrested 5y a peculiar use o# lan%ua%e .edia and -e 5e%ins8 to t-e 5est o# -is a5ility8 to decip-er it. >e 5eco.es a3are o# t-e #or. in 3-ic- t-e utterance is cast and as t-e result o# t-is process a t3o#old use o# t-e lan%ua%e .ediu.cordinary/ and stylisticc5eco.es apparent to -i.. *s 3ill 5e s-o3n later t-is application o# lan%ua%e .eans in so.e cases presents no di##iculty. It is so .arRed t-at even a lay.an can see it8 as 3-en a .etap-or or a si.ile is used. +ut in so.e texts %ra..atically redundant #or.s or -ardly noticea5le #or.s8 essential #or t-e expression o# stylistic .eanin%s 3-ic- carry t-e particular additional in#or.ation desired8 .ay present a di##iculty. ?-at t-is in#or.ation is and -o3 it is conveyed to t-e .ind o#. t-e reader can 5e explored only 3-en a concrete co..unication is su5Gected to o5servation8 3-ic- 3ill 5e done later in t-e analyses o# various stylistic devices arid in t-e #unctionin% o#

expressive .eans. In t-is connection t-e #ollo3in% passa%e #ro. LInvesti%atin% En%lis- StyleL 5y D. 4rystal and D. Davy is o# interest; L"eatures 3-ic- are stylistically si%ni#icant display di##erent Rinds and de%rees o# distinctiveness in a text; o# t3o #eatures8 one .ay occur only t3ice in a text8 t-e ot-er .ay occur t-irty ti.es8c or a #eature .i%-t 5e uni9uely identi#yin% in t-e lan%ua%e8 only ever occurrin% in one variety8 as opposed to a #eature 3-ic- is distri5uted t-rou%-out .any or all varieties in di##erent #re9uencies.L1 +hat then is a stylistic device7 +hy is it so important to distinguish it from the expressive and neutral means of the language7 To answer # these (uestions it is first of all necessary to elucidate the notion $expressiveness$# :-e cate%ory o# expressiveness -as lon% 5een t-e su5Gect o# -eated discussions a.on% lin%uists. In eti.olo%ical sense expressiveness may be understood as a 'ind of intensification of an utterance or of a part of it depending on the position in the utterance of the means that manifest this category and what these means are# +ut so.e-o3 lately t-e notion o# expressiveness -as 5een con#used 3it- anot-er notion8 viS. e.otiveness. E.otiveness8 and corresponidin%ly t-e e.otive ele.ents o# lan%ua%e8 are 3-at reveal t-e e.otions o# 3riter or speaRer. +ut t-ese ele.ents are not direct .ani#estations 0#Lt-e/0.ol:1nsct-ey are Gust t-e ec-oes o# real e.otions8 ec-oes 3-ic- -ave under%one so.e intellectual recastin%. :-ey are desi%ned to a3aRen co=experience in t-e .ind o# t-e reader. Expressiveness a 5roader notion t-an e.otiveness and is 5y no .eans to 5e reduced to t-e latter. E.otiveness is an inte%ral part o# expressiveness and8 as a .atter o# #act8 occupies a predo.inant position in t-e cate%ory o# expressiveness. +ut t-ere are .edia in lan%ua%e 3-ic- ai. si.ply at lo%ical e.p-asis o# certain parts o# t-e utterance. :-ey do not evoRe any intellectual representation o# #eelin% 5ut .erely serve t-e purpose o# ver5al actualiSation o# t-e utterance. :-us8 #or exa.ple8 3-en 3e say LIt 3as in Auly 197 t-at t-e cos.os experi.ent o# a Goint *.erican=Soviet #li%-t tooR placeL 3e .aRe t-e utterance lo%ically e.= -atic 5y a syntactical device 3-ic- 3ill 5e descri5ed in due course. :-e sa.e t-in% is to 5e o5served in t-ese sentences; (1) Mr. S.it- 3as an extre.ely unpleasant person. (2) Never 3ill -e %o to t-at place a%ain. (!) In rus-ed t-e soldiersK (') It tooR us a very8 very lon% ti.e to %et t-ere. In sentence (1) expressiveness is ac-ieved 5y lexical .eansct-e 3ord &extre.ely&. In (2) and (!) 5y syntactical .eanscdi##erent types o# inversion. In (') t-e e.p-asis is .aterialiSed 5y t-e repetition o# t-e 3ord &very7 3-ic- is in itsel# a 3ord used to intensi#y t-e utterance. +ut in t-e sentences; (1) Isn&t s-e cuteK (2) "ool t-at -e 3asK (!)L :-is %odda. 3indo3 3on&t openK

(') ?e 5uddy=5uddied to%et-er. ( ) :-is 9uicRie tour didn&t satis#y our curiosity8 3e can re%ister positive e.otiveness8 in as .uc- as t-ere are ele.ents t-at evoRe certain representations o# t-e #eelin% o# t-e speaRer. In sentence (1) and (2) t-ere are syntactical .eans 3-ic- evoRe t-is e##ect. In (!) and (') t-ere are lexical .eansc&%odda.&8 &5uddy=5uddied& (}3ere on very #riendly relations)C in ( )ca .orp-olo%ical device (t-e su##ixcte). It .ust 5e noted t-at to dra3 a -ard and #ast distinction 5et3een lo%ical and e.otional e.p-asis is not al3ays possi5le. :-e #act is t-at t-e lo%ical and t-e e.otional #re9uently overlap. * too stron% lo%ical e.p-asis .ay colour t-e utterance 3ite.otional ele.ents8 t-us causin% a Rind o# expressiveness 3-ic- is 5ot- lo%ical and e.otive. >o3ever8 t-e extre.es are clearly set one a%ainst t-e ot-er8 ...880 I0 No3 it s-ould 5e possi5le to de#ine t-e notiono0xpressive.eans0:-e40I0` expressive .eans o# a la#i%tra# are t-ose pu5net#c0&.o#plio:o%ical8 3ord= & +uildin%8 lexical8 p-raseolo%ical and syntactical #or.s 3-ic- exist In lan%ua%e=as=a= syste. #or t-e purpose o# lo%ical andIor e.otional intensi#ication o# t-e utterance. :-ese intensi#yin% #or.s8 3rou%-t 5y social usa%e and reco%niSed 5y t-eir se.antic #unction8 -ave 5een sin%led / out in %ra..ars8 courses in p-onetics and dictionaries (includin% p-raseolo%ical ones) as -avin% special #unctions in .aRin% t-e utterances e.p-atic. So.e o# t-e. are nor.aliSed8 and %ood dictionaries la5el t-e. as Lintensi#iesL. In .ost cases t-ey -ave correspondin% neutral synony.ous #or.s. 4o.pare8 #or exa.ple8 t-e #ollo3in% pairs; (1). >e s-all do itK } I s-all .aRe -i. do it. (2) Isn&t s-e cuteK } S-e is very nice8 isn&t s-ez Expressiveness .ay also 5e ac-ieved 5y co.positional devices in utterances co.prisin% a nu.5er o# sentencescin syntactical 3-oles and in para%rap-s. :-is 3ill 5e s-o3n in t-e c-apter on syntactical stylistic devices. :-e .ost po3er#ul expressive .eans o#8 anxAM%ua%1 are p-onetic. :-e -u.an voice can indicate su5tle nuances o# .eanin% t-at no ot-er .eans can attain. 2itc-8 .elody8 stress8 pausation8 dra3lin% out certain sylla5les8 3-isperin%8 a sin%=son% .anner and ot-er 3ays o# usin% t-e voice are .uc- .ore e##ective t-an any ot-er .eans in intensi#yin% an utterance e.otionally or lo%ically. In t-e lan%ua%e course o# p-onetics t-e patterns o# e.p-atic intonation -ave 5een 3orRed out8 5ut .any devices -ave so #ar 5een little investi%ated. 2aradoxical t-ou%-=it .ay see.8 .any o# t-ese .eans8 t-e e##ect o# 3-ic- rests on a peculiar use o# t-e voice8 are 5anned #ro. t-e lin%uistic do.ain. +ut t-ere -as appeared a ne3 sciencecLparalin%uisticLco# 3-ic- all t-ese devices are t-e inventory. :-e 3riter o# t-is 5ooR -olds t-e opinion t-at all t-e vocal peculiarities enu.erated .s-ould 5e reco%niSed as le%iti.ate .e.5ers o# t-e p-onetic structure o# lan%ua%e and t-at t-ere#ore t-e ter. / paralin%uistics& s-ould 5e done a3ay 3it-. 2ro#essor Sey.our 4-at.an introduces t-e ter. &p-onostylistics& and de#ines it as a su5Gect t-e purpose o# 3-ic- is Lt-e study o# t-e 3ays in 3-ic- an aut-or elects to constrain t-e p-onolo%y o# t-e lan%ua%e 5eyond t-e nor.al re9uire.ents o# t-e

p-onetic syste..L1 *s can 5e in#erred #ro. t-is 9uotation8 p-onetic expressive .eans and particularly p-onetic stylistic devices (seep. 12!) are not deviations #ro. Lt-e nor.al re9uire.ents o# t-e p-onetic syste.L 5ut a 3ay o# actualiSin% t-e typical in t-e %iven text. (ocal p-eno.ena suc- as dra3lin%8 3-isperin%8 etc. s-ould 5e re%arded as parts o# t-e p-one.ic syste. on t-e sa.e level as pitc-8 stress and tune. In t-is part o# t-e 5ooR 3-ere %eneral ideas are presented in an introductory aspect only8 t-ere is no need to %o deeper into t-e issue o# 3-at constitutes t-e notion expressive .eans o# t-e p-onetic syste.. :-e reader is re#erred to part III L2-onetic Expressive Means and Stylistic DevicesL (p. 12!). 2assin% over to so.e preli.inary re.arRs on t-e .orp-olo%ical expressive .eans o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 3e .ust = point to 3-at is no3 a rat-er i.poveris-ed set o# .edia to 3-ic- t-e 9uality o# expressiveness can 5e attri5uted. >o3ever8 t-ere are so.e 3-ic- alon%side t-eir ordinary %ra..atical #unction display a Rind o# e.p-asis and t-ere5y are pro.oted to EMs. :-ese are8 #or exa.ple8 :-e >istorical 2resentC t-e use o# s-all in t-e second and t-ird personC t-e use o# so.e de.onstrative pronouns 3it- an e.p-atic .eanin% as t-ose8 t-e. (L:-ose %old candles #ixed in -eaven&s airLcS-aRespeare)C &so.e cases o# no.inaliSation8 particularly 3-en conversion o# ver5al ste.s is alien to t-e .eanin% o# t-e ver5s or t-e no.inaliSation o# p-rases and sentences and a ituni5er o# ot-er .orp-olo%ical #or.s8 3-ic- ac9uire expressiveness in t-e context8 t-ou%- t-is capacity is not yet re%istered as one o# t-e latent properties o# suc- #or.s. *.on% t-e 3 V r d = 5 ` i I d in % .e a n s 3e #ind a %reat .any #or.s 3-ic- serve to .aRe t-e utterance .ore expressive 5y intensi#yin% so.e o# t-eir se.antic andIor %ra..atical properties. :-e di.inutive su##ixes80.(=#e)8 =let8 e.%. &dearie&8 &sonny&8 &auntie&8 Hstrea.#e#8 add so.e e.otional colourin% to t-e 3ords. ?e .ay also re#er to 3-at are called neolo%is.s and nonce=3ords #or.ed 3it- non=productive su##ixes 3it- GreeR roots8 as H.istress.ans?p&8 &cleanora.a& (see p. 92). 4ertain a##ixes -ave %ained suc- a po3er o# expressiveness t-at t-ey 5e%in #unctionin% as separate 3ords8 a5sor5in% all o# t-e %eneraliSin% .eanin% t-ey attac- to di##erent roots8 as8 #or exa.ple8 &is.s and olo= *t t-e lexical I e v ~G.{t-ere are a %reat .any 3ords 3-ic- due to t-eii>i:l:r#010 constitute a special layer (see c-art on p 71). :-ere are 3ords 3it- e.otive .eanin% only (.teiGections)8 3ords=..GSdlic-8.-ays... 5ot-..8&re#erential and e.otive .eanin% (epit-ets)8 3ords 3-ic- still retain a t3o#old .eanin%; denotative and connotative (love8 -ate8 sy.pat-y)8 3ords|-~loii%in%A00 3ords8 or to poetic or arc-aic layers. :-e expressive po3er o# t-ese 3ords cannot 5e dou5ted8 especially 3-en t-ey are co.pared 3it- t-e neutral voca5ulary. *ll Rinds o# set p-rases (p-raseolo%ical units) %enerally possess t-e property o# expressiveness. Set p-rases8 catc- 3ords8 prover5s8 sayin%s co.prise a considera5le nu.5er o# lan%ua%e units 3-ic- serve to .aRe speec- e.p-atic8 .ainly #ro. t-e e.otional point o# vie3. :-eir use in every=day speec- is re.arRa5le #or t-e su5Gective e.otional colourin% t-ey produce.

It .ust 5e noted -ere t-at due to t-e %enerally e.otional c-aracter o# collo9uial lan%ua%e8 all Rinds o# set expressions are natural in everyday speec-. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 part and parcel o# t-is #or. o# -u.an intercourse. +ut 3-en t-ey appear in 3ritten texts t-eir expressiveness co.es to t-e #ore 5ecause 3ritten texts8 as -as already 5een pointed out8 are lo%ically directed unless8 o# course8 t-ere is a deli5erate atte.pt to introduce an expressive ele.ent in t-e utterance. :-e set expression is a ti.e=-onoured device to enliven speec-8 5ut t-is device8 it .ust 5e repeated8 is .ore sparin%ly used in 3ritten&texts. In everyday speec- one can o#ten -ear suc- p-rases as; L?ell8 it 3ill only add #uel to t-e #ireL and t-e liRe8 3-ic- in #act is synony.ous to t-e neutral; LIt 3ill only .aRe t-e situation 3orse.L "inally8 at t-e syntactical level t-ere are .any constructions 3-ic-8 3-en set a%ainst synony.ous neutral ones8 3ill reveal a certain de%ree o# lo%ical or e.otional e.p-asis. In order to 5e a5le to distin%uis- 5et3een expressive .eans and stylistic devices8 to 3-ic- 3e no3 pass8 it is necessary to 5ear in .ind t-at expressive .eans are concrete #acts o# lan%ua%e. :-ey are studied in t-e respective lan%ua%e .anuals8 t-ou%- it .ust 5e once a%ain re%ret#ully stated t-at so.e %ra..arians iron out all ele.ents carryin% expressiveness #ro. t-eir 3orRs8 as t-ey consider t-is 9uality irrelevant to t-e t-eory o# lan%ua%e. Stylistics studies t-e expressive .eans o# lan%ua%e8 5ut #ro. a special an%le. &t ta'es into account the modifications of meanings which various expressive means undergo when they are used in different functional styles# !xpressive means have a 'ind of radiating effect# They noticeably colour the whole of the utterance no matter whether they are logical or emotional# +hat then is a stylistic device7 It is a conscious and intentional intensi#ication o# so.e typical structural andIor se.antic property o# a lan%ua%e unit (neutral or expressive) pro.pted to a %eneraliSed status and t-us +eco.in% a %enerative .odel8 It #ollo3s t-en t-at an SD is an a5stract pattern8 a .ould into 3-ic- any content can 5e poured. *s is Rno3n8 t-e typical is not only t-at 3-ic- is in #re9uent use8 5ut t-at also 3-ic- reveals t-e essence o# a p-eno.enon 3it- t-e %reatest and .ost evident #orce. J = SDs #unction in texts as .arRed units. :-ey al3ays..carry so.e Rind o# additionG##000 :-at is 3-y t-e .e##iodb o# #ree variation e.ployed in descriptive lin%uistics1 cannot 5e used in stylistics 5ecause any su5stitution .ay cause da.a%e to t-e se.antic and aest-etic aspect o# t-e utterance. *. ?. De Groot points out t-e si%ni#icance o# SDs in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e; LEac- o# t-e aest-etically relevant #eatures o# t-e text serves to create a #eature o# t-e %estalt2 o# t-e poe.. In t-is sense t-e relevant lin%uistic #eatures .ay 5e said to #unction or operate as %estalt #actors.L! :-e idea o# t-e #unction o# SDs is expressed .ost #ully 5y (. M. tir=.unsRy in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e; L:-e Gusti#ication and t-e sense o# eac- device lies in t-e 3-oleness o# t-e artistic

i.pression 3-ic- t-e 3orR o# art as a sel#=contained t-in% produces on us. Eacseparate aest-etic #act8 eac- poetical device (e.p-asis added) #inds its place in t-e syste.8 t-e sounds and sense o# t-e 3ords8 t-e syntactical structures8 t-e sc-e.e o# t-e plot8 t-e co.positional purport c all in e9ual de%ree express t-is 3-oleness and #ind Gusti#ication.L' :-e .otivated use o# SDs in a %enuine 3orR o# e.otive literature is -ot easily discerni5le8 t-ou%- t-ey are used in so.e Rind o# relation to t-e #acts8 events8 or ideas dealt 3it- in t-e artistic .essa%e. Most SDs display an application o# t3o .eanin%s; t-e ordinary one8 in.ot-er 3ords8 t-e .eanin% (lexical or structural) 3-ic- -as already 5een esta5lis-ed in t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.8 and a special .eanin% 3-ic- is superi.posed on t-e unit 5y t-e text8 i.e. a .eanin% 3-ic- appears in t-e lan%ua%e=in= action. So.eti.es8 -o3ever8 t-e t3o#old application o# a lexical unit is acco.plis-ed not 5y t-e interplay o# t3o .eanin%s 5ut 5y t3o 3ords (%enerally synony.s) one o# 3-ic- is perceived a%ainst t-e 5acR%round o# t-e =ot-er. :-is 3ill 5e s-o3n in su5se9uent c-apters. :-e conscious trans#or.ation o# a lan%ua%e #act into a stylistic device -as 5een o5served 5y certain lin%uists 3-ose interests in lin%uistic t-eory -ave %one 5eyond t-e 5oundaries o# %ra..ar. :-us *. *. 2ote5=nya 3rites; 1 +y &#ree variation& is .eant t-e su5stitution o# one #or. 5y anot-er 3it-out any c-an%e o# .eanin%. 2 &Gestalt& is a ter. in psyc-olo%y 3-ic- denotes a p-eno.enon as a 3-ole8 a Rind o# oneness8 as so.et-in% indivisi5le into co.ponent parts. :-e ter. -as 5een 5orro3ed 5y lin%uistics to denote t-e insepara5ility o# t-e 3-ole o# a poetic 3orR. L*s #ar 5acR as in ancient Greece and Bo.e and 3it- #e3 exceptions n to t-e present ti.e8 t-e de#inition o# a #i%urative use o# a 3ord -as 5een 5ased on t-e contrast 5et3een ordinary speec-8 used in its o3n8 natural8 pri.ary .eanin%8 and trans#erred speec-.L1 :-e contrast 3-ic- t-e aut-or o# t-e passa%e 9uoted points to8 can not al3ays 5e clearly o5served. In so.e SDs it can 5e %rasped i..ediately in ot-ers it re9uires a Reen eye and su##icient trainin% to detect it. It .ust 5e e.p-asiSed t-at t-e contrast reveals itsel# .ost clearly 3-en our .ind perceives t3o#old .eanin%s si.ultaneously. :-e .eanin%s run parallel; one o# t-e. taRin% precedence over t-e ot-er. :-us in L:-e ni%-t -as s3allo3ed -i. upL t-e 3ord &s3allo3& -as ?a) re#erential and 5) contextual (to .aRe disappear8 to .aRe vanis-). :-e .eanin% (5) taRes precedence=over t-e re#erential (a). :-e sa.e can 5e o5served in t-e sentence; LIs t-ere not 5lood enou%- upon your penal code t-at .ore .ust 5e poured #ort- to ascend to >eaven and testi#y a%ainst youzL (+yron) :-e interro%ative #or.8 i.e. t-e structural .eanin% o# a 9uestion8 runs parallel 3it- t-e i.posed a##ir.ative t-ou%-t8 i.e. t-e structural .eanin% o# a state.ent8 and it is di##icult to decide 3-ic- o# t-e t3o structural .eanin%sct-e esta5lis-ed or t-e

superi.posedctaRes t-e upper -and. In t-e #ollo3in% c-apters 3-ere detailed analysis o# t-e di##erent SDs 3ill 5e carried out8 3e s-all try8 3-ere possi5le8 to consider 3-ic- o# t-e t3o .eanin%s realiSed si.ultaneously out3ei%-s t-e ot-er. The birth of S s is a natural process in the development of language media# 8anguage units which are used with more or less definite aims of communication in various passages of writing and in various functional styles begin gradually to develop new features, a wider range, of functions, thus causing polyfunctionality# 4ence they can be presented as invariants with concrete variables# The interrelation between expressive means and stylistic devices can be worded in terms of the theory of information# !xpressive means have a greater degree of predictability than#stylistic devices# The latter may appear in an environment which may seem alien and therefore be only slightly or not at all predictable# !xpressive means, on the contrary, follow the natural course of thought, intensifying it by means commonly used in language# &t follows that S s carry a5g5a5amoy6t of information and therefore re(uire a certain effort to decode their meaning and purport# S s must be regarded as a special code which has to be well 'nown to the reader in order to be deciphered easily# :-e notion o# lan%ua%e as a special code is no3 very .uc- practiced in t-e analyses o# t-e #unctions o# lan%ua%e units. E. StanRievicS sees a Rind o# code=s3itc-in% 3-en SDs are e.ployed. >e also acRno3led%es G t-e t3o#old application o# t-e lan%ua%e code 3-en L... t-e neutral8 5asic code serves as t-e 5acR%round a%ainst 3-ic- t-e ele.ents o# an= p ot-er syste. ac9uire expressive pro.inence 3it-in t-e context o# t-e 5asic syste..L1 SDs are used sparin%ly in e.otive prose8 lest t-ey s-ould over5urden t-e text 3it- i.plications t-us -inderin% t-e process o# decodin%. :-ey are a5undantly used in poetry and especially so in so.e trends o# poetical tradition8 conse9uently retardin% .ental a5sorption o# t-e content.2 Not every stylistic use o# a lan%ua%e #act 3ill co.e under t-e ter. SD8 alt-ou%- so.e usa%es call #ort- a stylistic .eanin%. :-ere are practically unli.ited possi5ilities o# presentin% any lan%ua%e #act in 3-at is va%uely called its stylistic use. "or a lan%ua%e #act to 5e pro.oted to t-e level o# an SD t-ere is one indispensa5le re9uire.ent8 3-ic- -as already 5een .entioned a5ove8 viS. t-at it s-ould so 5e used to call #ort- a t3o#old perception o# lexical orIand structural .eanin%s. Even a nonce use can and very o#ten does create t-e necessary conditions #or t-e appearance o# an SD. +ut t-ese are only t-e prere9uisites #or t-e appearance o# an SD. ,nly 3-en a ne3ly .inted lan%ua%e unit 3-ic- .aterialiSes t-e t3o#old application o# .eanin%s occurs repeatedly in di##erent environ.ents8 can it sprin% into li#e as an SD and su5se9uently 5e re%istered in t-e syste. o# SDs o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e. :-ere#ore it is necessary to distin%uis- 5et3een a stylistic use o# a lan%ua%e unit8 3-ic- ac9uires 3-at 3e call a stylistic .eanin%8 and a stylistic device8 3-ic- is t-e realiSation o# an already 3ell=Rno3n a5stract sc-e.e desi%ned to ac-ieve a particular

artistic e##ect. :-us .any #acts o# En%lis- %ra..ar are said to 5e used 3it- stylistic .eanin%8 #or exa.ple8 t-e .orp-olo%ical expressive .eans .entioned on p. 2@. +ut .ost o# t-e. -ave not yet 5een raised to t-e level o# SDs 5ecause t-ey re.ain unsyste.atiSed and so #ar perceived as nonce uses. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 still 3anderin% in t-e vicinity o# t-e real. o# SDs 3it-out 5ein% ad.itted into it. :-is can indirectly 5e proved 5y t-e #act t-at #-ey -ave no special na.e in t-e En%lislan%ua%e syste. o# SDs. *n exception8 per-aps8 is t-e >istorical 2resent 3-ic- .eets t-e re9uire.ents o# an SD. So #a# t-e syste. o# stylistic devices -as not 5een #ully reco%niSed as le%iti.ate .e.5ers o# t-e %eneral syste. o# lan%ua%e. :-is is .ainly due to t-e a5ove= .entioned conception o# %ra..atical t-eory as dealin% exclusively 3it- a per#ectly or%aniSed and extre.ely ri%id sc-e.e o# lan%ua%e rules8 precise and accurate in its application.

3. GENERAL NOTES ON FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF LANGUAGE

?e -ave de#ined t-e o5Gect8o# lin%uo=stylistics as t-e study o# t-e nature8 #unctions and structure0 SDs and EMs8 on t-e one -and8 and t-e study o# t-e #unctional styles8 on t-e ot-er. In section 2 o# t-is Introduction (p. 2 ) 3e -ave outlined t-e %eneral principles on 3-ic- t-e notions o# EMs and SDs rest. It is no3 ti.e to outline t-e %eneral principles on 3-ic- #unctional styles rest. functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication# - functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete tas' set by the sender of the message# Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language# :-e literary standard o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 liRe t-at o# any ot-er developed lan%ua%e8 is not so -o.o%eneous as it .ay see.. In #act t-e standard En%lis- literary lan%ua%e in t-e course o# its develop.ent -as #allen into several su5syste.s eac- o# 3-ic- -as ac9uired its o3n peculiarities 3-ic- are typical o# t-e %iven #unctional style. :-e .e.5ers o# t-e lan%ua%e co..unity8 especially t-ose 3-o are su##iciently trained and responsive to lan%ua%e variations8 reco%niSe t-ese styles as independent 3-oles. :-e peculiar c-oice o# lan%ua%e .eans is pri.arily predeter.ined 5y t-e ai. o# t-e co..unication 3it- t-e result t-at a .ore or less closed syste. is 5uilt up. ,ne set o# lan%ua%e .edia stands in opposition to ot-er sets .o# lan%ua%e .edia 3it- ot-er ai.s8 and t-ese ot-er sets -ave ot-er c-oices and arran%e.ents o# lan%ua%e .eans. ?-at 3e -ere call #unctional styles are also called re%isters or d i s Y V u r s e s. In t-e En%lis- literary standard 3e distin%uis- t-e #ollo3in% .aGor #unctional styles (-ence "S); 1) :-e lan%ua%e o# 5elles=lettres. 2) :-e lan%ua%e o# pu5licistic literature. !) :-e lan%ua%e o# ne3spapers.

') :-e lan%ua%e o# scienti#ic prose. ) :-e lan%ua%e o# o##icial docu.ents. *s -as already 5een .entioned8 #unctional styles are t-e product o# t-e develop.ent o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. l Eac- "S .ay 5e c-aracteriSed 5y a nu.5er o# distinctive #eatures8 leadin% or su5ordinate8 constant or c-an%in%8 o5li%atory or optional. Most o# t-e "Ss8 -o3ever8 are perceived as independent 3-oles due to a peculiar co.5ination and interrelation o# #eatures co..on to all (especially 3-en taRin% into account syntactical arran%e.ent) 3it- t-e leadin% ones o# eac- "S. Eac- "S is su5divided into a nu.5er o# su5styles. :-ese represent varieties o# t-e a5stract invariant. Eac- variety -as 5asic #eatures co..on to all t-e varieties o# t-e %iven "S and peculiar #eatures typical o# t-is variety alone. Still a su5style can8 in so.e cases8 deviate so #ar #ro. t-e invariant t-at in its extre.e it .ay even 5reaR a3ay. ?e clearly perceive t-e #ollo3in% su5styles o# t-e #ive "Ss %iven a5ove. The belles-lettres FS has the following substyles9 [W[ -a zH zs not .ean8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e spoRen co..unications lacR individuality al stvle & stinct stwles o# t-eir o3n. "olRlore8 #or exa.ple8 is undou5tedly a #unction= t-ere#ore plas.ucl;1.as it -as a de#inite ai. in co..unicatin% its #acts and ideas8 and is our attention0 r/Fec/ 0 _ deli5erately c-osen lan%ua%e .eans. >ere 3e s-all con#ine dard. :-ose t / s0udy o# t-e #unctional styles 5red 3it-in t-e literary 3ritten stan=L o# .out- su- eS 0 literature 3-ic- 5e%an li#e purely as speec-8 3ere passed on 5y 3ord lore. & ec/Mently perpetuated in 3ritin%8 are le#t to t-e care o# specialists in #olR= a) the language style of poetry; b) the language style of emotive prose; c) the language style of drama# The publicistic F S comprises the following substyles9 a) the language style of oratory; b) the language style of essays; c) the language style of feature articles in newspapers and 6ournals#: The newspaper FS falls into a) the language style of brief news items and communi(ues; b) the language style of newspaper headings and c) the language style of notices and advertisements# The scientific prose FS also has three divisions9 a) the language style of humanitarian sciences; b) the language style of ;exact; < sciences; c) the language style of popular scientific prose# = The official document FS can be divided into four varieties9 a) the language style of diplomatic documents; b) the language > style of business documents; c) the language style of legal #documents; ? d) the language style of military documents# ? :-e classi#ication presented -ere is 5y no .eans ar5itrary. It is t-e result o# lon% and .inute o5servations o# #actual .aterial in 3-ic- not J only peculiarities o# lan%ua%e usa%e 3ere taRen into account 5ut also extralin%uistic data8 in particular t-e purport o# t-e co..unication. >o3ever8 3e ad.it t-at t-is classi#ication is not proo# a%ainst

criticis.. ,t-er sc-e.es .ay possi5ly 5e ela5orated and -i%-li%-ted 5y di##erent approac-es to t-e pro5le. o# #unctional styles. :-e classi#ication o# "Ss AG is not a si.ple .atter and any discussion o# it is 5ound to re#lect .ore li t-an one an%le .o# vision. :-us8 #or exa.ple8 so.e stylicists consider t-at ne3spaper articles (includin% #eature articles) s-ould 5e classed M under t-e #unctional style o# ne3spaper lan%ua%e8 not under t-e lan%ua%e n o# pu5licistic literature. ,t-ers insist on includin% t-e lan%ua%e o# every= & day=li#e discourse into t-e syste. o# #unctional styles. 2ro#. +uda%ov sin%les out only t3o .ain #unctional styles; t-e lan%ua%e o# science and t-at o# e.otive literature.1 It is inevita5le8 o# course8 t-at any classi#ication s-ould lead to so.e Rind o# si.pli#ication o# t-e 0acts classi#ied8 5ecause ite.s areconsid=ered in isolation. Moreover8 su5styles assu.e8 as it 3ere8 t-e aspect o# closed syste.s. +ut no classi#ication8 use#ul t-ou%- it .ay 5e #ro. t-e t-eoretical point o# vie38 s-ould 5e allo3ed to 5lind us as to t-e conventionality o# classi#ication in %eneral. ?-en analysin% concrete texts8 3e discover t-at t-e 5oundaries 5et3een t-e. so.eti.es 5eco.e less and less discerni5R0:-us8 #or instance8 t-e si%ns o# di##erence are so.eti.es al.ost i.percepti5le 5et3een poetry and e.otive proseC 5et3een ne3spaper "S and pu5licistic "SC 5et3een a popular scienti#ic article and a scienti#ic treatiseC 5et3een an essay and a scienti#ic article. +ut t-e extre.es are apparent #ro. t-e 3ays lan%ua%e units are used 5ot- structurally and se.antically. $an%ua%e serves a variety o# needs and t-ese needs -ave %iven 5irt- to t-e principles on 3-ic- our classi#ication is 5ased and 3-ic- in t-eir turn presuppose t-e c-oice and co.5ination o# lan%ua%e .eans. ?e presu.e t-at t-e reader -as noticed t-e insistent use o# t-e ex=c:ion &lan%ua%e style& or Hstyle o# lan%ua%e& in t-e a5ove classi#ication. :-is is done in order to e.p-asiSe t-e idea t-at in t-is 3orR t-e 3ord &style& is applied purely to lin%uistic data. :-e classi#ication %iven a5ove to our .ind ade9uately represents t-e #acts o# t-e standard En%lis- lan%ua%e. "or detailed analyses o# "Ss ii c-apter (I o# t-is 5ooR (p. 2'9)8 3-ere in addition to ar%u.ents #or placin% t-is or t-at "S in a %iven %roup8 illustrations 3it- co..entary 3ill 5e #ound.

. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE

The functioning of the literary language in various spheres of human activity and with different aims of communication has resulted in its differentiation# :-is di##erentiation is predeter.ined 5y t3o distinct #actors8 na.ely8 t-e actual situation in 3it-in t-e lan%ua%e is 5ein% used a.$t-e ai. o# t-e co..unication. :-e actual situation o# t-e co..unication -as evolved t3o varieties o# lan%ua%ect -e s p V R e n a0d 0I1|Va r I #t en. The varying aims of the communication have caused the literary language to fall into a number of self-sufficient systems

(functional styles of language)# @f the two varieties of language, diachronically the spo'en is primary and the written is secondary# !ach of these varieties has developed its own features mdA2ua4ties which in many ways may be regarded as opposed to each other# :-e situation in 3-ic- t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e is used and in 3-ic- it develops8 can 5e descri5ed concisely as t-e presence o# an interlocutor. :-e 3ritten variety8 on t-e contrary8 presupposes t-e a5sence o# an interlocutor. :-e spoRen lan%ua%e is .aintained in t-e #or. o# a dialo%ue8 t-e 3ritten in t-e #or. o# a .onolo%ue. The spo'en language, has a considerable advantage over the written, in that the human voice, comes into play# This is a powerful means of modulating the utterance, as are all 'inds of gestures, which, together with the intonation, give additional information# The written language has to see' means to compensate for what it lac's# Therefore the written utterance will inevitably be more diffuse, more explanatory. In ot-er 3ords8 it -as to produce an enlar%ed representation o# t-e co..unication in order to 5e explicit enou%-. :-e #or.s o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e replace t-ose o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e 3-en disse.ination o# ideas is t-e purpose in vie3. It is t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e 3it- its care#ul or%aniSation and deli5erate8 c-oice o# 3ords and .istru>ior0 and educational in#luence on a 3Me and scattered pu5lic. An #Be r1ri%Lprocess0::I0unc#ionin%8 t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e -as ac9uired its o3n c-aracteristic #eatures e.anatin% #ro. t-e need to a.=2Lty t-e utterance8 3-ic-8 is an essential point in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. The gap between the spo'en and written varieties of language, wider narrower at different periods in the development of the literary language, will always remain apparent due to the difference in circumstances in which the two are used# >ere is an exa.ple s-o3in% t-e di##erence. LMarvellous 5east8 a=#ox. Great places #or 3ild li#e8 t-ese 3ooded c-inesC so steep you can&t distur5 t-e.cpi%eons8 Gays8 3oodpecRers8 ra55its8 #oxes8 -ares8 p-easantscevery .ortal t-in%.L Its 3ritten counterpart 3ould run as #ollo3s; &?-at a .arvellous 5east a #ox isK :-ese 3ooded c-ines are splendid places #or 3ild li#e. :-ey are so steep t-at one can&t distur5 anyt-in%. :-ere#ore one can see every i.a%ina5le creature -erecpi%eons8 Gays8 3oodpecRers8 ra55its8 #oxes8 -ares and p-easantsI :-e use o# t-e peculiarities o# t-e spoRen variety in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 or vice versa8 t-e peculiarities o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e in lively speec-8 3ill al3ays produce a ludicrous e##ect. In t-is connection *. S. 2us-Rin 3rote; L:-e 3ritten lan%ua%e is constantly 5ein% enlivened 5y expressions 5orn in conversation 5ut .ust not %ive up 3-at it -as ac9uired in t-e course o# centuries. :o use t-e spoRen lan%ua%e only8 .eans not to Rno3 t-e lan%ua%e.L1 It .ust 5e 5orne in .ind t-at in t-e 5elles=lettres style t-ere .ay appear ele.ents o# collo9uial lan%ua%e (a #or. o# t-e spoRen variety)8 5ut it 3ill al3ays 5e styliSed to a

%reater or lesser de%ree 5y t-e 3riter. :-e ter. M56elGs0#itti~v$itsdI su%%ests t-e use o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. :-e spo:cen lan%ua%e 5y its very nature is spontaneous8 .o.entary8 #leetin%. It vanis-es a#ter -avin% #ul#illed its purpose8 3-ic- is .to co.= .unicate a t-ou%-t8 no .atter 3-et-er it is trivial or really i.portant. :-e idea re.ains8 t-e lan%ua%e dissolves in it. :-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 on t-e contrary8 lives to%et-er 3it- t-e idea it expresses. * trust3ort-y o5servation on t-e di##erence 5et3een t-e spoRen and 3ritten varieties o# lan%ua%e is .ade 5y 2ro#. *rc-i5ald *. >ill in -is L*n *nalysis o# &:-e ?ind-over&.L L,rdinary speec- isb ep-e.eral8 .eant to 5e reacted to and #or%otten. ...c-ains in speec-8 t-ere#ore8 3orR .ostly #or3ard and over a #airly s-ort span. In literature t-ey can also 3orR 5acR3ard and t-ere can 5e .ore t-an one c-ain runnin% at a ti.e8 so t-at a %iven ite. can -ave one .eanin% in one span8 a di##erent one in a second.L2 :-e spoRen lan%ua%e cannot 5e detac-ed #ro. t-e user o# it8 t-e speaRer8 3-o is una5le to vie3 it #ro. t-e outside. :-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 on t-e contrary8 can 5e detac-ed #ro. t-e 3riter8 ena5lin% -i. to looR upon -is utterance o5Gectively and %ivin% -i. t-e opportunity to correct and i.prove..3GGat -as 5een put on paper. :-at is 3-y it is said t-at t-e 3riten lan%ua%e 5ears a %reater volu.e o# responsi5ility t-an its spoRen c1untei#partC :-e spoRen variety 0i##cG0#ro. t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e (t-at is8 in its 3ritten representation) %-oneticallv8 .orp-olo%ically8 lexically8 .and syntactically. :-us8 o# .orG)liOlo%I>riS".s:>esLpouen lan%ua%e co..on=L L L ivuses contractedGpr.s8 eas &-e&d& (-e 3ould)8 &s-e&s& (s-e is) :d&ve& (I 3ould -ave). It nius:eLre.e.5ered t-at 3e touc- upon t-e di##erences 5et3een t-e t3o varieties o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 3it-in standard (literary) En%lis-. >o3ever8 so.e #or.s o# t-e vernacular do .aRe t-eir 3av into t-e oral (spoRen) variety o# standard En%lis-. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 on t-e 3ay to 5e ad.itted into t-e standard. Suc- are8 #or exa.ple8 t-e use o# don&t instead o# doesn&t8 as in LIt&s a 3onder -is #at-er don&t taRe -i. in -is 5anRL (Dreiser)C -e instead o# -i.8 as in LI used to play tennis 3it- -e and Mrs. *ntoliniL (Salin%er)C I says8 ain&t (instead o# a. not8 is not8 are not)8 t-e. instead o$t-ese or t-ose8 as in&tiIn&s so.e o# your c-aps8 ain&t t-eyzL (:ressell)C $e%%o}'et %o&8 -ellova}l-el< o# a& and ot-ers. :-ese .orp-olo%ical and p-onetic peculiarities are so.eti.es retarded as violations o# %ra..ar rules8 caused 5y a certain carelessness 3-ic- acco.panies ye 9uicR:e.pd o# collo9uial speec-L or an excited state o# .ind. ,t-ers are typical o# territorial or social dialects. :>e #ollo3in% passa%e is illustrative in t-is respect; LMu.8 I&ve asRed a youn% lady to co.e to tea to.orro3. Is t-at all ri%-tzL Lwou done 3-atzL asRed Mrs. Sun5ury8 #or a .o.ent #or%ettin% -er %ra..ar. Lwou -eard8 .u..L (Mau%-a.) So.e o# t-ese i.proprieties are no3 reco%niSed as 5ein% le%iti.ate #or.s o# collo9uial En%lis-. :-us8 2ro#. >. ?-ite-all o# Indiana Mniversity no3 ad.its t-at L4ollo9uial spoRen En%lis- o#ten uses t-e. as t-e plural #or. o# t-is and t-at8 3ritten

En%lis- uses t-ese and t-ose. &:-e. .en -ave arrived&.L1 :-e .ost striRin% di##erence 5et3een t-e spoRen and 3ritten lan%ua%e is8 -o3ever8 in t-e (Oca5ulary used. :-ere are 3ords and p-rases typi=calGy collo9uial8 on t-e one -and8 and typically 5ooRis-=8 on t-e ot-er. :-is pro5le. 3ill 5e dealt 3it- in detail in t-e next c-apter. Suc- 3ords and p-rases as &sloppy&8 &to 5e %one on so.e5ody& (} to 5e violently irMove 3it-)C &ItaRe it& GQ0..M#l0erstand)C 'a sort o#C Hto -o5=no5 3it-& (} to 5e very #a.iliar 3it-) and o##iers:..ediately .arR t-e utterance as 5ein% collo9uial8 t-at is8 5elon%in% to t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e. :-ey are rarely #ound in t-e aut-or&s narrative unless special stylistic ai.s are pursued. ?-en set a%ainst ordinary neutral 3ords or literary=5ooRis- 3ords and expressions8 t-ey produce a .arRed stylistic e##ect. >ere is an exa.ple; >e says you 3ere strucR o## t-e rolls #or so.et-in%.L . &Be.oved #ro. t-e Be%ister& is t-e correct expression8L placidly interrupted t-e doctor. (Mau%-a.) >ere are so.e .ore exa.ples o# present=day collo9uial p-rases 3-ic- are %ainin% %round in standard En%lis- 5ut 3-ic- are stron%ly #elt to e collo9uial; &>o3 co.ez& (} ?-yz >o3 does t-at -appenz)8 &?-at ti.e do you .aRe itz&8 &so .uc- t-e 5etter&8 &to 5e up to so.et-in%&8 'to 5uddy=5uddy to%et-er& (} to 5e #riends). :-e spoRen lan%ua%e .aRes a.ple use o# intensi#yin% 3ords. :-ese are interGections and 3ords 3it- stron% e.otive .eanin%8 as oat-s8 s3ear=<0Lds0:ld&Labd#ec:ives 3-ic- -ave lost t-eir pri.ary .eanin% and only serve t-e purpose o# intensi#yin% t-e e.otional c-ar%e o# t-e utterance. >ere are so.e exa.ples; LI&d sure liRe to -ear so.e .ore a5out t-e. people.L (Don Gordon) LIn #act8 you ou%-t to 5e darn %lad you 3ent to +urtin%a.e.L ($. "ord) L>e put .y %odda. paper do3n...L (Salin%er) :-e 3ords &-ere/ and / t-ere& are also used to rein#orce t-e de.onstrative pronouns8 as in; LI# I can %et a talR 3it- t-is8 -ere servant...L said ?eller. L:-at t-ere #ood is %ood.L LIs t-is &ere (-ere) -all (all) you&ve donezL -e s-outs out. :-ere is anot-er c-aracteristic #eature o# collo9uial lan%ua%e8 na.ely8 t-e insertion into t-e utterance o# 3ords 3it-out any .eanin%8 3-ic- are appropriately called L#ill= upsL or e.pty 3ords. :o so.e extent t-ey %ive a touc- o# co.pleteness to t-e sentence i# used at t-e end o# it or8 i# used in t-e .iddle8 -elp t-e speaRer to #ill t-e %ap 3-en una5le to #ind t-e proper 3ord. Illustrative is t-e use o# &and all& in >olden&s speec- in Salin%er&s novel L:-e 4atc-er in t-e Bye.L >ere are so.e exa.ples; LS-e looRed so da.n nice8 t-e 3ay s-e Rept %oin% around and around in -er 5lue coat and all.L L... splendid and clear=t-inRin% and allL L... -e is .y 5rot-er and allL Suc- 3ords and set expressions as 3ell8 so to say8 you see8 you Rno38 you understand8 and all8 as 3ell as 3-at .ay 5e called L.u.5lin% 3ordsL liRe =.=.8 er=r8 als#r 5elon%

to t-e cate%ory o# #ill=ups. :-e syntactical0 pOcul.ritie%8 o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e are per-aps not so st#iR#n0&a0 tlie lexical ones8 5ut .ore t-an any ot-er #eatures t-ey reveal t-e true nature o# t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e8 t-at is8 t-e sit=uational c-aracter o# t-e co..unication. :-e #irst o# t-e. is 3-at is erroneously called ellipsis8 t-at is8 t-e o.ission o# parts o# t-e utterance easily supplied "ybt#i" Situation in 3-ic- t-e co..unication taRes place. :-ese are in #act not o.issions8 5ut t-e re%ular a5sence o# parts unnecessary in lively conversation 3-en t-ere are t3o or .ore people speaRin%. >ere are so.e a5solutely nor.al and le%iti.ate constructions 3-ic- -ave .issin% ele.ents in t-e spoRen lan%ua%e8 ele.ents 3-ic- are8 -o3ever8 indispensa5le in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e; & (lell you 3-at.L #&?-o you 3it-z (?-o are you 3it-z)L L4are to -ear .y ideas a5out itzL LEver %o 5acR to En%landzL LAust doin% a s-ort story to Rill t-e ti.e.& j second #eature is t-e tendency to use t-e direct 3prd;or'er 9ues=or o.it t-e auxiliary ver58 leavin% it to -e intonation to indicate .eanin% o# t-e sentence8 #or exa.ple; LScroo%e Rne3 Marley 3as deadzL (DicRens) LMiss >olland looR a#ter you and all t-atzL Mn#inis-ed sentences are also typical o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e8 #or exa.ple8 &I# you 5e-ave liRe t-at I&ll...& :-ere is a syntactical structure 3it- a tautolo%ical su5Gect 3-ic- is also considered c-aracteristic o# collo9uial En%lis-. It is a construction in 3-ic- t3o su5Gects are used 3-ere one is su##icient re#erence. Msually t-ey are noun and pronoun8 as in; x H>e 3as a Rind 5oy8 >arry.& &>elen8 s-e 3as Ht-ere. *sR -er.& In t-e spoRen lan%ua%e it is very natural to -ave a strin% o# sentences 3it-out any connections or linRed 3it-8 and8 t-at servant o# all 3orR8 #or exa.ple; &4a.e -o.e late. >ad supper and 3ent to 5ed. 4ouldn&t sleep8 o# course. :-e evenin% -ad 5een too .uc- o# a strain.& It -as already 5een pointed out t-at t-e 8spoN;en0yariTty o# lan%ua%e0 is Gar .ore e.otional t-an its cou0tepart8 due .ainly to ##ie advan=L. ta%e t-e -u.an voice supplies. :-is e.otiveness o# collo9uial lan%ua%e -as produced a nu.5er o# syntactical structures 3-ic- so #ar -ave 5een little investi%ated and t-e .eanin% o# 3-ic- can -ardly 5e discerned 3it-out a proper intonation desi%n. >ere are so.e o# t-e.; LIsn&t s-e cuteKL LDon&t you tell .e t-at.L L* 3itc- s-e isKL L*nd didn&t s-e co.e over on t-e sa.e 5oat as .ysel# 1L L>e #air 5eats .e8 does Aa.esKL L4lever %irl t-at s-e isKL Lwou are tellin% .eKL L:-ere you -ave t-e .anKL

LSo.e5ody is %oin% to touc- you 3it- a 5roo.sticRKL :-e c-aracteristic syntactical #eatures o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e can easily 5e perceived 5y t-e student o# lan%ua%e. *s .t-e situation .ust 5e .ade clear 5y t-e context8 t-e utterance 5eco.es .ore exact. :-at .eans t-e relations 5et3een t-e parts o# t-e utter=a0e roust 5e precise. >ence t-e a5undance o# all Rinds o# conGunctions8 ver5ial p-rases and ot-er .eans 3-ic- .ay serve as connectives. s so.eone -as said8 a clear 3riter is al3ays conscious o# a reader over in /t im= >e .ust explain. Most o# t-e connectin% 3ords 3ere evolved conn 0ritten lan%ua%e and #or t-e .ost part are used only t-ere. Suc- on t-eves as .oreover8 #urt-er.ore8 liRe3ise8 si.ilarly8 nevert-eless8 contrary8 -o3ever8 presently8 eventually8 t-ere#ore8 in connection 3it-8 -ereina#ter8 -ence#ort-8 -ave a decidedly 5ooRis- #lavour and are seldo. used in ordinary conversation. *not-er syntactical #eature o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e is its use o# co.plicated sentence= units. :-e 3ritten lan%ua%e pre#ers -ypotaxis to pa"ataxisC :on%bLperiods&L are .ore #re9uent t-an s-ort utterances. :-e .onolo%ue c-aracter o# t-e 3ritten& lan%ua%e #orci5ly de.ands lo%ical co-erence o# t-e ideas expressed and t-e 5reaRin% o# t-e utterance into o5serva5le spansC -ence units liRe t-e supra=p-rasal unit and t-e para%rap- (see pp. 19!c19@). :-e 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e -ave also %ained reco%nition as a separate layer o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary. Bic-ard D. *lticR8 2ro#8 o# En%lis- at t-e ,-io State Mniversity8 calls .any p-rases t-at tend to 5e 5ooRisLspace=3astersL. :-ese are despite t-e #act (}} alt-ou%-)C in t-e .atter o# (} a5out)C a lon% period o# ti.e (} a lon% ti.e)C in t-e capacity o# (} as)C rese.5lin% In nature (} liRe)C reac- a decision (c decide)C .et 3it- t-e approval o# Aones (} Aones approved)C announced -i.sel# to 5e In #avour o# (} said -e #avoured) and ot-ers. >o3ever8 t-ese Lspace=3astersL cannot al3ays 5e so easily dispensed 3it-8 and 2ro#. *lticR see.s not to taRe into consideration t-e su5tle di##erence in I.eanin% carried 5y suc- pairs as in t-e capacity o# and as8 rese.5lin% In nature and liRe. ,# course8 t-ere are t-e L-i%-=talRersL 3-o #re9uently over=indul%e in 5ooRis-ness o# expression8 t-us causin% a natural protest on t-e part o# ordinary readers. A. D. *da.s8 an *.erican lin%uist and critic8 %ives an exa.ple o# suc- over=5ooRis-=ness #ro. an *cade.y o# Science report; L:-e evolution o# an opti.u. scienti#ic payload 3ill re9uire a continuin% dialo%ue a.on% all potential investi%ators and t-e en%ineers responsi5le #or i.ple.entin% t-eir scienti#ic %oals.L :-en -e %ives 3-at -e calls a Lpossi5le translationL; L"indin% =t-e ri%-t car%o 3ill re9uire &continuin% con#erences o#Lt-ose 3orRin% on t-e proGect.L1 It is 3ort-y o# note t-at .ost o# t-e ridicule poured on t-e 5ooRis- lan%ua%e used 5y di##erent 3riters is concentrated on t-e voca5ulary. $ittle or no .ocRery is .ade o# t-e syntactical pattern8 even t-ou%- . t-e lon% run it is t-is #eature t-at -as as %reat a 3ei%-t as any o# t-e ot-ers in distin%uis-in% t-e 3ritten #ro. t-e spoRen lan%ua%e. :-e syntactical structure8 na .atter -o3 co.plicated it .ay 5e8 re#lects t-e essential di##erence 5et3een t-e t3o varieties o# lan%ua%e8 and is accepted 3it-out 9uestion.

*ny=syntactical pattern o# t-e 3ritten variety 3ill al3ays s-o3 t-e interrelation 5et3een t-e parts o# t-e utterance8 so t-ere is not-in% to -inder t-e reader in %raspin% t-e 3-ole. :-is is t-e case 3it- prose 3ritin%. ?it- re%ard to poetry8 t-e situation is so.e3-at di##erent. Becent o5servations on t-e peculiarities o# t-e lan%ua%e o# .odern En%lis- and *.erican poetry -ave proved t-at it is .ainly t-e 5reac- o# syntactical la3s t-at -inders understandin% to a de%ree t-at t-e .essa%e co.es undecoda5le. 4o-erence and lo%ical unity 5acRed up 5y purely lin%uistic .eans is t-ere#ore an essential property o# t-e 3ritten variety. :-e 5ooRisvoca5ulary8 one o# t-e nota5le properties o# t-e 3rit=te:>an%uai0 even t-e .ost intelli%ent reader and .ay very #re9uently need interpretation.

!. A "RIEF OUTLINE OF T#E DEVELOPMENT OF T#E ENGLIS# LITERARY (STANDARD) LANGUAGE

Mp till no3 3e -ave done little .ore t-an .ention t-e literary (standard) lan%ua%e8 3-ic- is one o# t-e .ost i.portant notions in stylistics and %eneral lin%uistics. It is no3 necessary to elucidate t-is lin%uistic notion 5y %oin% a little deeper into 3-at constitutes t-e concept and to trace t-e sta%es in t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lisstandard lan%ua%e. :-is is necessary in order to avoid occasional con#usion o# ter.s di##erently used in 3orRs on t-e -istory8 literature and style o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. 4on#usion 5et3een t-e ter.s Lliterary lan%ua%eL and Llan%ua%e o# literatureL is #re9uently to 5e .et. A$iterary lan%ua%e is a -istorical cate%ory. It exists as a varietyo# iie/ nationalan%ua%e. 18L said *. M. GorRi8 Lt-at lan%ua%e is t-e creation o# t-e people. :-e division o# t-e lan%ua%e into literary and vernacular only .eans t-at t-ere are8 as it 3ere8 a rou%unpolis-ed ton%ue and one 3rou%-t 5y .en=o#=letters.L10 :-e I>eraryAan%ua%e is t-at ela5orated #or. (variety) o# t-e national lan%ua%e 3-ico5eys de#inite .orp-olo%ical8 p-onetic8 syntactical8 lexicalC p-raseolo%ical and stylistic nor.s2 reco%niSed as standard and t-ere#oreGi~~~pla5le in all Rinds and types o# discourse. It allo3s n:o!:K:ca#:ons 5ut 3it-in t-e #ra.e 3orR q t-e syste. o# esta5lis-ed nor.s. It casts out so.e o# t-e #or.s o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- are considered to 5e 5eyond t-e esta5lis-ed nor.. :-e nor. o# usa%e is esta5lis-ed. a t-elan%ua%e co..unity at every %iven period in t-e develop.ent 2z t-e lan%ua%e. It is ever c-an%in% and t-ere#ore not in#re9uently evasive. *t every period t-e nor. is in a state o# #luctuation and it re9uires a very sensitive and e##icient eye and ear to detect and speci#y t-ese #luctuations. So.eti.es 3e .ay even say t-atA3Go nor.sco=exist. +ut in t-is case 3e .ay 5e positive t-at one o# t-e co=existin%:o#ri:sLo# t-e lan%ua%e 3ill %ive 3ay to its rival and eit-er vanis- #ro. t-e lan%ua%e entirely or else re.ain on its outsRirts.

In t-is connection it 3ill not co.e a.iss to note t-at t-ere are t3o z b0~M %Aendencies in t-e process o# esta5lis-in% t-e nor.; preservation o# t-e already existin% nor.8 so.eti.es 3it- atte.pts 80=trrrrt8 OGd #or.s o# t-e&lan%ua%e 2) .troduction o# ne3 nor.s In t-is connectionItL3i:":e .terestin% to 9uote t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. >. 4. ?yld&s L* >istory o# Modern 4ollo9uial En%lis-.L < LI# it 3ere necessary to atte.pt to #or.ulate t-e %eneral ten= A dencies 3-ic- -ave 5een discerni5le in Beceived Standard En%= G lis- durin% t-e last t-ree centuries and a -al#8 and 3-ic- -ave 5een increasin%ly potent durin% t-e last -undred and #i#ty years8 3e s-ould na.e t3o8 3-ic- are to so.e extent opposed8 5ut 5ot- o# 3-ic- are attri5uta5le to social causes. :-e #irst is t-e %radual decay o# cere.oniousness and #or.ality 3-ic- -as overtaRen t-e speec- and .odes o# address8 no less t-an t-e .anners8 o# %ood society. :-e second o# t-e e##ortcso.eti.es conscious and deli5erate8 so.eti.es unconsciousca#ter &correctness& or correctitude8 3-ic-8 on t-e one -and8 -as al.ost eli.inated t-e use o# oat-s and -as so#tened a3ay .any coarsenesses and crudities o# expressioncas 3e s-ould no3 #eel t-e. to 5e8 -o3ever little s9uea.is- 3e .ay 5ec3-ile on t-e ot-er it -as8 5y a ri%id appeal to t-e spellin%ct-e very 3orst and .ost unrelia5le court #or t-e purposecde#initely ruled out8 as &incorrect& or &slips-od& or &vul%ar&L8 .any pronunciations and %ra..atical constructions 3-ic- -ad arisen in t-e natural course o# t-e develop.e#tt o# En%lis-8 and 3ere #or.erly universal a.on% t-e 5est speaRers. +ot- o# t-ese tendencies are due pri.arily to t-e social8 political and econo.ic events in our -istory.... K :-ese social c-an%es -ave inevita5ly 5rou%-t 3it- t-err# c,r= I respondin% c-an%es in .anners and in speec-... 5ut t-e speec- G and -a5its o# a li#eti.e are not c-an%ed in a .o.ent8 as a K vesture. Muc- o# t-e old re.ains8 and slo3ly and i.percepti5ly t-e ne3=co.ers react upon t-eir environ.ent8 al.ost as .uc- as t-ey are in#luenced 5y it. :-us8 #or instance8 it is su%%ested t-ai t-e Middle 4lass 2uritan ideals -ave %radually 5rou%-t a5out a %reater reticence o# expression and a .ore te.perate use o# expletives8 and also a %reater si.plicity o# .anners8 #ro. 3-ic- < .any o# t-e airs and %races o# t-e older order 3ere eli.inated. K *%ain8 a -i%-ly cultivated and intellectual section o# t-e Middle 4lass -ave played a pro.inent part in 4-urc- and State since t-e ti.e o# EliSa5et-. ?e see under t-at .onarc- a %eneration o# courtiers8 states.en8 and prelates8 3-o 3ere also sc-olars8 and even so.e 3-o... 3ere educational re#or.ers and 3riters upon lan%ua%e8 as 3ell as0states.en. :-e in#luence o# t-ese learned courtiers 3ould 5e in t-e direction o# correctness and ele%ance o# utterance8 in opposition to t-e .ore careless and unstudied speec- o# t-e .ere .en o# #as-ion.L1 It is interestin% to note t-at .uc- o# 3-at 3as considered a violation o# t-e nor. in one period o# t-e develop.ent o# a lan%ua%e 5eco.es acRno3led%ed and is re%arded as per#ectly nor.al in anot-er iod Many 3ords and constructions 3-ic- 3ere once considered illit=2erte -ave

5eco.e lilerarya :0nc:no e##ort 3as spared to 5an inriova=#Qlns8 pa"ticularlyLinLt-e sp-ere o# voca5ulary8 5y t-e purists o#8any %iven& period. +ut .ost o# t-eir e##orts 3ere in vain. :-e people8 3-o are t-e only la3%ivers o# t-e lan%ua%e8 %radually accepted c-an%es in all lan%ua%e levels and in voca5ulary. :-ere is no -ard and #ast division 5et3een t-e literary and non=literary lan%ua%e. :-ey are interdependent. :-e literary lan%ua%e constantly enric-es its voca5ulary and :or.s #ro. t-e inex-austi5le resources o# t-e vernacular. It also adopts so.e o# its syntactical peculiarities and 5y so doin% %ives t-e. t-e status o# nor.s o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-us selection is t-e .ost typical #eature o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-e process o# selectin% and ad.ittin% lexical or .orp-olo%ical #or.s into t-e literary lan%ua%e is not a conscious e##ort on t-e part o# sc-olars. It is rat-er a reluctant concession t-an a #ree and deli5erate selection. ?-en a lin%uistic ite. circulatin% in t-e non=literary lan%ua%e %ains ad.ission into t-e sacred precincts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 it is .ostly due to t-e conscious c-oice o# t-e .an=o#=letters8 3-o #inds eit-er an aest-etic value in t-e %iven unit8 or so.e ot-er .erit t-at 3ill Gusti#y its reco%nition as a la3#ul .e.5er o# t-e literary lan%ua%e0 :-is8 -o3ever8 is not t-e case 3it- structural units. *s t-e national lan%ua%e is t-e creation o# t-e people as a 3-ole8 .orp-olo%ical and syntactteal c-an%es 3-ic%radually and i.percepti5ly taRe place in t-eir speec- #ro. one %eneration to anot-er8 cannot #ail in t-e lon% run to enter t-e literary lan%ua%e. Men=o#=letters not only 3rite t-e lan%ua%e8 t-ey also speaR it and in .ost cases Gust liRe any one o# t-eir country.en. Ne3ly=coined 3ords8 or neolo%is.s8 as t-ey are called8 3-ic- are created accordin% to t-e productive .odels o# 3ord=5uildin% in t-e %iven lan%ua%e do not %o 5eyond t-e 5oundaries o# t-e literary nor.s. I# a ne3ly=coined 3ord is understood 5y t-e co..unity8 it .ay 5eco.e a #act o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. +ut t-e literary lan%ua%e casts o## any #or. t-at is unreco%niSa5le. :-e develop.ent o# t-p literary lan%ua%e is %overned 5y its o3n la3s. It is -i%-ly resistant to innovations o# speec-. :-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e 3as particularly re%ulated and #or.aliSed durin% t-e seventeent-. 0 an id 0ei%-t0nt- centuries. :-e in#luence o# t-e .en=o#=letters on t-is process can -ardly 5e over=esti.ated8 5orne o# t-e.8 none t-e less8 -indered t-e natural8 or%anic process o# develop.ent. +au%-1 points out t-at S3i#t8 #or .exa.ple88 Lin .atters oi lan%ua%e... 3as a conservative.L +yron8 on t-e ot-er -and8 3as very li5eral and introduced into t-e literary lan%ua%e .any ne3 3ords and pnrases. Not all o# t-e. %ained reco%nition and stayed in t-e literary lan%ua%eC 5ut nevert-eless t-ey 3ere #acts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e t-eir very nature. :aRe8 #or exa.ple8 t-e 3ord &3eat-erolo%y& coined 5yron. = :-e literary lan%ua%e %reatly in#luences t-e non=literary lan%ua%e. Many 3ords8 constructions and particularly p-onetic i.prove.ents -ave 5een88 introduced t-rou%it into t-e En%lis- collo9uial lan%ua%eI :-is in#luence -ad its %reatest e##ect in t-e 19t- century 3it> t-eL spread o# %eneral education8 and in t-e present century 3it- t-e introduction o# radio and television into

t-e daily lives o# t-e people. Many 3ords o# a -i%-ly literary c-aracter -ave passed into t-e non=literary lan%ua%e8 o#ten under%oin% peculiar .orp-olo%ical and p-onetic distortions in t-e process. :-e non=literary lan%ua%e .ani#ests itsel# in all aspects o# t-e lan%ua%e; p-onetic8 .orp-olo%ical8 lexical and syntactical. Suc- #or.erly dialectal peculiarities as .& instead o# in%C Qa instead o# QaeGC t-e droppin% o# Q- and t-e insertion o# Q- at t-e 5e%innin% o# so.e 3ordsC Qai instead o# Qei8 Qra.c Qrein8 are typical p-onetic peculiarities o# non=literary En%lis-. :-e di##iculty t-at one #aces 3-en atte.ptin% to speci#y t-e c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-e non=literary variety lies .ainly in t-e #act t-at it does not present any syste.. :-e 5est 3ay to c-ecR t-is or t-at #or. o# non=literary En%lis- is to contrast it to t-e existin% #or.. $iterary En%lis- is al.ost synoayrnous 3it-= t-e ter. stand a r d E #i% I i s-. Standard En%lis- is 5est descri5ed in an interestin% +ooR 3ritten 5y Bandolp- OuirR8 2ro#essor o# En%lis- lan%ua%e in t-e Mniversity o# $ondon8 t-e title o# 3-ic- is L:-e Mse o# En%lis-.L >e states; L?e -ave seen t-at standard En%lis- is 5asically an ideal8 a .ode o# expression t-at 3e seeR 3-en 3e 3is- to co..unicate 5eyond our i..ediate co..unity 3it.e.5ers o# t-e 3ider co..unity o# t-e nation as a 3-ole. *s an ideal8 it cannot 5e per#ectly realised8 and 3e .ust expect t-at .e.5ers o# di##erent / 3ider co..unities& (+ritain8 *.erica8 Ni%eria8 #or exa.ple) .ay0 produce di##erent realisations. In #act8 -o3ever8 t-e0re.arRa5le t-in% As t-e very -i%- de%ree o# unani.ity8 t-e s.all a.ount o# diver%ence. *ny o# us can read a ne3spaper printed in $eeds or San "rancisco or Del-i 3it-out di##iculty and o#ten even 3it-out realisin% t-at t-ere are di##erences at all.L1 8 re%arded as t-e re.nants o# t-e $ondon dialect8 see.s to 5e %ro3in% into a %eneric tey0 En%lis- in +ritainC alt-ou%- ntD#i;stan##ard varieties o# En%lis- exist in territor= ial variants. $iterary En%lis- is. indi##erent to territorial usa%e. :-e pu5lication o# dictionaries does .uc- to. esta5lis- t-e literary lan%ua%e nor.s. *s a .atter o# #act8 it= is i.possi5le to esta5lis- any nor. once and #or all. *t t-e very .o.ent it is esta5lis-ed8 it 5e%ins to #luctuate. Suc- #luctuations not in#re9uently result in considera5le c-an%es. *nd t-e co.pilers o# En%lis- dictionaries are #orced 3illy=nilly to acRno3led%e a variant and present it as co=existin% alon%side t-e one previously reco%niSed as solely accepta5le. :-is is particularly t-e case 3it- re#erence to pronunciation. :-e sc-olar #ixin% t-e lan%ua%e nor. is .ade to 5o3 to -is .aGesty t-e people. :-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e -as -ad a lon% and peculiar -istory. :-rou%-out t-e sta%es o# its develop.ent t-ere -as 5een a stru%%le #or o%ressive tendencies8 3-ic-8 on t-e one -and8 ai. at 5arrin% t-e lan=ua%e #ro. t-e intrusion o# conta.inatin% ele.ents8 suc- as Ga#%onis.s8 lan%8 vul%aris.s and t-e liRe8 and8 on t-e ot-er -and8 at .ani#estin% t-e.selves in protest a%ainst t-e reactionary aspirations o# so.e Sealous sc-olars to preserve t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e in a #ixed #or..

:-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 as is Rno3n8 is t-e result o# t-e inte%ration o# t-e tri5al dialects o# t-e *n%les8 Saxon:&and Autes 3-o occupied 4 bt#ie +ritis- Isles in t-e !rdc tcenturies. :-e #irst .anuscripts o# t-e lan%ua%e 5elon% to t-e @t- century. +ut t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e @t- and consecutive centuries is so unliRe present=day En%lis- t-at En%lis-.en do not understand it. :-is lan%ua%e is called *n%l0o=Saxon or ,ld En%= lis-. ,ld En%lis- is a dead lan%ua%e8 liRe $atin or classic GreeR. $iRe :Be. and liRe t-e Bussian lan%ua%e8 tit is an in#lected lan%ua%e. :-e| ,ld En%lis- period lasted approxi.ately until t-e end o# t-e t3el#t> century. & #a Durin% t-e next sta%e in its develop.ent8 Rno3n as t-e Middle I En%lis- period8 t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e rapidly pro%ressed to3ards its; present state. +y t-is ti.e It >ad %rea:ly enlar%ed its voca5ulary 5y L5orro3in%s #ro. Nor.an="renc- and Sit-er=lan%ua%es. & :-e structure o# t-e lan%ua%e8-ad considera5ly c-an%ed due to t-e | loss o# .ost o# t-e in#lections and also to ot-er very i.portant c-an%es. +y t-e .iddle o# t-e t-irteent- century Nor.an="renc-8 3-ic- -ad 5een t-e o##icial lan%ua%e since t-e Nor.an 4on9uest in 17118 3as | al.ost co.pletely ousted 5y En%lis-.|In 1!12 2arlia.ent 3as #irstL opened in En%lis-8 and a #e3 years later court proceedin%s 3ere orderedL to 5e carried on in En%lis- and not in "renc-8 L3-ic- 3as too littleLL Rno3n.L :-e. Ne3 En%lis- period8 as it is called8 is .usually considered to date #ro. t-e I i # t e e n t- century. :-is &is t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e Rno3n8 spoRen and 3ritten at t-e present ti.e. :-is period cannot yet 5e c-aracteriSed 5y any de%ree o# uni#or.ity in t-e lan%ua%e. :-e in#luence o# t-e various dialects 3as still stron%ly G#elt8 5ut t-e $ondon dialect 3as %radually 3innin% %eneral reco%nition. *ccordin% to .any -istorians o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 5y t-e latter part o# t-e 1 t- century t-e $ondon dialect -ad 5een accepted as.t-e standard8 at least in 3ritin%8 in .ost parts o# t-e country. :-is s-ould to a very %reat extent 5e attri5uted to Oaxton8 t-e #irst En%lis- printer8 3-o in -is translations and in t-e 5ooRs -e printed Gosed t-e current speec- o# $on= A$on. 4axton 3rites t-at -e 3as advised 5ylearned .en to use t-e .ost curious ter.s t-at -e could #ind8 and declares t-at -e #ound -i.sel# Gn a dile..a L5et3een t-e plain8 rude and curious. +ut in .y Gud%e.entL8 n.e%oes n8 Lt-e co..on ter.s t-at 5e daily used 5een li%-ter to understand t-an t-e old and ancient En%lis-.LL 2utten-a.8 aut-or o# L:-e o# En%lis- 2oesie8L declares t-at as t-e nor. o# literary En%lisL... ye s-all t-ere#ore taRe t-e usual speec- o# t-e court8 and t-at o# $ondon and t-e s-ires lyin% a5out $ondon 3it-in $ (sixty) .iles and not .uc- a5ove.L1 +ut t-e process o# esta5lis-in% t-e $ondon speec- as a sin%le nor. t-rou%-out t-e country 3as very slo3 and -ardly percepti5le. Even t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e 11t- century8 accordin% to 4. ?yld8 L...5ot- #n printed 3orRs and in private letters8 still s-o3s considera5le dialectal individualis.. :-e Standard... is not yet co.pletely #ixed.L2 In t-e s i x tee nt-0 ceGituG&G$i literary En%lis- 5e%an .arRedly :o 1keP1Pi

rapid develop.ent o# printin% 3ent parallel 3it- t-e %eneral =&%ro3t- o# culture8 to 3-ic- .uc- 3as contri5uted 5y t-e t3o universities8 ,x#ord and 4a.5rid%e. In t-e second -al# o# t-e 11t- century8 a century .arRed 5y t-e political and econo.ic rise o# En%land8 literature 5e%an to #louris- In all Aor.scdra.a88 poetry and prose. :-e 3orRs o# literary criticis. 3ritten Lat t-e ti.e s-o3 t-e interest a3aRened in poetry and dra.a. "re9uent translations 3ere no3 .ade #ro. t-e GreeR and $atin8 classicL 3riters. e/ Ed.und Spenser8 4-ristop-er Marlo3e8 ?illia. S-aRespeare8 and8 J&J< later8 +en Aonson8 +eau.ont and "letc-er and .any ot-er 3riters < bo# t-e period exerted a very %reat in#luence on t-e %ro3t- and per#ection I o# t-e En%lis-L literary lan%ua%e. :-e #reedo. in t-e use o# lan%ua%e so c-aracteristic o# t-is epoc- 3as o#ten su5Gected to 3ise and .oderate restrictions set 5y t-ese 3riters. So8 #or exa.ple8 +en Aonson8 3-ile acceptin% Ouintillian&s state.ent t-at L...custo.e is t-e .ost certain .istress o# lan%ua%e8L at t-e sa.e ti.e 3arns L...not to 5e #re9uent 3it- every day coinin%L8 nor to use 3ords #ro. past a%es 3-ic- 3ere no lon%er in use8 t-at is8 arc-aic 3ords as8 #or instance8 4-auceris.s. In t-eir use o# t-e lan%ua%e t-ere 3ere t3o tendencies a.on% t-e 3riters o# t-is a%e; one 3as t-e #ree and al.ost unrestricted use o# ne3 &3ords an' #or.s8 coined or 0i.ported into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%eC t-e ot-er 3as t-e revival o# arc-aic 3ords8 t-e latter 5ein% a counter=3ei%-t to t-e #or.er. :3o na.es .ay 5e called to .ind as representin% t-e t3o tendencies; Spenser8 on t-e one -and8 S-aRespeare8 on t-e ot-er. Spenser tried to preserve t-e old En%lis- 3ords8 especially t-ose denotin% a5stract ideas8 3-ic- -ad 5een replaced 5y 3ords o# "renc- or $atin ori%in. >e praised t-ese 3ord&s as 5ein% .ore expressive t-an t-e 5orro3ed ones. &=J v ~J=. ,n t-e contrary8 S-aRespeare advocated in -is0sonnets and plays t-e unrestricted use o# 3ords o# =all Rinds and particularly ne3 coina%es. S-aRespeare -i.sel# coined .any ne3 3ords. Marlo3e and "letc-er dre3 3idely on t-e resources o# vernacular En%lis- and t-is8 to a lar%e extent8 explains t-e re.arRa5le vi%our and expressiveness o# t-eir lan%ua%e. :o %ive a %eneral idea o# t-e #actors in#luencin% t-e develop.ent o# literary En%lis- in t-e 1 t- and 11t- centuries8 it 3ill su##ice to point out t-e #ollo3in% t-ree; n * co..on interest in classical literature durin% t-e Benaissance 1 -ence t-e 0_XXYVe o# classical %ra..ar8 spellin% and r-etoric # t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. *tte.pts 3ere .ade 5y sc-olars to #orce t-e nor.s into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 2) * desire to Reep t-e lan%ua%e pure8 to retain and revive old En%=s 3ords and as #ar as possi5le old En%lis- .orp-olo%ical and syntacti=1 I #or.s. :-is tendency -as 5een called _ m Y - a i Y ~ a r i s rn.0 :-e =n#luence o# arc-aic puris. led to an acute stru%%le La%ainst t-e intrusion = # #orei%n 3ords8 particularly t-ose Lo# $atin and continental "renc- ori%in8 and as a conse9uence o# t-is stru%%le an orientation to3ards t-e o5solescent #or.s o# t-e lan%ua%e. !) *n orientation to3ards t-e livin%8 developin% and rapidly c-an%in% nor.s o# t-e

collo9uial lan%ua%e. "ree use 3Ss .ade o# t-e in-erent =properties o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e as t-ey -ad .aterialiSed 5y t-is ti.e8 #or exa.ple8 #ree use o# conversion=8 3ord=co.position8 derivation and se.antic c-an%e. In t-e do.ain o# syntax and 3ord=order too8 t-ere 3as already considera5le #reedo. o# usa%e. :-e 2rotestant Be#or.ation8 3-ic- %radually %ained stren%t- and popularity t-rou%-out t-e 11t- century8 played a %reat role in t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lisliterary lan%ua%e. +ooRs on reli%ion8 translated or co.posed in stron%8 si.ple8 livin% En%lis- 3it- #e3QLlearnedL 3ords8 and understanda5le to t-e .asses o# ordinary people8 3ere &L+yL &aLc"Lo# 2arlia.ent placed in t-e c-urc-es and read aloud. 2arts o# t-e +i5le S##c: later t-e 3-ole +i5le8 3ere also translated in t-e sa.e .anner. +y order o# Oueen EliSa5et- I a +i5le 3as placed in every c-urc- and people #locRed to read it or -ear it read. (Mp to t-e rei%n o# EliSa5et- it -ad 5een #or5idden to read t-e +i5le in En%lis- and people 3ere punis-ed and 5urnt to deat- #or doin% so.) :-e interaction o# t-ese t-ree #actors is re#lected in t-e %ra..ars and 5ooRs on r-etoric o# t-e ti.e8 3-ic- serve to illustrate to t-e present=day reader t-e #luctuation o# t-e nor.s t-en existin%8 as 3ell as t-e lin%uistic ideas8 tastes and credos o# t-e sc-olars 3-o laid do3n t-e la3. :-e uncritical applications o# t-e la3s o# $atin %ra..ar to t-e nor.s o5served in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 3ere o5Gected to even in t-e 11t- century. 2-ilip Sidney8 #or instance8 stated t-at t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e .ust -ave its o3n %ra..ar. >e sa3L t-at suc- %ra..atical cate%ories as case8 %ender8 tense and .ood8 3-ic- are natural to $atin8 could not 5e applied .ec-anically to En%lis-. >o3ever8 5ooRs on r-etoric -ave played a considera5le part in esta5lis-in% t-e nor.s o# literary En%lis- in t-e 11t-/ as 3ell as in t-e #ollo3in% centuries. *s #ar 5acR as in 1 2' $eonard 4ox pu5lis-ed a text5ooR entitled L:-e *rte or 4ra#t e o# B-etori9ueL 3-ic- 3as #ollo3ed= 5y a series o# 3orRs o# t-is Rind. Many o# t-e. >ave -elped to lay t-e #oundation #or t-e study o# t-e la3s o# co.position and o# t-e 3ays and .eans to .aRe 3ritin%/ e.p-atic in order t-at t-e desired e##ect on t-e reader s-ould 5e ac-ieved and t-e .ain #unction o# lan%ua%ec c5..unica=LoiGr%uaranteed to t-e #ull. tradition o# r-etoric8 &?ilson. dividesG6tyle o# expression into t-ree Rinds; elevated88 .iddle and :o38 a bd#v:s#1z:3-ic- 3as&in vo%ue Lup=LLtoL &P 19t- century and 3-ic- %reatly in#luenced t-e course o# develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e. ?ritin% devoid o# all orna.ent = 3as considered coarse. It 3as in t-is period8 t-e 11tcentury8 t-at a literary trend Rno3n as eup-uis. ca.e into vo%ue. :-e eup-uistic .anner o# 3ritin% 3as c-aracteriSedL +y a pedantic a##ectation o# ele%ant and -i%-= #lo3n lan%ua%e a5oundin% in all Rinds o# stylistic devices. It 3as not only t-e syntactical aspect o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e t-at 3as in#luenced 5y t-e la3s o# r-etoric. :-e c-oice o# 3ords 3as also predeter.ined 5y t-e la3s set 5y t-e r-etoricians o# t-e 11t- century. $atin 3ords8 eit-er directly or t-rou%t-e "renc- lan%ua%e8 poured into t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e 5ecause En%lis- -ad never -ad8 or -ad lost8 t-e 3ords re9uired to %ive expression to scienti#ic ideas. Sir :-o.as More8 #or exa.ple8 introduced into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e a %reat .any 3ords

Gn spite o# t-evopposition o# t-e purists o# t-e ti.e. :o -i. t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e o3es suc- 3ords as a5surdity8 acceptance8 anticipate8 co.pati5le8 co.pre-ensi5le8 con%ratulate8 explain8 #act8 indi##erence8 .onopoly8 neces=sitate8 o5struction8 paradox8 pretext and .any ot-ers. 2-ilip Sidney is said to -ave coined suc- 3ords as e.ancipate8 eradicate8 exist8 extin%uis-8 -arass8 .editate and .any ot-er 3ords and p-rases. *s illustrations 3e -ave c-osen 3ords 3-ic- -ave #ound a per.anent place in t-e En%lis- stocR o# 3ords8 Most o# t-e. -ave already passed into t-e neutral layer o# 3ords. * %reat .any 3ords introduced 5y .en=o#=letters in t-e 11t- century and later -ave disappeared entirely #ro. En%lis- literature. "urt-er8 t-ere 3ere %reat di##iculties in spellin%. No t3o 3riters spelt all 3ords exactly aliRe. "ro. t-e ,ld En%lis- period up to t-e 1 t- century t-ere -ad 5een c-aos in En%lis- spellin%. :-e ,ld En%lis- syste.8 3-ic- 3as p-onetic8 -ad 5roRen do3n 5ecause t-e lan%ua%e -ad c-an%ed. :-en 5esides t-at8 no 3riter Rne3 exactly -o3 to spell 5orro3ed 3ordscin t-e $atin8 t-e "renc- or t-e Nor.an="renc- 3ay8 .Lor accordin% to t-e rules 3-ic- individual 3riters applied in t-eir o3n 3ay 3-en spellin% 3ords o# En%lis- ori%in.$ Even t-e pu5lication o# dictionaries8 3-ic- 5e%an in t-e .iddle o# t-e 17t- century8 did not #ix En%lis- spellin%. ,ne o# t-e #irst dictionaries 3as called L:a5le *lp-a5etical conteynin% and teac-in% t-e true 3ritin% and understandin% o# -ard Msual En%lis- 3ords.L :-is 3as t-e #irst dictionary con#ined entirely to t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. Spellin% 3as one o# t-e pro5le.s 3-ic- t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 5e%an consciously to #ace in t-e 11t- century and it 3as #airly settled 5e#ore t-e end o# t-e 17t- century. *nd yet t-is period is c-aracteriSed .ainly 5y #reedo. o# t-e nor.s used8 in &t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-e interaction o# t-e lively everyday speec- and t-e unsta5le rules o# En%lis- %ra..ar led to a peculiar enric-.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 Ne3 3ord= co.5inations 3ere coined 3it- ease and ne3 .eanin%s attac-ed to t-e. (#or exa.ple8 to co.e 1 :-e in#luence o# t-e $atinists can 5e seen8 #or exa.ple8 in t-e <vordsde5t and dou5t. :-e 5 3as inserted to .aRe t-e 3ords looR .ore liRe t-e $atin ori%inals. a5out in t-e .eanin% o# &to -appen&C to co.e 5y}'o %et&C to co.e uponc /to near&). :-e sa.e can 5e o5served in t-e co.position o# co.pound 3ords8 particularly 3ords 3it- adGectives as #irst co.ponents8 #or exa.ple8 3it- t-e 3ord deepcdeep= divorcin%=8 deep=pre.ediated&8 deep=searc-ed&8 deep=sore< deep=s3eet8 deep= 3ounded&8 deep=5rained.l :-e ele.ent deep in t-ese exa.ples loses its pri.ary lo%ical .eanin% and assu.es a ne3 .eanin%8 -al#=%ra..atical8 3-ic- 3e call e.otional. :-e 3ord t-us assu.es a ne3 9uality; it is a se.i=pre#ix8 indicatin% t-e intensi#ication o# t-e 9uality e.5odied in t-e second adGective. :-e #ree use o# 3ords8 in spite o# t-e restrictions i.posed on t-is #reedo. 5y certain ardent ad-erents o# t-e LpurityL o# t-e lan%ua%e8 resulted in t-e appearance o# ne3 .eanin%s o# 3ords. "irst t-ey 3ere perceived as contextual8 pro5a5ly acco.panied 5y

su%%estive intonation and %estures8 and t-en8 in t-e course o# ti.e8 t-rou%- #re9uency o# repetition8 t-e ne3 .eanin%s 3ere a5sor5ed into t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord. *s an illustration o# t-e insta5ility o# t-e nor.s o# usa%e it 3ill 5e interestin% to point out t-e variety o# prepositions t-at could 5e used 3it- ver5s. :-us8 t-e ver5 to repent 3as used 3it- t-e #ollo3in% prepositions; &repent atL8 &repent #or< &repent over&8 &repent in&8 &repent o#< :-e syntactical patterns o# t-is period 3ere also .arRed 5y noticea5le variety arisin% #ro. t-e relative #reedo. o#/ usa%e. :-is #reedo. is o5serva5le not only in t-e 3ord=order 5ut in t-e use o# dou5le ne%a=Aions8 as in&say not-in% neit-er& and t-e liRe. In .orp-olo%y it is L.arRed 5y t-e use o# 5ot- adGectives and adver5s in t-e #unction o# .odi#iers o# ver5s8 as in &to speaR plain&8 &s-e is exceedin% 3ise& and t-e liRe. :-e #luctuation in t-e nor.s o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e o# t-e 11tcentury is ascri5ed to a variety o# causes. ,ne is t-at t-e $on=Gion dialect8 3-ic#or.ed t-e core o# t-e& national literary lan%ua%e8 3as not yet spoRen all ov#$ .t-e country. 4onse9uently8 an educated L.an 3-o ca.e8 let us say8 #ro. t-e Nort- o# En%land8 still retained in -is speec- certain o# t-e .orp-olo%ical and syntactical #or.s o# -is native dialect. :-en8 in vie3 o# t-e #act t-at t-e nor.s88o# t-e literary lan%ua%e 3ere not yet -ard and #ast8 -e used t-ese dialectal #or.s in -is 3ritin%. :-ere 3as a %reat in#luxro# #or.s #ro. t-e co..on speec- o# t-e people into t-e literary lan%ua%e 3-ic-8 -o3ever8 3as still t-e do.ain o# t-e #e3. Students o# t-e -istory o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e %ive a nu.5er o# reasons explainin% t-is in#lux o# #or.s #ro.=t-e everyday lan%ua%e o# t-e people. ,ne o# t-e. is t-at a#ter t-e c-urc- o# En%land re#used to acRno3led%e t-e aut-ority o# Bo.e8 c-urcservices -ad 5een translat=ed #ro. $atin into si.ple8 stron% En%lis-. Services 3ere -eld daily and lon% ser.ons delivered in En%lis-. Many o# t-e cler%y #ound t-at t-e literary En%lis- did not -ave .uc- .ore .eanin% to t-e people t-an c-urc- $atin -ad -ad8 so t-ey .odi#ied it8 5rin%in% it closer to t-e speec- o# t-e people a.on% 3-o. t-ey lived. 4ler%y.en 3-o 3ere una5le to 3rite t-eir o3n ser.ons used t-ose o# t-e %reat protestant re#or.ers o# t-e 11tcentury 3-ic- 3ere 3ritten in si.ple #orce#ul En%lis- 3it- a .in#.u. o# 5orro3ed 3ords. It 3as in t-e c-oice o# t-e 3ords to 5e used in literary En%lis- t-at t-e s-arpest controversy arose and in 3-ic- t-e t3o tendencies o# t-e period 3ere .ost apparent. ,n t-e one -and8 t-ere 3as a #ierce stru%%le a%ainst LinR=-ornL ter.s8 as t-ey 3ere t-en called.1 *.on% t-e learned .en o# t-e 11t- century 3-o #ou%-t a%ainst t-e introduction o# any innovations into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e .ust 5e .entioned Sir Ao-n 4-eRe8 Bo%er *sc-a. and8 in particular8 .:-o.as ?ilson8 3-ose 3ell=Rno3n L*rte o# B-etori9ueL -as already 5een .entioned. >e severely attacRed LinR=-orn// ter.s. So.e o# t-e 3ords t-at 3ere o5Gected to 5y :-o.as ?ilson 3ere a##a5ility8 in%enious8 capacity8 cele5rate8 illustrate8 superiority8 #ertile8 native8 con#idence and .any ot-ers t-at are in co..on use to=day. 2utten-a.8 alt-ou%- issuin% a 3arnin% a%ainst LinR= -orn ter.sL8 ad.its -avin% to use so.e o# t-e. -i.sel#8 and seeRs to Gusti#y t-e. in

particular instances. >e de#ends t-e 3ords scienti#ic8 .aGordo.e8 politien (politician)8 conduct (ver5) and ot-ers. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 t-ere 3as an e9ually #ierce stru%%le a%ainst t-e tendency to revive o5solete 3ords and particularlyl-e voca5ulary and p-raseolo%y o# 4-aucer. +en Aonson in t-is connection said; LSpenser in a##ectin% t-e ancients 3rit no lan%ua%e.L Sir Ao-n 4-eRe8 one o# t-e purists o# t-e century8 tried to introduce En%lise9uivalents #or t-e "renc- 5orro3in%s; -e invented suc- 3ords as .ooned (lunatic)8 #oresyer (prop-et)8 5y3ord (para5le)8 #res-.an (proselyte)8 crossed (cruci#ied)8 %ainrisin% (resurrection). ,# t-ese 3ords only #res-.an in t-e sense o# / #irst=year student& and 5y3ord in t-e sense o# &a sayin%& re.ain in t-e 8 lan%ua%e. :-e tendency8 to revive ar-aic 3ords8 -o3ever8 -as al3ays 5een o5served in poetic lan%ua%e. :-e 11t- century .ay Gustly 5e called crucial in esta5lis-in% t-e nor.s o# present=day literary En%lis-. +ot- o# t-e tendencies .entioned a5ove -ave le#t t-eir .arR on t-e standard En%lis- o# to=day. Sixteent-=century literary En%lis- could not8 -o3ever8 5e called standard En%lis- 5ecause at t-at ti.e t-ere 3as8no received standard. S ev e n te e n t-0ce n t ` m a literary En%lis- is c-aracteriSed 5y a %eneral tendency to re#ine.ent and re%ulation. :-e orientation to3ards classical .odels8 stron% enou%- in 11t- century En%lis-8 assu.ed a ne3 #unction8 t-at o# re#inin%8 polis-in% and i.provin% t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-is 3as8 o# course8 one o# t-e trends leadin% to t-e #inal esta5lis-.ent o# t-e nor.s o# literary En%lis-. :-e tendency t9Gre#ine|t-e; lan%ua%e8 to %ive it t-e %race and %allantry o# t-e no5ility o# t-e period8 is .ani#ested in t-e 3ritin%s o# lan%ua%e t-eoreticians and critics o# t-e ti.e. Illustrative o# t-is is t-e LEssay on Dra.atic 2oesyL 5y Ao-n Dryden8 3-ere 3e #ind t-e #ollo3in%; 1 :er.s 5orn #ro. an &inR=-orn&8 t-at is8 3ords and p-rases 3-ic- 3ere purposely coined 5y .en=o#=letters8 and t-e .eanin% o# 3-ic- 3as o5scure. LI -ave al3ays acRno3led%ed t-e 3it o# our predecessors... 5ut I a. sure t-eir 3it 3as not t-at o# %entle.enC t-ere 3as ever so.e3-at t-at 3as ill 5red and clo3nis- in it and 3-ic- &con#essed t-e conversation o# t-e aut-ors... In t-e a%e 3-erein t-ese poets lived8 t-ere 3as less o# %allantry t-an in oursC neit-er did t-ey Reep t-e 5est co.pany o# t-eirs (t-eir a%e)... :-e discourse and raillery o# our co.edies excel 3-at -as 5een 3ritten 5y t-e..L1 ,ne o# t-e .any .ani#estations o# t-e process o# re%ulation and re#ine.ent can 5e seen in t-e successive editions o# S-aRespeare&s 3orRs in 112!8 11!28 111'8 11@ 8 in 3-ic- t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e %reat play3ri%-t 3as su5Gected to considera5le c-an%e in order to .aRe it con#or. to t-e nor.s esta5lis-ed 5y -is successors. :-ere 3ere not only .orp-olo%ical and syntactical c-an%es8 5ut even c-an%es in S-aRespeare&s voca5ulary. ?ords t-at 3ere considered &ill 5red and clo3nis-& 3ere so.eti.es c-an%ed8 5ut .ore o#ten t-ey 3ere o.itted alto%et-er. In 111' a special co..ittee 3as set up8 t-e ai. o# 3-ic- 3as to nor.aliSe and i.prove t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e.. +ut t-e 4o..ittee did not last lon% and -ad little in#luence in decidin% upon t-e no#ins0o#

usa%e. * considera5le role in t-e re%ulation o# t-e nor.s 3as played 5y a nu.5er o# ne3 %ra..ars 3-ic- appeared at t-is period. *.on% t-ese t-e LGra..atica $in%uae *n%licanaeL 3ritten in $atin 5y Ao-n ?allis and pu5lis-ed in 11 ! is particularly nota5le. It 3as a Rind o# protest a%ainst t-e 5lind i.itation o# $atin %ra..ars8 .alt-ou%- t-e aut-or could not #ree -i.sel# entirely #ro. t-e in#luence o# t-e $atin %ra..atical syste. and t-e $atin t-eory o# lan%ua%e. :-e tendency o# re#inin% and polis-in% t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e 5y .odellin% it on t-e classic GreeR and $atin .asterpieces 3as counter= acted8 -o3ever8 5y anot-er stron% .ove.ent8 t-at o# restrictin% liter= ary En%lis- to a si.ple collo9uial lan%ua%e 3-ic- 3ould easily 5e under= stood 5y t-e ordinary people. :-e 2rotestant Be#or.ation also played its role in sa#e%uardin% t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e #or t-e people. So8 on t-e one -and8 t-ere 3as t-e r-etoric 3-ic- 3as L...a potent #orce in s-apin% t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e int-e period #ollo3in% t-e Benais= sanceL2 and 3-ic- undou5tedly paved t-e 3ay #or t-e nor.s o# t-e standard En%lis- o# t-e 17t- century. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 t-ere 3as t-e aut-oriSed version o# t-e En%lis- +i5le #irst pu5lis-ed in 11118 3-icL...-as served to Reep alive En%lis- 3orGds and to. #ix t-eir .ean= in%s8 and it -as provided lan%ua%e .aterial and pattern in 3ord8 in p-rase8 in r-yt-.... to En%lis- 3riters and speaRers o# all su5se9uent ti.es.L a *ccordin% to "ranR *. (isetelly8 t-e +i5le contains 97 per cent o# *n%lo=Saxon 3ords8 .ore t-an any ot-er En%lis- 5ooR Early in t-e seventeent- century En%lis- dictionaries 5e%an to appear as practical %uides to AAie use o# ne3 3ords8&Lter.s 5elon%in% to science and ar# and also LinR= -ornL ter.s8 3-ic- -ad poured into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e in t-e 1(\K& ceniury ancl continueclGp #lo3 in in t-e seventeent-. & *s in every century t-ere 3as a stru%%le 5et3een t-e purists8 t-e LReepersL o#8 t-e already es#a+:Is-ed nor.s Lo##ue lan%ua%e8 3-o .ainly orientate to3ards t-e literary and so.e3-at o5solescent #or.s o# lan%ua%e8 and t-e ad.irers o# novelty 3-o re%ard everyt-in% ne3 t-at appears on t-e sur#ace o# t-e lan%ua%e as representin% its natural develop.ent and t-ere#ore as so.et-in% t-at s-ould 5e readily accepted into t-e syste. 3it-out its 5ein% su5Gected to t-e test o# ti.e. Suc- a stru%%le is t-e natural clas- o# tendencies 3-ic- leads to c-an%es in t-e literary lan%ua%e o# eaclin%uistic period. +ut t-ere is nevert-eless a %eneral tendency in eac- period8 3-ic3ill undou5tedly 5e re#lected in t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-e nor.aliSin% tendency8 so apparent in t-e seventeent- century8 continues into t-e ei%-teent-. +ut 5y ei%-teent- century it -ad 5eco.e a conscious %oal. :-e ain# o# t-e lan%ua%e sc-olars 3-o sou%-t to lay do3n t-e la3 in t-e ei%-teent- century .ay 5e expressed as t-e desire to #ix t-e lan%ua%e #oGr all ti.e8 to esta5lis- its la3s once and #or all. P_Wt7~1me00 estee.edI:-eir need #or standardiSation and re%ulation

3as su..ed up in t-eir 3ord Lascertain.entL o# t-e lan%ua%e. G. >. Mcuni%-t8 a student o# t-e -istory o# .odern standard En%lis-8 3-o. 3e -ave already cited8 descri5es t-e %eneral tendency o# t-e develop.ent o# t-e literary En%lis- o# t-e ei%-teent- century in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords; L:-e little=controlled En%lis- lan%ua%e o# t-e ti.e o# Sidney and S-aRespeare8...t-e ele%ant #reedo. o# expression o# t-e Bestoration period8 3as to 5e su5Gected to aut-ority. +ot- learnin% represented 5y Ao-nson and #as-iona5le 5reedin% represented 5y 4-ester#ield ca.e to%et-er in a co..on #or. o# lan%ua%e reduced to re%ularity and uni#or.ity.L!& +ut t-e actual -istory o# t-e develop.ent o# standard En%lis- cannot 5e reduced to t-e interaction o# learnin% and #as-iona5le 5reedin%. :-e develop.ent o# t-e&literary lan%ua%e is .arRed 5y t-e process o# selection. :-e real creator o# t-e literary #or. o# t-e lan%ua%e re.ains t-e00 peoGple0tll"actua: la3%iver o# tie nor.s. Scientists and .en=o#=let=lers only #ix 3-at -as already 5een esta5lis-ed 5y %eneral usa%e. Ne3 nor.s o# usa%e cannot 5e i.posed. +ut to -istorians o# lan%ua%e t-e opinions o# 3riters and sc-olars o# a %iven period as 3ell as t-ose o# ordinary people are o# %reat value. :-ey -elp to trace t-e #luctuatin% trends leadin% to t-e esta5lis-.ent o# t-e nor.s o# t-e period and in#luence to so.e extent t-e pro%ress o# literary En%lis-. In t-e ei%-teent- century t3o .en -ad a %reat in#luence on t-e de=relopnient o# t-e nor.s o# literary En%lis-.. :-ese 3ereL Aonat-an S3i#t/ and S0ue~lio-nson. &LL /bL :r:an atte.pt to re%ulariSe t-e use o# En%lis-8 S3i#t conde.nedC 5ot- 3-at -e called Lvul%ar slan%inessL and Lintolera5le preciosityL.0 *ccordin% to S3i#t8 t-e Lvul%ar slan%inessL ca.e #ro. a certain sc-ool o# youn% .en #ro. t-e universities8 Lterri5ly possessed 3it- #ear o# pedantryL8 3-o #ro. -is description 3is-ed to 5e 3-at 3e s-ould call /up to date&L. L&:-ey... co.e up to to3n8 recRon all t-eir errors #or acco.plis-.ents8 5orro3 t-e ne3est set o# p-rases and i# taRe a pen into t-eir -ands8 all t-e odd 3ords t-ey -ave picRed up in a co##ee=-ouse8 or at a %a.in% ordinary are produced as #lo3ers o# style.& LSuc- a / stran%e race o# 3its& 3it- t-eir / 9uaint #opperies& o# .anner and speec-8 exist in every a%e. :-eir .anneris.s rarely pass 5eyond t-eir i..ediate cli9ue8 and -ave no .ore per.anence t-an #oa. on t-e river.L1 :-e Lintolera5le preciosityL8 as S3i#t understands it8 3as t-e tendency to use e.5ellis-.ents to t-e detri.ent o# clarity and exactness. It 3as S3i#t 3-o0declared t-e necessity Lto call a spade a spadeL8 a p-rase 3-ic"-as +eco.e a sy.5ol #or a Lplain and si.ple 3ay o# expression. Sa.uel Ao-nson&s attitude to3ard lan%ua%e is 5est expressed in -is=Gra..ar; L"or pronunciation8 t-e 5est rule is to consider t-ose as t-e .ost ele%ant speaRers 3-o deviate least #ro. t-e 3ritten 3ords.L "ait-#ul to t-is doctrine Ao-nson in tryin% to LascertainL t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 3as .ainly concerned 3it- t-e usa%e o# %reat En%lis- 3riters. In -is #a.ous dictionary8 #irst pu5lis-ed in 17 !8 t-e in#luence o# 3-ic- on su5se9uent dictionaries o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e can -ardly 5e over=es=

ti.ated8 Ao-nson .ade -is selection only #ro. 3ords #ound in literary pu5lications8 i%norin% t-e 3ords and collocations used in oral intercourse8 in t-e lively collo9uial En%lis- o# -is day. :.-e=de#initions %iven 5y Ao-nson re#lect only t-e usa%e o# t-e %reat 3riters o# -is o3n and o# precedin% centuries. :-e literary=5ooRis- c-aracter o# Ao-nson&s dictionary -as %reatly in#luenced t-e 3ord usa%e o# 3ritten En%lis- and also t-e #or.ation o# di##erent styles in literary En%lis-. Ei%-teent-=century concepts in t-e #ields o# p-ilosop-y and natural sciences -=ad considera5le in#luence on conte.porary t-eoretical lin%uistic t-ou%-t. Even t-e titles o# certain %ra..ars o# t-e period re=ilected t-e %eneral tendency to lay do3n cate%orical la3s. :-us8 #or exa.=2ie8 t-e title; LBe#lections on t-e Nature and 2roperty o# $an%ua%e in %eneral8 on t-e *dvanta%es8 De#ects8 and Manner o# I.provin% t-e En%lis- :on%ue in 2articularL 5y :-o.as StacR-ouse (17!1) clearly sno3s t-e ai.s o# t-e 3riter8 ai.s 3-ic- 3ere co..on to .ost o# t-e 1@t- century 3orRs on lan%ua%e8 i. e. i.provin% t-e lan%ua%e and #ixin% its la3s #or t-e use o# t-e people. :-is %ene#a#:rend 1# la#t%ua%e0t-eory is also expressed 5y Sa.uel Ao-nson in t-e pre#ace to -is dictionary. L$an%ua%e8L -e 3rites8 Lis only t-e instru.ent o# science8 and t-e 3ords are 5ut t-e si%ns o# ideas. I 3is-8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e instru.ent .i%-t 5e less apt to decay8 and t-at t-e si%ns .i%-t 5e per.anent8 liRe t-e t-in%s 3-ic- t-ey denote.L >o3ever8 ad-erence to t-e t-eoretical trends o# t-e century 3as not universal. :-ere 3ere so.e sc-olars 3-o protested a%ainst ar5itrarily i.posin% la3s and restrictions on t-e. lan%ua%e. :-us8 #or exa.ple8 Ao-n "ell in -is LEssay to3ards an En%lisGra..arL pu5lis-ed in 17@' declares; LIt is certainly t-e 5usiness o# a %ra..arian to #ind out8 and not to .aRe8 t-e la3s o# lan%ua%e.L In t-is 3orR t-e aut-or does not assu.e t-e c-aracter o# a le%islator8 5ut appears as a #ait-#ul co.piler o# t-e scattered la3s. L... It .atters not 3-at causes t-ese custo.s and #as-ions o3e t-eir 5irt- to. :-e .o.ent t-ey 5eco.e %eneral t-ey are la3s o# t-e lan%ua%eC and a %ra..arian can only re.onstrate -o3 .uc- so ever -e disapprove.L1 :-e ei%-teent- century literary trend 3as also in#luenced to a considera5le =de%ree 5y t-e r-etoric 3-ic- since t-e Benaissance -ad played :noticea5le role in all .atters o# :an%ua%e.2 +ut t-e .aGority o# lan%ua%e sc-olars 3ere concerned 3it- t-e use o# 3ords8 inas.uc- as t-e lexical units and t-~ir #unctionin% are .ore o5serva5le and discerni5le in t-e slo3 pro%ress o# lan%ua%e develop.ent. :-e 3ell=Rno3n=article 5y Aonat-an S3i#t L* 2roposal #or t-e 4orrectin%8 I.provin%8 and *scertainin% t-e En%lis- :on%ueL in its very title su.s up t-e %eneral attitude o# sc-olars to3ards t-e En%lis- o# t-eir century. :-e .ain issues o# t-is docu.ent8 re.arRa5le in .any 3ays8 centre around t-e use o# 3ords and set expressions. Mean3-ile8 -o3ever8 collo9uial En%lis-8 #ollo3in% its natural pat- o# pro%ress and

livin% its o3n .li#e8 alt-ou%- it 3as su5Gected to so.e extent to t-e %eneral tendencies laid do3n 5y t-e .en=o#=letters8 ex-i5ited a Rind o# independence iir=t-e use o# 3ords8 expressions8 syntax8 and pronunciation. :-e %ap 5et3een t-e literary and collo9uial En%lis- o# t-e0ASt- century 3as 3idenin%. :-e restrictions #orced on t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e are #elt in t-e speec- o#. t-e c-aracters in t-e novels and playsLi!#bt-is 2 It is interestin% to re.arR in passin% t-at lan%ua%e t-eories o# t-e 11t- to t-e 1@tcenturies 3ere in %eneral .ore concerned 3it- 3-at 3e 3ould no3 call .acrolin%uis= tics in contrast to t-e present ti.e 3-en t-e process o# ato.iSation o# lan%ua%e #acts not in#re9uently overs-ado3s o5servations concernin% t-e nature and properties o# units o# co..unication. eriod.1 :-eir speec- is under t-e -eavy in#luence o# literary En%lis- A$% t-ere#ore it is erroneous to understand it as representin% t-e nor.s o# 1@t- century spoRen En%lis-. :-e n in0t~bv. JvAARb~AM$G$(&A..Gy trends in literary En%lis- are 5est su..ariSed in t-e #ollo3in% state.ent 5y Mcuni%-t; L:-e spirit o# puris. 3as evidently alive in t-e early nineteent- century. :-e sense o# a classical per#ection to 5e striven #or survived #ro. t-e ei%-teent- century. :-e lan%ua%e .ust not only 5e .ade .ore re%ular8 5ut it .ust 5e protected #ro. t-e corruptin% in#luences t-at 3ere #elt to 5e on all sides. (ul%aris.s ?ere to 5e avoided and ne3 3ords8 i# t-ey 3ere to 5e tolerated8 .ust con#or. not only to analo%y 5ut to %ood taste.L2 :-is puristic Gplrit. CCj0|ai_10mmqW1a in t-e attitude to3ards voca5=ulary LL a#u: Lpronunciat ion0 Sy?ac#ical and .orp-olo%ical c-an%es are #:S"?LatzA0M# aslexical and p-onetic ones and t-ere#ore are less exposed to t-e criticis. o# t-e purists. Many ne3 3ords t-at 3ere co.in% into use as8 #or exa.ple8 relia5le8 environ.ent8 len t-at t-e&y 3ere &unnecessary innovations replacin%8 Le. %.8 t raster #-yrs0 M#ances and lon%. Macaulay protested a%ainst t-e use &o# talented8 in#luential8 %entle.anly. :-e tendency to protest a%ainst innovation8 -o3ever8 %radually %ave 3ay to ne3 trends8 t-ose o# t-e 19t- century8 3-ic- can 5e 0de#ined as t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e reco%nition o# collo9uial En%lis- as a variety o# t-e national lan%ua%e. 4ollo9uial 3ords and expressions cre=Lated 5y t-e people 5e%an to pour into literary En%lis-. :-e literary critics and .en=o#=letters o5Gected to t-e .axi.s laid do3n 5y t-eir predecessors and 5e%an to lay t-e #oundation #or ne3 t-eoretical concepts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-us De Ouincey in -is essay on r-etoric declares; L...since Dr. Ao-nson&s ti.e t-e #res-ness o# t-e idio.atic style -as 5een too #re9uently a5andoned #or t-e li#eless .ec-anis. o# a style purely 5ooRis- and .ec-anical.L! = L:-e restriction o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary 3-ic- 3as pro.oted 5y t-e classiciSin% tendencies o# t-e ei%-teent- century8L 3rites Mcuni%-t8 L3as apprecia5ly loosened 5y t-e spirit 3-ic- produced t-e Bo.antic .ove.ent.L' >o3ever8 t-e purists never ceased to stru%%le a%ainst ne3 coina%es and t-ere 3erd

special lists o# proscri5ed 3ords and expressions. :-e constant stru%%le o# t-ose 3-o endeavour to sa#e%uard t-e purity o# t-eir lan%ua%e a%ainst ne3 creations or 5orro3in%s8 3-ic- alone can supply t-e %eneral need #or .eans to render ne3 ideas8 see.s to repre=sent a natural process in lan%ua%e develop.ent. It is t-is stru%%le t-at toaRes t-e literary lan%ua%e .ove #or3ard and #orces t-e reco%nition o# ne3 #or.s8 3ords and syntactical patterns. :-e 3orRs o# +yron8 :-acReray8 DicRens and ot-er classic 3riters o# t-e 19t- century s-o3 -o3 rnGGGyGuords #ro. t-e collo9uial lan%ua%e o# t-at period -ave 5een adopted into standard literary En%lis-. :##io##ier #eature o#LLPePYiWtma&literary En%lis- to 5e noted is a .ore or less #ir.ly esta5lis-ed di##erentiation o# styles8 t-ou%- t-is process 3asGiotGully appreciated 5y t-e sc-olars o# t-e period. 8CG :-e dic-oto.y o# 3ritten and oral intercourse 3#iic- .ani#ested 0 itsel# .ainly in t-e 3idenin% o# t-e %ap 5et3een.t-e literary and non= J& / literary #or.s8 so typical o# 1@t- century En%lis-8 led t-e 3ay to a cluster o# varieties 3it-in t-e literary lan%ua%e8 viS. to its strati#ication into di##erent styles. * particularly conspicuous instance o# t-is strati#ication 3as t-e sin%lin% out o# poetic diction and t-e esta5lis-.ent o# a set o# rules 5y 3-ic- t-e lan%ua%e o# poetry 3as %overned. Strict la3s concernin% 3ord usa%e and i.a%ery in poetry -ad lon% 5een reco%niSed as a speci#ic #eature o# t-e style o# poetry. :-e nor.s o# 19t- century literary En%lis- 3ere considera5ly in#lu= enced&5y certain ot-er styles o# lan%ua%e8 3-lctt5yt-i0penod -ad already G s-aped t-e.selves as separate styles. +y t-is period t-e s-apin% o# t-e ne3spaper style8 t-e pu5licistic style8 t-e style o# scienti#ic prose A and t-e o##icial style .ay 5e said to -ave 5een co.pleted and lan%ua%e sc-olars #ound t-e.selves #aced 3it- ne3 pro5le.s. It 5eca.rineces0lry I to seeR t-e #oundation and distinctive c-aracteristics o# eac#unctional style o# lan%ua%e and analyse t-e.. t :-e s-apin% o# t-e 5elles=lettres prose style called #ort- a ne3 syste. o# expressive .eans and stylistic devices. :-ere appeared a stylistic device c represented speec(see p. 2!1) c 3-ic- 9uicRly developed ;r into one o# t-e .ost popular .eans 5y 3-ic- t-e t-ou%-t and #eelin% C o# a c-aracter in a novel can 5e s-o3n8 t-e speec- o.# t-e c-aracter co.5inin% 3it- t-e exposition o# t-e aut-or to %ive a #uller picture. :-e C #avourite stylistic devices o# t-e prose style o# t-e 1@t- century8 r-etori= 0 cal 9uestions8 cli.ax8 anap-ora8 antit-esis and so.e ot-ers %ave 3ay t to .ore lively stylistic devices8 as 5reaRin% o## t-e narrative8 detac-ed // constructions and ot-er devices so typical o# t-e nor.s o# lively collo= 1 9uial speec-. Stylistic devices re%arded 3it- suspicion and disapproval in t-e 1@t- century 3ere 5e%innin% to %ain popularity. :-e realistic tendencies and trends in En%lis- literature durin% t-is period .ade it necessary to introduce non=literary #or.s o# En%lis- 3-en depictin% c-aracters #ro. t-e so=called lo3er classes t-rou%- t-e idiosyncrasies o# t-eir speec-. In=t-is connection anot-er #eature .ust 5e .entioned 3-en c-aracteriSin% t-e 3ays and .eans 5y 3-ic- literary En%lis- o# t-e 19t- century pro%ressed. :-is 3as a .ore

li5eral ad.ission o# dialectal 3orlds and 3ords #ro. t-e Scottis- dialect in particular. :oL a considera5le extent t-is .ust 5e attri5uted to Bo5ert +urns8 3-ose poe.s 3ere 3idely read and ad.ired and 3-o8 as is Rno3n8 3rote in t-e Scottis- (Scots) dialect. :-e novels o# ?alter Scott also aided t-e process. In su..in% up t-e .ain #eatures o# t-e stru%%le to esta5lis- nor.s #or 19t- century literary En%lis-8 special .ention .ust 5e .ade o# t-e o tendencies c-aracteristic o# t-is period. ,ne 3as t-e principles o# 3-ic- 3ere laid clo3n in t-e 17t- and 1@eP centu= es and 3-ic- 5eca.e .ani#est in t-e stru%%le a%ainst any innovation no .atter 3-ere it ca.e #ro.I:-e purist 3as e9ually a%ainst 3ords 5orro3ed #ro. ot-er lan%ua%es8 t-e coina%e o# ne3 3ords and also se.an=:#c c-an%es in t-e native stocR o# 3ords. :-is reactionary puris. orientated t-e literary lan%ua%e to3ards a revival o# old 3ords 3-ic- -ad %one out o# use and o# constructions typical o# earlier sta%es in t-e -istory o# En%lis-. :-e ot-er tendency 3as to dra3 on t-e inex-austi5le resources o# t-e vernacular 5otin voca5ulary and in t-e lively syntactical patterns 11 collo9uial En%lis- so su%%estive o# t-e 3ar. intonation o# t-e -u.an voice. :-is tendency 3as particularly o5serva5le in t-e 5elles=lettres style o# lan%ua%e and +yron8 :-acReray and DicRens contri5uted %reatly to t-e enric-.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. bb :-e end o# t-e century led practically to no c-an%e in t-e %eneral direction o# t-e t3o tendencies. +ut t-ere is undou5ted evidence t-at t-e second o# t-e t3o a5ove= .entioned tendencies -as taRen t-e upper -and. Beactionary puris. is dyin% do3n and %ivin% 3ay to stron% .oderniSin% tendencies8 3-ic- #louris- particularly in t-e ne3spaper Lstyle and t-e 5elles=lettres style. :-e reco%nition in t-e 27t- century &o# t-e everyday speec- o# t-e people as a variety o# t-e national lan%ua%e -as done .ucto le%aliSe t-e collo9uial #or. o# En%lis- 3-ic-8 until t-e present century -ad 5een 5arred #ro. t-e do.ain o# lan%ua%e studies. ?e .ust point out t-at t-e #unctional styles o# lan%ua%e -ave s-aped t-e.selves 3it-in t-e literary #or. o# t-e En%lislan%ua%e. :-e division o# t-e standard En%lis- lan%ua%e into t3o varieties8 3ritten and spoRen (t-e literary lan%ua%e and t-e collo9uial lan%ua%e)8 3-ic- 3as reco%niSed earlier and 3-ic- 3as acRno3led%ed as a natural coexistence8 no3 %oes alon%side t-e pro5le. o# t-e LclosedL syste.s o# styles o# lan%ua%e.
$. MEANING FROM A STYLISTIC POINT OF VIE%

Stylistics is a do.ain 3-ere .eanin% assu.es para.ount i.portance.. :-is is so 5ecause t-e ter. &.eanin%& is applied not only to 3ords8 3ord=co.5inations8 sentences 5ut also to t-e .anner o# expression into 3-ic- t-e .atter is cast. L:-e lin%uistic ter. g eani n% -as 5een Hde#ined in so .any 3ays t-at t-ere appears an ur%ent need to clari#y itC particularly in vie3 o# t-e #act t-at in so .any lexical8 %ra..atical and p-onetic SDs t-is cate%ory is treated di##erently. It -as already 5een .entioned t-at a stylistic device is .ainly realiSed 3-en a t3o#old application o#

.eanin% is apparent. *t so.e period in t-e develop.ent o# a certain trend in lin%uistic t-eory in *.erica8 viS. descriptive lin%uistics8 .eanin% 3as excluded #ro. o5servations in lan%ua%e scienceC it 3as considered an extra=lin%uistic cate%ory. :-e tendency 3as so stron% t-at B. AaRo5son proposed t-e ter. Lse.antic invariantL as a su5stitute #or &.eanin%&. LI#8 -o3ever8 you disliRe t-e 3ord .eanin% 5ecause it is too a.5i%uous8L 3rites B. AaRo5son8 Lt-en let us si.ply deal 3it- se.antic invariants8 no less i.portant #or lin%uistic analysis t-an t-e p-one.ic invariants.L1 +ut t-is tendency -as 5een ruled out 5y later researc- in lan%ua%e data. ,ne o# t-e pro.inent *.erican scientists8 ?allace $. 4-a#e8 is ri%-t 3-en -e states t-at L...t-e data o# .eanin% are 5ot- accessi5le to lin%uistic explanation and crucial to t-e investi%ation o# lan%ua%e structure c in certain 3ays .ore &crucial t-an t-e data o# sound to 3-ic- lin%uistic8studies -ave %iven suc- un5alanced attention.L2 :-e pro5le. o# .eanin% in %eneral lin%uistics deals .ainly 3it- suc- aspects o# t-e ter. as t-e interrelation 5et3een .eanin% and concept8 .eanin% and si%n8 .eanin% and re#erent. :-e %eneral tendency is to re%ard .eanin% as so.et-in% sta5le at a %iven period o# ti.e. :-is is reasona5le8 ot-er3ise no dictionary 3ould 5e a5le to cope 3itt-e pro5le. o# de#inin% t-e .eanin% o# 3ords. Moreover8 no co..unication 3ould 5e possi5le. In stylistics .eanin% is also vie3ed as a cate%ory 3-ic- is a5le to ac9uire .eariin%sGnrposed on t-e 3ords 5y t-e context. :-at is 3-y suc- L.eanin%s are called contextual .eanin%s. :-is cate%ory also taRes under o5servation .eanin%s 3-ic- -ave #allen out o# use. In stylistics it is i.portant to discri.inate s-ades or nuances o# .eanin%8 to ato.iSe t-e .eanin%8 t-e co.ponent parts o# 3-ic- are no3 called t-e se.es0 i.e. t-e s.allest units o# 3-ic- .eanin% o# a ?ord consists. L* proper concern #or .eanin%s8L 3rites ?. 4-a#e8 Ls-ould lead to a situation 3-ere8 in t-e trainin% o# lin%uists8 practice in t-e discri.ination o# concepts 3ill 5e %iven at least as .uc- ti.e in t-e curriculu. as practice in t-e discri.ination o# sounds.L! It 3ill 5e s-o3n later8 in t-e analysis o# SDs8 -o3 i.portant it is to discri.inate 5et3een t-e .eanin%s o# a %iven 3ord or construction in order to ade9uately co.pre-end t-e idea and purport o# a passa%e and o# a co.plete 3orR. It is no3 co..on Rno3led%e t-at lexical .eanin% Di##ers #ro. %ra.= 8 .atical .eanin% in .ore t-an one 3ay. $ e x i cat .eanin% re#ers t-e .ind to so.e concrete concept8 p-eno.enon8 or t-in% o# o5Gective reality8 3-et-er real or i.a%inary. $exical .eanin% is t-us a .eans 5y 3-ic- a 3ord=#pr. is .ade to express a de#inite concept. G m _ g .|a t i Y a I .eanin% re#ers our .ind to relations 5et3een 3ords or to so.e #or.s o#=3ords or constructions 5earin% upon t-eir structural #unctions in t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. Gra..atical .eanin% can t-us 5e ade9uately called Lstructural .eanin%L.8 :-ere are no 3ords 3-ic- are deprived o# %ra..atical .eanin% inas.uc- as all 3ords 5elon% to so.e syste. and conse9uently -ave t-eir

olace in t-e syste.8 and also inas.uc- as t-ey al3ays #unction in speec- displayin% t-eir #unctional properties. It is t-e sa.e 3it- sentences. Every sentence -as its o3n independent structural .eanin%. :-is structural .eanin% .ay in so.e cases 5e in#luenced or a##ected 5y t-e lexical .eanin%s o# t-e co.ponents or 5y intonation. In t-e sentence &I s-all never %o to t-at place a%ain18 3e -ave a nu.5er o# 3ords 3itlexical .eanin%s (never8 %o8 place8 a%ain) and 3ords 3it- only %ra..atical .eanin% (I8 s-all8 t-at) and also t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3-ole sentence8 3-ic- is de#ined as a structure in state.ent #or.. +ut eac- o# t-e .eanin%s8 5ein% closely inter3oven and interdependent8 can none t-e less 5e re%arded as relatively autono.ous and t-ere#ore 5e analySed separately. It is si%ni#icant t-at 3ords ac9uire di##erent status 3-en analySed in isolation or in t-e sentence. :-is dou5le aspect causes in t-e lon% run t-e %ro3t- o# t-e se.antic structure o# a 3ord8 especially 3-en t-e t3o aspects #re9uently inter3eave. ?ords can 5e classed accordin% to di##erent principles; .orp-olo%ical L(parts o# ispec-)8 se.antic (synony.s8 antony.s8 t-e.atic)8 stylis=lic (see classi#ication on p. 72)8 and ot-er types o# classi#ication. In eac- o# t-ese classi#ications lexical orIand %ra..atical .eanin%s assu.e di##erent .ani#estations. In a .orp-olo%ical classi#ication 3ords are %rouped accordin% to t-eir %ra..atical .eanin%sC in a se.antic classi#ication8 accordin% to t-eir lo%ical (re#erential) .eanin%s8 in a stylistic classi#ication8 accordin% to t-eir stylistic .eanin%. $exical .eanin%s are closely related to concepts. :-ey are so.eti.es identi#ied 3itconcepts. +ut concept is a purely lo%ical cate%ory8 3-ereas .eanin% is a lin%uistic one. In lin%uistics it is necessary to vie3 .eanin% as t-e representation o# a concept t-rou%- one o# its properties. 4oncept8 as is Rno3n8 is versatileC it is c-aracteriSed 5y a nu.5er o# properties. Meanin% taRes one o# t-ese properties and .aRes it represent t-e concept as a 3-ole. :-ere#ore .eanin% in re#erence to concept 5eco.es8 as it 3ere8 a Rind o# .etony.y. :-is state.ent is si%ni#icant inas.uc- as it 3ill #urt-er explain t-e stylistic #unction o# certain .eanin%s. ,ne and t-e sa.e concept can 5e represented in a nu.5er o# lin%uistic .ani#estations (.eanin%s) 5ut8 paradoxal t-ou%it .ay sound8 eac- .ani#estation causes a sli%-t (and so.eti.es considera5le) .odi#ication o# t-e concept8 in ot-er 3ords8 discloses latent or unRno3n properties0 o# t-e concept. L:-e varia5ility o# .eanin%s8L 3rites B. AaRo5son8 Lt-eir .ani#old and #ar=reac-in% #i%urative s-i#ts8 and an incalcula5le aptitude #or .ultiple parap-rases are Gust t-ose properties o# natural lan%ua%e 3-ic- induce its creativity and endo3 not only poetic 5ut even scienti#ic activities 3it- a continuously inventive s3eep. >ere t-e inde#initeness and creative po3er appear to 5e 3-olly interrelated.L1 :-e inner property o# lan%ua%e8 3-ic- .ay 5e de#ined as sel#=%eneratin%8 is apparent in .eanin%. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e creativity o# %uistics in Belation to ,t-er Sciences.c In; LSelected=?orRsL. lan%ua%e so o#ten re#erred to in t-is 3orR8 lies in t-is particular cate%ory o# lan%ua%e science c .eanin%.

:-e varia5ility o# L.eanin%s caused 5y t-e .ulti#arious practical application o# t-e 5asic (#unda.ental) .eanin% 3-en .used in speec- -as led to t-e 5irt- o# a notion Rno3n as polyse.anticis.. :-is is a lin%uistic cate%ory 3-ic- contains a %reat de%ree o# a.5i%uity. ,n t-e one -and8 3e perceive .eanin% as a representation o# a de#inite concept 5y .eans o# a 3ord. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 3e state t-at t-e sa.e concept .ay 5e expressed 5y di##erent .eanin%s all 5elon%in% to t-e sa.e 3ord. Still .ore con#usin% is t-e 3ell=reco%niSed #act t-at di##erent concepts .ay 5e expressed 5y one and t-e sa.e 3ord. +ut suc- is t-e very nature o# lan%ua%e8 3-ere contradiction8 a.5i%uity and uncertainty run parallel 3it- ri%idity8 strictness and con#or.ity to standard re9uire.ents o# %ra..atical accepta5ility. S. D. uatSnelson re.arRs in t-is connection t-at La lexical .eanin% .ay... con#lict 3it- t-e 5asic #unctional .eanin% o# its class re.ainin%8 -o3ever8 3it-in its o3n class.L1 :-e a5ility o# a 3ord to 5e polyse.antic8 i.e. to co.prise several lexical .eanin%s8 5eco.es a crucial issue #or stylistic studies. It .ust 5e clearly understood t-at t-e .ultitude o# .eanin%s t-at a 3ord .ay -ave is not li.ited 5y dictionaries 3-ere t-is .ultitude -as already 5een reco%niSed and #ixed. So.e .eanin%s8 3-ic- #or t-e ti.e 5ein% -ave not as yet 5een reco%niSed as le%iti.ate .e.5ers o# t-e se.antic structure o# t-e %iven 3ord8 .ay8 in t-e course o# ti.e8 t-rou%- #re9uent use 5eco.e suc- and su5se9uently 5eco.e #ixed in dictionaries. 4onvincin% proo# o# t-is are t-e so=called addenda to ne3 editions o# dictionaries 3-ere ne3 .eanin%s are presented as already reco%niSed #acts o# lan%ua%e. * stylistic approac- to t-e issue in 9uestion taRes into consideration t-e #act t-at every 3ord8 no0.atter -o3 ric- in .eanin%s it .ay 5e8 leaves t-e door open #or n~3 s-ades and nuances and even #or independent .eanin%s. :rue8 suc- .eanin%s are not al3ays easily accepted as nor.al. Moreover8 .any o# t-e. are reGected 5ot- 5y sc-olars and t-e people and t-ere#ore are not reco%niSed as #acts o# lan%ua%e. Suc- .eanin%s 5eco.e o5scure in t-e #a.ily o# lexical .eanin%s o# a 3ordC t-ey can only 5e traced 5acR to t-e ori%inal use. >o3ever8 so.e o# t-ese .eanin%s are occasionally re= esta5lis-ed in t-e voca5ulary at a later ti.e. $exical .eanin%8 5e it repeated8 is a conventional cate%ory. (ery #re9uently it does not re#lect t-e properties o# tiie t-in% or t-e p-eno.enon it re#ers to. >o3ever8 so.e .eanin%s are said to 5e .otivated8 i.e. t-ey point to so.e 9uality or #eature o# t-e o5Gect. :-e conventional c-aracter o# .eanin% can 5est 5e illustrated 5y t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple. In Bussian t-e 3ord / kisri& is a %eneral ter. denotin% all Rinds o# articles .ade #ro. #lax; under3ear8 -ouse-old articles8 s-irts and so on. :-e ori%in o# t-e 3ord is kisZt (3-ite). In En%lis- t-is concept is denoted 5y t-e 3ord &linen&8 3r-icis t-e na.e o# t-e .aterial ($atin linutn c / _^isrYV^ U. . `WVsVm`[ [\Z]_ ` XilioVi nZqsi^`i. .8 19728 Y. 1 '. 17 #lax) #ro. 3-ic- t-e articles .entioned 3ere .ade. In Ger.an t-e sa.e concept is &die ?asc-e&8 i.e. so.et-in% t-at can 5e 3as-ed8 a process8 not t-e .aterial8 not t-e colour. :-e concept #ro. 3-ic- all .eanin%s 5ranc- o## is Rno3n as t-e inner #or. o#

t-e 3ord. So 3e see t-at di##erent properties8 essential8 non=essential8 optional and even accidental .ay 5e taRen to na.e t-e o5Gect. :-e c-osen property in t-e course o# ti.e loses its se.antic si%ni#icance and dependence on t-e inner #or. andl-e 3ord 5e%ins to #unction in t-e lan%ua%e as a %eneric ter.8 a si%n #or various o5Gects. >ere 3e approac- t-e t-eory o# si%ns8 3-ic- is so i.portant in understandin% t-e relative &c-aracter o# lan%ua%e units and t-eir #unctionin%. +y a si%n8 %enerally speaRin%8 3e understand one .aterial o5Gect capa5le o# denotin% anot-er o5Gect or idea. :-e essential property o# a si%n is its relatively conventional c-aracter. * si%n does not possess t-e properties o# t-e o5Gect it denotes. It is .ade to denote anot-er o5Gect 5y its very nature. In ot-er 3ords8 people i.pose on certain o5Gects t-e 9uality to denote ot-er o5Gects. :-us8 a #la% is t-e si%n o# a nation (state)8 a cross is t-e si%n o# 4-ristianity8 a plain %old rin% is t-e si%n o# .arria%e8 a uni#or. is t-e si%n o# a de#inite callin% or pro#ession8 a cro3n is t-e si%n o# .onarc-y. :-ese are si%n=sy.5ols. :-ere are also si%ns 3-ic- are not .aterial o5Gects. :-e science t-at deals 3it- t-e %eneral t-eory o# si%ns is called s e=.io=t i Y s. It e.5races di##erent syste.s o# si%ns8c tra##ic si%ns8 co..unication 5et3een di##erent species o# livin% 5ein%s8 etc. :-e #ollo3in% is a 3idely reco%niSed de#inition o# a si%n; L* si%n is a .aterial8 sensuously perceived o5Gect (p-eno.enon8 action) appearin% in t-e process o# co%nition and co..unication in t-e capacity o# a representative (su5stitute) o# anot-er o5Gect (or o5Gects) and used #or receivin%8 storin%8 recastin% and trans#or.in% in#or.ation a5out t-is o5Gect.L1 Si%ns are %enerally used in a de#inite syste. s-o3in% t-e interrelations and interdependence o# t-e co.ponents o# t-e syste.. :-is syste. is called _ Y V d e. :-us 3e speaR o# a lan%ua%e code 3-ic-uconsists o# di##erent si%nsclexical8 p-onetic8 .orp-olo%ical8 syntactical and stylistic. Every code is easily reco%niSed 5y its users8 t-ey understand t-e=nature8 .eanin%8 si%ni#icance and interrelation o# t-e si%ns co.prisin% t-e %iven code. Moreover8 t-e user o# t-e code .ust 5e 3ell a3are o# possi5le o5stacles in decip-erin% t-e .eanin% o# di##erent si%ns. :-is presupposes a preli.inary Rno3led%e not only o# t-e 5asic .eanin%s o# t-e si%ns in 9uestion 5ut also t-e derivative .eanin%s and t-e .ini.u. o# se.es o# eac.eanin%. ,ne o# t-e essential #eatures o# a si%n8 as -as 5een stated a5ove8 is >S conventional8 ar5itrary c-aracter. >o3ever8 t-e lan%ua%e syste.8 unliRe ot-er se.iotic syste.s8 -as t-e #ollo3in% distinctive #eature; nav.% once 5een esta5lis-ed and -avin% 5een in circulation #or so.e 2eriod o# ti.e8 it 5eco.es resistant to su5stitutions. No e##ort to replace a sound8 pr a .orp-e.e8 or a 3ord8 not to .ention a structural pattern8 -as 5een success#ul. I# an innovation is #orced 5y reiterated usa%e into t-e=lan%ua%e= as=a=syste. it inevita5ly under%oes a certain .odi#ication o# its .eanin% (ideo%rap-ic or stylistic). It 3ill 5e noticed -ere t-at 3e o#ten speaR o# si%ns and .eanin%s8 -avin% in .ind

3ords. :o clear up possi5le a.5i%uity let us .aRe it clear t-at 3ords are units o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- can 5e co.pared to si%ns8 #or t-ey are .aterialiSed .ani#estations o# ideas8 t-in%s8 p-eno.ena8 events8 actions8 properties and ot-er concepts8 3-ereas .eanin%s are & t-e products o# our .ental decisions. :-e .aterialiSed .ani#estations o# 3ords taRe t-e=#or. eit-er o# a c-ain o# vo3el and consonant sounds (sound 3aves) or o# a c-ain o# %rap-ical si%ns 3-ic- are t-e interpretation o# t-ese sounds. Meanin%s are not .aterial p-eno.ena. :-at is 3-y 3e #re9uently .eet t-e de#inition o# t-e 3ord as -avin% a t3o#old nature; .aterial and spiritual. :-e #or. o# t-e 3ord 3-ic-8 as -as 5een stated a5ove8 also contains .eanin% di##ers #ro. t-e 3ord only in one respect8 viS. it is not independent8 in ot-er 3ords8 it cannot 5e used autono.ously. It is al3ays a part o# a 3ord. "or exa.ple8 t-e 3ord spirit is a sel#=sustained unit. +ut t-e su##ix =at in spiritual is not so8 t-ou%- it possesses 5ot- .aterial #or. and a .eanin% (%ra..atical; a unit t-at can #or. an adGective). :-is contradictory nature o# a 3ord is t-e source 5y 3-ic- its se.antic 3-oleness8=on t-e one -and8 and its diversity on t-e ot-er8 is caused. :-e study o# -o3 3ords %radually develop8 c-an%e and lose t-eir .eanin% and ac9uire ne3 ones is t-e su5Gect o# lexicolo%y and lexico%rap-y. * 3ord can 5e de#ined as a unit o# lan%ua%e #unctionin% 3it-in t-e sentence or 3it-in a part o#it 3-ic- 5y its sound or %rap-ical #or. expresses a concrete or a5stract notion or a %ra..atical ...notion t-rou%- Lone o# its .eanin%s and 3-ic- is capa5le o# enric-in% its se.antic structure 5y ac9uirin% ne3 .eanin%s and losin% old ones. :o expGain t-e sernantic structure o# a 3ord is not an easy tasR. ,nly lexico%rap-ers Rno3 -o3 di##icult it is. :-is di##iculty is .ainly caused 5y t-e very nature o# t-e 3ord. It .ay in so.e circu.stances reveal suc- overtones o# .eanin% as are not ele.ents o# t-e code. :-e #ollo3in% analo%y 3ill not co.e a.iss. :-ere are in nature sounds t-at 3e do not -ear8 t-ere is li%-t t-at 3e do not see8 and -eat t-at 3e do not #eel. Special apparatus is necessary to detect t-ese p-eno.ena. *l.ost t-e sa.e cart 5e .said a5out al.ost every lan%ua%e si%n; sound8 .orp-e.e8 3ord8 sentence8 stylistic device. :-ese si%ns can 5rin% to li#e su5tleties o# .eanin% 3-ic-8 are passed unnoticed 5y t-e untrained .ind and 3-ic- can 5e detected only t-rou%- t-e e.ploy.ent o# a special .et-od8 called supralinear analysis. :-is .et-od re9uires so.e #ait- in intuition. Most sc-olars8 -o3ever8 rely on 3ell=veri#ied #acts to t-e detri.ent o# t-e evidence o# t-e senses.x Max +orn8 t-e p-ysicist8 %ives a 3ell veri#ied exa.ple. >e says t-at i# 3e speaR o# vacillations and 3aves in space8 3e necessarily presuppose t-e existence # t-e o5Gect to 3-ic- t-e ver5 (acillate& re#ers. / It 3ill 5e a violation o# t-is 3ell= esta5lis-ed la3 i# 3e use a ver5 not -avin% in .ind (explicitly or i.plicitly) t-e o5Gect to 3-ic- it re#ers. ?e -ave dealt at so.e len%t- 3it- suc- concepts as .eanin% and si%n 5ecause t-ese are t-e crucial issues o# stylistics. Not-in% can ever 5e ac-ieved in stylistic studies 3it-out a t-orou%- understandin% o# t-ese -i%-ly co.plicated notions.

:-ere is a di##erence in t-e treat.ent o# t-e potentialities o# lan%ua%e si%ns in %ra..ar8 p-onetics and lexicolo%y8 on t-e one -and8 and in stylistics8 on t-e ot-er. In stylistics 3e taRe it #or %ranted t-at a 3ord -as an al.ost unli.ited potentiality o# ac9uirin% ne3 .eanin%s8 3-ereas in lexicolo%y t-is potentiality is restricted to se.antic and %ra..atical accepta5ility. In stylistics t-e intuitive8 and t-ere#ore to a very %reat extent su5Gective8 perception o# .eanin% in 3ords is raised to t-e level o# actuality. :-e issue touc-ed upon -ere is t-e 3ell=Rno3n contradistinction 5et3een t-e scienti#ic (a5stract)8 intellectually precise perception o# 3orld p-eno.ena and t-e sensory8 intuitive8 va%ue and uncertain i.pressions o# an artistic perception o# t-ese sa.e p-eno.ena. Max +orn -as it so.e3-at di##erently; L:-e representatives o# one %roup do not 3ant to reGect or to sacri#ice t-e idea o# t-e a5solute and t-ere#ore re.ain #ait-#ul to everyt-in% su5Gective. :-ey create a picture o# t-e 3orld 3-ic- is not t-e result o# a syste.ic .et-odC 5ut o# t-e unexplained activity o# reli%ious8 artistic or poetic expressions o# ot-er people. >ere rei%n reli%ious Seal8 aspirations to 5rot-er-ood8 and o#ten #anaticis.8 intolerance and t-e suppression o# intellect... :-e representatives o# t-e opposin% %roup8 on t-e contrary8 reGect t-e idea o# t-e a5solute. :-ey discover #re9uently 3it- -orror t-at inner #eelin%s cannot 5e expressed in co.pre-ensi5le #or.s.L 2 $eavin% aside t-e rat-er a.5i%uous pronounce.ent concernin% t-e aspirations o# t-ose 3-o ad-ere to t-e idea o# t-e a5solute8 3e cannot 5ut ad.it t-at t-ose 3-o reGect t-e intuitive in t-e analysis o# lan%ua%e p-eno.ena are prone to suppress everyt-in% 3-ic- arises #ro. a sensory perception o# lan%ua%e= in= act ion8 t-us overlooRin% t-e #act t-at t-e intuitive is in t-e lon% run t-e result o# accu.ulated social experience. It is o# para.ount i.portance in stylistics to 5ear in .ind t-at concepts o# p5Gective reality -ave di##erent de%rees o# a5stractness. :-is is ade9uately .ani#ested in lan%ua%e. *dGectives are .ore a5stract in .eanin% t-an nouns. *dver5s .ay 5e considered .ore a5stract t-an adGectives inas.uc- as t-ey usually c-aracteriSe an a5stract notion8 action or state. 4onGunctions and prepositions -ave a still -i%-er de%ree oi a5stractness 5ecause it is not o5Gects as suc- l-at t-ey indicate8 5ut tne correlation o# t-e concepts involved. :-ere#ore 3e .ay consider conAunctions and prepositions8 and so.e auxiliary 3ords as 3ell8 to 5e n t-e 5orderline 5et3een lexical and %ra..atical cate%ories8 or in errns o# .eanin%8 -avin% a %ra..atical .eanin% 3-ic- suppresses t-e ie/ical .eanin%. ?it-in t-e %ra..atical classes o# 3ords t-ere are also di##erent de%rees o# a5stractness. Nouns8 as is Rno3n8 are divided into t3o lar%e classes8 a5stract and concrete. +ut t-is division does not correspond to t-e actual di##erence in t-e de%ree o# a5stractness. :-is 3ill 5e explained later 3-en 3e co.e to illustrate a5stractness and concreteness. * 3ord8 as is Rno3n8 %eneraliSes. 4onse9uently8 a 3ord 3ill al3ays denote a concept8 no .atter 3-et-er it na.es a de#inite o5Gect or e.=5races all t-e o5Gects o# a %iven Rind.

:-e pro5le. o# a5stractness8 and especially t-e de%ree o# a5stractness8 is o# vital i.portance in stylistics in .ore t-an one respect. Stylistics deSls not only 3it- t-e aest-etic and e.otional i.pact o# t-e lan%ua%e. It also studies t-e .eans o# producin% i.pressions in our .ind. I.pression is t-e #irst and rudi.entary sta%e o# concept. +ut t-e concept t-rou%- a reverse process .ay 5uild anot-er Rind o# i.pression. I.pressions t-at are secondary to concepts8 in ot-er 3ords8 3-ic- -ave 5een 5orn 5y concepts8 are called i g a % e r y. I.a%ery is .ainly produced 5y t-e interplay o# di##erent .eanin%s. 4oncrete o5Gects are easily perceived 5y t-e senses. *5stract notions are perceived 5y t-e .ind. ?-en an a5stract notion is 5y t-e #orce o# t-e .ind represented t-rou%- a concrete o5Gect8 an i.a%e is t-e result. I.a%ery .ay 5e 5uilt on t-e interrelation o# t3o a5stract notions or t3o concrete o5Gects or an a5stract and a concrete one. :-ree types o# .eanin% can 5e distin%uis-ed8 3-ic- 3e s-all call lo%ical8 e.otive and no.inal respectively. $o%ic a I .ean ( n % is t-e precise na.in% o# a #eature o# t-e idea8 p-eno.enon or&o5Gect8 t-e na.e 5y 3-ic- 3e reco%niSe t-e 3-ole o# t-e concept. :-is .eanin% is also synony.ously called re#erential .eanin% or direct .eanin%. ?e s-all use t-e ter.s lo%ical and re#erential as 5ein% .ost ade9uate #or our purpose. Be#erential .eanin%s are lia5le to c-an%e. *s a result t-e re#erential .eanin%s o# one 3ord .ay denote di##erent concepts. It is t-ere#ore necessary t5 distin%uis- 5et3een pri.ary and secondary re#erential8 or lo%ical8 .eanin%. :-us8 t-e8 adver5 in3ardly -as t-e pri.ary lo%ical .eanin% o# / internally&8 or03it-in&. Its secondary lo%ical .eanin%s are; &to3ards t-e centre&8 &.entally&8 &secretly&8 3-ic- are to so.e extent derived #ro. t-e pri.ary .eanin%.1 So.e dictionaries %ive a very extended list o# pri.ary and secondary lo%ical .eanin%s8 and it is essential #or stylistic purposes to distin%uis- t-e.8 as so.e stylistic devices are 5uilt on t-e interplay o# pri.ary and secondary lo%ical .eanin%s. *ll t-e .eanin%s #ixed 5y aut-oritative En%lis- and *.erican dictionaries co.prise 3-at is called t-e se.antic structure o# t -e 3 V r d. :-e .eanin%s t-at are to 5e #ound in speec- or 3ritin% and 3-ic- are accidental s-ould not 5e re%arded as co.ponents o# t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord. :-ey .ay 5e transitory8 inas.uc- as t-ey depend on t-e context. :-ey are contextual .eanin%s. 1 Suc- .eanin%s are t-ere#ore also called derivative .eanin%s. $et us co.pare t-e .eanin%s o# t-e 3ord presence in t-e #ollo3in% t3o sentences. L:-e %overner said t-at -e 3ould not allo3 t-e presence o# #ederal troops on t-e soil o# -is State.L L...t-e General -as 5een #aced 3it- t-e pro5le. o# t-e country&s presence on #orei%n soil8 t-e stu55orn resistance o# o##icers and o##icials...L .& In t-e #irst sentence t-e 3ord presence .erely .eans &...t-e state o# 5ein% present&8 3-ereas in t-e second sentence t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ord expands into &...occupation&8 i. e. t-e seiSure and control o# an area8 especially #orei%n territory8 5y/ .ilitary #orces. :-e #irst .eanin% is t-e dictionary .eanin% o# t-e 3ord. :-e second .eanin% is a

coni0dua$x.e. ItA>iyes only inGt-e %ivenGext and disappears i# t-e contextlsbaltered. >o3ever8 3##iereLare0(Ie#.i#e reasons to assu.e t-at a nu.5er o# derivative .eanin%s are %iven place in dictionaries on t-e 5asis o# contextual .eanin%s. ?-en t-e t3o .eanin%s clearly co=exist in t-e utterance8 3e say t-ere is an interaction o# dictionary and contex= 0 tual .eanin%s. ?-en only one .eanin% is perceived 5y t-e reader8 3e are Y sure to #ind t-is .eanin% in dictionaries as a derivative one. So.eti.es it is di##icult to decide 3-et-er t-ere is a si.ultaneous .aterialiSation o# t3o dictionary lo%ical .eanin%s or an interplay o# a dictionary and a contextual .eanin%. :-e di##iculty is caused8 on t-e one -and8 5y insu##icient o5Gective criteria o# 3-at s-ould 5e #ixed in 8 dictionaries as already esta5lis-ed lan%ua%e #acts and8 on t-e ot-er -and8 5y deli5erate political8 aest-etic8 .oral and ot-er considerations on t-e part o# t-e co.pilers o# t-e dictionaries. :-us8 in +yron&s use o# t-e 3ord arise in t-e line L*3aRe8 ye sons o# Spain8 a3aRe8 arise<L t-e 3ord arise -as t-e lon%=esta5lis-ed .eanin% o# &revolt&. It is not contextual any lon%er. +ut no En%lis- or *.erican dictionary #ixes t-is particular .eanin% in t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord8 and it is le#t to t-e a5ility o# t-e attentive reader to supply t-e o5vious .eanin%. J&LJLL. :-e sa.e can 5e said a5out t-e 3ord appease.ent. :-ere is an i.pp=cit0di##erence in t-e treat.ent o# t-e se.antic structure o# t-is 3ord in +ritis- and *.erican dictionaries. In no +ritis- dictionary 3ill you #ind t-e ne3 derivative .eanin%8 viS. &a sacri#ice o# .oral principle in order to avert a%%ression&. So.e .odern *.erican dictionaries include t-is .eanin% in t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord &appease.ent7. :-e reason #or t-e di##erence is apparentct-e +ritis- pri.e .inister 4-a.5erlain in 19!@ played an i%no5le role in Munic-8 sacri#icin% 4Sec-oslovaRia to >itler&s %reed. :-e ne3 .eanin% t-at 3as attac-ed to t-e 3ord (in connection 3it- t-is -istorical event) cannot no3 5e re.oved #ro. its se.antic structure. * dictionary .eanin% is .aterialiSed in t-e contextC a contextual .eanin% is 5orn in t-e context. >o3ever8 dictionaries8 t-ou%- t-e only ena5le sources o# in#or.ation re%ardin% t-e .eanin%s o# a %iven 3ord8 22ly very diverse and even contradictory principles in ascertainin% e %eneral accepta5ility and reco%nition o# so.e o# t-e s-ades o# .eanin% \ x. 3-ic- are in process o# 5ein% s-aped as independent .eanin%s. :-us8 to excuse onesel# in t-e .eanin% o# &to leave&8 as in &Soa.es excused -i.sel# directly a#ter dinner/ (Gals3ort-y)C or t-e .eanin% o# a t-ou%-t } 0 little& as in / * t-ou%-t .ore #as-iona5ly t-an usual& (Gals3ort-y) are #ixed =as separate .eanin%s in so.e .odern +ritis- and *.erican dictionaries8 5ut are ne%lected in ot-ers. Every 3ord possesses an enor.ous potentiality #or %eneratin% ne3 .eanin%s. :-is po3er is o#ten under=esti.ated 5y sc-olars 3-o re%ard a 3ord as a unit co.plete in itsel# and acRno3led%e a ne3=5orn .eanin% only 3-en it -as #ir.ly asserted itsel# in lan%ua%e and 5eco.e accepted 5y t-e .aGority o# t-e lan%ua%e co..unity. +ut not to see t-e latent possi5ilities o# a 3ord is not to understand t-e true nature o# t-is unit o# lan%ua%e.

:-e potentiality o# 3ords can also 5e noted in re%ard to e.otive .e an in%. E.otive .eanin% also .aterialiSes a concept in t-e 3ord8 5ut8 unliRe lo%ical .eanin%8 e.otive .eanin% -as re#erence not directly LLto t-in%s or p-eno.ena o# o5Gective reality8 5ut to t-e #eelin%s and e.otions o# t-e speaRer to3ards t-ese t-in%s or to -is e.otions as suc-. :-ere#ore t-e e.otive .eanin% 5ears re#erence to t-in%s8 p-eno.ena or / ideas t-rou%- a Rind o# evaluation o# t-eGGi. "or exa.ple; I #eel so darned lonely. (Gra-a. Green8 L:-e Ouiet *.ericanL.) >e classi#ied -i. as a .an o# .onstrous sel#is-nessC -e did not 3ant to see t-at Rni#e descend8 5ut -e #elt it #or one %reat #leetin% instant. ($ondon) :-e italiciSed 3ords -ave no lo%ical .eanin%8 only0e.otive .eanin%. :-eir #unction is to reveal t-e su5Gective8 evaluatin% attitude o# t-e 3riter to t-e t-in%s or events spoRen o#. Men=o#=letters t-e.selves are 3ell a3are t-at 3ords .ay reveal a su5Gective evaluation and so.eti.es use it #or de#inite stylistic e##ects8 t-us callin% t-e attention o# t-e reader to t-e .eanin% o# suc- 3ords8 L:-us8 #or exa.ple8 in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e #ro. L:-e Man o# 2ropertyL 5y Gals3ort-y; LS-e 3as not a #lirt8 not even a co9uettec3ords dear to t-e -eart o# -is %eneration8 3-ic- loved to de#ine t-in%s 5y a %ood8 5road8 inade9uate 3ordc5ut s-e 3as dan%erous.L >ere t-e 3ords &#li#t& and 0co9uette& retain so.e o# t-eir lo%ical .ean=.8 in%. :-ey .ean a person (particularly a %irl) 3-o endeavours to attract t-e opposite sex8 3-o toys 3it- -er ad.irers. +ut 5ot- 3ords -ave ac9uired an additional si%ni#icance8&viS. a dero%atory s-ade o# .eanin%. :-is s-ade .ay %ro3 into an independent .eanin% and in t-is case 3ill 5e #ixed in dictionaries as -avin% a special e.otive .eanin%8 as8 #or exa.ple8 -ave t-e 3ords #a5ulous8 terri#yin%8 stunnin%8 spectacular8 s3ell8 top8 s.art8 cute8 .assive and t-e liRe. _Wa 3ords ac9uire an e.otive .eanin% only in a de#inite context. In t-at caseGve say t-at t-e 3ord -as a cGni t e/x t ` a I e g V t i v e .eanin%. Step-en Mll.ann -olds t-at L,nly t-e context can s-o3 3-et-er a 3ord s-ould 5e taRen as a purely o5Gective expression8 or 3-et-er it is pri.arily desi%ned to convey and arouse e.otions. :-is is o5vious in t-e case o# 3ords liRe li5erty8 and Gustice8 3-ic- are #re9uently c-ar%ed 3it- e.otional i.plications. +ut even colourless everyday ter.s .ay8 in #reaR contexts8 ac9uire unexpected e.otional overtones8 as8 #or instance8 &3all& in t-is passa%e= #ro. a Midsu..er Ni%-t&s Drea.; &*nd t-ou8 3all8 s3eet8 lovely 3all8 ...:-anRs8 courteous 3all... 3icRed 3all.&L1 Mll.ann&s point o# vie3 is only partly true. :-ere are8 o# course8 3ords 3-ic-8 as 3e -ave pointed out8 .ay ac9uire e.otive .eanin% in a context. ,rdinarily t-ou%-8 and particularly 3-en taRen as isolated lexical units8 t-ey can -ardly 5e said to possess e.otive .eanin%. +ut Mll.ann&s opinion t-at only t-e context can inGect e.otive .eanin% into 3ords8 contradicts t-e #acts. In t-e voca5ulary o# al.ost any European lan%ua%e t-ere are 3ords 3-ic- are undou5tedly 5earers o# e.otive

.eanin%. :-ese are interGections8 oat-s or s3ear=3ords8 excla.atory0 3ords (variants o# interGectioris)0~F%0 intensi#yin% adGectives so.e o# 3-ic- -ave already 5een .entioned; :->0 e.otive .eanin% o# so.eLor:uese classes o# 3ords is so stron% t-at it suppresses t-e co= listin% lo%ical .eanin%8 as8 #or exa.ple8 in stunnin% and s.art. It is si%ni#icant t-at t-ese 3ords are explained in dictionaries 5y .eans o# synony.ous 3ords c-ar%ed 3it- stron% e.otional i.plications8 i.e. 3ords t-at direct t-e .ind not to o5Gective t-in%s8 ideas or p-eno.ena 5ut to t-e #eelin%s. :-us8 t-e 3ord s.art is explained in L:-e 2en%uin En%lis- DictionaryL t-us; Lstin%in%8 pun%ent8 ReenC vi%orous8 5risRC clever8 intelli%entC i.pertinentC s-re3dC 3ittyC spruce8 neat8 %ay8 #as-iona5leKL2 ,t-er classes o# 3ords 3it- e.otive .eanin% -ave entirely lost t-eir lo%ical .eanin% and #unction in t-e. lan%ua%e as interGections. Suc- 3ords as alas8 o-8 a-8 poo-8 darn8 %os- and t-e liRe -ave practically no lo%ical .eanin% at allC 3ords liRe t-e devil8 4-rist8 God8 %oodness %raci=o3s0etc.8 are #re9uently used only in t-eir e.otive .eanin%. :-e sa.e Y_Wfi said a5out :-e 3ords 5loody8 da.n and ot-er expletives. 4ontrary :o Step-en Mll.ann8 3e t-inR t-at e.otive .eanin% is in-erent in a de#inite %roup o# 3ords and ad-erent to .any 3ords denotin% e.otions and #eelin%s even 3-en taRen out o# t-e context. Mll.ann&s exa.ple o# t-e 3ord 3all as 5earin% stron% e.otive .eanin% does not stand scrutiny. >e overlooRs t-~/real 5earers o# e.otive .eanin%8 viS. t-e 3ords precedin% or #ollo3in% it; 78 s3eet8 lovely (t-ese t-ree 3ords are repeated several ti.es)8 courteous8 3icRed. It %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at t-ese 3ords stron%ly colour! t-e 3ord 3all8 5ut n9 e.otive .eanin% as a counterpart o# lo%ical .eanin% can 5e o5served -ere./ 4olon rin% is a loose ter.. It is used -ere as a synony. to contextual e.otive .eanin%. +ut it .ay 5e used #urt-er on 3-en 3e3ant to point out t-e e##ect on t-e utterance as a 3-ole o# a 3ord 3it- a stron% e.otive .eanin%. AE.otive .eanin% o# 3ordsplays Gn i.pprtant role in stylistics. :-ere#ore It s-ould never 5e underrated. * very ueen eye or& ear L3ill=al3ays distin%uis- ele.ents o# e.otive .eanin%. 0E.otional colourin% .ay 5e re%arded as a rudi.entary sta%e o# e.otiveL .eanin%; :-is Gs %enerally #ixed as an independent .eanin% in %ood dictionaries. *nyt-in% reco%niSa5le as -avin% a=stron% i.pact on our senses .ay 5e considered as -avin% e.otive .eanin%8 eit-er dictionary or contextual. LL *nd #inally 3e co.e to no.inal .eanin%. :-ere are 3ords 3-ic-8 3-ile expressin% concepts8 indicate a particular o5Gect out o# a class. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ese units o# t-e lan%ua%e serve t-e purpose o# Sin%lin% out one de#inite and sin%ular o5Gect 5ut o# a 3-ole class o# si.=&ilar o5Gects. :-ese0 3ords are classi#ied in %ra..ars as proper nouns. :-e nature o# t-ese 3ords can 5e understood i# 3e -ave a clear idea o# t-e di##erence 5et3een t-e t3o .ain aspects o# a 3ord; Lno.inationL and Lsi%ni#icationL. :-ese aspects are also called Lre#erenceL and Lsi%ni#icationL or LdenotationL and LconnotationL. :-e di##erence can rou%-ly 5e illustrated 5y t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple. $et us taRe t-e 3ord ta5le. :-e #irst t-in% t-at appears in our .ind is t-e %eneral notion deprived o# any concrete #eatures or properties. :-is is t-e si%ni#ication. +ut 5y

t-e 3ord ta5le 3e .ay also denote a de#inite ta5le. In t-is case 3e use a de#inite article and t-e .eanin% 5eco.es no.inatin%. +ut 3e .ay also #ix a de#inite na.e to t-e o5Gect 3-ic- 3e 3ant to 5e reco%niSed as a uni9ue o5Gect 5ecause o# its peculiar properties. In t-is 3ay proper na.es appear. :-eir #unction is not to sin%le out one o# t-e o5Gects o# t-e class #or one particular occasion8 as in t-e j case 3it- t-e use o# t-e de#inite article8 5ut to .aRe it t-e 5earer o# t-e properties 3-ic- our .ind >as attac-ed to it. :-us no.inal .eanin% is a derivative lo%ical .eanin%. :o distin%uis- no.inal .eanin% #ro. lo%ical .eanin% t-e #or.er is desi%nated 5y a capital letter. Suc- 3ords as .S.it-/ $on%#ello38 Everest8 +lacR Sea8 :-a.es8 +yron are said to #iave no.inal .eanin%. :-e lo%ical .eanin% #ro. 3-ict-ey ori%inate .ay in t>e course o# ti.e 5e #or%otten and t-ere#ore not easily traced 5acR. Most proper na.es -ave no.inal .eanin%s 3-ic- .ay 5e re%arded as -o.ony.s o# co..on nouns 3it- t-eir lo%ical or e.otive .eanin%s8 as >ope8 +ro3nin%8 :aylor8 Scotland8 +lacR8 4-andler8 4-ester (#ro. t-e $atin 3ord castra c&ca.p&). >ence lo%ical .eanin%s 3-ic- no.inate an o5Gect8 at t-e sa.e ti.e si%ni#y t-e 3-ole class o# t-ese o5Gects. No.inal L.eanin%s 3-ic- no.inate an o5Gect are deprived o# t-e latter #unction M~~200 It .ust 5e re.e.5ered8 -o3ever8 tEI":-e n5..ar.eanin% 3ill al3ays 5e secondary to t-e lo%ical .ean= :-e process o# develop.ent o# .eanin% .ay %o still #urt-er. * no.inal .eGGi.%.av assu.e a lo%ical .eanin% due to certain external cir=cu.s# ances7:>eL"esuItlsl-at a lo%ical .eanin% taRes its ori%in in a norn=rna-/:re>:nn%Cr So.e #eature o# a person 3-ic- -as .ade -i. or -er no=:icea+:"arid 3-ic- is reco%niSed 5y t-e co..unity is .ade t-e 5asis #or t-e ne3 lo%ical .eanin%. :-us dunce (a dullard8 a stupid person) is derived #ro. t-e personal na.e8 Duns Scotus8 a .edieval sc-olasticC -ooli%an (a ru##ian) is pro5a5ly derived #ro. t-e na.e o# a ro3dy #arn= c# t-e Iris- na.e >ouli%an8 in a co.ic son% popular a5out 1@@ C 1 nII#re#use to do 5usiness 3it-8 co.5ine to%et-er a%ainst a person 5y ] sRins o## all relations 3it-i.). :-e ver5 5oycott 3as #irst used in 1 to descri5e t-e action o# t-e $and $ea%ue to3ards 4aptain +oycott8 Iris- landlord. :-e0no.inal .eanin%s o# t-ese 3ords -ave no3 #aded _e av and 3e perceive onlyL l6neQt-elo%icaQ .eanin%; +ut so.eti.es t-e 0ressLoK L&011PW0111W&11W1oC_Wq0 toL a 3orc:3it- a lo%ical .eanin% "Res place8 as it 3ere8 5e#ore our eyes. :-is is done #or purely stylistic purposes arid is re%arded as a special stylistic device (see p. 11').

PART II STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF T#E ENGLIS# VOCA"ULARY

I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS $iRe any lin%uistic issue t-e classi#ication o# t-e voca5ulary -ere su%%ested is #or purely stylistic purposes. :-is is i.portant #or t-e course in as .uc- as so.e SDs are

5ased on t-e interplay o# di##erent stylistic aspects o# 3ords. It #ollo3s t-en t-at a discussion o# t-e 3ays t-e En%lis- voca5ulary can 5e classi#ied #ro. a stylistic point o# vie3 s-ould 5e %iven proper attention. In order to %et a .ore or less clear idea o# t-e word-stoc' of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent# So.e lin%uists8 3-o clearly see t-e syste.atic c-aracter o# lan%ua%e as a 3-ole8 deny8 -o3ever8 t-e possi5ility o# syste.atically classi#yin% t-e voca5ulary. :-ey say t-at t-e 3ord=stocR o# any lan%ua%e is so lar%e and so -etero%eneous t-at it is i.possi5le to #or.aliSe it and t-ere#ore present it in any syste.. :-e 3ords o# a lan%ua%e are t-ou%-t o# as a c-aotic 5ody 3-et-er vie3ed #ro. t-eir ori%in and develop.ent or #ro. t-eir present state. . Indeed8 t-e coina%e o# ne3 lexical units8 t-e develop.ent o# .eanin%8 t-e di##erentiation o# 3ords accordin% to t-eir stylistic evaluation and t-eir sp-eres o# usa%e8 t-e correlation 5et3een .eanin% and concept and ot-er pro5le.s connected 3it- voca5ulary are so .ulti#arious and varied t-at it is di##icult to %rasp t-e syste.atic c-aracter o# t-e 3ord=stocR o# a lan%ua%e8 t-ou%- it co=exists 3it- t-e syste.s o# ot-er levelscp-onetics8 .orp-olo%y and syntax. :o deny t-e syste.atic c-aracter o# t-e 3ord=stocR o# a lan%ua%e a.ounts to denyin% t-e syste.atic c-aracter o# lan%ua%e as a 3-ole8 3ords 5ein% ele.ents in t-e %eneral syste. o# lan%ua%e. The word-stoc' of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent# * special 5ranco# lin%uistic science clexicolo%yc-as done .uc- to classi#y voca5ulary. * %lance at t-e contents o# any 5ooR on lexicolo%y 3ill su##ice to ascertain t-e outline o# t-e syste. o# t-e 3ord=stocR o# t-e %iven lan%ua%e. For our purpose, i#e# for linguistic stylistics, a special type of classification, vi)# stylistic classification, is most important# &n accordance with the already-mentioned division of language into literary and collo(uial, we may represent the whole of the word-stoc' -Speciai 8iterary Bocabulary -Common 8iterary Bocabulary -*eutral +ords -Common CoDo5uia8 Bocabulary -,rofessionalisms i special Collo(uial Bocabulary (non-8iterary) of the !nglish language as being divided into three main layers9 the literary layer, the neutral layer and the collo(uial l E F G r# :-e literary and t-e collo9uial layers contain a nu.5er o# su5%roups eac- o# 3-ic- -as a property it s-ares 3it- all t-e su5%roups 3it-in t-e layer. :-is co..on property8 3-ic- unites t-e di##erent %roups o# 3ords 3it-in t-e layer8 .ay 5e called its aspect. :-e aspect o# t-e literary layer is its .arRedly 5ooRis- c-aracter. It is t-is t-at .aRes t-e layer .ore or less sta5le. :-e aspect o# t-e collo9uial layer o# 3ords is its lively spoRen c-aracter. It is t-is t-at .aRes it unsta5le8 #leetin%.

:-e aspect o# t-e neutral layer is its universal c-aracter. :-at .eans it is unrestricted in its use. It can 5e e.ployed in all styles o# lan%ua%e and in all sp-eres o# -u.an activity. It is t-is t-at .aRes t-e layer t-e .ost sta5le o# all. :-e literary layer o# 3ords consists o# %roups accepted as le%iti.ate .e.5ers o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary. :-ey -ave no local or dialectal c-aracter. & :-e collo9uial layer o# 3ords as 9uali#ied in .ost En%lis- or *.erican dictionaries is not in#re9uently li.ited to a de#inite lan%ua%e co..unity or con#ined to a special locality 3-ere it circulates. :-e literary voca5ulary consists o# t-e #ollo3in% %roups o# 3ords; 1. co..on literaryC 2. ter.s and learned 3ordsC !. poetic 3ordsC '. arc-aic 3ordsC . 5ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ordsC 1. literary coina%es includin% nonce=3ords. :-e collo9uial voca5ulary #alls into t-e #ollo3in% %roups; 1. co..on Lcollo9uial 3ordsC 2. slan%C !. Gar%onis.sC '. pro#essional 3ordsC . dialectal 3ordsC 1. vul%ar 3ordsC 7. collo9uial coina%es. The common literary, neutral and common collo(uial words are grouped under the term standard !nglish vocabulary# ,t-er %roups in t-e literary layer are re%arded as special literary voca5ulary 0id t-ose in t-e collp9uial layer are re%arded as special collo9uial8 (non=literary) voca5ulary. :-e acco.panyin% dia%ra. on p. 71 illustrates t-is classi#ication %rap-ically. 2. NEUTRAL, COMMON LITERARY AND COMMON COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY *eutral words, which form the bul' of the !nglish vocabulary, are used in bottTliterary and collo(uial language# *eutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy# &t is the neutral stoc' of words that is so prolific in the production of new meanings# :-e 3ealt- o# t-e neutral stratu. o# 3ords is o#ten overlooRed. :-is is due to t-eir inconspicuous c-aracter. +ut t-eir #aculty #or assu.in% ne3 .eanin%s and %eneratin% ne3 stylistic variants is o#ten 9uite a.aSin%. :-is %enerative po3er o# t-e neutral 3ords in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e is .ultiplied 5y t-e very nature o# t-e lan%ua%e itsel#. It -as 5een esti.ated t-at .ost neutral En%lis- 3ords are o# .onosylla5ic c-aracter8 as8 in t-e process o# develop.ent #ro. ,ld En%lis- to Modern En%lis-8 .ost o# t-e parts o# speec- lost t-eir distin%uis-in% su##ixes. :-is p-eno.enon -as led to t-e develop.ent o# conversion as t-e .ost productive .eans o# 3ord=5uildin%. ?ord co.poundin% is not so productive as conversion or 3ord derivation8 3-ere a ne3 3ord is #or.ed 5ecause o# a s-i#t in t-e part o# speec- in t-e #irst case and 5y t-e addition o# an a##ix in t-e second. MnliRe all ot-er %roups8 t-e neutral %roup o# 3ords cannot 5e considered as -avin% a special stylistic colourin%8 3-ereas 5ot- literary and collo9uial 3ords -ave a de#inite stylistic colourin%. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech# @ne can always tell a literary word from a collo(uial word# :-e reason #or t-is lies in

certain o5Gective #eatures o# t-e literary layer o# 3ords. ?-at t-ese o5Gective #eatures are8 is di##icult to say 5ecause as yet no o5Gective criteria -ave 5een 3orRed out. +ut one o# t-e. undou5tedly is t-at literary units stand in opposition to collo9uial units. :-is is especially apparent 3-en pairs o# synony.s8 literary and collo9uial8 can 5e #or.ed 3-ic- stand in contrastin% relation. :-e #ollo3in% synony.s illustrate t-e relations t-at exist 5et3een t-e neutral8 literary and collo9uial 3ords in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. 4ollo9uial Rid daddy c-ap %et opt %o on teena%er #lapper (%o a-ead %et %oin% .aRe a .ove Neutral c-ild #at-er #ello3 %o a3ay continue=5oy %irl) youn% %irl I 5e%in 1 start $iterary in#ant parent associate retire proceed yout- (.aiden) .aiden co..ence It %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at t-ese synony.s are not only stylistic 5ut ideo%rap-ic as 3ell8 i. e. t-ere is a de#inite8 t-ou%- sli%-t8 se.antic di##erence 5et3een t-e 3ords. +ut t-is is al.ost= al3ays t-e case 3it- synony.s. :-ere are very #e3 a5solute synony.s in En%lis- Gust as t-ere are in any lan%ua%e. :-e .ain distinction 5et3een synony.s re.ains stylistic. +ut stylistic di##erence .ay 5e o# various Rinds; it .ay lie in t-e e.otional tension connoted in a 3ord8 or in t-e sp-ere o# application8 or in t-e de%ree o# t-e 9uality denoted. 4ollo9uial 3ords are al3ays .ore e.otionally coloured t-an literary ones. :-e neutral stratu. o# 3ords8 as t-e ter. itsel# i.plies8 -as no de%ree o# e.otiveness8 nor -ave t-ey any distinctions in t-e sp-ere o# usa%e. %oth literary and collo(uial words have their upper and lower ranges# The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a mar'edly obvious tendency to pass into that layer# The same may be said of the upper range of the collo(uial layer9 it can very easily pass into the neutral layer# The lines of demarcation between common collo(uial and neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred# &t is here that the process

of inter-penetration of the stylistic strata becomes most apparent# Still t-e extre.es re.ain anta%onistic and t-ere#ore are o#ten used to 5rin% a5out a collision o# .anners o# speec- #or special stylistic purposes. :-e di##erence in t-e stylistic aspect o# 3ords .ay colour t-e 3-ole o# an utterance. In t-is exa.ple #ro. L"anny&s "irst 2layL (S-a3)8 t-e di##erence 5et3een t-e co..on literary and co..on collo9uial voca5ulary is clearly seen. LD,B*; ,-8 I&ve let.it out. >ave Iz (conte.platin% Au%%ins & approvin%ly as -e places a c-air #or -er 5et3een t-e ta5le and t-e side5oard). +ut -e&s t-e ri%-t sort; I can.see t-at (5utton-olin% -i.). wou 3on&t let it out do3nstairs8 old .an8 3ill youz AMGGINS; :-e #a.ily can rely on .y a5solute discretion.L :-e 3ords in Au%%ins&s ans3er are on t-e 5order=line 5et3een co..on literary and neutral8 3-ereas t-e 3ords and expressions used 5y Dora are clearly co..on collo9uial8 not 5orderin% on neutral. :-is exa.ple #ro. LDavid 4opper#ieldL (DicRens) illustrates t-e use o# literary En%lis- 3ords 3-ic- do not 5order on neutral; LMy dear 4opper#ield8L said Mr. Mica35er8 Lt-is is luxurious. :-is is a 3ay o# li#e 3-ic- re.inds .e o# a period 3-en I 3as .ysel# in a state o# celi5acy8 and Mrs. Mica35er -ad not yet 5een solicited to pli%-t -er #ait- at t-e >y.eneal 8altar.L L>e .eans8 solicited 5y -i.8 Mr. 4opper#ield8L said Mrs. Mica35er8 arc-ly. L>e cannot ans3er #or ot-ers.L LMy dear8L returned Mr. Mica35er 3it- sudden seriousness8 LI -ave no desire to ans3er #or ot-ers. I a. too 3ell a3are t-at 3-en8 in t-e inscruta5le decrees o# "ate8 you 3ere reserved #or .e8 it is possi5le you .ay -ave 5een reserved #or one destined8 a#ter a protracted stru%%le8 at len%t- to #all a vRti. to pecuniary .involve.ents o# a0 co.plicated nature. I understand your allusion8 .y love8 I re%ret it8 5ut I can 5ear it.L LMica35erKL exclai.ed Mrs. Mica35er8 in tears. L>ave I de=L served t-isK I: 3-o never -ave deserted youC 3-o never 3ill desert you8 Mica35erKL LMy love8L said Mr. Mica35er8 .uc- a##ected8 Lyou 3ill #or%ive8 and our old and tried #riend 4opper#ield 3ill8 I a. sure8 #or%ive t-e .oitientary laceration o# a 3ounded spirit8 .ade sensitive 5y a recent collision 3it- t-e Minion o# 2o3ercin ot-er 3ords8 3it- a ri5ald :uracocR attac-ed to t-e 3ater3orRs c and 3ill pity8 not conde.n8 its excesses.L :-ere is a certain analo%y 5et3een t-e interdependence o# co..on literary 3ords and neutral ones8 on t-e one -and8 and co..on collo9uial 3ords and neutral ones8 on t-e ot-er. +ot- sets can 5e vie3ed as 5ein% in invariant c variant relations. :-e neutral voca5ulary .ay 5e vie3ed as t-e invariant o# t-e standard En%lis- voca5ulary. :-e stocR o# 3ords #or.in% t-e neutral stratu. s-ould in t-is case 5e re%arde! as an a5straction. :-e 3ords o# t-is stratu. are %enerally deprived o# any concrete associations and re#er to t-e concept .ore or less directly. Synonyms of neutral words, both collo(uial and literary, assume a far greater degree of concreteness# :-ey %enerally present t-e sa.e notions not a5stractly 5ut as a .ore or less concrete i.a%e8 t-at is8 in a #or. percepti5le 5y t-e senses. :-is percepti5ility 5y t-e senses

causes su5Gective evaluations o# t-e notion in 9uestion8 or a .ental i.a%e o# t-e con= cept. So.eti.es an i.pact o# a de#inite Rind on t-e reader or -earer is t-e ai. lyin% 5e-ind t-e c-oice o# a collo9uial or a literary 3ord rat-er t-an a neutral one. In t-e dia%ra. (p. 71)8 co..on collo9uial voca5ulary is represented as overlappin% into t-e standard En%lis- voca5ulary and is t-ere#ore to 5e considered part o# it. It 5orders 5ot- on t-e neutral voca5ulary and on t-e special collo9uial voca5ulary 3-ic-8 as 3e s-all see later8 #alls out o# standard En%lis- alto%et-er. Aust as co..on literary 3ords lacR -o.o%eneity so do co..on collo9uial 3ords and set expressions. So.e o# t-e lexical ite.s 5elon%in% to t-is stratu. are close to t-e non=standard collo9uial %roups suc- as Gar%on=is.s8 pro#essionalis.s8 etc. :-ese are on t-e 5order= line 5et3e.en t-e co..on collo9uial voca5ulary and t-e special collo9uial or non= standard voca5ulary. ,t-er 3ords approac- t-e neutral 5ulR o# t-e En%lisvoca5ulary. :-us8 t-e 3ords teena%er (a youn% %irl or youn% .an) and -ippie (-ippy) (a youn% person 3-o leads an unordered and unconventional li#e) are collo9uial 3ords passin% into t-e neutral voca5ulary. :-ey are %radually losin% t-eir non= standard c-aracter and 5eco.in% 3idely reco%niSed. >o3ever8 t-ey -ave not lost t-eir collo9uial association and t-ere#ore still re.ain in t-e collo9uial stratu. o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary. So also are t-e #ollo3in% 3ords and expressions; taRe (in &as I taRe it&0as I understand)C to %o #or (to 5e attracted 5y8 liRe very .uc-8 as in Lwou t-inR s-e still %oes #or t-e %uyzL)C %uy (youn% .an)C to 5e %one on (cto 5e .adly in love 3it-)C pro (}a pro#essional8 e. %. a pro#essional 5oxer8 tennis=player8 etc.). :-e spoRen lan%ua%e a5ounds in set expressions 3-ic-8 are collo9uial in c-aracter8 e. %. all sorts o# t-in%s8 Gust a 5it8 >o3 is li#e treatin% youz8 so=so8 ?-at ti.e do you .aRe itz8 to -o5=no5 (}to 5e very #riendly 3it-8 to drinR to%et-er)8 so .uc- t-e 5etter8 to 5e sicR and tired o#8 to 5e up to so.et-in%. :-e stylistic #unction o# t-e di##erent strata o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary depends not so .uc- on t-e inner 9ualities o# eac- o# t-e %roups8 as on t-eir interaction 3-en t-ey are opposed to one anot-er. >o3ever8 t-e 9ualities t-e.selves are not una##ected 5y t-e #unction o# t-e 3ords8 inas.uc- as t-ese 9ualities -ave 5een ac9uired in certain environ.ents. p is interestin% to note t-at anyt-in% 3ritten assu.es a %reater de%ree o# si%ni#icance t-an 3-at is only spoRen. I# t-e spoRen taRes t-e place o# t-e 3ritten or vice versa8 it .eans t-at 3e are #aced 3it- a stylistic device. 4ertain set expressions -ave 5een coined 3it-in literary En%lis- and t-eir use in ordinary speec- 3ill inevita5ly .aRe t-e utterance sound 5ooRis-. In .ot-er 3ords8 it 3ill 5eco.e literary. :-e #ollo3in% are exa.ples o# set expressions 3-ic- can 5e considered literary; in accordance 3it-8 3it- re%ard to8 5y virtue o#8 to speaR at %reat len%t-8 to lend assistance8 to dra3 a lesson8 responsi5ility rests.

3. SPECIAL LITERARY VOCABULARY

&) T'()s

L*ll scientists are lin%uists to so.e extent. :-ey are responsi5le #or devisin% a consistent ter.inolo%y8 a sReleton lan%ua%e to talR a5out t-eir su5Gect=.atter. 2-ilolo%ists and p-ilosop-ers o# speec- are in t-e peculiar position o# -avin% to evolve a special lan%ua%e to talR a5out lan%ua%e itsel#.L1 :-is 9uotation .aRes clear one o# t-e essential c-aracteristics o# a ter.8 viS. its -i%-ly conventional c-aracter. * ter. is %enerally very easily coined and easily acceptedC and ne3 coina%es as easily replace out=d8ated ones. This sensitivity to alteration is mainly due to the necessity of reflecting in language the cognitive process maintained by scholars in analysing different concepts and phenomena# @ne of the most characteristic features of a term is its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art, i#e# to its nomenclature# +hen a term is used otfr mind immediately associates it with a certain nomenclature# - term is directly connected with the concept it denotes# - term, unli'e other words, directs the mind to the essential v(uality of the thing, phenomenon or action as seen by the scientist in the light of his own conceptuali)ation# L* 3ord is or%anically one 3it- its .eanin%C liRe3ise a ter. is one 3it- a concept. 4onceptualiSation leaves8 as it 3ere8 lan%ua%e 5e-ind8 alt-ou%- t-e 3ords re.ain as (scienti#ic or p-ilosop-ical) ter./. $in%uistically t-e di##erence is i.portant in t-at ter.s are .uc- .ure easily su5stituta5le 5y ot-er ter.s t-an are 3ords 5y ot-er 3ords; it is easier to #eplace8 say8 t-e ter. p-onolo%y 5y p-one.ics (provided I .aRe it clear 3-at is .eant)8 t-an to replace everyday 3ords liRe ta5le and c-air 5y ot-er 3ords.L 2 :er.s are .ostly and predo.inantly used in special 3orRs dealin% 3it- t-e notions o# so.e 5ranc- o# science. :-ere#ore it .ay 5e said t-at t-ey 5elon% to t-e style o# lan%ua%e o# science. +ut t-eir use is not con#ined to t-is style. :-ey .ay as 3ell appear in ot-er stylescin ne3spaper style8 in pu5licistic and practically in all ot-er existin% styles o# lan%ua%e. +ut t-eir #unction in t-is case c-an%es. :-ey do not al3ays #ul#il t-eir 5asic #unction8 t-at o# 5earin% exact re#erence to a %iven concept. ?-en used in t-e 5elles=lettres style8 #or instance8 a ter. .ay ac9uire a stylistic #unction and conse9uently 5eco.e a (sporadical) SD. :-is -appens 3-en a ter. is used in suc- a 3ay t-at t3o .eanin%s are .aterialiSed si.ultaneously. :-e #unction o# ter.s8 i# encountered in ot-er styles8 is eit-er to indicate t-e tec-nical peculiarities o# t-e su5Gect dealt 3it-8 or to .aRe so.e re#erence to t-e occupation o# a c-aracter 3-ose lan%ua%e 3ould naturally contain special 3ords and expressions. In t-is connection it is interestin% to analyse t-e stylistic e##ect o# t-e .edical ter.inolo%y used 5y *. A. 4ronGn in -is novel L:-e 4itadelL. :-e #re9uent use o#

.edical ter.s in t-e novel is explained 5y its su5Gect=.atterct-e li#e o# a p-ysician cand also 5y t-e #act t-at t-e 3riter -i.sel# is a p-ysician and #inds it natural to use .edical ter.inolo%y. :-e pilin% up o# di##icult and special ter.s -inders t-e reader&s understandin% o# t-e text i# -e is not a specialist even 3-en t-e 3riter strives to explain t-e.. Moreover8 suc- an accu.ulation o# special ter.inolo%y o#ten su%%ests t-at t-e aut-or is displayin% -is erudition. Maxi. GorRi said t-at ter.s .ust not 5e overused. It -as 5een pointed out t-at t-ose 3-o are learnin% use #ar .ore co.plicated ter.s t-an t-ose 3-o -ave already learned. :-ere is an interestin% process %oin% on in t-e develop.ent o# any lan%ua%e. ?it- t-e increase o# %eneral education and t-e expansion o# tec-ni9ue to satis#y t-e ever= %ro3in% needs and desires o# .anRind8 .any 3ords t-at 3ere once ter.s -ave %radually lost t-eir 9uality as ter.s and -ave passed into t-e co..on literary or even neutral voca5ulary. :-is process .ay 5e called Lde=ter.iniSationL. Suc- 3ords as &radio&8 &television& and t-e liRe -ave lon% 5een in=co..on use and t-eir ter.i= nolo%ical c-aracter is no lon%er evident. +rian "oster in -is 5ooR L:-e 4-an%in% En%lis- $an%ua%eL 3rites; L...science is one o# t-e .ost po3er#ul in#luences .ouldin% t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e into #res- s-apes at t-e present ti.e. Scienti#ic 3ritin% is not -i%-ly estee.ed #or its ele%ancecone(ecalls t-e tale o# t-e scientist 3-o alluded to a certain do.ain o# en9uiry as a &vir%in #ield pre%nant 3it- possi5ilities&c5ut scienti#ic Gar%on and .odes o# t-ou%-t inevita5ly co.e to t-e #ore in a society 3-ic- e9uates civiliSation 3itc-ro.iu.=plated 5at- taps. Nor does t-e process date #ro. yesterday8 #or 3e -ave lon% 5een talRin% o# people 5ein% &%alvaniSed& into activity or %oin% &#ull stea. a-ead&8 5ut no3adays t-is tendency to pre#er tec-nical i.a%ery is ever=increasin%8 so t-at science can truly 5e said to -ave &sparRed o## a c-ain=reaction& in t-e lin%uistic sp-ere.L/ :-is 9uotation clearly s-o3s -o3 easily ter.s and ter.inolo%ical co.5inations 5eco.e de=ter.iniSed. ?e -ardly=notice so.eti.es t-e ter.inolo%ical ori%in o# t-e 3ords 3e use. +ut suc- de=ter.iniSed 3ords .ay 5y t-e #orce o# a stylistic device 5eco.e re= esta5lis-ed in t-eir ter.inolo%ical #unction8 t-us assu.in% a t3o#old application8 3-ic- is t-e #eature re9uired o# a stylistic device. +ut 3-en ter.s are used in t-eir nor.al #unction as ter.s in a 3orR # 5elles=lettres8 t-ey are or ou%-t to 5e easily understood #ro. t-e context so t-at t-e desired e##ect in depictin% t-e situation 3ill 5e secured8 >ere is an exa.ple o# a .oderate use o# special ter.inolo%y 5orderin% on co..on literary voca5ulary. L:-ere 3as a lon% conversationca lon% 3ait. >is #at-er ca.e 5acR to say it 3as dou5t#ul 3-et-er t-ey could .aRe t-e loan. Ei%-t per cent8 t-en 5ein% secured #or .oney8 3as a s.all rate o# interest8 considerin% its need. "or ten per cent Mr. uuSel .i%-t .aRe a call=loan. "ranR 3ent 5acR to -is e.ployer8 3-ose co..ercial c-oler

rose at t-e report.L (:-eodore Dreiser8 L:-e "inancierL) Suc- ter.s as &loan&8 &rate o# interest&8 and t-e p-rase &to secure #or .oney& are 3idely Rno3n #inancial ter.s 3-ic- to t-e .aGority o# t-e En%lis- and *.erican readin% pu5lic need no explanation. :-e ter.s used -ere do not 5ear any special .eanin%. Moreover8 i# t-ey are not understood t-ey .ay to so.e extent 5e ne%lected. It 3ill su##ice i# t-e reader -as a %eneral idea8 va%ue t-ou%- it .ay 5e8 o# t-e actual .eanin% o# t-e ter.s used. :-e .ain tasR o# t-e 3riter in t-is passa%e is not to explain t-e process o# 5usiness ne%otiations8 5ut to create t-e environ.ent o# a 5usiness at.osp-ere. In t-is exa.ple t-e ter.s retain t-eir ordinary .eanin% t-ou%- t-eir #unction in t-e text is not exactly ter.inolo%ical. It is .ore nearly stylistic8 inas.uc- as -ere t-e ter.s serve t-e purpose o# c-aracteriSin% t-e co..ercial spirit o# t-e -ero o# t-e novel. >o3ever8 t-ey are not &SDs 5ecause t-ey #ail to .eet t-e .ain re9uire.ent o# an SD. :-e #ollo3in% is an exa.ple 3-ere a ter. is used as an SD. L?-at a #ool Ba3don 4ra3ley -as 5een8L 4lu.p replied8 Lto %o and .arry a %overness. :-ere 3as so.et-in% a5out t-e %irl too.L LGreen eyes8 #air sRin8 pretty #i%ure8 #a.ous #rontal develop.entL S9uill re.arRed. (?. M. :-acReray) :-e co.5ination &#rontal develop.ent& is ter.inolo%ical in c-aracter (used so.eti.es in anato.y). +ut 5ein% preceded 5y t-e 3ord &#a.ous& used in t-e0ense indicated 5y t-e S-orter ,x#ord Dictionary as La stron% expression o# approval (c-ie#ly collo9uial)C excellent8 capitalL t-e 3-ole expression assu.es a speci#ic stylistic #unction due to t-e #act t-at &#rontal develop.ent& is used 5ot- in its ter.inolo%ical aspect and in its lo%ical .eanin% &t-e 5reast o# a 3o.an&. *not-er exa.ple o# t-e saiGie Rind cter.s 5eco.in% SDs; LI s-ould liReL said youn% Aolyon8 Lto lecture on it; 2B,2EB:w *ND OM*$I:IES ," * ",BSw:E. :-is little ani.al8 distur5ed 5y t-e ridicule o# -is o3n sort8 is una##ected in -is .otions 5y t-e lau%-ter o# stran%e creatures (you and I). >ereditarily disposed to .yopia8 -e reco%niSes only t-e persons and -a5itats o# -is o3n species8 a.on% 3-ic- -e passes an existence o# co.petitive tran9uility.L (Gals3ort-y) In t-is excerpt t-e t3o#old application o# .eanin%scter.inolo%ical and stylisticcis ac-ieved 5y t-e #ollo3in% .eans; t-e ver5 to &lecture (on...)& and t-e title o# t-e su5Gect &2roperties and 9ualities (o# a "orsyte)& direct t-e .ind to t-e do.ain o# science8 i. e. t-ey are used in a ter.inolo%ical sense. +ut 3-en t-ey are #ollo3ed 5y a 3ord 3it- no.inal .eanin% ("orsyte) t-ey assu.e an additional .eanin%ca stylistic one. :-is clas- o# incon%ruous notions arrests t-e .ind and #orces it tore=evaluate t-e ter.inolo%ical .eanin% o# t-e 3ords 3-ic- ai. at supportin% t-e pseudo=5iolo%ical and .edical aspect o# t-e .essa%ect-is 5ein% contained in t-e 3ords &sort&8 &creature&8 &little ani.al&8 &species&8 H-a5itats&8 &.yopia&. :-is aspect is also 5acRed up 5y suc- literary 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations as &tran9uility& and &passes an existence& 3-ic- are in

#ull accord 3it- t-e de.ands o# a lecture. ?-enever t-e ter.s used in t-e 5elles=lettres style set t-e reader at odds 3it- t-e text8 3e can re%ister a stylistic e##ect caused eit-er 5y a speci#ic use o# ter.s in t-eir proper .eanin%s or 5y a si.ultaneous realiSation o# t3o .eanin%s.
*) P+'tic &,- #i./ly Lit'(&(y %+(-s

2oetic 3ords #or. a rat-er insi%ni#icant layer o# t-e special literary voca5ulary. :-ey are .ostly arc-aic or very rarely used -i%-ly literary 3ords 3-ic- ai. at producin% an elevated e##ect. :-ey -ave a .arRed tendency to detac- t-e.selves #ro. t-e co..on literary 3ord=stocR and %radually assu.e t-e 9uality o# ter.s denotin% certain de#inite notions and callin% #ort- poetic diction. 2oetic 3ords and expressions are called upon to sustain t-e special elevated at.osp-ere o# poetry. :-is .ay 5e said to 5e t-e .ain #unction o# poetic 3ords. (. (. (ino%radov %ives t-e #ollo3in% properties o# poetic 3ords; L...t-e co53e5 o# poetic 3ords and i.a%es veils t-e reality8 styliSin% it accordin% to t-e esta5lis-ed literary nor.s and canons. * 3ord is torn a3ay #ro. its re#erent. +ein% dra3n into t-e syste. o# literary styles8 t-e 3ords are selected and arran%ed in %roups o# de#inite i.a%es8 in p-raseolo%ical series8 3-ic- %ro3 standardiSed and stale and are 5eco.in% conventional sy.5ols o# de#inite p-eno.ena.=or c-aracters or o# de#inite ideas or i.pressions.L1 2oetical tradition -as Rept alive suc- arc-aic 3ords and #or.s as yclept (p. p. o# t-e old ver5 clipiancto call8 na.e)C 9uot- (p. t. o# o3ed=an c to speaR)C e#tsoons (e#tsona8c a%ain8 soon a#ter)8 3-ic- are used even 5y .odern 5allad=.on%ers. $et us note in passin% t-at arc-aic 3ords are -ere to 5e understood as units t-at -ave eit-er entirely %one out o# use8 or as 3ords so.e o# 3-ose .eanin%s -ave %ro3n arc-aic8 e. %. -all in t-e #ollo3in% line #ro. +yron&s 4-ilde >arold&s 2il%ri.a%e; Deserted is .y o3n %ood -all8 its -eart- is desolate. It .ust 5e re.e.5ered t-ou%-8 t-at not all En%lis- poetry .aRes use o# Lpoeticis.s or poetical ter.sL8 as t-ey .i%-t 5e na.ed. In t-e -istory o# En%lis- literature t-ere 3ere periods8 as t-ere 3ere in .any countries8 3-ic- 3ere c-aracteriSed 5y protests a%ainst t-e use o# suc- conventional sy.5ols. :-e literary trends Rno3n as classicis. arid ro.anticis. 3ere particularly ric- in #res- poetic ter.s. 2oetical 3ords in an ordinary environ.ent .ay also -ave a satirical #unction8 as seen in t-is passa%e #ro. +yron. +ut *deline 3as not indi##erent; #or (No3 #or a co..on=placeK) 5eneat- t-e sno38 *s a volcano -olds t-e lava .ore ?it-incet cetera. S-all I %o onzcNo8 1 -ate to -unt do3n a tired .etap-or8 So let t-e o#ten=used volcano %o. 2oor t-in%; >o3 #re9uently8 5y .e and ot-ers8 It -at- 5een stirred up till its s.oRe 9uite s.ot-ersK (LDon AuanL) :-e satirical #unction o# poetic 3ords and conventional poetic devices is 3ell

revealed in t-is stanSa. :-e &tired .etap-or& and t-e &o#ten=used volcano& are typical o# +yron&s esti.ate o# t-e value o# conventional .etap-ors and stereotyped poetical expressions. :-e strivin% #or t-e unusualct-e c-aracteristic #eature o# so.e Rinds o# poetrycis aRin to t-e sensational and is t-ere#ore to 5e #ound not only in poetry8 5ut in .any ot-er stylesI * .odern En%lis- literary critic -as re.arRed t-at in Gournalese a police.an never %oes to an appointed spotC -e proceeds to it. :-e/ pictures9ue reporter seldo. talRs o# a -orse8 it is a steed or a c-ar%er. :-e sRy is t-e 3elRin&8 t-e valley sT t-e valeC #ire is t-e devourin% ele.ent... 2oetical 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations can 5e liRened to ter.s in t-at t-ey do not easily yield to polyse.y. :-ey are said to evoRe e.otive .eanin%s (see p. 11). :-ey colour t-e utterance 3it- a certain air o# lo#tiness8 5ut %enerally #ail to produce a %enuine #eelin% o# deli%-t; t-ey are too -acRneyed #or t-e purpose0too stale. *nd t-at is t-e reason t-at t-e excessive uze o#vpoeticis.s at present calls #ort- protest and derision to3ards t-ose 3-o #avour t-is conventional device. Suc- protests -ave -ad a lon% -istory. *s #ar 5acR as t-e 11t- century S-aRespeare in a nu.5er o# lines voiced -is attitude to3ard poeticis.s8 considerin% t-e. as .eans to e.5ellis- poetry. >ere is one o# tne sonnets J in 3-ic- -e conde.ns t-e use o# suc3ords. So is it not 3it- .e0as 3it- t-at Muse Stirr&d 5y a painted 5eauty to -is verse8 ?-o -eaven itsel# #or 0orna.ent dot- use *nd every #air 3it- -is #air dot- re-earse8 MaRin% a couple.ent o# proud co.pare8 ?it- sun and .oon8 3it- eart- and sea&s ric%e.s8 ?it- *pril&s #irst=5orn #lo3ers8 and all t-in%s rare :-at -eaven&s air in t-is -u%e rondure -e.s. ,8 let .e8 true in love8 5ut truly 3rite8 *nd t-en 5elieve .e8 .y love is as #air *s any .ot-er&s c-ild8 t-ou%- not so 5ri%-t @7 *s t-ose %old candles #ix&d in -eaven&s air; $et t-e. say .ore t-at liRe o# -earsay 3ellC I 3ill not praise t-at purpose not to sell. (Sonnet I) It is re.arRa5le -o3 S-aRespeare t-ou%- avoidin% poetic 3ords proper uses -i%-ly elevated voca5ulary in t-e #irst part o# t-e sonnet (t-e octave)8 suc- as &-eaven&s air&8 &re-earse&8 &couple.ent&8 &co.pare& (noun)8 &rondure&8 &-e.s&8 in contrast to t-e very co..on voca5ulary o# t-e second part (t-e sestette). :-e very secret o# a truely poetic 9uality o# a 3ord does not lie in conventionality o# usa%e. ,n t-e contrary8 a poeticis. t-rou%- constant repetition %radually 5eco.es -acRneyed. $iRe anyt-in% t-at lacRs #res-ness it #ails to evoRe a %enuinely aest-etic e##ect and eventually call #ort- protest on t-e part o# t-ose 3-o are sensitive to real 5eauty. *s #ar 5acR as in 1@77 ?ords3ort- raised t-e 9uestion o# t-e conventional use o# 3ords and p-rases8 3-ic- to -is .ind s-ould 5e avoided. :-ere 3as (and still persists) a nption called Lpoetic dictionL 3-ic- still .eans t-e collection o# epit-ets8 perip-rases8 arc-ais.s8 etc.8 3-ic- 3ere co..on property to .ost poets o# t-e 1@t-

century. >o3ever8 t-e ter. -as no3 ac9uired a 5roader .eanin%. :-us ,3en +ar#ield says; L?-en 3ords are selected and arran%ed in suc- a 3ay t-at t-eir .eanin% eit-er arouses or is o5viously intended to arouse aest-etic i.a%ination8 t-e result .ay 5e descri5ed as poetic diction.L1 2oetic diction in t-e #or.er .eanin% -as -ad a lon% linea%e. *ristotle in -is L2oeticsL 3rites t-e #ollo3in%; L:-e per#ection o# Diction is #or it to 5e at once clear8 and not .ean. :-e clearest indeed is t-at .ade up o# t-e ordinary 3ords #or t-in%s8 5ut it is .ean... t-e diction 5eco.es distin%uis-ed and non=prosaic 5y t-e use o# un#a.iliar ter.s8 i. e. stran%e 3ords8 .etap-ors8 len%t-ened #or.s and everyt-in% t-at deviates #ro. t-e ordinary .odes o# speec-... * certain ad.ixture8 accordin%ly8 o# un#a.iliar ter.s is necessary. :-ese8 t-e stran%e 3ords8 t-e .etap-or8 t-e orna.ental e9uivalent8 etc. 3ill save t-e lan%ua%e #ro. see.in% .ean and prosaic8 3-ile t-e ordinary 3ords in it 3ill secure t-e re9uisite clearness.L2 * %ood illustration =o# t-e use o# poetic 3ords t-e 5ulR o# 3-ic- are arc-aic is t-e #ollo3in% stanSa #ro. +yron&s 4-ilde >arold&s 2il%ri.a%e ?-ilo.e (at so.e past ti.e) in *l5ion&s isle (t-e oldest na.e o# t-e island o# +ritain) t-ere d3elt (lived) a yout-8 L & ?-o ne (not) in virtue&s 3ays did taRe deli%-t; ; +ut spent -is days in riot (3aste#ul livin%) .ost uncout- (unusual8 stran%e) *nd vex&d (distur5ed) 3it- .irt- (#un) t-e dro3sy ear o# Ni%-t. *- .e< (interGection expressin% re%ret8 sorro3) In soot- (truely) -e 3as a s-a.eless 3i%-t (a -u.an 5ein%) Sore (severely8 -ars-ly) %iven to revel (noisy #estivity) and un%odly (3icRed) %lee (entertain.ent)C "e3 eart-ly t-in%s #ound #avour in -is si%-t Save concu5ines (prostitutes) and carnal (not spiritual) co.panie8 *nd #launtin% (i.pudent) 3assailers (drunRardsC revellers) o# -i%and lo3 de%ree. :-e use o# poetic 3ords does not as a rule create t-e at.osp-ere o# poetry in t-e true senseC it is a su5stitute #or real art. 2oetic 3ords are not #reely 5uilt in contrast to neutral8 collo9uial and co..on literary 3ords8 or ter.s. :-e co..onest .eans is 5y co.poundin%8 e. %. / youn%=eyed&8 / rosy=#in%ered&. So.e 3riters .aRe a5undant use o# t-is 3ord=5uildin% .eans. :-us *rt-ur >ailey in -is novel LIn >i%- 2lacesL -as &serious=#aced&8 &-i%-=ceilin%ed&8 / 5ei%e=carpeted&8 &tall= 5acRed&8 / -orn=ri..ed& in al.ost close proxi.ity. :-ere is8 -o3ever8 one .eans o# creatin% ne3 poetic 3ords still reco%niSed as productive even in present=day En%lis-8 viS. t-e use o# a contracted #or. o# a 3ord instead o# t-e #ull one8 e. %. / drear& instead o# dreary8 &scant& (cscanty). So.eti.es t-e reverse process leads to t-e 5irt- o# a poeticis.8 e. %. / vasty& (}vast. / :-e vasty deep&8 i. e. t-e ocean)C &steepy& (}steep)8 &paly& (}pale).

:-ese t3o conventional devices are called #ort- 5y t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e .etre o# t-e poe.8 to add or re.ove a sylla5le8 and are %enerally avoided 5y .odern En%lispoets. 2oetical 3ords and set expressions .aRe t-e utterance understanda5le only to a li.ited nu.5er o# readers. It is .ainly due to poeticis.s t-at poetical lan%ua%e is so.eti.es called poetical Gar%on. In .odern En%lis- =poetry t-ere is a stron% tendency to use 3ords in stran%e con:5inations. It .ani#ests itsel# in t-e coina%e o# ne3 3ords and8 .ost o# all8 in co.5inin% old and #a.iliar 3ords in a 3ay t-at -inders understandin% and #orces t-e reader to stop and try to decip-er t-e .essa%e so encoded. :-e #ollo3in% .ay serve as exa.ples; &:-e sound o# s-ape&C &ni%-t=lon% eyes&C &to utter ponds o# drea.&C &3in%s o# 5ecause&C &tareap one&s sa.e&C &%oldenly 3-ole8 prodi%iously Reen star 3-o. s-ecand' -ec8 cliRe i#s o# a. perceive...& (E. E. 4u.=.in%s). *ll t-ese co.5inations are considered un%ra..atical inas.uc- as t-ey .violate t-e rules o# encodin% a .essa%e. +ut in searc- o# ne3 .odes o# expression .odern poets8 particularly t-ose 3-o .ay 5e called L.odernistsL8 -ave a stron% 5ias #or all Rinds o# innovation. :-ey experi.ent 3it- lan%ua%e .eans and are ready to approve o# any deviation #ro. t-e nor.al. So also are literary critics 5elon%in% to 3-at is called t-e avant=%arde .ove.ent in art8 t-e essence o# 3-ic- is t-e use o# unort-odox and experi.ental .et-ods. :-ese usually lead 5ot- t-e poet and t-e critic to extre.es8 exa.ples o# 3-ic- are %iven a5ove.
c) A(c/&ic0 O*s+l'sc',t &,- O*s+l't' %+(-s

:-e 3ord=stocR o# a lan%ua%e is in an increasin% state o# c-an%e. ?ords c-an%e t-eir .eanin% and so.eti.es drop out o# t-e lan%ua%e alto%et-er. Ne3 3ords sprin% up and replace t-e old ones. So.e 3ords stay in t-e lan%ua%e a very lon% ti.e and do not lose t-eir #aculty o# %ainin% ne3 .eanin%s and 5eco.in% ric-er and ric-er polyse.antically. ,t-er 3ords live 5ut a s-ort ti.e and are liRe 5u55les on t-e sur#ace o# 3ater c t-ey disappear leavin% no trace o# t-eir existence. In re%isterin% t-ese processes t-e role o# dictionaries can -ardly 5e over=esti.ated. Dictionaries serve to retain t-is or t-at 3ord in a lan%ua%e eit-er as a relic o# ancient ti.es8 3-ere it lived and circulated8 or as a still livin% unit o# t-e syste.8 t-ou%- it .ay -ave lost so.e o# its .eanin%s. :-ey .ay also preserve certain nonce=creations 3-ic- 3ere never intended #or %eneral use. In every period in t-e develop.ent o# a literary lan%ua%e one can #ind 3ords 3-ic3ill s-o3 .ore or less apparent c-an%es in t-eir .eanin% or usa%e8 #ro. #ull vi%our8 t-rou%- a .ori5und state8 to deat-8 i. e. co.plete disappearance o# t-e unit #ro. t-e lan%ua%e. ?e s-all distin%uis- t-ree sta%es in t-e a%in% process o# 3ords; :-e 5e%innin% o# t-e a%in% process 3-en t-e 3ord 5eco.es rarely used. Suc- 3ords are called o5solescent8 i.e. t-ey are in t-e sta%e o# %radually passin% out o# %eneral

use. :o t-is cate%ory #irst o# all 5elon% .orp-olo%ical #or.s .5elon%in% to t-e earlier sta%es in t-e develop.ent o# t-e lan%ua%e. In t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e t-ese are t-e pronouns t-ou and its #or.s t-ee8 t-y and t-ineC t-e correspondin% ver5al endin% =est and t-e ver5=#or.s art8 3ilt (t-ou .aRest8 t-ou 3ilt)C t-e endin% =(e)t- instead o# =(e)s (-e .aRet-) and t-e pronoun ye. :o t-e cate%ory o# o5solescent 3ords 5elon% .any "renc- 5orro3in%s 3-ic- -ave 5een Rept in t-e literary lan%ua%e as a .eans o# preservin% t-e spirit o# earlier periods8 e. %. a pallet (}a stra3 .attress)C a pal#rey (}a s.all -orse)C %arniture (0#urniture)C to e.plu.e (0to adorn 3it- #eat-ers or plu.es). = { :-e second %roup o# arc-aic 3ords are t-ose t-at -ave already %one co.pletely out o# use 5ut are still reco%niSed 5y t-e En%lis-=speaRin% co..unity; e. %. .et-inRs (}it see.s to .e)C nay (}no). :-ese 3ords are called o5solete. :-e t-ird %roup8 3-ic- .ay 5e called arc-aic proper8 are 3ords 3-ic- are no lon%er reco%niSa5le in .odern En%lis-8 3ords t-at 3ere in use in ,ld En%lis- and 3-ic-ave eit-er dropped out o# t-e lan%ua%e entirely or -ave c-an%ed in t-eir appearance so .uc- t-at t-ey -ave 5eco.e unreco%niSa5le8 e. %. trot- (0#ait-)C a losel (}a 3ort-less8 laSy #ello3). It 3ill 5e noted t-at on t-e dia%ra. (p. 71) t-e s.all circles denotin% arc-aic and poetic 3ords overlap and 5ot- extend 5eyond t-e lar%e circle Lspecial literary voca5ularyL. :-is indicates t-at so.e o# t-e 3ords in t-ese layers do not 5elon% to t-e present=day En%lis- voca5ulary. :-e 5order lines 5et3een t-e %roups are not distinct. In #act t-ey interpenetrate. It is specially di##icult to distin%uis- 5et3een o5solete and o5solescent 3ords. +ut t-e di##erence is i.portant 3-en 3e co.e to deal 3it- t-e stylistic aspect o# an utterance in 3-ic- t-e %iven 3ord serves a certain stylistic purpose. ,5solete and o5solescent 3ords -ave separate #unctions8 as 3e s-all point out later. :-ere is still anot-er class o# 3ords 3-ic- is erroneously classed as arc-aic8 viS. -istorical 3ords. +y=%one periods in t-e li#e o# any society are .arRed 5y -istorical events8 and 5y institutions8 custo.s8 .aterial o5Gects8 etc. 3-ic- are no lon%er in use8 #or exa.ple; :-ane8 yeo.an8 %o5let8 5aldric8 .ace. ?ords o# t-is type never disappear #ro. t-e lan%ua%e. :-ey are -istorical ter.s and re.ain as ter.s re#errin% to de#inite sta%es in t-e develop.ent o# society and cannot t-ere#ore 5e dispensed 3it-8 t-ou%- t-e t-in%s and p-eno.ena to 3-ic- t-ey re#er -ave lon% =passed into o5livion. >istorical 3ords -ave no synony.s8 3-ereas arc-aic 3ords -ave 5een replaced 5y .odern synony.s. *rc-aic 3ords are pri.arily and predo.inantly used in t-e creation o# a realistic 5acR%round to -istorical novels. It .ust 5e pointed out8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e use o# -istorical 3ords (ter.s) in a passa%e 3ritten in scienti#ic style8 say8 in an essay on t-e -istory o# t-e Danis- invasion8 3ill 5ear no stylistic #unction at all. +ut t-e sa.e ter.s 3-en used in -istorical novels assu.e a di##erent stylistic value. :-ey carry8 as it & 3ere8 a special volu.e o# in#or.ation addin% to t-e lo%ical aspect o# t-e

co..unication. :-is8 t-e .ain #unction o# arc-ais.s8 #inds di##erent interpretation in di##erent novels 5y di##erent 3riters. So.e 3riters overdo t-in%s in t-is respect8 t-e result 5ein% t-at t-e reader #inds all Rinds o# o5stacles in -is 3ay. .,t-ers under=esti.ate t-e necessity o# introducin% o5solete or o5solescent ele.ents into t-eir narration and t-us #ail to convey 3-at is called Llocal colourL. In -is L$etter to t-e woun% ?riterL *. N. :olstoi states t-at t-e -eroes o# -istorical novels .ust t-inR and speaR in t-e 3ay t-e ti.e t-ey live in8 #orces t-e. to. I# Stepan BaSin8 -e .aintains8 3ere to speaR o# t-e initial accu.ulation o# capital8vt-e reader 3ould t-ro3 t-e 5ooR under t-e ta5le and -e 3ould 5e ri%-t. +ut t-e 3riter .ust Rno3 all a5out t-e initial accu.ulation o# capital and vie3 events #ro. t-is particular position. ,n t-e 3-ole :olstoi&s idea does not call #or criticis.. +ut t-e 3ay it is 3orded .ay lead to .t-e .isconception t-at -eroes o# -istorical novels s-ould speaR t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e period t-ey live in. I# t-ose -eroes really spoRe t-e lan%ua%e o# .t-e ti.e t-ey lived in8 t-e reader 3ould undou5tedly t-ro3 t-e 5ooR under t-e ta5le 5ecause -e 3ould 5e una5le to=understand it. *s a .atter o# #act t-e -eroes o# -istorical novels speaR t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e period t-e 3riter and t-e reader live in8 and t-e sRill o# t-e 3riter is re9uired to colour t-e lan%ua%e 3it- suc- o5solete or o5solescent ele.ents as .ost naturally inter3eave 3it- t-e texture o# t-e .odern literary lan%ua%e. :-ese ele.ents .ust not 5e arc-aic in t-e narro3 sense. :-ey .ust 5e reco%niSa5le to t-e native reader and not -inder -is understandin% o# t-e co..unication. :-e di##iculty in -andlin% arc-aic 3ords and p-rases and t-e su5tlety @' re9uired 3as acutely #elt 5y *. S. 2us-Rin. In -is article LAuri Milos= lavsRi8 or t-e Bussian o# 11128L 2us-Rin 3rites; L?alter Scott carried alon% 3it- -i. a cro3d o# i.itators. +ut -o3 #ar t-ey are #ro. t-e Scottis- c-ar.erK $iRe *%rippa&s pupil8 t-ey su..oned t-e de.on o# t-e 2ast 5ut t-ey8 could not -andle -i. and #ell victi.s o# t-eir o3n i.prudence.L ?alter Scott 3as indeed an ini.ita5le .aster in t-e creation o# an -istorical at.osp-ere. >e used t-e stylistic .eans t-at create t-is at.osp-ere 3it- suc- sRill and discri.ination8 t-at t-e reader is scarcely a3are t-at t-e -eroes o# t-e novels speaR -is lan%ua%e and riot t-at o# i-eir o3n epoc-. ?alter Scott -i.sel# states t-e principles 3-ic- -e considers 5asic #or t-e purpose; t-e 3riter&s lan%ua%e .ust not 5e out o# date and t-ere#ore inco.pre-ensi5le8 5ut 3ords and p-rases o# .odern coina%e s-ould not 5e used. LIt is one t-in% to use t-e lan%ua%e to express #eelin%s co..on 5ot- to us and to our #ore#at-ers8L says Scott8 L5ut it is anot-er t-in% to i.pose upon t-e. t-e e.otions and speec- c-aracteristics o# t-eir descendants.L In accordance 3it- t-ese principles ?alter Scott never p-oto%rap-s t-e lan%ua%e o# earlier periodsC -e sparin%ly introduces into t-e texture o# -is lan%ua%e a #e3 3ords and expressions .ore or less o5solescent in c-aracter8 and t-is is enou%- to convey

t-e desired e##ect 3it-out unduly interlardin% present=day En%lis- 3it- outdated ele.ents o# speec-. :-ere#ore 3e can #ind suc- 3ords as .e t-inRs8 -aply8 nay8 travail8 repast and t-e liRe in %reat nu.5er and8 o# course8 a .ultiplicity o# -istorical ter.s. +ut you 3ill -ardly #ind a true arc-ais. o# t-e nature indicated in our classi#ication as arc-ais.s proper. +esides t-e #unction Gust .entioned8 arc-aic 3ords and p-rases -a</e ot-er #unctions #ound in ot-er styles. :-ey are8 #irst o# all8 #re9uently to 5e #ound in t-e style o# o##icial docu.ents. In 5usiness letters8 in le%al lan%ua%e8 in all Rinds o# statutes8 in diplo.atic do.cu.ents and in all Rinds o# le%al docu.ents one can #ind o5solescent 3ords 3-ic- 3ould lon% a%o -ave 5eco.e o5solete i# it 3ere not #or t-e preservin% po3er o# t-e special use 3it-in t-e a5ove=.entioned sp-eres o# co..unication. It is t-e sa.e 3it- arc-aic and o5solete 3ords in poetry. *s -as already 5een pointed out8 t-ey are e.ployed in t-e poetic style as special ter.s and -ence prevented #ro. droppin% co.pletely out o# t-e lan%ua%e. *.on% t-e o5solescent ele.ents o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary preserved 3it-in t-e style o# o##icial docu.ents8 t-e #ollo3in% .ay 5e .entioned; =a#oresaid8 -ere5y8 t-ere3it-8 -ereina#ter na.ed. :-e #unction oGt arc-aic 3ords and constructions in o##icial docu.ents is ter.inolo%ical in c-aracter. :-ey are used -ere 5ecause t-ey -elp to .aintain t-at exactness o# expression so necessary in t-is style. *rc-aic 3ords and particularly arc-aic #or.s o# 3ords are so.eti.es used #or satirical purposes. :-is is ac-ieved t-rou%- 3-at is called *nticli.ax (see p. 221). :-e situation in 3-ic- t-e arc-ais. is used is not appropriate to t-e context. :-ere appears a sort o# discrepancy 5et= 3een t-e 3ords actually used and t-e ordinary situation 3-ic- excludes t-e possi5ility o# suc- a usa%e. :-e lo3 predicta5ility o# an arc-ais. 3-en it appears in ordinary speec- produces t-e necessary satirical e##ect. >ere is an exa.ple o# suc- a use o# an arc-aic #or.. In S-a3&s play L>o3 >e $ied to >er >us5andL a yout- o# ei%-teen8 speaRin% o# -is #eelin%s to3ards a L#e.ale o# t-irty=sevenL expresses -i.sel# in a lan%ua%e 3-ic- is not in con#or.ity 3it- t-e situation. >is 3ords are; L2er#ect love castet- o## :ear.L *rc-aic 3ords8 3ord=#or.s and 3ord=co.5inations are also used to create an elevated e##ect. $an%ua%e is specially .oulded to suit a sole.n occasion; all Rinds o# stylistic devices are used8 and a.on% t-e. is t-e use o# arc-ais.s. So.e&arc-aic 3ords due to t-eir inner 9ualities (sound=texture8 nuances o# .eanin%8 .orp-olo%ical peculiarities8 co.5inatory po3er) .ay 5e revived in a %iven period o# t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. :-is re=esta5lis-in% in t-e voca5ulary8 -o3ever8 is %enerally con#ined to poetry and -i%-ly elevated discourse. :-e 3ord al5eit (alt-ou%-)1 .ay serve as an exa.ple. :-e stylistic si%ni#icance o# arc-aic 3ords in -istorical novels and in ot-er 3orRs o# #iction (e.otive literaturec5elles=lettres) is di##erent. In -istorical novels8 as -as 5een

p5inted out8 t-ey .aintain Llocal colourL8 i.e. t-ey per#or. t-e #unction o# creatin% t-e at.osp-ere o# t-e past. :-e reader is8 as it 3ere8 transplanted into anot-er epoc- and t-ere#ore perceives t-e use o# arc-aic 3ords as a natural .ode o# co..unication. Not so 3-en arc-aic 3ords are encountered in a depiction o# events o# present=day li#e. >ere arc-ais.s assu.e t-e #unction o# an SD proper. :-ey0re perceived in a t3o#old #unction8 t-e typical 9uality o# an SD8 viS. diac-ronically and sync-ronically. :-e a5undance o# arc-aic 3ords playin% t-e role o# ppeticis.s in t-e stanSa o# L4-ilde >aroldL 9uoted on p. @1 sets t-e reader on %uard as to t-e .eanin% o# t-e device. ,n t-e one -and8 t-e 3ord &3-ilo.e& tri%%ers o## t-e si%nal o# so.et-in% t-at tooR place in ti.es re.ote8 and t-ere#ore calls #ort- t-e necessity o# usin% arc-aic 3ords to create local colour. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 t-e cro3din% o# suc- o5solete units o# t-e voca5ulary .ay 5e interpreted as a parody on t-e Ldo.ain o# t-e #e3L8 3-ose ad-erents considered t-at real poetry s-ould avoi0 usin% L.eanL 3ords. *t any rate8 t-e use o# arc-aic 3ords -ere is a stylistic device 3-ic- 3illy=nilly re9uires decodin%8 a process 3-ic- inevita5ly calls Gprt- t-e dou5le #unction o# t-e units. ,ne .ust 5e 3ell a3are o# t-e su5tleties in t-e usa%e o# arc-ais.s. In *.erican En%lis- .any 3ords and #or.s o# 3ords 3-ic- are o5solete or o5solescent in +ritisEn%lis- -ave survived as ad.issi5le in literary usa%e. *. 4. +au%-8 a -istorian o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 points out t-at in so.e parts o# *.erica one .ay -ear Lt-ere&s a ne3 5arn a=5uildin% do3n t-e roadL. :-e #or. &a= 5uildin%& is o5solete8 t-e present #or. 5ein% 4o.pare t-e Bussian conGunction `kV. 5uildin% (:-ere is a -ouse 5uildin% c * -ouse is 5ein% 5uilt). :-is #or. -as under%one t-e #ollo3in% c-an%es; on 5uildin% 6 a=5uildin% 6 5uildin%=8 conse9uently8 &a=5uildin%& 3ill sound o5solete in En%land 5ut 3ill 5e considered dialectal in t-e Mnited States. :-is predeter.ines t-e stylistic .eanin% 3-en used in *.erican or +ritis- texts. :-e extension o# suc- #or.s to t-e passive; &* -ouse is 5ein% 5uilt& tooR place near t-e very end o# t-e 1@t- century. Stylistic #unctions o# arc-aic 3ords are 5ased on t-e te.poral perception o# events descri5ed. Even 3-en used in t-e ter.inolo%ical aspect8 as #or instance in la38 arc-aic 3ords 3ill .arR t-e utterance as 5ein% connected 3it- so.et-in% re.ote and t-e reader %ets t-e i.pression t-at -e is #aced 3it- a ti.e=-onoured tradition.
-) "&(*&(is)s &,- F+('i.,is)s

In t-e voca5ulary o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e t-ere is a considera5le layer o# 3ords called 5ar5aris.s. :-ese are 3ords o# #orei%n ori%in 3-ic- -ave not entirely 5een assi.ilated into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. :-ey 5ear t-e appearance o# a&5orro3in% and are #elt as so.et-in% alien to t-e native ton%ue. :-e role #orei%n 5orro3in%s played in t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e is 3ell Rno3n8 and t-e %reat .aGority o# t-ese 5orro3ed 3ords no3 #or. part o# t-e ranR and #ile o# t-e En%lisvoca5ulary. It is t-e science o# lin%uistics8 in particular its 5ranc- ety.olo%y8 t-at

reveals t-e #orei%n nature o# t-is or t-at 3ord. +ut .ost o# 3-at 3ere #or.erly #orei%n 5orro3in%s are no38 #ro. a purely stylistic position8 not re%arded as #orei%n. +ut still t-ere are so.e 3ords 3-ic- retain t-eir #orei%n appearance to a %reater or lesser de%ree. :-ese 3ords8 3-ic- are called 5ar5aris.s8 are8 liRe arc-ais.s/8 also considered to 5e on t-e outsRirts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. / Most o# t-e. -ave correspondin% En%lis- synony.sC e. %. c-ic (}stylis-)C 5on .ot (}a clever 3itty sayin%)C en passant (c in passin%)C in#initu. (} to in#inity) and .any ot-er 3ords and p-rases. It is very i.portant #or purely stylistic purposes to distin%uis- 5et3een 5ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ords proper. +ar5aris.s are 3ords 3-ic- -ave already 5eco.e #acts o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 part and parcel o# t-e En%lis- 3ord=stocR8 t-ou%- t-ey re.ain on t-e outsRirts o# t-e literary voca5ulary. "orei%n 3ords8 t-ou%used #or certain stylistic purposes8 do not 5elon% to t-e En%lis- voca5ulary. :-ey are not re%istered 5y En%lis- dictionaries8 except in a Rind o# addenda 3-ic- %ives t-e .eanin%s o# t-e #orei%n 3ords .ost #re9uently used in literary En%lis-. +ar5aris.s are %enerally %iven in t-e 5ody o# t-e dictionary. In printed 3orRs #orei%n 3ords and p-rases are %enerally italiciSed to indicate t-eir alien nature or t-eir stylistic value. +ar5aris.s8 on t-e contrary8 are not .ade conspicuous in t-e text unless t-ey 5ear a special 5ad o# stylistic in#or.ation. :-ere are #orei%n 3ords in t-e En%lis- voca5ulary 3-ic- #ul#il a ter.inolo%ical #unction. :-ere#ore8 t-ou%- t-ey still retain t-eir #orei%n appearance8 t-ey s-ould not 5e re%arded as 5ar5aris.s. Suc- 3ords as uRase8 udarniR8 soviet8 RolR-oS and t-e liRe denote certain concepts 3-ic- re#lect an o5Gective reality not #a.iliar to En%lis-=speaRin% co..unities. :-ere are no na.es #or t-e. in En%lis- and so t-ey -ave to 5e explained. Ne3 concepts o# t-is type are %enerally %iven t-e na.es t-ey -ave in t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e people 3-ose reality t-ey re#lect. "urt-er8 suc- 3ords as solo8 tenor8 concerto8 5litSRrie% (t-e 5litS)8 lu#t3a##e and t-e liRe s-ould also 5e distin%uis-ed #ro. 5ar5aris.s. :-ey are di##erent not only in t-eir #unctions 5ut in t-eir nature as 3ellC :-ey are ter.s. :er.inolo%ical 5orro3in%s -ave no synony.sC 5ar5aris.s8 on t-e contrary8 .ay -ave al.ost exact synony.s. It is evident t-at 5ar5aris.s are a -istorical cate%ory. Many #orei%n 3ords and p-rases 3-ic- 3ere once Gust #orei%n 3ords used in literary En%lis- to express a concept non= existent in En%lis- reality8 -ave little 5y little entered t-e class o# 3ords na.ed 5ar5aris.s and .any o# t-ese 5ar5aris.s -ave %radually lost t-eir #orei%n peculiarities8 5eco.e .ore or less naturaliSed and -ave .er%ed 3it- t-e native En%lis- stocR o# 3ords. 4onscious8 retro%rade8 spurious and strenuous are 3ords in +en Aonson&s play L:-e 2oetasterL 3-ic- 3ere .ade #un o# in t-e aut-or&s ti.e as unnecessary 5orro3in%s #ro. t-e "renc-. ?it- t-e passin% o# ti.e t-ey -ave 5eco.e co..on En%lis- literary 3ords. :-ey no lon%er raise o5Gections on t-e part o# En%lis- purists. :-e sa.e can 5e said o# t-e 3ords .scienti#ic8 .et-odical8 penetrate8 #unction8 #i%urative8 o5scure8 and .any ot-ers8 3-ic- 3ere once 5ar5aris.s8 5ut

3-ic- are no3 la3#ul .e.5ers o# t-e co..on literary 3ord=stocR o# t-e lan%ua%e. +ot- #orei%n 3ords and 5ar5aris.s are 3idely used in various styles o# lan%ua%e 3itvarious ai.s8 ai.s 3-ic- predeter.ine t-eir typical #unctions. ,ne o# t-ese #unctions is to supply local colour. In order to depict local conditions o# li#e8= concrete #acts and events8 custo.s and -a5its8 special carets taRen to introduce into t-e passa%e suc- lan%ua%e ele.ents as 3ill re#lect t-e environ.ent. In t-is respect a .ost conspicuous role is played 5y t-e lan%ua%e c-osen. In L(anity "airL :-acReray taRes t-e reader to a s.all Ger.an to3n 3-ere a 5oy 3it- a re.arRa5le appetite is .ade t-e #ocus o# attention. +y introducin% several Ger.an 3ords into -is narrative8 t-e aut-or %ives an indirect description o# t-e peculiarities o# t-e Ger.an iW` and t-e environ.ent in %eneral. L:-e little .5oy8 too8 3e o5served8 -ad a #a.ous appetite8 and consu.ed sc-inRen8 anv5raten8 and Rarto##eln8 and cran5erry Ga.... 3it- a %allantry t-at did -onour to -is nation.L :-e Ger.an 3ords are italiciSed to s-o3 t-eir alien nature and at t-e sa.e ti.e t-eir stylistic #unction in t-e passa%e. :-ese 3ords -ave not 5eco.e #acts o# t-e En%lislan%ua%e and need special decodin% to 5e understood 5y t-e ranR and #ile En%lis-= speaRin% reader. In t-is connection .ention .i%-t 5e .ade o# a stylistic device o#ten used 5y 3riters 3-ose Rno3led%e o# t-e lan%ua%e and custo.s o# t-e country t-ey depict 5ursts out #ro. t-e texture o# t-e narrative8 t-ey use #orei%n 3ords and p-rases and so.eti.es 3-ole sentences 9uite re%ard/ less o# t-e #act t-at t-ese .ay not 5e understood 5y t-e reader. >o3ever8 one suspects t-at t-e 3ords are not intended to 5e understood exactly. *ll t-at is re9uired o# t-e reader is t-at -e s-ould 5e a3are t-at t-e 3ords used are #orei%n and .ean so.et-in%8 in t-e a5ove case connected 3it- #ood. In t-e a5ove passa%e t-e association o# #ood is .aintained t-rou%-out 5y t-e use o# t-e 3ords &appetite&8 &consu.ed& and t-e En%lis&cran5erry Ga.&. :-e context t-ere#ore leads t-e reader to understand t-at sc-inRen8 5raien and Rarto##eln are 3ords denotin% so.e Rind o# #ood8 5ut exactly 3-at Rind -e 3ill learn 3-en -e travels in Ger.any. :-e #unction o# t-e #orei%n 3ords used in t-e context .ay 5e considered to provide local colour as a 5acR%round to t-e narrative. In passa%es o# ot-er Rinds units o# speec- .ay 5e used 3-ic- 3ill arouse only a va%ue conception in t-e .ind o# t-e reader. :-e si%ni#icance o# suc- units8 -o3ever8 is not co..unicative c t-e aut-or does not 3is- t-e. to convey any clear=cut idea c 5ut to serve in .aRin% t-e .ain idea stand out .ore conspicuously. :-is device .ay 5e liRened to one used in paintin% 5y representatives o# t-e Dutcsc-ool 3-o .ade t-eir 5acR%round al.ost indistin%uis-a5le in order t-at t-e #ore%round ele.ents .i%-t stand out distinctly and colour#ully. *n exa.ple 3-ic- is even .ore c-aracteristic o# t-e use o# t-e local colour #unction o# #orei%n 3ords is t-e #ollo3in% stanSa #ro. +yron&s LDon AuanL; ... .ore t-an poet&s pen

4an point8c L4osI via%%ino; YYP (Excuse a #orei%n slip=slop no3 and t-en8 I# 5ut to s-o3 I&ve travell&d; and 3-at&s travel Mnless it teac-es one to 9uote and cavilz) :-e poet -i.sel# calls t-e #orei%n 3ords -e -as used &slip=slop&8 i. e. t3addle8 so.et-in% nonsensical. *not-er #unction o# 5ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ords is to 5uild up t-e stylistic device o# non=personal direct speec- or represented speec- (see p. 2!1). :-e use o# a 3ord8 or a p-rase8 or a sentence in t-e reported speec- o# a local in-a5itant -elps to reproduce -is actual 3ords8 .anner o# speec- and t-e environ.ent as 3ell. :-us in Aa.es *ldrid%e&s L:-e Sea =Ea%leL c L*nd t-e 4retans 3ere very 3illin% to #eed and -ide t-e In%lisiLc8 t-e last 3ord is intended to reproduce t-e actual speec- o# t-e local people 5y introducin% a 3ord actually spt)Ren 5y t-e.8 a 3ord 3-ic- is very easily understood 5ecause o# t-e root. Generally suc- 3ords are #irst introduced in t-e direct speec- o# a c-aracter and t-en appear in t-e aut-or&s narrative as an ele.ent o# reported speec-. :-us in t-e novel L:-e Sea Ea%leL t-e 3ord &5enSina& (}.otor 5oat) is #irst .entioned in t-e direct speec- o# a 4retan; LIt 3as a 3ars-ip t-at sent out its 5enSina to= catc- us arid looR #or %uns.L $ater t-e aut-or uses t-e sa.e 3ord 5ut already in reported speec-; L>e -eard too t-e noise o# a 5enSina en%ine startin%.L +ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ords are used in various styles o# lan%ua%e8 5ut are .ost o#ten to 5e #ound in t-e style o# 5elles=lettres and t-e pu5li=cistic style. In t-e 5elles= lettres style8 -o3ever8 #orei%nis.s are so.eti.es used not only as separate units incorporated in t-e En%lis- narrative. :-e aut-or .aRes -is c-aracter actually speaR a #orei%n lan%ua%e8 5y puttin% a strin% o# #orei%n 3ords into -is .out-8 3ords 3-ic- to .any readers .ay 5e 9uite un#a.iliar. :-ese p-rases or 3-ole sentences are so.eti.es translated 5y t-e 3riter in a #oot=note or 5y explainin% t-e #orei%n utterance in En%lis- in t-e text. +ut t-is is seldo. done. >ere is an exa.ple o# t-e use o# "renc- 5y Ao-n Gals3ort-y; LBevelation 3as ali%-tin% liRe a 5ird in -is -eart8 sin%in%; LElle est ton revel Elle est ton revelL (LIn 4-anceryL) No translation is %iven8 no interpretation. +ut so.et-in% else .ust 5e pointed out -ere. "orei%n 3ords and p-rases .ay so.eti.es 5e used to exalt t-e expression o# t-e idea8 to elevate t-e lan%ua%e. :-is is in so.e respect aRin to t-e #unction o# elevation .entioned in t-e c-apter on arc-ais.s. ?ords 3-ic- 3e do not 9uite understand so.eti.es -ave a peculiar c-ar.. :-is .a%ic 9uality in 3ords8 a 9uality not easily %rasped8 -as lon% 5een o5served and .ade use o# in various Rinds o# utterances8 particularly in poetry and #olRlore. +ut t-e introduction o# #orei%n speec- into t-e texture o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e -inders understandin% and i# constantly used 5eco.es irritatin%. It .ay 5e liRened8 in so.e respect8 to Gar%on. Soa.es "orsyte8 #or exa.ple8 calls it exactly t-at.

LEpatanttL -e -eard one say. LAar%onKL %ro3led Soa.es to -i.sel#. :-e introduction&o# actual #orei%n 3ords in an utterance is not8 to our .ind8 a special stylistic device8 inas.uc- as it is not a conscious and intentional literary use o# Lt-e&#acts o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. >o3ever8 #orei%n 3ords8 5ein% alien to t-e texture o# t-e lan%ua%e in 3-ic- t-e 3orR is 3ritten8 al3ays arrest t-e attention o# t-e reader and t-ere#ore -ave a de#inite stylistic0#unction. So.eti.es t-e sRil#ul use o# one or t3o #orei%n 3ordsv3ill 5e su##icient to create t-e i.pression o# an utterance .ade in a #orei%n lan%ua%e. :-us in t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple; LDeutsc-e Soldaten b0a little 3-ile a%d8 you received a sa.ple o# *.erican stren%t-&.L (Ste#an >ey.8 L:-e 4rusadersL) :-e t3o 3ords &Deutsc-e Soldaten& are su##icient to create t-e i.pression t-at t-e actual speec- 3as .ade in Ger.an8 as in real li#e it 3ould -ave 5een. :-e sa.e e##ect is so.eti.es ac-ieved 5y t-e sli%-t distortion o# an En%lis- 3ord8 or a distortion o# En%lis- %ra..ar in suc- a 3ay t-at t-e .orp-olo%ical aspect o# t-e distortion 3ill 5ear a rese.5lance to t-e .orp-olo%y o# t-e #orei%n ton%ue8 #or exa.ple; L>e looR at Miss "orsyte so #unny so.eti.es. I tell -i. all .y storyC -e so= sy.patisc-.L (Gals3ort-y) +ar5aris.s -ave still anot-er #unction 3-en used in t-e 5elles=lettres style. ?e .ay call it an Lexacti#yin%L #unction. ?ords o# #or=sei%n ori%in %enerally -ave a .ore or less .onose.antic value. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ey do not tend to develop ne3 .eanin%s. :-e En%lis- So lon%8 #or exa.ple8 due to its conventional usa%e -as lost its pri.ary .eanin%. It -as 5eco.e a #or.al p-rase o# partin%. Not so 3it- t-e "renc- L*u= revoir.L ?-en used in En%lis- as a #or.al si%n o# partin% it 3ill eit-er carry t-e exact .eanin% o# t-e 3ords it is co.posed o#8 viS. &See you a%ain soon&8 or -ave anot-er stylistic #unction. >ere is an exa.ple; LS-e -ad said /*u revoir( Not %ood=5yeKL (Gals3ort-y) :-e #or.al and conventional salutation at partin% -as 5eco.e a .eanin%#ul sentence set a%ainst anot-er #or.al salutation at partin% 3-ic-8 in its turn8 is revived 5y t-e process to its #or.er si%ni#icance o# LGod 5e 3it- you8L i. e. a salutation used 3-en partin% #or so.e ti.e. In pu5licistic style t-e use o# 5ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ords is .ainly con#ined to colourin% t-e passa%e on t-e pro5le. in 9uestion 3it- v touc- o# aut-ority. * person 3-o uses so .any #orei%n 3ords and p-rases is o5viously a very educated person8 t-e reader t-inRs8 and t-ere#ore a L.an 3-o Rno3s.L >ere are so.e exa.ples o# t-e use o# 5ar5aris.s in t-e pu5licistic style; Lwet en passant I 3ould liRe to asR -ere (and ans3er) 3-at did BocRe#eller t-inR o# $a5our...L (Dreiser8 LEssays and *rticlesL) L4iviliSationL c as t-ey Rne3 it c still depended upon .aRin% pro#its ad in#initu.L (I5id.) ?e .ay re.arR in passin% t-at Dreiser 3as particularly #ond o# usin% 5ar5aris.s not only in -is essays and articles 5ut in -is novels and stories as 3ell. *nd t-is 5rin%s us

to anot-er 9uestion. Is t-e use o# 5ar5aris.s and #orei%n 3ords a .atter o# individual pre#erence o# expression8 a certain idiosyncrasy o# t-is or t-at 3riterz ,r is t-ere a de#inite nor. re%ulatin% t-e usa%e o# t-is .eans o# expression in di##erent styles o# speec-z :-e reader is invited to .aRe -is o3n o5servations and in#erences on t-e .atter. +ar5aris.s assu.e t-e si%ni#icance o# a stylistic device i# t-ey display a Rind o# interaction 5et3een di##erent .eanin%s8 or #unctions8 or aspects. ?-en a 3ord 3-ic3e consider a 5ar5aris. is used so as to evoRe a t3o#old application 3e are con#ronted 3it- an SD. In t-e exa.ple %iven a5ove c LS-e -ad said &au revoir( Not %ood5yeKL t-e &au revoir& 3ill 5e understood 5y t-e reader 5ecause o# its #re9uent use in so.e circles o# En%lissociety. >o3ever8 it is to 5e understood literally -ere8 i. e. &So lon%& or &until 3e see eac- ot-er a%ain.& :-e t3o#old perception secures t-e desired e##ect. Set a%ainst t-e En%lis- &Good=5ye& 3-ic- is %enerally used 3-en8 people part #or an inde#inite ti.e8 t-e 5ar5aris. loses its #or.al c-aracter and re=esta5lis-es its ety.olo%ical .eanin%. 4onse9uently8 -ere a%ain 3e see t-e clearly cut t3o#old application o# t-e lan%ua%e unit8 t-e indispensa5le re9uire.ent #or a stylistic device.
') Lit'(&(y C+i,&.'s (I,cl1-i,. N+,c'2%+(-s)

:-ere is a ter. in lin%uistics 3-ic- 5y its very nature is a.5i%uous and t-at is t-e ter. neolo%is.. In dictionaries it is %enerally de#ined as / a ne3 3ord or a ne3 .eanin% #or an esta5lis-ed 3ord.K Everyt-in% in t-is de#inition is va%ue. >o3 lon% s-ould 3ords or t-eir .eanin%s 5e re%arded as ne3z ?-ic- 3ords o# t-ose t-at appear as ne3 in t-e lan%ua%e8 say durin% t-e li#e=ti.e o# one %eneration8 can 5e re%arded as esta5lis-edz It is su%%estive t-at t-e latest editions o# certain dictionaries avoid t-e use o# t-e stylistic notation Lneolo%is.L apparently 5ecause o# its a.5i%uous c-aracter. I# a 3ord is #ixed in a dictionary and provided t-at t-e dictionary is relia5le8 it ceases to 5e a neolo%is.. I# a ne3 .eanin% is reco%niSed as an ele.ent in t-e se.antic structure o# a lexical unit8 it ceases to 5e ne3. >o3ever8 i# 3e 3is- to=divide t-e 3ord=stocR o# a lan%ua%e into c-ronolo%ical periods8 3e can conventionally .arR o## a period 3-ic- .i%-t 5e called ne3. Every period in t-e develop.ent o# a lan%ua%e produces an isVm=.ous nu.5er o# ne3 3ords or ne3 .eanin%s o# esta5lis-ed 3ords. Most o# t-e. do not live lon%. :-ey are not .eant to live lon%. :-ey are8 as it 3ere8 coined #or use at t-e .o.ent o# speec-8 and t-ere#ore possess a peculiar property ct-at o# te.porariness. :-e %iven 3ord or .eanin% -olds only in t-e %iven context and is .eant only :o Lserve t-e occasion.L >o3ever8 suc- is t-e po3er o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e t-at a 3ord or a .eanin% used only to serve t-e occasion8 3-en once #ixed in 3ritin%8 .ay 5eco.e part and. parcel o# t-e/ %eneral voca5ulary irrespective o# t-e 9uality o# t-e 3ord. :-at&s 3-y t-e introduction o# ne3 3ords 5y .en=o#=letters is pre%nant 3it- un#oreseen conse9uences; t-eir ne3 coina%es .ay replace old 3ords and 5eco.e esta5lis-ed in

t-e lan%ua%e as synony.s and later as su5stitutes #or t-e old 3ords. In t-is connection it .i%-t 5e noted t-at suc- 3ords as Yaki]g8 Vki]g and t-eir derivatives as 3ell as g`W8 WXVmXiYY8 WXVsig_X`_g and ot-ers introduced into t-e literary Bussian lan%ua%e 5y (. G. +elinsRy -ave 5eco.e le%iti.ate' Bussian 3ords #ir.ly esta5lis-ed in t-e 3ord=stocR o# t-e Bussian lan%ua%e and are no lon%er #elt to 5e alien to t-e literary lan%ua%e as t-ey 3ere in'-e nineteent- century. :-e coinin% o# ne3 3ords %enerally arises #irst o# all 3it- t-e need to desi%nate ne3 concepts resultin% #ro. t-e develop.ent o# science and also 3it- t-e need to express nuances o# .eanin% called #ort- 5y a deeper understandin% o# t-e nature o# t-e p-eno.enon in 9uestion. It .ay also 5e t-e result o# a searc- #or a .ore econo.ical8 5rie# and co.pact #or. o# utterance 3-ic- proves to 5e a .ore expressive .eans o# co..unicatin% t-e idea. :-e #irst type o# ne3ly coined 3ords8 i. e. t-ose 3-ic- desi%nate ne35orn concepts8 .ay 5e na.ed ter.inolo%ical coina%es. :-e secondtype8 I. e. 3ords coined 5ecause t-eir creators seeR expressive utterance .ay 5e na.ed stylisticcoina%es. Ne3 3ords are .ainly coined accordin% to t-e productive .odels #or 3ord=5uildin% in t-e %iven lan%ua%e. +ut t-e ne3 3ords o# t-e literary=5ooRis- type 3e are dealin% 3it- in t-is c-apter .ay so.eti.es 5e 5uilt 3it- t-e -elp o# a##ixes and 5y ot-er .eans 3-ic- -ave %one out o# use or 3-ic- are in t-e process o# dyin% out. In t-is case t-e stylistic e##ect produced 5y t-e .eans o# 3ord=5uildin% c-osen 5eco.es .ore apparent8 and t-e stylistic #unction o# t-e device can 5e #elt .ore acutely. It o#ten -appens8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e sensitive reader #inds a ne3 . application o# an already existin% 3ord al.ost revoltin%. 2urists o# all s-ades rise up in protest a%ainst 3-at t-ey call t-e -i%-ly o5Gectiona5le and ille%iti.ate usa%e o# t-e 3ord. +ut 5ein% once success#ully used8 it .ay 5e repeated 5y ot-er 3riters and so .ay re.ain in t-e lan%ua%e and8 .oreover8 .ay in#luence t-e #urt-er -istory o# t-e se.antic develop.ent o# t-e 3ord. (. (. (ino%radov Gustly re.arRs; L...:-e turnin% point in t-e se.antic -istory o# .any 3ords is t-e ne38 vividly expressive8 #i%urative8 individual use o# t-e.. :-is ne3 and %enuinely artistic application o# a 3ord8 i# it is in con#or.ity 3it- t-e %eneral tendencies o# t-e se.antic develop.ent o# t-e lan%ua%e8 not in#re9uently predeter.ines t-e #urt-er se.antic develop.ent o# t-e 3ord.L1 *.on% ne3 coina%es o# a literary=5ooRis- type .ust 5e .entioned a considera5le layer o# 3ords appearin% in t-e pu5licistic style8 .ainly in ne3spaper articles and .a%aSines and also in t-e ne3spaper stylec .ostly in ne3spaper -eadlines. :o t-ese 5elon%s t-e 3ord +li.p c a na.e coined 5y $o38 t-e 3ell=Rno3n En%liscartoonist. :-e na.e 3as coined to desi%nate an En%lis- colonel #a.ous #or -is conceit8 5rutality8 &ultra=conservatis.. :-is 3ord %ave 5irt- to a derivative8 viS. +li.pis-. ,t-er exa.ples are &5acRlas-& (in &5acRlas- policy&) and its opposite &#rontlas-&. $iterary critics8 .en=o#=letters and lin%uists8 -ave .ani#ested di##erent attitudes to3ards ne3 coina%es 5ot- literary and collo9uial. Ever since t-e 11t- century8

literature -as s-o3n exa.ple a#ter exa.ple o# t-e losin% 5attle o# t-e purists 3-ose stron%est o5Gection to t-e ne3 3ords 3as on t-e score o# t-eir o5scurity. *. *. +au%points out t-at t-e %reat exponent o# t-is vie3 3as :-o.as ?ilson. >is L*rteo# B-etor =i9ueL (1 !!) 3as several ti.es reprinted and 3as used 5y S-aRespeare. ,# course8 t-ere are di##erent de%rees o# puris.. In ot-er 3ords8 t-e e##orts o# sc-olars to preserve t-e purity o# t-eir lan%ua%e s-ould not al3ays 5e re%arded/as conservative. :-ey do not looAN upon any and every c-an%e 3it- suspicion or re%ard an innovation as invaria5ly a corruption o# t-e lan%ua%e. Most o# t-e ne3 3ords o# t-e 11t- century as 3ell as t-ose o# t-e 17t- 3ere #orei%n 5orro3in%s #ro. $atin8 GreeR and continental "renc-. :-e 3ords 3ere introduced into t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e and used in t-e sa.e sense and 3it- al.ost t-e sa.e pronunciation as in t-e lan%ua%e t-ey 3ere 5orro3ed #ro.. +ut .ost o# t-ose 3-ic- -ave re.ained in t-e lan%ua%e under3ent c-an%es due to t-e process o# assi.ilation and 3ere #inally LnaturaliSed.L :-is process is slo3. It so.eti.es taRes centuries to .aRe a 3ord 5orro3ed #ro. anot-er lan%ua%e sound 9uite En%lis-. :-e te.po o# assi.ilation is di##erent 3it- di##erent 5orro3in%s8 dependin% in particular on t-e lan%ua%e t-e 3ord is 5orro3ed #ro.. +orro3in%s #ro. t-e "renc- lan%ua%e are easily and 9uicRly assi.ilated due to lon%=esta5lis-ed tradition. :-e process o# assi.ilation plays a rat-er i.portant role in t-e stylistic evaluation o# a lexical unit. :-e %reater and t-e deeper t-e process o# assi.ilation8 t-e .ore %eneral and co..on t-e 3ord 5eco.es8 t-e less 5ooRis- it sounds8 and t-e %reater t-e pro5a5ility o# its 5eco.in% a .e.5er o# t-e neutral layer o# 3ords. :-rou%-out t-e -istory o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e8 sc-olars -ave expressed t-eir opposition to t-ree .ain lines o# innovation in t-e voca5ulary; #irstly8 to 5orro3in%s 3-ic- t-ey considered o5Gectiona5le 5ecause o# t-eir irre%ularityC secondly8 to t-e revival o# arc-aic 3ordsC and t-irdly8 5ecause t-e process o# creation o# ne3 3ords.3as too rapid #or t-e literary lan%ua%e to assi.ilate. :-e opposition to one or ot-er o# t-ese lines o# innovation increased in violence at di##erent sta%es in t-e develop.ent o# t-e lan%ua%e8 and s3itc-ed #ro. one to anot-er in accordance 3itt-e %eneral la3s o# develop.ent in t-e %iven period. 8 ?e s-all re#er t-e reader to 5ooRs on t-e -istory o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e #or a .ore detailed analysis o# t-e attitude o# purists o# di##erent s-ades to innovations. ,ur tasR -ere is to trace t-e literary8 5ooRis- c-aracter o# coina%es and to s-o3 3-ic- o# t-eir #eatures -ave contri5uted to t-eir stylistic la5els. So.e 3ords -ave indeed passed #ro. t-e literary=5ooRis- layer o# t-e voca5ulary 3-ere t-ey #irst appeared8 into t-e stratu. o# co..on literary 3ords and t-en into t-e neutral stratu.. ,t-ers -ave re.ained 3it-in t-e literary=5ooRis- %roup o# 3ords and -ave never s-o3n any tendency to .ove do3n3ards in t-e scale. :-is #act is apparently due to t-e lin%uistic 5acR%round o# t-e ne3 3ords and also to t-e de.andIor a ne3 unit to express nuances o# .eanin%.

In our ti.es t-e sa.e tendency to coin ne3 3ords is to 5e o5served in En%land and particularly in t-e Mnited States o# *.erica. :-e literary lan%ua%e is literally inundated 3it- all Rinds o# ne3 3ords and a considera5le 5ody o# protest -as arisen a%ainst t-e.. It is enou%- to looR t-rou%- so.e o# t-e articles o# t-e Ne3 worR :i.es on t-e su5Gect to see 3-at direction t-e protest a%ainst innovations taRes. $iRe earlier periods in t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 .odern ti.es are c-aracteriSed 5y a vi%orous protest a%ainst t-e unrestrained in#lux o# ne3 coina%es8 3-et-er t-ey -ave 5een 5uilt in accordance 3it- t-e nor.s o# t-e lan%ua%e8 or 3-et-er t-ey are o# #orei%n ori%in. L:-e dan%er is not t-at t-e readin% pu5lic 3ould desert %ood 5ooRs8 5ut t-at a5use o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e .ay ruin 5ooRs. L*s #or 3ords8 3e are never at a lossC i# t-ey do not exist8 3e invent t-e.. ?e carry out purpose#ul proGects in a .eanin%#ul .anner in order to ac-ieve insi%-t#ul experiences. L?e diariSe8 3e earliriSeC any day 3e .ay 5e%in to #uturiSe. ?e also itineriSe8 relia5liSeC and 3e not only deconta.inate and de-u.idi#yv5ut 3e de5ureaucratiSe and 3e deinsectiSe. ?e are8 in addition8 discoverin% -o3 %ood and pleasant it is to #ello3s-ip 3it- one anot-er. LI can only say8 Met us #inaliSe all t-is nonsense&.L :-e 3riter o# t-e article t-en proceeds to %ive an explanation o# t-e reasons #or sucunrestrained coina%e. >e states t-at so.e o# t-e 3riters L...are not as-a.ed o# 3ritin% 5adly 5ut rat-er proud o# 3ritin% at all andc3it- a certain vanitycare attracted 5y %or%eous 3ords 3-ic- %ive to t-eir slender t-ou%-ts an appearance o# po3er.L 2er-aps t-e 3riter o# t-is article is not #ar #ro. t-e trut- 3-en -e ascri5es literary coina%e to t-e desire to .aRe utterances .ore po.pous and sensational. It is su%%estive t-at t-e .aGority o# suc- coina%es are #ound in ne3spaper and .a%aSine articles and8 liRe t-e articles t-e.selves8 live 5ut a s-ort ti.e. *s t-eir e##ect is transitory8 it .ust 5e instantaneous. I# a ne3ly=coined 3ord can serve t-e de.and o# t-e .o.ent8 3-at does it .atter to t-e 3riter 3-et-er it is a necessary 3ord or notz :-e #res-ness o# t-e creation is its pri.ary and indispensa5le 9uality. :-e #ate o# literary coina%es8 unliRe collo9uial ones8 .ainly depends on t-e nu.5er o# rival synony.s already existin% in t-e voca5ulary o# t-e lan%ua%e. It also depends on t-e s-ade o# .eanin% t-e ne3 coina%e .ay convey to t-e .ind o# t-e reader. I# a ne3 3ord is approved o# 5y native speaRers and 5eco.es 3idely used8 it ceases to 5e a ne3 3ord and 5eco.es part and parcel o# t-e %eneral voca5ulary in spite o# t-e o5Gections o# .en=o#=letters and ot-er la3%ivers o# t-e lan%ua%e8 3-oever t-ey .ay 5e. Many coina%es disappear entirely #ro. t-e lan%ua%e8 leavin% no .arR o# t-eir even 5rie# existence. ,t-er literary neolo%is.s leave traces in t-e voca5ulary 5ecause t-ey are #ixed in t-e literature o# t-eir ti.e. In ot-er 3ords8 ne3 literary=5ooRis- coina%es 3ill al3ays leave traces in t-e lan%ua%e8 inas.uc- as t-ey appear in 3ritin%. :-is is not t-e case 3it- collo9uial coina%es. :-ese8 as 3e s-all see later8 are spontaneous8

and due to t-eir lin%uistic nature8 cannot 5e #ixed unless special care is taRen 5y specialists to preserve t-e.. Most o# t-e literary=5ooRis- coina%es are 5uilt 5y .eans o# a##ixation and 3ord co.poundin%. :-is is 5ut naturalC ne3 3ords 5uilt in t-is .anner 3ill 5e i..ediately perceived 5ecause o# t-eir unexpectedness. Mnexpectedness in t-e use o# 3ords is t-e natural device o# t-ose 3riters 3-o seeR to ac-ieve t-e sensational. It is interestin% to note in passin% t-at conversion8 3-ic- -as 5eco.e one o# t-e .ost productive 3ord= 5uild= in% devices o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e and 3-ic- is .ore and .ore 3idely used to #or. ne3 3ords in all parts o# speec-8 is less e##ective in producin% t-e sensational e##ect sou%-t 5y literary coina%e t-an is t-e case 3it- ot-er .eans o# 3ord=5uildin%. 4onversion -as 5eco.e or%anic in t-e .En%lis- lan%ua%e. Se.antic 3ord=5uildin%8 t-at is8 %ivin% an old 3ord a ne3 .eanin%8 is rarely e.ployed 5y 3riters 3-o coin ne3 3ords #or Gournalistic purposes. It is too slo3 and i.percepti5le in its %ro3t- to produce any Rind o# sensational e##ect. 4onversion8 derivation and c-an%e o# .eanin% .ay 5e re%istered as .eans 5y 3-icliterary=5ooRis- coina%es are #or.ed. :-ese t-ree .eans o# 3ord=5uildin% are .ostly used to coin ne3 ter.s in 3-ic- ne3 .eanin%s are i.posed on old 3ords. *.on% coina%es o# t-is Rind t-e 3ord accessories .ay 5e .entioned. It -as no3 5eco.e an i.portant 3ord in t-e voca5ulary o# #e.inine #as-ion. It .eans %loves8 s-oes and -and5a%8 t-ou%- Ge3ellery and ot-er orna.ents are so.eti.es included. Mary Bei#er&s &LDictionary o# Ne3 ?ordsL notes a ver5 to accessoriSe .eanin% 'to provide 3it- dress accessories8 suc- as -and5a%8 %loves8 s-oes8 etcI. :-ese ite.s are supposed to #or. a .atc-in% or -ar.onious 3-ole. :-e ne3 .eanin% co=exists 3it- t-e old ones. In ot-er 3ords8 ne3 .eanin%s i.posed on old 3ords #or. one syste. in 3-ic- old and ne3 .eanin%s are ran%ed in a dictionary accordin% to t-eir rate o# #re9uency or to so.e ot-er underlyin% principle. +ut t-ere are cases 3-en ne3 .eanin%s i.posed o- old 3ords drive out old .eanin%s. In t-is case 3e re%ister a %radual c-an%e in t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ord 3-ic.ay not incorporate t-e old one. In .ost cases8 -o3ever8 t-e old .eanin% is -ardly #eltC it is %enerally #or%otten and can only 5e re=esta5lis-ed 5y ety.olo%ical analysis. :-us t-e 3ord ad.ire88 3-ic-8 as in $atin8 #irst .eant &to #eel or express surprise or astonis-.ent&8 -as today lost its pri.ary .eanin% and no3 -as ac9uired a ne3 one 3-ic-8 -o3ever8 still contains a s-ade o# t-e old8 uiSI&td re%ard 3it- 3onder and approval8 estee. or a##ection8 to deli%-t in&. :-e process o# eli.ination o# t-e old .eanin%8 as is seen #ro. t-is exa.ple8 is slo3 and s.oot-. >ardly ever can 3e re%ister a sudden s3itc- #ro. one .eanin% to anot-er; t-ere is al3ays a %radual transition8 and not in#re9uently AC-e t3o co.petin% .eanin%s co=exist8 .ani#estin% in t-is co=existence 0an al.ost i.percepti5le internal stru%%le 3-ic- ends in t-e co.plete eli.ination o# one o# t-e.. *l.ost -al# o# t-e 3ords in&i-e 1@t- century LEn%lis- DictionaryL co.piled 5y Sa.uel Ao-nson .ay serve as exa.ples o# c-an%e o# .eanin%. * 3ord or t3o taRen at

rando. 3ill con#ir. t-e state.ent Gust .ade. :-e 3ord to #ascinate .eant &to 5e3itc-&C &to enc-ant&C &to in#luence in so.e 3icRed and secret .anner&. :-e 3ord availa5le is explained in Ao-nson&s Dictionary as L1. 2ro#ita5leC *dvanta%eous. 2. 2o3er#ul8 in #orce.L :rue8 in so.e respects Ao-nson&s Dictionary cannot 5e re%arded as a relia5le source o# in#or.ation; -is attitude to3ards collo9uial idio. is 3ell Rno3n. It 3as not only aversioncit 3as a .ani#estation o# -is t-eoretical vie3point. Aa.es +os3ell in -is L$i#e o# Ao-nsonL says t-at t-e co.piler o# t-e dictionary 3as at all ti.es Gealous o# in#ractions upon t-e %enuine En%lis- lan%ua%e8 and pro.pt to repress 3-at -e called collo9uial 5ar5aris.sC suc- as pled%in% .ysel# #or &undertaRin%&8 line #or &depart.ent& or +ranc-&8 as t-e civil line8 t-e=5anRin% line. >e 3as particularly indi%nant a%ainst t-e al.ost universal use o# t-e 3ord idea in t-e sense o# &notion& or &opinion&8 3-en it is clear t-at idea8 5ein% derived #ro. t-e GreeR 3ord .eanin% &to see&8 can t6nly si%ni#y so.et-in% o# 3-ic- an i.a%e can 5e #or.ed in t-e .ind. ?e .ay -ave8 -e says8 an idea or i.a%e o# a .ountain8 a tree8 a 5uildin%C 5ut 3e cannot surely -ave an idea or i.a%e o# an ar%u.ent or proposition. *s -as 5een pointed out8 3ord=5uildin% 5y .eans o# a##ixation is still predo.inant in coinin% ne3 3ords. Exa.ples are; ar5iterc&a spacecra#t desi%ned to or5it a celestial 5ody&C landerc&a spacecra#t desi%ned to land on suc- a 5ody&C .issileerc&a person sRilled in .issilery or in t-e launc-in% and control o# .issiles&C #ruitolo%ist and 3recRolo%ist 3-ic- 3ere used in a letter to t-e editor o# :-e ti.es #ro. a person livin% in *ustralia. *not-er .onster o# t-e inR=-orn type is t-e 3ord overdic-oto.iSe c&to split so.et-in% into too .any parts&8 3-ic- is co..ented upon in an article in Ne3 worR :i.es Ma%aSine; LIt is8 alas8 too .uc- to expect t-at t-is #ine #lo3er o# lan%ua%e8 a verita5le -ot=-ouse speci.encco.5inin% as it does a vo%ue 3ord 3it- a vo%ue su##ixc3ill lon% survive.L/ :-e literary=5ooRis- c-aracter o# suc- coina%es is 9uite apparent and needs no co..ent. :-ey are al3ays #elt to 5e over=literary 5ecause eit-er t-e ste. or t-e a##ix (or 5ot-) is not used in t-e 3ay t-e reader expects it to 5e used. 2er-aps it 3ould 5e .ore appropriate to say t-at 5y #orci5ly puttin% to%et-er a #a.iliar ste. and a #a.iliar a##ix and t-us producin% an un#a.iliar 3ord8 t-e 3riter co.pels t-e reader to concentrate -is attention on t-e ne3 3ord8 #irstly 5y its novelty and secondly 5y t-e necessity o# analysin% it in order to .decip-er t-e .essa%e. +y usin% a neolo%is. instead o# t-e 3ord or co.5ination o# 3ords expected8 -e violates t-e .ain property o# a co..unication8 3-ic- is to convey t-e idea strai%-t#or3ardly and pro.ptly. *.on% ne3 creations t-ose 3it- t-e su##ix =iSe see. to 5e t-e .ost iC#re9uent. :-e su##ix =iSe %ives a stron% s-ade o# 5ooRis-ness to ne3 #3ords. >ere are so.e .ore exa.ples o# neolo%is.s 3it- t-is su##ix; &detri5alI!~d (*#ricans)&C &accessorI0&C &&.oisturiSe&C &villa%iSe&. :-o.as 2yles 3rites; L:-e/=iSe su##ix... is very vo%uis- in advertiSin% copy8 a .ost potent disse.inator o#

.odis- expressionsC ...its #as-iona5leness .ay explain 3-y &-ospitaliSe&8 current since t-e turn o# t-e century8 -as recently 5e%un to #louris-.L So.e a##ixes are t-e.selves literary in c-aracter and naturally carry t-is property to derivatives #or.ed 3it- t-e.. :-us8 #or exa.ple8 t-e pre#ix anti= -as %iven us a nu.5er o# ne3 3ords 3-ic- are %radually 5eco.in% reco%niSa5le as #acts o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary8 e. %. &[st=novelist&8 &onIi=-ero&8 &qmIt=3orld&8 &qm=e.otion&8 &anti=trend& and t-e liRe. :-e pre#ix anti=8 as is seen #ro. t-ese exa.ples8 -as developed a ne3 .eanin%. It is rat-er di##icult to speci#y. In t-e .ost %eneral ter.s it .ay 5e de#ined as &t-e reverse o#. In t-is connection it 3ill 5e interestin% to 9uote t-e 3ords o# an En%lis- Gournalist and essayist. L:-e spirit o# opposition is as necessary as t-e presence o# rules and disciplines8 5ut unli.ited RicRin% over traces can 5eco.e a tedious exercise. So can t-is popular 5usiness o# 5ein% &anti& in %eneral. In t-e 3orld o# letters t-e critical lin%o o# our ti.e speaRs o# t-e / anti=novel& or / anti=play& 3-ic- -as an &anti=-ero&. Since t-ere is a #as-ion #or c-aracters una5le to co..unicate8 people 3it- not-in% to say and no voca5ulary 3it- 3-ic- to explain t-eir vacuity8 &anti=3ritin%& .ay #airly 5e descri5ed as possessin% &anti=dialo%ue&.L :-e su##ix =do. -as also developed a ne3 .eanin%8 as in &%an%do.&8 &#recRledo.&8 &.usicdoIn& 3-ere t-e su##ix is used 3it- t-e .ost %eneral .eanin% o# collectivity. :-e su##ix =ii -as 5een %iven ne3 li#e. ?e -ave& interro%ate&8 &auto5io%rap-y& (L...t-e pseudo=auto5io%rap-er -as s3allo3ed t-e auto5io%rap-ee 3-ole.L Ne3 States.an8 Nov. 298191!)C &enrolls& (LEac- enrollee is %iven a 5ooRlet #illed 3it- advice and su%%estions8 and attends t-e lecture...L Ne3 worR :i.es Ma%aSine8 Aan. 218 191')C &o.ittee&8 &asRee& (L:-at&s a 5ad -a5it8 asRin% a 9uestion and not 3aitin% #or an ans3er8 5ut it&s not al3ays 5ad #or t-e asRee.L c Bex Stout8 L:oo .any clientsL) == 0 .C = :-e su##ix =s-ip -as also developed a ne3 s-ade o# .eanin% 3-ic- is no3 %ainin% literary reco%nition8 as in t-e coina%es; &s-o3.ansIup&8 &5rinR.ansIup&8 &li#e.ansIu&p&8 &lip.ansIu&p( &.istress .ansIup&8 &su%er.ansIiIp&8 & one=up .ansIup&8 etc. In t-ese coina%esL _j interestin% p-eno.enon see.s to 5e taRin% place. :-e 3ord .an is %radually %ro3in% #irst into a -al#=su##ix and #inally into part o# t-e co.plex= su##ix =.ans-ip 3it- t-e approxi.ate .eanin% &t-e a5ility to do so.et-in% 5etter t-an anot-er person&. *.on% vo%uis- su##ixes 3-ic- colour ne3 coina%es 3it- a s-ade o# 5ooRis-ness is t-e su##ix =ese8 t-e dictionary de#inition o# 3-ic- is L1) 5elon%in% to a city or country as in-a5itant (in-a5itants) or lan%ua%e8 e. %. Genoese8 4-ineseC 2) pertainin% to a particular 3riter (o# style or diction)8 e. %. Ao-nsonese8 Gournalese.L Modern exa.ples are; &Daily=:ele%rap-ese&8 &Ne3 worRese&C recently a ne3 3ord -as appearedc &:(=ese&. It is t-e novelty o# t-ese creations t-at attracts our attention and it is t-e unexpectedness o# t-e co.5ination t-at .aRes us #eel t-at t-e ne3

coina%e is o# a 5ooRis- c-aracter. :-e resistance o# purists to t-e unrestrained #lo3 o# ne3 coina%es o# a 5ooRisc-aracter8 3-ic- %reatly outnu.5ers t-e natural collo9uial creations8 can 5e illustrated in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords o# Bo5ert E. Morse5er%er; L*nyone #a.iliar 3it- t-e current crop o# -orror .ovies Rno3s t-at 3eird .utations caused 5y ato.ic radiation -ave spa3ned a 5rood o# .ali%nant .onsters8 #ro. %iant insects (-al# -u.an and ot-er3ise) to 5lo5s o# %lup. ?-ile t-ese #ortunately are con#ined to science #iction8 our lan%ua%e itsel# de.onstrates si.ilar %rotes9ue .utations in truncated8 telescoped 3ords and 3ords 3it- extra in#lationary %ro3t-s on t-e su##ix end8 not countin% t-e Gar%on o# special %roups #ro. 5eatniRs to sociolo%ists. L*.on% t-e .ore #re9uent and a5surd o# t-ese lin%uistic .onsters are condensed 3ords endin% in =ratna and =t-on. :-e #or.er co.es #ro. panora.a #ro. t-e GreeR pan (}} all) plus -ora.a (} a vie3) or cyclora.a #ro. t-e GreeR RyRlos (} _ circle) plus -ora.a a%ain. So #ar so %oodC t-e next develop.ent is cinera.a8 still sound8 #ro. t-e GreeR Rine.a (} .otion) and our old #riend -ora.a. LNo3 t-e advertisers -ave taRen t-e su##ix=root and proceed to torture it out o# sense and reco%nition8 3it- -ora.a (or rat-er a vo3el #ollo3ed 5y =ra.a) no lon%er .eanin% si.ply a vie3 5ut an entire spectacle or si.ply a superlative8 so t-at t-e su##ix -as devoured all t-e ori%inal panora.a in suc- distortions as cleanora.a (} a spectacular cleanin% spree)C to.atora.a8 5eana=ra.a8 5ananara.a (} a sensational sale o# to.atoes8 5eans or 5ananas)... Lueepin% pace 3it- =ra.a (pacera.a) is =t-on8 a su##ix ne3ly .inted #ro. ancient .etal. 2-eidippides& race #ro. t-e 5attle#ield o# Marat-on and t-e later #oot race o# t-at na.e %ave t-e noun Marat-on t-e .eanin% o# an endurance contestC 5ut 3e no3 -ave to endure =t-on alone8 divorced8 and .ade into a sel#=sustainin% su##ix in (so5l) suc- 3ords as telet-on8 3alRat-on8 talRat-on8 danceat-on8 cleanat-on8 ... 4learly =t-on and =ra.a co.pete in t-e rivalry 5et3een cleanat-on and cleanora.a&8 5ot5astard su##ixes -ave s3allo3ed t-eir ori%inal noun8 and it is only lo%ical t-at t-ey s-ould next s3allo3 eac- ot-er in / t-onora.a& (} an endurance o# various =ra.as) or ra.at-on (} a panora.ic or sensational endurance contest).1 :-e reader 3ill undou5tedly not #ail to o5serve t-at t-e protest a%ainst t-ese LinR= -ornL ter.s is not 5ased on any sound lin%uistic #oundation. It .erely s-o3s t-e attitude o# t-e 3riter to3ards certain novelties in lan%ua%e. :-ey see. to -i. .onstrous. +ut t-ere is no indication as to 3-at .aRes t-e. .onstrous. :-e 3riter -i.sel# readily uses ne3 3ords suc- as%lup8 5eatniRs 3it-out 9uotation .arRs8 3-ics-o3s8 evidently8 t-at -e is reconciled to t-e.. Stru%%leso.e8 in#or.atative8 connotate8 un3ort-3-ile8 in#erioris.8 deride8 to 5e accusated are ot-er 3ords 3-ic-e apparently considers distortions. :-e last strin% o# literary coina%es is supplied 3it- t-e #ollo3in% #ootnote; L*ll 3ords used in t-is sentence are %rate#ully acRno3led%ed as co.in% #ro. colle%e #res-.an t-e.es.L Mn#ortunately t-ere are no o5Gective criteria #or ascertainin% t-e stylistic aspect o#

3ords. :-ere#ore t-e protest o# .any lan%ua%e purists is so.eti.es 5ased on su5Gective idiosyncrasy. ?e #ind o5Gections to t-e 3ays and .eans o# coinin% ne3 3ords8 as in t-e 9uotation a5ove8 and also to t-e unrestrained inGection into so.e 3ords o# e.otive .eanin% 3-en t-is .eanin%8 it is said8 -as not yet 5een 3idely reco%niSed8 as top (c excellent8 3onder#ul)8 #ey (} so.e3-at 3-i.sical8 in touc3it- t-e supernatural8 a little cracRed).1 :-is second o5Gection applies particularly to t-e collo9uial stratu. o# 3ords. ?e also #ind o5Gections to t-e ne3 lo%ical .eanin%s #orced upon 3ords8 as is done 5y a certain A. +ell in an article on advertiSin% a%encies. L>i%-ly literate .en are 5usy sellin% cancer and alco-olis. to t-e pu5lic8 co..endin% in#erior %oods8 %ar5lin% #acts8 con#usin% #i%ures8 exploitin% e.otions...L >ere t-e 3ord sell is used in t-e sense o# / esta5lis-in% con#idence in so.et-in%8 o# speaRin% convincin%ly8 o# persuadin% t-e pu5lic to do8 or 5uy and use so.et-in%& (in t-is case ci%arettes8 3ine and spirits)C t-e 3ord co..end -as developed t-e .eanin% o# &reco..end& and t-e 3ord in#erior -as co.e to .ean / lo3er in price8 c-eap&C to %ar5le8 t-e pri.ary .eanin% o# 3-ic- is &to sort 5y si#tin%&8 no3 also .eans &to distort in order to .islead&C to con#use is %enerally used in t-e sense o# &to .ix up in .ind&8 to exploit e.otions .eans &.aRin% use o# people&s e.otions #or t-e saRe o# %ain&. *ll t-ese 3ords -ave ac9uired ne3 .eanin%s 5ecause t-ey are used in co.5inations not yet re%istered in t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. It is a 3ell=Rno3n #act t-at any 3ord8 i# placed in a stran%e environ.ent8 3ill inevita5ly ac9uire a ne3 s-ade o# .eanin%. Not to see t-is8 .eans not to correctly evaluate t-e inner la3s o# t-e se.antic develop.ent o# lexical units. :-ere is still anot-er .eans o# 3ord=5uildin% in .odern En%lis- 3-ic- .ay 5e considered vo%uis- at t-e present ti.e8 and t-at is t-e 5lendin% o# t3o 3ords into one 5y curtailin% t-e end o# t-e #irst co.ponent or t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e second. Exa.ples are nu.erous; .usico=.edy (.usicco.edy)C cine.actress (cine.aactress)C avi%ation (avia=tionnavi%ation)C and t-e already reco%niSed 5lends liRe s.o%= (s.oRe #o%)C c-ortle (c-ucRlesnort)C %alu.p- (triu.p-%allop) (5ot- occur in >u.pty Du.pty&s poe. in $e3is 4arroll&s L:-rou%- t-e $ooRin% GlassL). *rocRoon (#ocRet5alloon) is &a rocRet desi%ned to 5e launc-ed #ro. a 5alloon&. Suc- 3ords are called 5lends In revie3in% t-e 3ays and .eans o# coinin% ne3 3ords8 3e .ust not overlooR one 3-ic- plays a conspicuous role in c-an%in% t-e .eanin% o# 3ords and .ostly concerns stylistics. ?e .ean inGectin% into 3ell=Rno3n8 co..only=used 3ords 3itclear=cut concrete .eanin%s8 a .eanin% t-at t-e 3ord did not -ave 5e#ore. :-is is %enerally due to t-e co.5inative po3er o# t-e 3ord. :-is aspect o# 3ords -as lon% 5een underesti.ated 5y lin%uists. 2airin% 3ords 3-ic- -it-erto -ave not 5een paired8 .aRes t-e co.ponents o# t-e 3ord=co.5inations ac9uire a ne38 and so.eti.es 9uite unexpected8 .eanin%. 2articularly productive is t-e adGective. It tends to ac9uire an e.otive .eanin% alon%side its lo%ical .eanin%8 as8 #or instance8 terri5le8 a3#ul8 dra.atic8 top. :-e result is t-at an adGective o# t-is Rind 5eco.es an intensi#ies it .erely indicates

t-e de%ree o# t-e positive or ne%ative 9uality o# t-e concept e.5odied in t-e 3ord t-at #ollo3s. ?-en it 5eco.es %enerally accepted8.it 5eco.es part o# t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord8 and in t-is 3ay t-e se.antic 3ealt- o# t-e voca5ulary increases. :rue8 t-is process is .ostly #ound in t-e do.ain o# conversation. In conversation an unexpectedly #ree use o# 3ords is constantly .ade. It is in conversation t-at suc3ords as stunnin%8 %rand8 colossal8 3onder#ul8 excitin% and t-e liRe -ave ac9uired t-is intensi#yin% derivative .eanin% 3-ic- 3e call e.otive.x +ut t-e literary=5ooRislan%ua%e8 in 9uest o# ne3 .eans o# i.pressin% t-e reader8 also resorts to t-is .eans o# 3ord coina%e. It is .ostly t-e product o# ne3spaper lan%ua%e8 3-ere t-e necessity8 nay8 t-e ur%e8 to discover ne3 .eans o# i.pressin% t-e reader is %reatest. In t-is connection it is interestin% to 9uote articles #ro. En%lis- and *.erican periodicals in 3-ic- pro5le.s o# lan%ua%e in its #unctional aspect are occasionally discussed. In one o# t-e.8 L4urrent 4lic-es and Solecis.sL 5y Ed.und ?ilson82 t-e i.proper application o# t-e pri.ary and accepted .eanin%s o# t-e 3ords .assive8 crucial8 transpire and ot-ers is conde.ned. :-e aut-or o# t-e article is un3illin% to acRno3led%e t-e o5Gective develop.ent o# t-e 3ord=stocR and instead o# #ixin% t-e ne3 .eanin%s t-at are %ainin% %round in t-e se.antic structure o# t-ese 3ords8 -e tries to 5locR t-e. #ro. literary usa%e 3-ile ..ne%lectin% t-e #act t-at t-ese ne3 .eanin%s -ave already 5een esta5lis-ed in t-e lan%ua%e. :-is is 3-at -e says; LMassiveK I -ave also 3ritten 5e#ore o# t-is stupid and oppressive 3ord8 3-ic- see.s to -ave 5eco.e since t-en even .ore co..on as a ready clic-e t-at acts as a 5lacRout on t-inRin%. ,ne no3 .eets it in every depart.ent; literary8 political8 scienti#ic. In a period o# .oral i.potence8 so .any t-in%s are t-ou%-t as inti.idatin% t-at t-ey are eup-e.istically re#erred to as .assive. I s-all not present #urt-er exa.ples except to re%ister a #eelin% o# -orror at #indin% t-is adGective resorted to t-ree ti.es8 and t3ice in t-e sa.e para%rap-8 5y $ionelK :rillin% in 4o..entary8 in t-e course o# an ot-er3ise ad.ira5le discussion o# t-e $eaviscSno3 controversy; .assive si%ni #3ance o# L:-e :3o 4ulturesL8 .assive intention o# L:-e :3o 4ulturesL8 9uite .assive 5lunder o# Sno3 in re%ard to t-e (ictorian 3riters. ?as Sno3&s essay really t-at -u%e and 3ei%-tyz I# it 3as8 per-aps it .i%-t #ollo3 t-at any 5lunder in it .ust also 5e .assive.L *not-er o# t-ese e.otional intensi#iers is t-e 3ord crucial. It also raises o5Gections on t-e part o# purists and a.on% t-e. t-e one 3-ose article 3e are 9uotin%. L:-is 3ord8L 3rites Ed.und ?ilson8 L3-ic- .eans properly decisive8 critical8 -as co.e to 5e used8 and used constantly8 in 3ritin% as 3ell as in conversation as i# it .eant .erely i.portant... &+ut 3-at is crucial8 o# course8 is t-at t-ese 5ooRs aren&t very %ood.../.&,# course it is o# crucial i.portance&.L *not-er type o# neolo%is. is t-e nonce=3ord8 i.e. a 3ord coined to suit one particular occasion. Nonce=3ords re.ain on t-e outsRirts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e and not in#re9uently re.ind us o# t-e 3riters 3-o coined t-e.. :-ey are created to desi%nate so.e insi%ni#icant su5Gective idea or evaluation o# a t-in% or p-eno.enon and

%enerally 5eco.e .ori5und. :-ey rarely pass into t-e lan%ua%e as le%iti.ate units o# t-e voca5ulary8 5ut t-ey re.ain in t-e lan%ua%e as constant .ani#estations o# its innate po3er o# 3ord=5uildin%. >ere are so.e o# t-ese neolo%is.s 3-ic-8 5y t-e 3ay8 -ave t-e ri%-t to 5e called so 5ecause t-ey 3ill al3ays re.ain neolo%is.s8 i. e. 3ill never lose t-eir novelty; L$et .e say in t-e 5e%innin% t-at even i# I 3anted to avoid :exas I could not8 #or I a. 3ived in :exas8 and .ot-er=in=la3ed8 and uncled8 and aunted8 and cousined 3it-in an inc- o# .y li#e.L (A. Stein5ecR) :-e past participles .ot-er=in=la3ed8 uncled8 aunted and cousined are coined #or t-e occasion on t-e analo%y o# 3ived and can -ardly 5e expected to 5e re%istered 5y En%lis- dictionaries as ordinary En%lis- 3ords. >ere are so.e .ore exa.ples o# nonce=3ords8 3-ic- striRe us 5y t-eir novelty8 #orce and aest-etic aspect. L:-ere is so.et-in% pro#oundly -orri#yin% in t-is i..ense8 inde#inite not=t-ereness o# t-e Mexican scene.L (>uxley) Lwou&re t-e 5estest %ood onecs-e saidct-e .ost 5estest %ood one in t-e 3orld:;Lv(>. ./ +ates) L:-at 3as .asterly. ,r s-ould one say .istresslyL (>uxley) LSur#ace Rno3in%nessL (A=. MpdiRe)C Lsevenis-L (around seven o&clocR)C L.oris-L (a little .ore) (*. 4-ristie). In .odern En%lis- ne3 3ords are also coined 5y a .eans 3-ic- is very productive in tec-nical literature and t-ere#ore is .ostly #ound in scienti#ic style8 viS. 5y contractions and a55reviations. +ut t-is .eans is so.eti.es resorted to #or stylistic purposes. >ere are so.e o# t-ese coina%es 3-ic- appear daily in di##erent sp-eres o# -u.an activity. :BMD (}ti.e re.ainin% until dive). :-e #irst letters o# t-is 3ord se9uence #or.s t-e neolo%is. :BMD 3-ic- 3ill presu.a5ly re.ain as a pro#essional ter. unRno3n to 3ider circles o# native En%lis- speaRers. Suc- also are t-e 3ords $, (} 1. li9uid oxy%en explosive8 2. li9uid oxy%en) and G, (} %aseous oxy%en). :o t-e lay.an8 oxy%en is a %as8 5ut in .issilery (also ane3 3ord) it is .ore o#ten a li9uid or even a solid8 so %aseous oxy%en -as to 5e distin%uis-ed. ,t-er 5etter=Rno3n exa.ples are laser (} li%-t a.pli#ication 5y sti.ulated e.ission o# radiation)C . Mnesco (Mnited Nations Education and Science ,r%aniSation)C Geep (G2}General 2urpose car). Not all o# t-e .eans o# 3ord coina%e existin% in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e -ave 5een dealt 3it- in t-is s-ort survey. :-e reason #or t-is is si.ple; in stylistics t-ere are 3ays and .eans o# producin% an e##ect 3-ic- attract t-e attention o# t-e reader not only 5y t-e novelty o# a coina%e 5ut 5y a .ore ela5orate lan%ua%e e##ect. :-is e##ect .ust 5e speci#ied to .aRe clear t-e intentions o# t-e 3riter. :-e 3riter in t-is case is seeRin% so.et-in% t-at 3ill ade9uately convey -is idea to t-e .ind o# t-e reader. :-e .eans

assu.e so.e additional #orce; novelty#orce. :-ere#ore in t-e survey o# t-e .eans o# 3ord=#or.ation only t-ose -ave 5een selected 3-ic- provide novelty#orce. :-e stylistic e##ect ac-ieved 5y ne3ly=coined 3ords %enerally rests on t-e a5ility o# t-e .ind to perceive novelty at t-e 5acR%round o# t-e #a.iliar. :-e s-arper t-e contrast8 t-e .ore o5vious t-e e##ect. :-e sli%-t8 al.ost i.percepti5le c-an%es caused 5y extensions o# an ori%inal .eanin% .i%-t 3ell produce a stylistic e##ect only 3-en t-e reader is 3ell versed in discri.inatin% nuances o# .eanin%. :-us t-e use o# t-e 3ords co..it.ent and co..it in t-e .eanin% o# &involve.ent& and &involve& -as i.percepti5ly crept into co..on use since approxi.ately 19 and is no3 #reely used. So also are t-e use o# un#ortunately instead o# &re%ret#ully&8 t-e use o# dra.atic and .assive as intensi#iers. Suc- c-an%es are apparent only to t-e eye o# t-e lexico%rap-er and 3ill -ardly provoRe a t3o#old application o# .eanin%8 unless8 o# course8 t-e context #orci5ly points to suc- an application. >o3ever8 t-ese 3ords 3ill ordinarily carry an expressive #unction due to t-eir e.otive .eanin%. ?-en 3e tacRle t-e pro5le. o# SDs and penetrate .ore deeply into its essence8 it 5eco.es apparent t-at stylistic #unction is not con#ined to t p-eno.ena 3-ic- are #ore%rounded8 as ne3ly=coined 3ords %enerally are. * stylistic e##ect .ay also 5e ac-ieved 5y t-e sRil#ul interplay o# a lon%=esta5lis-ed .eanin% and one Gust 5ein% introduced into t-e lan=%ua%e=as=a=syste.. ] :-us t-e 3ord deliver in t-e Mnited States -as ac9uired t-e .eanin% s &to carry out or #ul#il an expectationC .aRe %ood& (+arn-art Dictionary). I# t-is 3ord 3ere to carry its ori%inal .eanin% alon%side t-e one no3 I .current in t-e M. S. it 3ould produce a stylistic e##ect8 i#8 o# course8 t-is t3o#old application o# t-e 3ord is done deli5erately. Novelty is not a device. ,ne .ust distin%uis- 5et3een a deli5erate8 conscious e.ploy.ent v o# t-e in-erent property o# 3ords to 5e used in di##erent .eanin%s si.ultaneously and t-e introduction o# a ne3 .eanin% 3-ic- in t-e %iven context excludes t-e one #ro. 3-ic- it is derived. In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ples taRen #ro. t-e +arn-art Dictionary t-e italiciSed 3ords do not display any t3o#old .eanin%s8 alt-ou%- t-ey are illustrative o# t-e ne3 .eanin%s t-ese 3ords -ave ac9uired. L...-e -as spent -ours readin% %overn.ent ca5les8 .e.oranda and classi#ied #iles to 5rie# -i.sel# #or in=dept- discussions.L /In=dept-:8 adG. .eans &%oin% deeply8 t-orou%-ly into a su5Gect&. L+ullit8 I #ind8 is co.pletely typical o# t-e &no3& looR in *.erican .ovies c a s3i#t= .ovin%8 constantly s-i#tin% sur#ace t-at su%%ests rat-er t-an reveals dept-.L :-e 3ord no3 as an adGective is a novelty. +arn-art la5els it slan%c Lvery #as-iona5le or up=to=dateC 5elon%in% to t-e No3 Generation.L *nd still t-e novelty can 5e used #or stylistic purposes provided t-at t-e re9uire.ents #or an SD indicated earlier are o5served. It .ust 5e repeated t-at ne3ly=.inted 3ords

are especially striRin%. :-ey c-ecR t-e easy #lo3 o# ver5al se9uences and #orce our .ind to taRe in t-e re#erential .eanin%. :-e aest-etic e##ect in t-is case 3ill 5e e9ual to Sero i# t-e neolo%is. desi%nates a ne3 notion resultin% #ro. scienti#ic and tec-nical investi%ations. :-e intellectual 3ill suppress t-e e.otional. >o3ever8 coina%es 3-ic- ai. at introducin% additional .eanin%s as a result o# an aest-etic re= evaluation o# t-e %iven concept .ay per#or. t-e #unction o# a stylistic device.

4. SPECIAL COLLOQUIAL VOCABULARY

&) Sl&,.

:-ere is -ardly any ot-er ter. t-at is as a.5i%uous and o5scure as t-e ter. slan%. Slan% see.s to .ean everyt-in% t-at is 5elo3 t-e standard o# usa%e o# present=day En%lis-. Muc- -as 5een said and 3ritten a5out it. :-is is pro5a5ly due to t-e uncertainty o# t-e concept itsel#. No one -as yet %iven a .ore or less satis#actory de#inition o# t-e ter.. Nor -as it 5een speci#ied 5y any lin%uist 3-o deals 3it- t-e pro5le. o# t-e En%lisvoca5ulary. :-e #irst t-in% t-at striRes t-e sc-olar is t-e #act t-at no ot-er European lan%ua%e -as sin%led out a0special layer o# voca5ulary and na.ed it slan%8 t-ou%- all o# t-e. distin%uis- suc- %roups o# 3ords as Gar%on8 cant8 and t-e liRe. ?-y 3as it necessary to invent a special ter. #or so.et-in% t-at -as not 5een clearly de#ined aaGar%on or cant -avez Is t-is p-eno.enon speci#ically En%lis-z >as slan% any special #eatures 3-ic- no ot-er %roup 3it-in t-e non=literary voca5ulary can lay clai. toz :-e distinctions 5et3een slan% and ot-er %roups o# unconventional En%lis-8 t-ou%per-aps su5tle and so.eti.es di##icult to %rasp8 s-ould nevert-eless 5e su5Gected to a .ore detailed lin%uistic speci#ication. ?e5ster&s L:-ird Ne3 International DictionaryL %ives t-e #ollo3in% .eanin%s o# t-e ter.; Slan% Qori%in unRno3n 1; lan%ua%e peculiar to a particular %roup; as a; t-e special and o#ten secret voca5ulary used 5y class (as t-ieves8 5e%%ars) and usu. #elt to 5e vul%ar or in#erior; ar%otC 5; t-e Gar%on used 5y or associated 3it- a particular trade8 pro#ession8 or #ield o# activityC 2; a non= standard voca5ulary coin=posed o# 3ords and senses c-aracteriSed pri.arily 5y connotations o# extre.e in#or.ality and usu. a currency not li.ited to a particular re%ion and co.posed typically o# coina%es or ar5itrarily c-an%ed 3ords8 clipped or s-ortened #or.s8 extrava%ant8 #orced or #acetious #i%ures o# speec-8 or ver5al novelties usu. experiencin% 9uicR popularity and relatively rapid decline into disuse. :-e LNe3 ,x#ord En%lis- DictionaryL de#ines slan% as #ollo3s; La) t-e special voca5ulary used 5y any set o# persons o# a lo3 or disreputa5le c-aracterC lan%ua%e o# a lo3 and vul%ar type. (No3 .er%ed in c. IcantI)&8 5) t-e cant or

Gar%on o# a certain class or periodC c) lan%ua%e o# a -i%-ly collo9uial type considered as 5elo3 t-e level o# standard educated speec-8 and consistin% eit-er o# ne3 3ords or o# current 3ords e.ployed in so.e special sense.L *s is seen #ro. t-ese 9uotations slan% is represented 5ot- as a special voca5ulary and as a special lan%ua%e. :-is is t-e #irst t-in% t-at causes con#usion. I# t-is is a certain lexical layer8 t-en 3-y s-ould it 5e %iven t-e ranR o# lan%ua%ez I#8 on t-e ot-er -and8 slan% is a certain lan%ua%e or a dialect or even a patois8 t-en it s-ould 5e c-aracteriSed not only 5y its peculiar use o# 3ords 5ut also 5y p-onetic8 .orp-olo%ical and syntactical peculiarities. A. +. Greenou%- and 4. $. uitterid%e de#ine slan% in t-ese 3ords; 8 LSlan%... is a peculiar Rind o# va%a5ond lan%ua%e8 al3ays p -an%in% on t-e outsRirts o# le%iti.ate speec- 5ut continually #v strayin% or #orcin% its 3ay into t-e .ost respecta5le co.pany.L1 *not-er de#inition o# slan% 3-ic- is 3ort- 9uotin% is one .ade 5y Eric 2artrid%e8 t-e e.inent student o# t-e non=literary lan%ua%e. LSlan% is .uc- rat-er a spoRen t-an&a literary&'an%ua%e. It ori%inates8 nearly al3ays8 in speec-. :o coin a ter. on a 3ritten pa%e is al.ost inevita5ly to 5rand it as a neolo%is. 3-ic- 3ill eit-er 5e accepted or 5eco.e a nonce=3ord (or p-rase)8 5ut8 except in t-e rarest instances8 t-at ter. 3ill not 5e slan%.L2 In .ost o# t-e dictionaries si. (slan%) is used as convenient stylistic notation #or a 3ord or a p-rase t-at cannot 5e speci#ied .ore exactly. :-e o5scure ety.olo%y o# t-e ter. itsel# a##ects its use as a stylistic notation. ?-enever t-e notation appears in a dictionary it .ay serve as an indication t-at t-e unit presented is non=literary8 5ut not pinpointed. :-ai is t-e reason 3-y t-e various dictionaries disa%ree in t-e use o# t-is ter. 3-en applied as a stylistic notation.! *ny ne3 coina%e t-at -as not %ained reco%nition and t-ere#ore -as not yet 5een received into standard En%lis- is easily 5randed as slan%. :-e :i.es o# t-e 12t- o# Marc-8 19 7 %ives t-e #ollo3in% illustrations o# slan%; le%%o (let %o)8 sar%e (ser%eant)8 &I&ve %ot a date 3it- t-at Miss Morris to=ni%-t&. +ut it is o5vious t-at le%%o is a p-onetic i.propriety caused 5y careless rapid speaRin%C sar%e is a vul%ar e9uivalent o# t-e #ull #or. o# t-e 3ordC date is a 3idely reco%niSed collo9uial e9uivalent (synony.) o# t-e literary and even 5ooRis- rendeSvous (a .eetin%). :-ese di##erent and -etero%eneous p-eno.ena united under t-e va%ue ter. slan% cause n=atural con#usion and do not encoura%e sc-olars to seeR .ore o5Gective criteria in order to distin%uis- t-e various stylistic layers o# t-e En%lis- collo9uial voca5ulary. :-e con#usion is .ade still deeper 5y t-e #act t-at any 3ord or expression apparently le%iti.ate8 i# used in an ar5itrary8 #anci#ul or .etap-orical sense8 .ay easily 5e la5elled as slan%. Many 3ords #or.erly la5elled as slan% -ave no3 5eco.e le%iti.ate units o# standard En%lis-. :-us t-e 3ord Rid (}c-ild)8 3-ic- 3as considered lo3 slan% in t-e nineteent- century8 is no3 a le%iti.ate collo9uial unit o# t-e En%lisliterary lan%ua%e.

So.e lin%uists8 3-en c-aracteriSin% t-e .ost conspicuous #eatures o# slan%8 point out t-at it re9uires continuous innovation. It never %ro3s stale. I# a slan% 3ord or p-rase does 5eco.e stale8 it is replaced 5y a ne3 slan%is.. It is clai.ed t-at t-is satis#ies t-e natural desire #or #res-8 ne3ly created 3ords and expressions8 3-ic- %ive to an utter= ance e.otional colourin% and a su5Gective evaluation. Indeed8 it see.s to 5e in correspondence 3it- t-e traditional vie3 o# En%lis- conservatis.8 t-at a special dero%ative ter. s-ould -ave 5een coined to -elp preserve t-e Lpurity o# standard En%lis-L 5y -inderin% t-e penetration into it o# undesira5le ele.ents. :-e point is t-at t-e -etero%eneous nature o# t-e ter. serves as a Rind o# 5arrier 3-ic- c-ecRs t-e natural in#lux o# 3ord coina%es into t-e literary lan%ua%e. :rue8 suc- 5arriers are not 3it-out t-eir advanta%e in polis-in% up t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-is can 5e proved 5y t-e pro%#essive role played +y any conscious e##ort to si#t innovations8 so.e o# 3-icare indeed #elt to 5e unnecessary8 even conta.inatin% ele.ents in t-e 5ody o# t-e lan%ua%e. In t-is respect t-e *.erican ne3spaper .ay serve as an exa.ple o# -o3 t-e a5sence o# suc- a si#tin% process results in t-e conta.ination o# t-e literary ton%ue o# t-e nation 3it- u%ly redundant coina%es. Suc-/a 5arrier8 -o3ever8 so.eti.es turns into an o5stacle 3-ic- -inders t-e natural develop.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. :-e ter. &slan%&8 3-ic- is 3idely used in En%lis- lin%uistic science8 s-ould 5e clearly speci#ied i# it isLto 5e used as a ter.8 i. e. it s-ould re#er to so.e de#inite notion and&s-ould 5e de#ina5le in explicit8 si.ple ter.s. It is su%%ested -ere t-at t-e ter. &slan%& s-ould 5e used #or t-ose #or.s o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary 3-ic- are eit-er .ispronounced or distorted in so.e 3ay p-onetically8 .orp-olo%ically or lexically. :-e ter. &slan%& s-ould also 5e used to speci#y so.e ele.ents 3-ic- .ay 5e called over=collo9uial. *s #or t-e ot-er %roups o# 3ords -it-erto classi#ied as slan%8 t-ey s-ould 5e speci#ied accordin% to t-e universally accepted classi#ication o# t-e voca5ulary o# a lan%ua%e. +ut t-is .ust 5e done 5y t-ose 3-ose .ot-er ton%ue is En%lis-. :-ey8 and t-ey only8 5ein% native speaRers o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 are its .asters and la3%ivers. It is #or t-e. to place slan% in its proper cate%ory 5y speci#yin% its c-aracteristic #eatures. Slan% is not-in% 5ut a deviation #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed nor. at t-e level o# t-e voca5ulary o# t-e lan%ua%e. (. (. (ino%radov 3rites t-at one o# t-e tasRs set 5e#ore t-e 5ranc- o# lin%uistic science t-at is no3 called stylistics8 is a t-orou%- study o# all c-an%es in voca5ulary8 set p-rases8 %ra..atical constructions8 t-eir #unctions8 an evaluation o# any 5reaRin% a3ay #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed nor.8 and classi#ication o# .istaRes and #ailures in 3ord coina%e.l >. ?ent3ort- and S. "lexner in t-eir LDictionary o# *.erican Slan%L 3rite; LSo.eti.es slan% is used to escape t-e dull #a.iliarity o# standard 3ords8 to su%%est an escape #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed routine o# everyday li#e. ?-en slan% is used8 our li#e see.s a little #res-er and a little .ore personal. *lso8 as at all levels o# speec-8 slan% is so.eti.es used #or t-e pure Goy o# .aRin% sounds8 or even #or a need to attract attention 5y .aRin% noise. :-e s-eer ne3ness and in#or.ality o# certain slan% 3ords produce pleasure.

L+ut .ore i.portant t-an t-is expression o# a .ore or less -idden aest-etic .otive on t-e part o# t-e speaRer is t-e slan%&s re#lection o# t-e personality8 t-e out3ard8 clearly visi5le c-aracteristics o# t-e speaRer. +y and lar%e8 t-e .an 3-o uses slan% is a #orce#ul8 pleasin%8 accepta5le personality.L :-is 9uotation #ro. a 3ell=Rno3n scienti#ic study o# slan% clearly s-o3s t-at 3-at is la5elled slan% is eit-er all Rinds o# nonce=#or.ationscso #re9uently appearin% in lively everyday speec- and Gust as 9uicRly disappearin% #ro. t-e lan%ua%ec8 or Gocular 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations t-at are #or.ed 5y usin% t-e various .eans o# 0ord=5uild=in% existin% in t-e lan%ua%e and also 5y distortin% Lt-e #or. or sense o# existin% 3ords. >ere are so.e .ore exa.ples o# 3ords t-at are considered slan%; to taRe stocR inc&to 5e interested in8 attac- i.portance8 %ive credence to& 5read=5asRetc&t-e sto.ac-& (a Gocular use) to do a #litc &to 9uit one&s #lat or lod%in%s at ni%-t 3it-out payin% t-e rent or 5oard& rotc&nonsenseK& t-e cat&s pyGa.asc&t-e correct t-in%/ So 5road is t-e ter. &slan%& t-at8 accordin% to Eric 2artrid%e8 t-ere are .any Rinds o# slan%8 e. %. 4ocRney8 pu5lic=-ouse8 co..ercial8 society8 .ilitary8 t-eatrical8 parlia.entary and ot-ers. :-is leads t-e aut-or to 5elieve t-at t-ere is also a standard slan%8 t-e slan% t-at is co..on to all t-ose 3-o8 t-ou%- e.ployin% received standard in t-eir 3ritin% and speec-8 also use an in#or.al lan%ua%e 3-ic-8 in #act8 is no lan%ua%e 5ut .erely a 3ay o# speaRin%0 usin% special 3ords and p-rases in so.e special sense. :-e .ost con#usin% de#inition o# t-e nature o# slan% is t-e #ollo3in% one %iven 5y 2artrid%e. L...personality and one&s surroundin%s (social or occupational) are&t-e t3o co= e##icients8 t-e t3o c-ie# #actors8 t-e deter.inin% causes o# t-e nature o# slan%8 as t-ey are o# lan%ua%e in %eneral and o# style.L1 *ccordin% to t-is state.ent one .ay %et t-e idea t-at lan%ua%e8 style and slan% all -ave t-e sa.e nature8 t-e sa.e deter.inin% causes. 2ersonality and surroundin%s deter.ine; 1. t-e nature o# t-e slan% used 5y a de#inite person8 2. t-e nature o# t-e lan%ua%e -e uses8 !. t-e Rind o# style -e 3rites. :-ere is a %eneral tendency in En%land and to so.e extent in t-e MS to over=esti.ate t-e si%ni#icance o# slan% 5y attac-in% to it .ore si%ni#icance t-an it deserves. Slan% is re%arded as t-e 9uintessence o# collo9uial speec- and t-ere#ore stands a5ove all t-e la3s o# %ra..ar. :-ou%- it is re%arded 5y so.e purists as a lan%ua%e t-at stands 5elo3 standard En%lis-8 it is -i%-ly praised no3adays as LvividL8 L.ore #lexi5leL8 L.ore pictures9ueL8 Lric-er in voca5ularyL and so on. Mn3ittin%ly one arrives at t-e idea t-at slan%8 as used 5y En%lis- and *.ericans8 is a universal ter. #or any 3ord or p-rase 3-ic-8 t-ou%- not yet reco%niSed as a #act o# standard En%lis-8 -as 3on %eneral reco%nition as a #res- innovation 9uite irrespective o# its nature; 3-et-er it is cant8 Gar%on8 dialect8 Gocular or a pure collo9uialis.. It is

t-ere#ore i.portant8 #or t-e saRe o#8a scienti#ic8 approac- to t-e pro5le. o# a stylistic classi#ieation o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary8 to .aRe a .ore exact discri.ination 5et3een -etero%eneous ele.ents in t-e voca5ulary8 no .atter -o3 di##icult it .ay 5e. :-e #ollo3in% is an interestin% exa.ple illustratin% t-e contrast 5et3een standard En%lis- and non=literary En%lis- includin% slan%. In t-e story L+y 4ourierL O. >enry opposes neutral and co..on literary 3ords to special collo9uial 3ords and slan% #or a de#inite stylistic purpose8 viS. to distott a .essa%e 5y translatin% t-e literary voca5ulary o# one speaRer into t-e non=literary voca5ulary o# anot-er. L:ell -er I a. on .y 3ay to t-e station8 to leave #or San "rancisco8 3-ere I s-al:Goin t-at *lasRa .oose-untin% expedition. :ell -er t-at8 since s-e -as co..anded &.e neit-er to speaR nor to 3rite to -er8 I taRe t-is .eans o# .aRin% one last appeal to -er sense o# Gustice8 #or t-e saRe o# 3-at -as 5een. :ell -er t-at to conde.n and discard one 3-o -as not deserved suc- treat.ent8 3it-out %ivin% -i. -er reason or a c-ance to explain is contrary to -er nature as I 5elieve it to 5e.L :-is .essa%e 3as delivered in t-e #ollo3in% .anner; L>e told .e to tell yer -e&s %ot -is collars and cu##s in dat %rip #or a scoot clean out to& "risco. Den -e&s %oin& to s-oot sno35irds in de ulondiRe. >e says yer told -i. to send& round no .ore pinR notes nor co.e -an%in& over de %arden %ate8 and -e taRes dis .ean (sendin% t-e 5oy to speaR #or -i..c I. G.) o# puttin% yer 3ise. >e says yer re#erred to -i. liRe a -as=5een8 and never %ive -i. no c-ance to RicR at de decision. >e says yer s3iled -i. and never said 3-y.L :-e contrast 5et3een 3-at is standard En%lis- and 3-at is crude8 5roRen non=literary or uneducated *.erican En%lis- -as 5een ac-ieved 5y .eans o# settin% t-e co..on literary voca5ulary and also t-e syntactical desi%n o# t-e ori%inal .essa%e a%ainst Gar%onis.s8 slan% and&all Rinds o# distortions o# #or.s8 p-onetic8 .orp-olo%ical8 lexical and syntactical. It is su%%estive t-at t-ere is a tendency in so.e .odern dictionaries to replace t-e la5el slan% 5y in#or.al or collo9uial.1 Suc- a practice clearly .ani#ests t-e dissatis#action o# so.e lexico%rap-ers 3it- t-e ter. &slan%&. :-is is .ainly due to t-e a.5i%uity o# t-e ter.. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 so.e lexico%rap-ers8 as -as already 5een pointed out8 still .aRe use o# t-e ter. &slan%& as a su5stitute #or &Gar%on&8 &cant&8 &collo9uialis.&8 &pro#essionalis.&8 &vul%ar&8 &dialectal&. :-us8 in -is dictionary 2ro#. +arn-art %ives t-e la5el si to suc- innovations as L%ra5c to cause (a person) to reactC .aRe an i.pression onL8 3-ic-8 to .y .ind8 s-ould 5e classed as ne3spaper Gar%onC L%rass or potc.ari=GuartaL8 3-ic- are positively cant 3ords (t-e 9uotation t-at #ollo3s proves it 9uite una.5i%uously)C L%roovecso.et-in% very enGoya5le8L L%runtc M.S.0 .ilitary slan%L8 3-ic- in #act is a pro#essionalis.C L%yppy tu..y8 +ritis- slan%8c a co..on intestinal upset experienced 5y travellersL8 3-ic- is a collo9uialis.C L-an%upca psyc-olo%ical or e.otional pro5le.L8 3-ic- is undou5tedly a pro#essionalis. 3-ic- -as under%one extension o# .eanin% and no38 accordin% to

+arn-art also .eans Lany pro5le. or di##iculty8 especially one t-at causes annoyance or irritation.L :-e use o# t-e la5el si in t-is 3ay is evidently due to t-e #act t-at +arn-art&s Dictionary ai.s not so .uc- at discri.ination 5et3een di##erent stylistic su5tleties o# neolo%is.s 5ut .ainly at #ixation o# lexical units 3-ic- -ave already 3on %eneral reco%nition t-rou%- constant repetition in ne3spaper lan%ua%e. :-e ter. &slan%& is a.5i%uous 5ecause8 to use a #i%urative expression8 it -as 5eco.e a AacR o# all trades and .aster o# none.
*) 3&(.+,is)s

In t-e non=literary voca5ulary o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e t-ere is a %roup o# 3ords t-at are called Gar%onis.s. Aar%on is a reco%niSed ter. #or a %roup o# 3ords t-at exists in al.ost every lan%ua%e and 3-ose ai. is to preserve secrecy 3it-in one or anot-er social %roup. Aar%onis.s are %enerally old 3ords 3it- entirely ne3 .eanin%s i.posed on t-e.. :-e traditional .eanin% o# t-e 3ords is i..aterial8 only t-e ne38 i.provised .eanin% is o# i.portance. Most o# t-e Aar%onis.s o# any lan%ua%e8 and o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e too8 are a5solutely inco.pre-ensi5le to t-ose outside t-e social %roup 3-ic- -as invented t-e.. :-ey .ay 5e de#ined as a code 3it-in a code8 t-at is special .eanin%s o# 3ords t-at are i.posed on t-e reco%niSed codect-e dictionary .eanin% o# t-e 3ords. :-us t-e 3ord %rease .eans &.oney&C loa# .eans &-ead&C a ti%er -unter is &a0%a.5ler&C a lexer is &a student preparin% #or a la3 course&. Aar%onis.s are social in c-aracter. :-ey are not re%ional. In +ritain and in t-e MS al.ost any social %roup o# people -as its o3n Gar%on. :-e #ollo3in% Gar%ons are 3ell Rno3n in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e; t-e Gar%on o# t-ieves and va%a5onds8 %enerally Rno3n as cantC t-e Gar%on o# GaSS peopleC t-e Gar%on o# t-e ar.y8 Rno3n as .ilitary slan%C t-e Gar%on o# sports.en8 and .any ot-ers. :-e various Gar%ons (3-ic- in #act are not-in% 5ut a de#inite %roup o# 3ords) re.ain a #orei%n lan%ua%e to t-e outsiders o# any particular social %roup. It is interestin% in connection 3it- t-is to 9uote a stanSa #ro. LDon AuanL 5y +yron 3-ere t-e poet -i.sel# #inds it necessary to co..ent on t-e Aar%onis.s -e -as used #or de#inite stylistic purposes. L>e #ro. t-e 3orld -ad cut o## a %reat .an8 ?-o in -is ti.e -ad .ade -eroic 5ustle. ?-o in a ro3 liRe :o. could lead t-e van8 +ooSe in t-e Ren /8 or at t-e spellRen 2 -ustlez ?-o 9ueer a #lat9z ?-o (spite o# +o3 street&s 5an) ,n t-e -i%- to5y=spice ' so #las- t-e .uSSlez ?-o on a larR 03it- 5lacR=eyed Sal (-is 5lo3in%) 1 So pri.e8 so s3ell 78 so nutty 08 and so Rno3in%zL :-e explanation o# t-e 3ords used -ere 3as .ade 5y +yron&s editor 5ecause t-ey 3ere all Aar%onis.s in +yron&s ti.e and no one 3ould understand t-eir .eanin% unless t-ey 3ere explained in nor.al En%lis-.

+yron 3rote t-e #ollo3in% ironic co..ent to t-is stanSa; L:-e advance vo#. science and o# lan%ua%e -as rendered it unnecessary to translate t-e a5ove %ood and true En%lis-8 spoRen in its ori%inal purity 5y t-e select no5ility and t-eir patrons. :-e #ollo3in% is a stanSa o# a son% 3-ic- 3as very popular8 at least in .y early days;c/ 1 Ren } a -ouse 3-ic- -ar5ours t-ieves 2 spellRen } a play=-ouse or t-eatre ! to 9ueer a #lat } to puSSle a silly #ello3 ' to #las- t-e .uSSle (%un) on t-e -i%- to5y=spice } to ro5 on -orse 5acR a larR } #un or sport o# any Rind 1 a 5lo3in% } a %irl 2 s3ell } %entle.anly @ nutty } pleasin% (to 5e nuts on } to 5e in#atuated 3it-) L,n t-e -i%- to5y=spice #las- t-e .uSSle8 In spite o# eac- %allo3s old scoutC I# you at all spellRen can&t -ustle8 wou&ll 5e -o55led in .aRin% a 4lout. :-en your +lo3in% 3ill 3ax %allo3s -au%-ty8 ?-en s-e -ears o# your scaly .istaRe8 S-e&ll surely turn snitc#or t-e #ortyc :-at -er AacR .ay 5e re%ular 3ei%-t.L I# t-ere 5e any %e..an (0%entle.an) so i%norant as to re9uire a traduction8 I re#er -i. to .y old #riend and corporeal pastor and .aster8 Ao-n AacRson8 Es9.8 2ro#essor o# pu%ilis.C 3-o8 I trust8 still retains t-e stren%t- and sy..etry o# -is .odel o# a #or.8 to%et-er 3it- -is %ood -u.our J and at-letic as 3ell as .ental acco.plis-.ents.L (Ao-n Murray. L:-e 2oetical ?orRs o# $ord +yronL) Slan%8 contrary to Gar%on8 needs no translation. It is not a secret code. It is easily understood 5y t-e En%lis-=speaRin% co..unity and is only re%arded as so.et-in% not 9uite re%ular. It .ust also 5e re.e.5ered t-at 5ot- Gar%on and slan% di##er #ro. ordinary lan%ua%e .ainly in t-eir voca5ularies. :-e structure o# t-e sentences and t-e .orp-olo%y o# t-e lan%ua%e re.ain practically unc-an%ed. +ut suc- is t-e po3er o# 3ords8 3-ic- are t-e 5asic and .ost conspicuous ele.ent in t-e lan%ua%e8 t-at 3e 5e%in un3ittin%ly to speaR o# a separate lan%ua%e. Aar%onis.s do not al3ays re.ain t-e possession o# a %iven social %roup. So.e o# t-e. .i%rate into ot-er social strata and so.eti.es 5eco.e reco%niSed in t-e literary lan%ua%e o# t-e nation. G. >. Mcuni%-t 3rites; L:-e lan%ua%e o# t-e under3orld provided 3ords #acetiously adopted 5y t-e #as-iona5le 3orld8 .any o# 3-ic-8 suc- as #an and 9ueer and 5anter and 5lu## and s-a. and -u.5u%8 eventually .ade t-eir 3ay into di%ni#ied use.L / :-ere are -undreds o# 3ords8 once Aar%onis.s or slan%8 3-ic- -ave 5eco.e le%iti.ate .e.5ers o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e. Aar%onis.s -ave t-eir de#inite place o# a5ode and are t-ere#ore easily classi#ied accordin% to t-e social divisions o# t-e %iven period. *l.ost any callin% -as its o3n Gar%on8 i.e. its set o# 3ords 3it- 3-ic- its .e.5ers intersperse t-eir speec- and render it inco.pre-ensi5le to outsiders. So.e lin%uists even .aintain t-at; L?it-in t-e li.its o# any lin%uistic unity t-ere are as .any lan%ua%es as t-ere are

%roups o# people t-ro3n to%et-er 5y propin9uity and co..on interests.L 2 :-is is8 o# course8 an overstate.ent. "irst o# all8 one s-ould not .ix up suc- notions as lan%ua%e and voca5ulary. :rue8 unRno3n 3ords and p-rases8 i# too .any8 .ay render speec- unintelli%i5le. +ut t-is #act does not raise speec- to t-e level o# a di##erent lan%ua%e. 8.%.. Aar%onis.s8 -o3ever8 do 5reaR a3ay #ro. t-e accepted nor.s o#lvi se.antic variants o# 3ords. :-ey are a special %roup 3it-in t-e non=C literary layer o# 3ords. :-ere is a co..on Gar%on and t-ere are also special pro#essional Gar%ons. 4o..on Aar%onis.s -ave %radually lost t-eir special 9uality8 3-ic- is to pro.ote secrecy and Reep outsiders in t-e darR. In #act8 t-ere are no outsiders 3-ere co..on Gar%on is concerned. It 5elon%s to all social %roups and is t-ere#ore easily understood 5y every5ody. :-at is 3-y it is so di##icult to dra3 a -ard and #ast line 5et3een slan% and Gar%on. ?-en a Gar%onis. 5eco.es co..on8 it -as passed on to a -i%-er step on t-e ladder o# 3ord %roups and 5eco.es slan% or collo9uial. >ere are so.e #urt-er exa.ples o# Gar%on; 2iou=2iouc&a "renc- soldier8 a private in t-e in#antry&. *ccordin% to Eric 2artrid%e t-is 3ord -as already passed #ro. .ilitary Gar%on to ordinary collo9uial speec-. >u.rnenc&a #alse arrest/ (*.erican) Darc(#ro. da.ned avera%e raiser)c&a perseverin% and assiduous student&. (Mniversity Gar%on) Matlo(3)c&a sailor& (#ro. t-e "renc- 3ord &.atelo#) Man and 3i#ec&a Rni#e& (r-y.in% slan%) Mananyc&a sailor 3-o is al3ays puttin% o## a Go5 or 3orR& (nautical Gar%on) (#ro. t-e Spanis- 3ord &.a..a&c'o=.orro3&) :-e 3ord 5rass in t-e .eanin% o# &.oney in %eneral8 cas-& is not Gar%on inas.uc- as t-ere is an apparent se.antic connection 5et3een &t-e %eneral na.e #or all alloys o# copper 3it- tin or Sinc& and cas-. :-e .etony.ic ties 5et3een t-e t3o .eanin%s prevent t-e 3ord #ro. 5ein% used as a special code 3ord. :-e sa.e can 5e said o# t-e 3ords GoRer c &so.et-in%/used to play atri9Ror3in one&s point or o5Gect 3it-& #ro. card=playin%C dra%c&to ro5 ve-icles&C to soap=5oxc&to .aRe speec-es out=o#=doors standin% on a soap=5ox< :-ese are easily understood 5y native speaRers and t-ere#ore #ail to .eet t-e .ost indispensa5le property o# Gar%on 3ords. :-ey are slan% 3ords or per-aps collo9uial. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 suc- 3ords as soap and #lannel .eanin% &5read& and &c-eese& (naval)8 and so.e o# t-e 3ords .entioned a5ove are scarcely liRely to 5e understood 5y t-e lan%ua%e co..unity. ,nly t-ose 3-o are in t-e Rno3 understand suc- 3ords. :-ere#ore t-ey can 5e classed as Aar%onis.s. It 3ill not co.e a.iss to .ention -ere t-e 3ords o# (andryes8 a 3ell=Rno3n "renclin%uist8 3-o said t-at L...Gar%on distorts 3ords8 it does not create t-e..L Indeed8 t-e creation o# really ne3 3ords is a very rare process. In al.ost any lan%ua%e you can #ind only a #e3 entirely ne3 3ords. It is not accidental t-ere#ore t-at t-e e##orts o# so.e poets to coin co.pletely ne3 3ords -ave proved to 5e an a5solute #ailure8 t-eir

atte.pts 5ein% utterly reGected 5y t-e lan%ua%e co..unity. In passin%8 3e .ust re.arR t-at 5ot- slan% and t-e various Gar%ons o# Great +ritain di##er .uc- .ore #ro. t-ose o# *.erica (t-e Mnited States and 4anada) t-an t-e literary lan%ua%e in t-e t3o countries does. In #act8 t-e .ost striRin% di##erence is to 5e o5served in t-e non=literary layer o# 3ords and particularly in slan% and Aar%onis.s and pro#essionalis.s. (See 9uotation #ro. Bandolp- OuirR on p. ''). L*.erican slan%8L re.arRs G. >. Mcuni%-t8 Lon t-e 3-ole re.ains a #orei%n lan%ua%e to t-e En%lis-.an. *.erican plays suc- as LIs Sat soL and *.erican novels suc- as L+a55ittL -ave -ad to 5e provided 3it- %lossaries in order to 5e intelli%i5le in En%land. Ao-n Gals3ort-y in -is recent novel L:-e Silver SpoonL .aRes a naturalistic use o# collo9uial idio.. >e ex-i5its t-e ric- ele.ent o# native slan% in t-e collo9uial speec- o# En%land.L / Aar%onis.s8 liRe slan% and ot-er %roups o# t-e non=literary layer8 do not al3ays re.ain on t-e outsRirts o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. Many 3ords -ave overco.e t-e resistance o# t-e lan%ua%e la3%ivers and purists and entered t-e standard voca5ulary. :-us t-e 3ords Rid8 #un8 9ueer8 5lu##8 #i58 -u.5u%8 #or.erly slan% 3ords or Aar%onis.s8 are no3 considered co..on collo9uial. :-ey .ay 5e said to 5e deGar%oniSed.
c) P(+4'ssi+,&lis)s

> 2ro#essionalis.s8 as t-e ter. itsel# si%ni#ies8 are t-e 3ords used in a de#inite trade8 pro#ession or callin% 5y people connected 5y co..on interests 5ot- at 3orR and at -o.e. :-ey co..only desi%nate so.e 3orRin% process or i.ple.ent o# la5our. 2ro#essionalis.s are correlated to ter.s. :er.s8 as -as already 5een indicated8 are coined to no.inate ne3 concepts t-at appear in t-e process o#8 and as a result o#8 tec-nical pro%ress and t-e develop.ent o# science. 2ro#essional 3ords na.e ane3 already=existin% concepts8 tools or instru.ents8 and -ave t-e typical properties o# a special code. :-e .ain #eature o# a pro#essionalis. is its tec-nicality. 2ro#essionalis.s are special 3ords in t-e non=literary layer o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary8 3-ereas ter.s are a specialiSed %roup 5elon%in% to t-e literary layer o# 3ords. :er.s8 i# t-ey are connected 3it- a #ield or 5ranc- o# science or tec-= ni9ue 3ell=Rno3n to ordinary people8 are easily decoded and enter t-e neutral stratu. o# t-e voca5ulary. 2ro#essionalis.s %enerally re.ain in circulation 3it-in a de#inite co..unity8 as t-ey are linRed to a co..on occupation and co..on social interests. :-e se.antic structure o# t-e ter. is usually transparent and is t-ere#ore easily understood. :-e se.antic structure o# a pro#essionalis. is o#ten di..ed 5y t-e i.a%e on 3-ic- t-e .eanin% o# t-e pro#essionalis. is 5ased8 particularly 3-en t-e #eatures o# t-e o5Gect in 9uestion re#lect t-e process o# t-e 3orR8 .etap-orically or .etony.ically. $iRe ter.s8 pro#essionalis.s do not allo3 any polyse.y8 t-ey are .onose.antic. >ere are so.e pro#essionalis.s used in di##erent trades; tin=#is- (0su5.arine)C 5locR=

5uster (} a 5o.5 especially desi%ned to destroy 5locRs o# 5i% 5uildin%s)C piper (}a specialist 3-o decorates pastry 3it- t-e use o# a crea.=pipe)C a .idder case (}a .id3i#ery case)C outer (}v RnocRout 5lo3). So.e pro#essionalis.s8 -o3ever8 liRe certain ter.s8 5eco.e popular and %radually lose t-eir pro#essional #lavour. :-us t-e 3ord crane 3-ic- +yron used in -is LDon AuanL ... 3as a ver5 .eanin% 'o stretc- out t-e necR liRe a crane 5e#ore a dan%erous leap& (in -untin%8 in order to &looR 5e#ore you leap&). No38 accordin% to Eric 2artrid%e8 it -as 5roadened its .eanin% and is used in t-e sense o# 'o -esitate at an o5stacle8 a dan%er&. +y 1@17 it 3as no .ore a pro#essionalis. used in -untin% 5ut -ad 5eco.e a collo9uial 3ord o# t-e non=literary stratu. and #inally8 since 1@978 entered t-e standard En%lis- voca5ulary. LNo %ood cranin% at it. $et&s %o do3n.L (Gals3ort-y) 2ro#essionalis.s s-ould not 5e .ixed up 3it- Gar%onis.s. $iRe slan% 3ords8 pro#essionalis.s do not ai. at secrecy. :-ey #ul#il a socially use#ul #unction in co..unication8 #acilitatin% a 9uicR and ade9uate %rasp o# t-e .essa%e. Good exa.ples o# pro#essionalis.s as used 5y a .an=o#=letters can 5e #ound in Dreiser&s L"inancier.L :-e #ollo3in% passa%e is an illustration. "ranR soon picRed up all t-e tec-nicalities o# t-e situation. * L5ullL8 -e learned8 3as one 3-o 5ou%-t in anticipation o# a -i%-er price to co.eC and i# -e 3as LloadedL up 3it- a LlineL o# stocRs -e 3as said to 5e Llon%L. >e sold to LrealiSeL -is pro#it8 or i# -is .ar%ins 3ere ex-austed -e 3as L3iped outL. * L5earL 3as one 3-o sold stocRs 3-ic- .ost #re9uently -e did not -ave8 in anticipation o# a lo3er price at 3-ic- -e could 5uy and satis#y -is previous sales. >e 3as Ls-ortL 3-en -e -ad sold 3-at -e did not o3n8 and -e 3as LcoveredL 3-en -e 5ou%-t to satis#y -is s0Aes and tc:realiSe -is pro#its or to protect -i.sel# a%ainst #urt-er loss in t-e case prices advanced instead o# declinin%. >e 3as in a LcornerL 3-en -e #ound t-at -e could not 5uy in order to .aRe %ood t-e stocR -e -ad 5orro3ed #or delivery and t-e return o# 3-ic- -ad 5een de.anded. >e 3as t-en o5li%ed to settle practically at a price #ixed 5y t-ose to 3-o. -e and ot-er Ls-ortsL -ad sold; *s is seen8 eac- #inancial pro#essionalis. is explained 5y t-e aut-or and t-e 3ords t-e.selves are in=Anverted co..as to stress t-eir peculiar idio.atic sense and also to8indicate t-at t-e 3ords do not 5elon% to t-e standard En%lis- voca5ulary in t-e .eanin%s t-ey are used. :-ere are certain #ields o# -u.an activity 3-ic- enGoy nation=3ide interest and popularity. :-is8 #or exa.ple8 is t-e case in Great +ritain 3-ere sports and %a.es are concerned. En%lis- pu%ilistic ter.inolo%y8 #or exa.ple8 -as %ained particularly 3ide reco%nition and t-ere#ore is #re9uently used in a trans#erred .eanin%8 t-us addin% to t-e %eneral i.a%e=5uildin% #unction o# e.otive prose. >ere is an exa.ple o# t-e use o# suc- pro#essionalis.s in #iction8 L"at-er unicRer5ocRer .et t-e. at t-e #erry %ivin% one a ri%-t=-ander on t-e nose and t-e ot-er an uppercut 3it- -is le#t Gust to let t-e. Rno3 t-at t-e #i%-t 3as onL :-is is #ro. a story 5y ,. >enry called L:-e DuelL in 3-ic- t-e 3riter depicts t3o

c-aracters 3-o ca.e #ro. t-e ?est to con9uer Ne3 worR. :-e voca5ulary o# 5oxin% (ri%-t=-ander8 uppercut)8 as 3ell as ot-er pro#essional ter.s #ound in t-e story8 liRe rin%8 to counter8 to clinc-8 etc.8 -elp to .aintain t-e at.osp-ere o# a #i%-t8 3-ic- t-e story re9uires. 2ro#essionalis.s are used in e.otive prose to depict t-e natural speec- o# a c-aracter. :-e sRil#ul use o# a pro#essional 3ord 3ill s-o3 not only t-e vocation o# a c-aracter8 5ut also -is education8 5reedin%8 environ.ent and so.eti.es even -is psyc-olo%y. :-at is 3-y8 per-aps8 a literary device Rno3n as speec-=c-aracteriSation is so a5undantly used in e.otive prose. :-e use o# pro#essionalis.s #or.s t-e .ost conspicuous ele.ent o# t-is literary device. *n interestin% article 3as pu5lis-ed in t-e 4anadian Glo5e and Mail / in 3-ic- t-e aut-or s-o3s -o3 a Gournalist 3-o .ocRs at t-e pro#essionalis.s in t-e lan%ua%e o# .unicipal planners8 3-ic- render t-eir speec- al.ost inco.pre-ensi5le8 -i.sel# uses 3ords and expressions unintelli%i5le to t-e lay reader8 >ere is t-e article8 A,MBN*$ESE I 3as %lad to read recently -o3 inco.pre-ensi5le t-e lan%ua%e o# city planners is to ne3spaper.en. I decided to call t-e aut-or o# t-e article and express .y appreciation; L>ello8 I&d liRe to speaR to a reporter o# yours na.ed :errance ?ills.L LIs -e on city side or t-e ni%-t re3rite desRzL LI&. not sure. May5e -e&s at -is type=3riter.L :-e operator said so.et-in% under -is 5reat- and t-en connected .e to t-e t-ird assistant executive city editor. *#ter a5out 1 .inutes o# t-is I 3as #inally a5le to co..unicate directly 3it- Mr. ?ills; L:-at 3as a %reat story you did on &plannerese&8 sir8L I told -i.. L?-ere did you %et t-e idea #or itzL L?-y8 I Gust 3ent to t-e .or%ue one day 3-en t-ere 3eren&t .any o5its to do and I %ot a #e3 clippin%s. :-en I talRed 3it- t-e copy=editor and -e %ave .e a !2=point italic -eadline 3it- an over-an%in% decRL LIs t-at %oodzL LSure it is. Even a cu5 Rno3s t-at. ?ell I 3rote a couple o# taRes and %ot it in t-e 5ox Gust 5e#ore t-e deadline #or t-e second ni%-t #inal editionL LIs t-at -ard to dozL I asRed. My -ead 3as 5e%innin% to ac-e. L?-atz Sure8 I %uess. $isten8 I&d liRe to discuss t-is 3it- you #urt-er 5ut I&. on t-e re3rite desR and .y le%.an is %oin% to 5e callin% in a scoop any .inute no3. Good= 5ye.L I sat t-ere 3it- t-e p-one in .y -and8 t-anR#ul t-at in t-is co.plex a%e t-e Gournalists are still preservin% si.ple En%lis-.
-) Di&l'ct&l 5+(-s

:-is %roup o# 3ords is o5viously opposed to t-e ot-er %roups o# t-e non=literary En%lis- voca5ulary and t-ere#ore its stylistic8 #unctions can 5e .ore or less clearly de#ined. Dialectal 3ords are t-ose 3-ic- in t-e process o# inte%ration o# t-e En%lis-

national lan%ua%e re.ained 5eyond its literary 5oundaries8 and t-eir use is %enerally con#ined to a de#inite locality. ?e exclude -ere 3-at are called social dialects or even t-e still looser application o# t-e ter. as in expressions liRe poetical dialect or styles as dialects. ?it- re#erence to t-is %roup t-ere is a con#usion o# ter.s8 particularly 5et3een t-e ter.s dialectal8 slan% and vernacular. In order to ascertain t-e true value and t-e stylistic #unctions o# dialectal 3ords it is necessary to looR into t-eir nature. "or t-is purpose a 9uotation #ro. 4ecil ?yld&s L* >istory o# Modern 4ollo9uial En%lis-L 3ill 5e to t-e point. L:-e -istory o# a very lar%e part o# t-e voca5ulary o# t-e present=day En%lis- dialects is still very o5scure8 and it is dou5t#ul 3-et-er .uc- o# it is o# any anti9uity. So #ar very little atte.pt -as 5een .ade to si#t t-e c-a## #ro. t-e %rain in t-at very vast receptacle o# t-e En%lis- Dialect Dictionary8 and to decide 3-ic- ele.ents are really %enuine &corruptions& o# 3ords 3-ic- t-e yoRel -as -eard #ro. educated speaRers8 or read8 .is-eard8 or .isread8 and i%norantly altered8 and adopted8 o#ten 3it- a sli%-tly t3isted si%ni#icance. 2ro5a5ly .any -undreds o# &dialect7 3ords are o# t-is ori%in8 and -ave no -istorical value 3-atever8 except inas.uc- as t-ey illustrate a %eneral principle in t-e .odi#ication o# speec-. Suc- 3ords are not8 as a rule8 c-aracteristic o# any Be%ional Dialect8 alt-ou%- t-ey .ay 5e ascri5ed to one o# t-ese8 si.ply 5ecause soGrne collector o# dialect #or.s -as -appened to -ear t-e. in a particular=area. :-ey 5elon% rat-er to t-e cate%ory o# &.istaRes7 3-ic- any i%norant speaRer .ay .aRe8 and 3-ic- suc- persons do .aRe8 a%ain and a%ain8 in every part o# t-e country.L / ?e are not concerned -ere 3it- t-e -istorical aspect o# dialectal 3ords. "or our purpose it 3il: su##ice to note t-at t-ere is a de#inite si.ilarity o# #unctions&la t-e use o# slan%8 cocRney and any ot-er #or. o# non=literary En%lis- and t-at o# dialectal 3ords. *ll t-ese %roups 3-en used in e.otive prose are .eant to c-aracteriSe t-e speaRer as a person o# a certain locality8 5reedin%8 education8 etc. :-ere is so.eti.es a di##iculty in distin%uis-in% dialectal 3ords #ro. collo9uial 3ords. So.e dialectal 3ords -ave 5eco.e so #a.iliar in %ood collo9uial or standard collo9uial En%lis- t-at t-ey are universally accepted as reco%niSed units o# t-e standard collo9uial En%lis-. :o t-ese 3ords 5elon% lass8 .eanin% &a %irl or a 5eloved %irl7 and t-e correspondin% lad8 &a 5oy or a youn% .an78 da#t #ro. t-e Scottis- and t-e nort-ern dialect8 .eanin% &o# unsound .ind8 silly7C #as- also Scottis-8 3it- t-e .eanin% o# &trou5le8 cares&. Still t-ey -ave not lost t-eir dialectal associations and t-ere#ore are used in literary En%lis- 3it- t-e a5ove=.entioned stylistic #unction o# c-aracteriSation. ,# 9uite a di##erent nature are dialectal 3ords 3-ic- are easily reco%niSed as corruptions o# standard En%lis- 3ords8 alt-ou%- ety.olo%ical=ly t-ey .ay -ave sprun% #ro. t-e peculiarities o# certain dialects. :-e #ollo3in% 3ords .ay serve as exa.ples; -inny #ro. -oneyC tittle apparently #ro. sister8 5ein% a c-ildis- corruption o# t-e 3ordC cutty .eanin% a &testy or nau%-ty %irl or 3o.an7. Most o# t-e exa.ples so #ar 9uoted co.e #ro. t-e Scottis- and t-e nort-ern dialects.

:-is is explained 5y t-e #act t-at Scotland -as stru%%led to retain t-e peculiarities o# -er lan%ua%e. :-ere#ore .any o# t-e 3ords #ixed in dictionaries as dialectal are o# Scottis- ori%in. *.on% ot-er dialects used #or stylistic purposes in literature is t-e sout-ern dialect (in particular t-at o# So.ersets-ire). :-is dialect -as a p-onetic peculiarity t-at distin%uis-es it #ro. ot-er dialects8 viS. initial Qsi and Q# are voiced8 and are 3ritten in t-e direct speec- o# c-aracters as QS and M8 #or exa.ple; &volR7 (#olR)8 &vound7 (#ound)8 &See7 (see)8 &SinRin%7 (sinRin%). :o s-o3 -o3 t-e truly dialectal 3ords are inter.in%led 3it- all Rinds o# i.proprieties o# speec-8 it 3ill 5e enou%- to 9uote t-e #ollo3in% excerpt #ro. Gals3ort-y&s L* +it o# $ove.L LMrs. +urlaco.5le; Furelyl I %ive '. a nu..it a#ore &e %ets upC an& Le &as &is 5reRGus re%ular at nine. Must #eed un up. >e&. on &is #eet all day8 %oin7 to See #olR t-at 3idden 3ant to See an an%el8 t-ey&g t-at 5usyC art 3-en &e co.es in &e &II play &is #lute t-ere. >e&. 3astin& a3ay #or 3ant o# &is 3i#e. :-at&s 3-at&tis. ,n& &i. so S3eet=spoRen8 tu8 &tis a pleasure to year &i.cNever Says a 3ordKL Dialectal 3ords are only to 5e #ound in t-e style o# e.otive prose8 very rarely in ot-er styles. *nd even -ere t-eir use is con#ined to t-e #unction o# c-aracteriSin% personalities t-rou%- t-eir speec-. 2er-aps it 3ould not 5e a #alse supposition to su%%est t-at i#=it 3ere not #or t-e use o# t-e dialectal 3ords in e.otive prose t-ey 3ould -ave already disappeared entirely #ro. t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. :-e uni#yin% tendency o# t-e literary lan%ua%e is so stron% t-at lan%ua%e ele.ents used only in dialect are doo.ed to vanis-8 except8 per-aps8 t-ose 3-ic-8 5ecause o# t-eir vi%our and 5eauty8 -ave 3it-stood t-e inte%ratin% po3er o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. ?riters 3-o use dialectal 3ords #or t-e purpose o# c-aracteriSin% t-e speec- o# a person in a piece o# e.otive prose or dra.a8 introduce t-e. into t-e 3ord texture in di##erent 3ays. So.e 3riters .aRe an unrestrained use o# dialectal 3ords and also slan%8 Gar%onis.s and pro#essionalis.s8 not only in c-aracteriSation8 5ut also in t-eir narrative. :-ey .istaRe units o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- -ave not yet esta5lis-ed t-e.selves in standard En%lis- #or t-e .ost striRin% #eatures o# .odern En%lis-. *n over= a5undance o# 3ords and p-rases o# 3-at 3e call non=literary En%lis- not only .aRes t-e readin% di##icult8 5ut actually conta.inates t-e %enerally accepted nor.s o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. ,t-er 3riters use dialectal 3ords sparin%ly8 introducin% only units 3-ic- are understanda5le to t-e intelli%ent En%lis- reader8 or t-ey .aRe use o# units 3-ic- t-ey t-inR 3ill enric- t-e standard En%lis- voca5ulary. *.on% 3ords 3-ic- are easily understood 5y t-e avera%e En%lis-.an are; .aister8 3eel8 eneu%-8 laird8 naet-in% and t-e liRe8 c-aracteristic o# Scottis-. Dialectal 3ords8 unliRe pro#essionalis.s8 are con#ined in t-eir use to a de#inite locality and .ost o# t-e 3ords deal8 as >. 4. ?yld points out8 3it- t-e everyday li#e o# t-e country. LSuc- 3ords 3ill #or t-e .ost part 5e o# a .ore or less tec-nical c-aracter8 and connected 3it- a%riculture8 -orses8 cattle and sport8L i

') V1l.&( 5+(-s +( 61l.&(is)s

:-e ter. vul%aris.8 as used to sin%le out a de#inite %roup o# 3ords o# non=standard En%lis-8 is rat-er .isleadin%. :-e a.5i%uity o# t-e ter. apparently proceeds #ro. t-e ety.olo%y o# t-e 3ord. (ul%ar8 as explained 5y t-e S-orter ,x#ord Dictionary8 .eans a) 3ords or na.es e.ployed in ordinary speec-C 5) co..on8 #a.iliarC c) co..only current or prevalent8 %enerally or 3idely disse.inated. ,ut o# seven various .eanin%s %iven in ?e5ster&s :-ird Ne3 International Dictionary six repeat nearly t-e sa.e de#initions t-at are %iven in t-e S-orter ,x#ord8 and only t-e sevent- is radically di##erent. >ere it is; L a; .arRed 5y coarseness o# speec- or expressionC crude or o##ensive in lan%ua%e8 5; le3d8 o5scene or pro#ane in expression...; indecent8 indelicate8L :-ese t3o su5.eanRl%s are t-e #oundation o# 3-at 3e -ere na.e vul%aris.s. Sot/ vul%aris.s are; 0 1) expletives and s3ear 3ords 3-ic- are o# an a5usive c-aracter8 liRe &da.n&8 &5loody&8 'o -ell&8 &%odda.& and8 as so.e dictionaries state8 used no3 as %eneral excla.ationsC 2) o5scene 3ords. :-ese are Rno3n as #our=letter 3ords t-e use o# 3-ic- is 5anned in any #or. o# .intercourse as 5ein% indecent. >istorians tell us t-at in Middle=A(%es and do3n into t-e 11t- century t-ey 3ere accepted in oral speec- ~nd a#ter 4axton even ad.itted to t-e printed pa%e. *ll o# t-ese 3ords are o# *n%lo=Saxon ori%in. (ul%aris.s are o#ten used in conversation out o# -a5it8 3it-out any t-ou%-t o# 3-at t-ey .ean8 or in&i.itation o# t-ose 3-o use t-e. in order not to see. old=#as-ioned or prudis-. Mn#ortunately in .odern #iction t-ese 3ords -ave %ained le%iti.acy. :-e .ost vul%ar o# t-e. are no3 to 5e #ound even in %ood novels. :-is li#tin% o# t-e ta5oo -as %iven rise to t-e al.ost unrestrained e.ploy.ent o# 3ords 3-ic- soil t-e literary lan%ua%e. >o3ever8 t-ey 3ill never ac9uire t-e status o# standard En%lis- voca5ulary and 3ill al3ays re.ain on t-e outsRirts. :-e #unction o# expletives is al.ost t-e sa.e as t-at o# interGections8 t-at is to express stron% e.otions8 .ainly annoyance8 an%er8 vexation and t-e liRe. :-ey are not to 5e #ound in any #unctional style o# lan%ua%e except e.otive prose8 and -ere only in t-e direct speec- o# t-e c-aracters. :-e lan%ua%e o# t-e under3orld is ric- in coarse 3ords and expressions. +ut not every expression 3-ic- .ay 5e considered coarse s-ould 5e re%arded as a vul%aris.. 4oarseness o# expression .ay result #ro. i.proper %ra..ar8 non=standard pronunciation8 #ro. t-e .isuse o# certain literary 3ords and expressions8 #ro. a deli5erate distortion o# 3ords. :-ese are i.proprieties o# speec- 5ut not vul%aris.s. Needless to say t-e la5el coarse is very #re9uently used .erely to desi%nate an expression 3-ic- lacRs re#ine.ent. +ut vul%aris.s8 5esides 5ein% coarse properly8 are also rude and e.otionally stron%ly c-ar%ed and8 liRe any .ani#estation o# excess o# #eelin%s8 are not very discerni5le as to t-eir lo%ical .eanin%.
4) C+ll+71i&l c+i,&.'s (5+(-s &,- )'&,i,.s)

4ollo9uial coina%es (nonce=3ords)8 unliRe t-ose o# a literary=5ooRis- c-aracter8 are

spontaneous and elusive. :-is proceeds #ro. t-e very nature o# t-e collo9uial 3ords as suc-. Not all o# t-e collo9uial nonce=3ords are #ixed in dictionaries or even in 3ritin% and t-ere#ore .ost o# t-e. disappear #ro. t-e lan%ua%e leavin% no trace in it 3-atsoever. MnliRe literary=5ooRis- coina%es8 nonce=3ords o# a collo9uial nature are not usually 5uilt 5y .eans o# a##ixes 5ut are 5ased on certain se.antic c-an%es in 3ords t-at are al.ost i.percepti5le to t-e lin%uistic o5server until t-e 3ord #inds its 3ay into print. It is only a care#ul stylistic analysis o# t-e utterance as a 3-ole t-at 3ill reveal a ne3 s-ade o# .eanin% inserted into t-e se.antic structure o# a %iven 3ord or 3ord= co.5ination. ?riters o#ten s-o3 t-at t-ey are conscious o# t-e speci#ic c-aracter o# t-e nonce=3ord t-ey use 5y various .eans. :-e {#ollo3in%=are illustrations o# t-e deli5erate use o# a ne3 3ord t-at eit-er 3as already esta5lis-ed in t-e lan%ua%e or 3as in process o# 5ein% esta5lis-ed as suc-; L...5esides8 t-ere is a tactcc (:-at .odern p-rase appears to .e sad stu##. +ut it 3ill serve to Reep .y verse co.pact). (+yron8 LDon0AuanL) *ccordin% to t-e ,x#ord Dictionary t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ord tact as used in t-ese lines appeared in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e in 1@7'. +yron8 3-o Reenly #elt any innovation introduced into t-e literary lan%ua%e o# -is ti.e8 accepts it un3illin%ly8 * si.ilar case in 3-ic- a 3riter .aRes use o# a ne3ly invented collo9uial expression8 evidently stron%ly appreciatin% its .eanin%8 .ay 5e noticed in LIn 4-anceryL8 3-ere Gals3ort-y uses to 5e t-e li.it in t-e sense o# &to 5e un5eara5le& and co..ents on it8 L?atc-in% #or a .o.ent o# 3eaRness s-e 3renc-ed it #reeC t-en placin% t-e dinin%= ta5le 5et3een t-e.8 said 5et3een -er teet-; wou are t-e li.it8 Monty.L (Mndou5tedly t-e inception o# t-is p-rasecso is En%lis- #or.ed under t-e stress o# circu.stance.) Ne3 expressions accepted 5y .en=o#=letters and co..ented on in one 3ay or anot-er are not literary coina%es 5ut collo9uial ones. Ne3 literary coina%es 3ill al3ays 5ear t-e 5rand o# individual creation and 3ill t-ere#ore -ave .ore or less precise se.antic 5oundaries. :-e .eanin% o# literary coina%es can easily 5e %rasped 5y t-e reader 5ecause o# t-e use o# t-e productive .eans o# 3ord=5uildin%8 and also #ro. t-e context8 o# course. :-is is not t-e case 3it- collo9uial nonce=3ords. :-e .eanin% o# t-ese ne3 creations creeps into 3ell=Rno3n 3ords i.percepti5ly. ,ne -ardly notices t-e process leadin% to t-e appearance o# a ne3 .eanin%. :-ere#ore collo9uial nonce=#or.ations are actually not ne3 3ords 5ut ne3 .eanin%s o# existin% 3ords. :rue8 t-ere are so.e 3ords t-at are 5uilt 3it- t-e -elp o# a##ixes8 5ut t-ese are #e3 and t-ey are %enerally 5uilt 3it- t-e .ost co..on su##ixes or pre#ixes o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 3-ic- -ave no s-ade o# 5ooRis-ness8 as =er8 =al8 un= and t-e liRe. Ne3 coina%e in collo9uial En%lis- a3aRens as e.p-atic a protest on t-e part o# literary=conscious people as do nonce=3ords in literary En%lis-. >ere is an interestin%

9uotation #ro. an article in&:-e Ne3 worR :i.es Ma%aSine; L2resently used to .ean &at t-e present .o.ent& 5ut 5eca.e so co.pletely coloured 3it- idea o# &in t-e near #uture7 t-at 3-en its older .eanin% ca.e 5acR into %eneral use a#ter ?orld ?ar II8 t-rou%- re=introduction into civilian speec- o# t-e conserva= tive .ilitary .eanin%8 .any people 3ere outra%ed and insisted t-at t-e old .eanin% 3as 5ein% corruptedc3-ereas8 in #act8 t-e &corrt#ptioGi& 3as0 5ein%8 pur%ed. >u.an nature 5ein% 3-at it is8 and pro.ptness ever 5e-ind pro.ise8 t-e c-ances are stron% t-at t-e rene3ed .eanin% 3ill #ade. L2eculiar ori%inally .eant &5elon%in% exclusively to&. ?e still Reep t-e older .eanin% in suc- state.ent as &a custo. peculiar to t-at country&. +ut 5y extension it ca.e to .ean &unco..on& and t-enceAodd& 3it- t-e overtones o# suspicion and .istrust t-at oddness .oves us to;L x So.e c-an%es in .eanin% are really striRin%. ?-at are called se.antic c-an%es in 3ords -ave lon% 5een under t-e o5servation o# 5ot- lexicolo%ists and lexico%rap-ers. *l.ost every text5ooR on t-e study o# 3ords a5ounds in exa.ples o# 3ords t-at -ave under%one suc- considera5le c-an%es in .eanin% t-at t-eir pri.ary .eanin%s are al.ost lost. See t-e c-an%es in t-e 3ords nice8 Rnave8 .ars-al8 #ello38 #or exa.ple. In so.e cases it is di##icult to dra3 a line o# de.arcation 5et3een nonce=3ords o# 5ooRis- and o# collo9uial ori%in. So.e 3ords 3-ic- -ave undou5tedly sprun% #ro. t-e literary=5ooRis- stratu. -ave 5eco.e popular in ordinary collo9uial lan%ua%e and -ave ac9uired ne3 .eanin%s in t-eir ne3 environ.ent. +er%an Evans8 co=aut-or o# L* Dictionary o# 4onte.porary Msa%eL in an article pu5lis-ed in :-e Ne3 worR :i.es +ooR Bevie3 says t-at L?ords are livin% t-in%s. :-ey %ro38 taRe roots8 adapt to environ.ental c-an%es liRe any plant or ani.al.L l :-is8 o# course8 s-ould 5e taRen as a .etap-or. +ut in o5servin% t-e c-an%es o# .eanin% t-at 3ords .ay under%o8 t-e co.parison is really apt. :-e aut-or s-o3s -o3 t-e 3ord sop-isticated8 undou5tedly a 3ord o# 5ooRis- ori%in8 -as developed ne3 .eanin%s. $et us #ollo3 -is trend o# investi%ation. :-e 3ord sop-isticated ori%inally .eant &3ise&. :-en8 t-rou%- its association 3it- t-eSop-ists8 it ca.e to .ean&over= su5tle&8 &.arRed 5y specious 5ut #allacious reasonin%&8 &a5le to .aRe t-e 3orse appear t-e 5etter reason&. :-en it developed t-e additional8 derivative sense o# &adulterated&8 i.e. &spoiled 5y ad.ixture o# in#erior .aterial&. :-is .eanin% naturally %ave 5irt- to a ne3 s-ade o# .eanin%8 viS. &corrupted&. :-en suddenly (as Evans -as it) t-e attitude i.plicit in t-e 3ord 3as reversedC it ceased to .ean unpleasantly 3orldly=3ise and ca.e to .ean ad.ira5ly 3orldly=3ise. "or t-e past #i#teen years sop-istication -as 5een de#initely a ter. o# praise. +y 19 @ in Ao-n ,&>ara&s L"ro. t-e :erraceL8 sop-istication -ad co.e to si%ni#y not &corruption& 5ut al.ost t-e &irreduci5le .ini.u. o# %ood .anners&. Sudden alterations in .eanin% -ave #re9uently 5een o5served in studies o# se.antic c-an%e. :-e unexpectedness o# so.e o# t-e c-an%es is really striRin% and can 5e accounted #or only 5y t-e s-i#t o# t-e sp-ere o# usa%e #ro. literary to collo9uial. It is evidently t-e intonation pattern t-at 5rin%s #ort- t-e c-an%e. 2er-aps t-e real cause o#

suc- c-an%es is t-e ironic touc- attac-ed to t-e 3ord sop-istication and also to ot-er 3ords ?-ic- -ave under%one suc- an unexpected s-i#t in .eanin%. It #ollo3s t-en t-at so.e nonce=3ords and .eanin%s .ay8 on t-e one -and8 ac9uire le%iti.acy and t-us 5eco.e #acts o# t-e lan%ua%e8 3-ile8 on t-e ot-er -and8 t-ey .ay 5e classi#ied _\ literary orcollo9uial accordin% to 3-ic- o# t-e .eanin%s is 5ein% dealt 3it-. :-e 3ays and .eans o# se.antic c-an%e are so.eti.es really .ysterious. :o use Evans&s 3ords8 Lso.e 3ords %o -o% 3ild in .eanin%. :-e 3ord sop-isticated #ro. its collo9uial use denotin% so.e passive 9uality started to .ean &delicately responsive to electronic sti.uli&8 &-i%-ly co.plex .ec-anically&8 &re9uirin% sRilled control&8 &extraordinarily sensitive in receivin%8 interpretin% and trans.ittin% si%nals&. ,r at least t-at is 3-at one .ust %uess it .eans in suc- state.ents as LModern ra=der is vastly .ore sop-isticated t-an 9uaint8 old=#as-ioned raderL. (:i.e)&8 later Lt-e I$=1@ is aeronautically .ore sop-isticated t-an t-e %iant :M=11'.L L2ioneer ( is exceedin%ly sop-isticated.L (4-ica%o Sunday :i.es) and L:-e *ntiRyt-era .ec-anis. is #ar .ore sop-isticated t-an any descri5ed in classical scienti#ic texts.L (Scienti#ic *.erican)L Mr. Evans&s article s-o3s -o3 unexpected c-an%es in .eanin% .ay 5e8 and -o3 stran%ely literary and collo9uial nonce=coina%es .ay inter3eave. :-ere is anot-er #eature o# collo9uial nonce=3ords 3-ic- .ust not 5e overlooRed. :-ere are so.e 3-ic- enGoy -ope#ul prospects o# stayin% in t-e voca5ulary o# t-e lan%ua%e. :-e nature o# t-ese creations is suc- t-at i# t-ey appear in speec- t-ey 5eco.e noticea5le and .ay develop into catc-=3ords. :-en t-ey 5eco.e #ixed as ne3 collo9uial coina%es and cease to 5e nonce=3ords. :-ey -ave ac9uired a ne3 si%ni#icance and a ne3 stylistic evaluation. :-ey are t-en la5elled as slan%8 collo9uial8 vul%ar or so.et-in% o# t-is Rind. $iterary nonce=3ords8 on t-e ot-er -and8 .ay retain t-e la5el nonce #or ever8 as8 #or exa.ple8 +yron&s L3eat-erolo%y.L Nonce=coina%e appears in all sp-eres o# li#e. *l.ost every callin% -as so.e #avourite catc-=3ords 3-ic- .ay live 5ut a s-ort ti.e. :-ey .ay 5eco.e per.anent and %enerally accepted ter.s8 or t-ey .ay re.ain nonce=3ords8 as8 #or exa.ple8 -ates-ips used 5y Ao-n ,&>ara in L:en Nort- "rederic.L 2articularly interestin% are t-e contextual .eanin%s o# 3ords. :-ey .ay ri%-tly 5e called nonce=.eanin%s. :-ey are #re9uently used in one context only8 and no traces o# t-e .eanin% are to 5e #ound in dictionaries. :-us8 t-e 3ord &openin%& in t-e %eneral .eanin% o# a 3ay in t-e sentence L:-is 3as an openin% and I #ollo3ed itL8 is a contextual .eanin% 3-ic- .ay or .ay not in t-e lon% run 5eco.e one o# t-e dictionary .eanin%s. Most o# t-e 3ords 3-ic- 3e call -ere collo9uial coina%es are ne3ly=.inted 3ords8 expressions or .eanin%s 3-ic- are la5elled slan% in .any .odern dictionaries. +ut 3e re#rain #ro. usin% t-e ter. so #reely as it is used in dictionaries #irstly 5ecause o# its a.5i%uity8 and secondly 5ecause 3e reserve it #or p-eno.ena 3-ic- in Bussian are

Rno3n as WXVYgVXilri8 i. e. city vernacular 5orderin% on non=literary speec-.

PART 8 P#ONETIC EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

GENERAL NOTES :-e stylistic approac- to t-e utterance is not con#ined to its structure and sense. :-ere is anot-er t-in% to 5e taRen into account 3-ic-8 in a certain type o# co..unication8 viS. 5elles=lettres8 plays an i.portant role. :-is is t-e 3ay a 3ord8 a p-rase or a sentence sounds/ :-e sound o# .ost 3ords taRen separately 3ill -ave little or no aest-etic value. It is in co.5ination 3it- ot-er 3ords t-at a 3ord .ay ac9uire a desired p-onetic e##ect. :-e 3ay a separate 3ord sounds .ay produce a certain eup-onic i.pression8 5ut t-is is a .atter o# individual perception and #eelin% and t-ere#ore su5Gective. "or instance8 a certain En%lis- 3riter expresses t-e opinion t-at an%ina Qaen&dsa.a8 pneu.onia QnGu&.ou.a8 and uvula I&Gu;vGu5 3ould .aRe 5eauti#ul %irl&s na.es instead o# 3-at -e calls Llu.ps o# na.es liRe Aoan8 Aoyce and MaudL/ In t-e poe. L4ar%oesL 5y Ao-n Mase#ield -e considers 3ords liRe ivory8 sandal=3ood8 cedar=3ood8 e.eralds and a.et-ysts as used in t-e #irst t3o stanSas to 5e 5eauti#ul8 3-ereas t-ose in t-e !rd stanSa LstriRe -ars-ly on t-e earlL L?it- a car%o o# :yne coal8 Boad=rails8 pi%=lead8 "ire=3ood8 iron=3are and c-eap tin trays.// *s one poet -as it8 t-is is L./.a co.5ination o# 3ords 3-ic- is di##icult to pronounce8 in 3-ic- t-e 3ords ru5 a%ainst one anot-er8 inter#ere 3it- one anot-er8 pus- one anot-er.L (erier8 a "renc- scientist8 3-o is a specialist on En%lis- versi#ication8 su%%ests t-at 3e s-ould try to pronounce t-e vo3els Qa;8 i;8 u; in a stron%ly articulated .anner and 3it- closed eyes. I# 3e do so8 -e says8 3e are sure to co.e to t-e conclusion t-at eaco# t-ese sounds expresses a de#inite #eelin% or state o# .ind. :-us -e .aintains t-at t-e sound Qu; %enerally expresses sorro3 or seriousnessC Qi; produces t-e #eelin% o# Goy and so on. $. +loo.#ield8 a 3ell=Rno3n *.erican lin%uist says; L...in -u.an speec-8 di##erent sounds -ave di##erent .eanin%. :o study t-e coordination o# certain sounds 3it- certain .eanin%s is to study lan%ua%e.L *n interestin% state.ent in t-is re%ard is .ade 5y a >un%arian lin%uist8 Ivan "ona%y; L:-e %reat se.antic entropy (a ter. #ro. t-eory o# co..unication denotin% t-e .easure o# t-e unRno3n8 I.G.) o# poetic lan%ua%e stands in contrast to t-e predicta5ility o# its sounds. ,# course8 not even in t-e case o# poetry can 3e deter.ine t-e sound o# a 3ord on t-e 5asis o# its .eanin%. Nevert-eless in t-e lar%er units o# line and stanSa8 a certain relations-ip can 5e #ound 5et3een sounds and content.L l

:-e Bussian poet +. 2asternaR says t-at -e -as L.. .al3ays t-ou%-t t-at t-e .usic o# 3ords is not an acoustic p-eno.enon and does not consist o# t-e eup-ony o# vo3els and consonants taRen separately. It results #ro. t-e correlation o# t-e .eanin% o# t-e utterance 3it- its sound.L 2 :-e t-eory o# sound sy.5olis. is 5ased on t-e assu.ption t-at separate sounds due to t-eir articulatory and acoustic properties .ay a3aRe certain ideas8 perceptions8 #eelin%s8 i.a%es8 va%ue t-ou%- t-ey .i%-t 5e. Becent investi%ations -ave s-o3n t-at Lit is ras- to deny t-e existence o# universal8 or 3idespread8 types o# sound sy.5olis..L ! In poetry 3e cannot -elp #eelin% t-at t-e arran%e.ent o# sounds carries a de#inite aest-etic #unction. 2oetry is not entirely divorced #ro. .usic. Suc- notions as -ar.ony8 eup-ony8 r-yt-. and ot-er sound p-eno.ena undou5tedly are not indi##erent to t-e %eneral e##ect produced 5y a ver5al c-ain. 2oetry8 unliRe prose8 is .eant to 5e read out loud and any oral per#or.ance o# a .essa%e inevita5ly involves de#inite .usical (in t-e 5road sense o# t-e 3ord) interpretation. No3 let us see 3-at p-onetic SDs secure t-is .usical #unction. Onomatopo !a ,no.atopoeia is a co.5ination o# speec-=sounds 3-ic- ai.s at i.itatin% sounds produced in nature (3ind8 sea8 t-under8 etc)8 5y t-in%s (.ac-ines or taols8 etc)8 5y people (si%-in%8 lau%-ter8 patter o# #eet8 etc) and 5y ani.als. 4o.5inations o# speecsounds o# t-is type 3ill inevita5ly 5e associated 3it- 3-atever produces t-e natural sound. :-ere#ore t-e relation05et3een ono.atopoeia and t-e p-eno.enon it is supposed to represent is one o# .etony.y. :-ere are t3o varieties o# ono.atopoeia; direct and indirect ,t-ers re9uire t-e exercise o# a certain a.ount o# i.a%ination to decip-er it. ,no.atopoetic 3ords can 5e used in a trans#erred .eanin%8 as #or instance8 din%= don%8 3-ic- represents t-e sound o# 5ells run% continuously8 .ay .ean 1) noisy8 2) strenuously contested. Exa.ples are; a din%=don% stru%%le8 a din%=don% %o at so.et-in%. In t-e #ollo3in% ne3spaper -eadline; DING=D,NG B,? ,2ENS ,N +I$$8 5ot- .eanin%s are i.plied. Indirect ono.atopoeia G$00|cl\iIlatGon t-e ai. o# 0-icl.Rt-e spunc4o# t-e utterance an sense. It is so.eti.es called Lec-o=3ritin%L. *n exa.ple Gs &*nd t-e silRen8 sad8 uncertain rustlin% o# eac- purple curtain& (E. *. 2oe)8 3-ere t-e repetition o# t-e sound Qs actually produces t-e sound o# t-e rustlin% o# t-e curtain. Indirect ono.atopoeia8 unliRe alliteration8 de.ands so.e .ention o# 3-at .aRes t-e sound8 as rustlin% (o# curtains) in t-e line a5ove. :-e sa.e can 5e said o# t-e sound Q3 i# it ai.s at reproducin%8 let us say8 t-e sound o# 3ind. :-e 3ord 3ind .ust 5e .S#itio##iz!700 L?-enever t-e .oon and stars are set8 ?-enever t-e 3ind is -i%-8 *ll ni%-t lon%L in

t-e darR and 3et * .an %oes ridin% 5y.L (B. S. Stevenson) Indirect ono.atopoeia is so.eti.es very e##ectively used 5y repeatin% 3ords 3-ict-e.selves are not ono.atopoetic8 as in 2oe&s poe. L:-e +ellsL 3-ere t-e 3ords tinRle and 5ells are distri5uted in t-e #ollo3in% .anner; LSilver 5ells... -o3 t-ey tinRle8 tinRle8 tinRleL and #urt-er L:o t-e tintina5ulation t-at so .usically 3ells "ro. t-e 5ells8 5ells8 5ells8 5ells8 +ells8 5ells8 5ells c "ro. t-e Gin%lin% and t-e tinRlin% o# t-e 5ells.L *lon%side o5viously ono.atopoetic 3ords as tinRle8 tintina5ulation and Gin%lin% t-e 3ord 5ells is dra3n into t-e %eneral .usic o# t-e poe. and 5e%ins to display ono.atopoetic properties t-rou%- t-e repetition. >ere is anot-er exa.ple; LMostly -e .oved in ur%ent8 precise8 clipped .ove.entsc %6 %o/ %o c and talRed t-e sa.e 3ay c staccato sentences.L :-e ono.atopoetic e##ect is ac-ieved 5y t-e repetition o# t-e unono=.atopoetic 3ord &%o& t-e pronunciation o# 3-ic- is pro.pted 5y t-e 3ord &clipped&8 su%%estin% s-ort8 9uicR8 a5rupt .otions. ,ne see.s even to -ear t-e sound o# -is #ootsteps8 * sRil#ul exa.ple o# ono.atopoetic e##ect is s-o3n 5y Bo5ert Sou=t-ey in -is poe. L>o3 t-e ?ater 4o.es do3n at $adore.L :-e title o# t-e poe. reveals t-e purpose o# t-e 3riter. +y art#ul co.5ination o# 3ords endin% in =in% and 5y t-e %radual increase o# t-e nu.5er o# 3ords in successive lines8 t-e poet ac-ieves t-e desired sound e##ect. :-e poe. is rat-er too lon% to 5e reproduced -ere8 5ut a #e3 lines 3ill su##ice as illus= trations; L*nd nearin% and clearin%8 *nd #allin% and cra3lin% and spra3lin%8 *nd %lea.in% and strea.in% and stea.in% and 5ea.in%8 *nd in t-is 3ay t-e 3ater co.es do3n at $adore8L A""!t #at!on *pt *lliteration&s *rt#ul *id. 4-arles 4-urc-ill *lliteration is a p-onetic stylistic device 3-ic- ai.s at i.partin% a .elodic e##ect to t-e utterance. :-e essence o# t-is device lies in t-e repetition o# si.ilar sounds8 in particular consonant sounds8 in close succession8 particularly at t-e 5e%innin% o# successive 3ords; L:-e possessive instinct never stands still. :-rou%- #lorescence and #eud8 #rosts and #ires it #ollo3s t-e la3s o# pro%ression.L (Gals3ort-y) or; LDeep into t-e darRness peerin%8 lon% 1 stood t-ere 3onderin%8 #earin%8 . LDou5tin%8 drea.in% drea.s no .ortals ever dared to drea. 5e#ore.L (E. *. 2oe)

*lliteration8 liRe .ost p-onetic expressive .eans8 does not 5ear any lexical or ot-er .eanin% unless 3e a%ree t-at a sound .eanin% exists as suc-. +ut even so 3e .ay not/ 5e a5le to speci#y clearly t-e c-aracter o# t-is .eanin%8 and t-eL ter. 3ill .erely su%%est t-at a certain a.ount o# in#or.ation is contained in t-e repetition o# sounds8 as is t-e case 3it- t-e repetition o# lexical units. >o3ever8 certain sounds8 i# repeated8 .ay produce an e##ect t-at can 5e speci#ied. "or exa.ple8 t-e sound Q. is #re9uently used 5y :ennyson in t-e poe. L:-e $otus EatersL to %ive a so.nolent e##ect. L>o3 s3eet it 3ere8... :o lend our -earts and spirits 3-olly :o t-e .usic o# .ild=.inded .elanc-olyC :o .use and 5rood and live a%ain in .e.ory/L :-ere#ore alliteration is %enerally re%arded as a .usical acco.pani.ent o# t-e aut-or&s idea8 supportin% it 3it- so.e va%ue e.otional at.osp-ere 3-ic- eac- reader interprets #or -i.sel#. :-us t-e repetition o# t-e sound Qd in t-e lines 9uoted #ro. 2oe&s poe. L:-e BavenL pro.pts t-e #eelin% o# anxiety8 #ear8 -orror8 an%uis- or all t-ese #eelin%s si.ultaneously. So.eti.es a co.petent reader8 i# una5le to decip-er t-e i.plied purpose o# t-e alliteration8 .ay %ro3 irritated i# it is overdone and 5e ready to discard it #ro. t-e arsenal o# use#ul stylistic devices. *n interestin% exa.ple o# t-e overuse o# alliteration is %iven in S3in5urne&s LNep-elidiaL 3-ere t-e poet parodies -is o3n style; LGaunt as t-e %-astliest o# %li.pses t-at %lea. t-rou%- t-e %loo. o# t-e %loa.in% 3-en %-osts %o a%-ast.L ?-en t-e c-oice o# 3ords depends pri.arily on t-e principle o# alliteration8 exactitude o# expression8 and even sense .ay su##er. +ut 3-en used sparin%ly and 3it- at least so.e sli%-t inner connection 3it- t-e sense o# t-e utterance8 alliteration -ei%-tens t-e %eneral aest-etic e##ect. *lliteration in t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e is deeply rooted in t-e traditions o# En%lis#olRlore. :-e la3s o# p-onetic arran%e.ent in *n%lo=Saxon poetry di##ered %reatly #ro. t-ose o# present=day En%lis- poetry. In ,ld En%lis- poetry alliteration 3as one o# t-e 5asic principles o# verse and considered8 alon% 3it- r-yt-.8 to 5e its .ain c-aracteristic. Eac- stressed .eanin%#ul 3ord in a line -ad to 5e%in 3it- t-e sa.e sound or co.5ination o# sounds. :-us8 in +eo3ul#; "yrst #or se3at; #lota 3aes on a Su.8 5at under iVm\i. +eornas sear3e on ste#n stison; strea.as 3undon8 sund 3iS sandeC secsas 5aeron on 5ear. nacan 5eor-te #roet3e../ :-e repetition o# t-e initial sounds o# t-e stressed 3ords in t-e line8 as it 3ere8 inte%rates t-e utterance into a co.positional unit. MnliRe r-y.e in .odern En%lisverse8 t-e se.antic #unction o# 3-ic- is to c-ain one line to anot-er8 alliteration in ,ld En%lis- verse 3as used to consolidate t-e sense 3it-in t-e line8 leavin% t-e relation 5et3een t-e lines rat-er loose. +ut t-ere really is an essential rese.5lance

structurally 5et3een alliteration and r-y.e (5y t-e repetition o# t-e sa.e sound) and also #unctionally (5y co..unicatin% a consolidatin% e##ect). *lliteration is t-ere#ore so.eti.es called initial r-y.e. :-e traditions o# #olRlore are exceptionally sta5le and alliteration as a structural device o# ,ld En%lis- poe.s and son%s -as s-o3n re.arRa5le continuity. It is #re9uently used as a 3ell=tested .eans not only in verse 5ut in e.otive prose8 in ne3spaper -eadlines8 in t-e titles o# 5ooRs8 in prover5s and sayin%s8 as8 #or exa.ple8 in t-e #ollo3in%; :it #or tatC 5lind as a 5at8 5et3ixt and 5et3eenC It is necR or not-in%C to ro5 2eter to pay 2aulC or in t-e titles o# 5ooRs; LSense and Sensi5ilityL (Aane *ustin)C L2ride and 2reGudiceL (Aane *ustin)C L:-e Sc-ool #or ScandalL (S-eridan)C L* +ooR o# 2-rase and "a5leL (+re3er). R$%m B-y.e is t-e repetition o# identical or si.ilar ter.inal sound co.5inations o# 3ords. B-y.in% 3ords are %enerally placed at a re%ular distance #ro. eac- ot-er. In verse t-ey are usually placed at t-e end o# t-e correspondin% lines. Identity and particularly si.ilarity o# sound co.5inations .ay 5e relative. "or instance8 3e distin%uis- 5et3een #ull r-y.es and inco.plete r-y.es. :-e #ull r-y.e presupposes identity o# t-e vo3el sound and t-e #ollo3in% consonant sounds in a stressed sylla5le8 as in .i%-t8 ri%-tC needless8 -eedless. ?-en t-ere is identity o# t-e stressed sylla5le8 includin% t-e initial consonant o# t-e second sylla5le (in polysylla5ic 3ords)8 3e -ave exact or identical r-y.es. Inco.plete r-y.es present a %reater variety. :-ey can 5e divided into t3o .ain %roups; vo3el &r-y.es and consonant r-y.es. In vo3el r-y.es t-e vo3els o# t-e sylla5les in correspondin% 3ords are identical8 5ut t-e consonants .ay 5e di##erent8 as in #les-c #res-cpress. 4onsonant r-y.es8 on t-e contrary8 s-o3 concordance in consonants and disparity in vo3els8 as in 3ort-c#ort-C talectoolc :re5lectrou5leC #lun%clon%. Modi#ications in r-y.in% so.eti.es %o so #ar as to .aRe one 3ord r-y.e 3it- a co.5ination o# 3ordsC or t3o or even t-ree 3ords r-y.e 3it- a correspondin% t3o or t-ree 3ords8 as in upon -er -onourc3on -erC 5otto.c#or%ot&e.cs-ot -i.. Sucr-y.es are called G0Gipaund88 or8 5roRen. :-e peculiarity o# r-y.es o# t-is type is t-art#ie co.5ination o# 3orp::#nade to sound liRe one 3ordca device 3-icinevita5ly %ives a collo9uial and so.eti.es a -u.orous touc- to t-e utterance. 4o.pound r-y.e .ay 5e set a%ainst 3-at is called e a e=r - a g e8 3-ere t-e letters and not t-e sounds are identical8 as in lovecprove8 #loodc 5rood8 -avec%rave. It #ollo3s t-ere#or|eiA0at#cylier0S$.co.pound r-y.e is perceived in readin% aloud8 eye=r-y.e can only i perceived in t-e 3ritten verse& Many eye=r-y.es hi t-e result o# -istorical c-an%es in t-e vo3el sounds in certain positions. :-e continuity o# En%lis- verse .ani#ests itsel# also in retention o# so.e

pairs o# 3-at 3ere once r-y.in% 3ords. +ut on t-e analo%y o# t-ese pairs8 ne3 eye= r-y.es -ave 5een coined and t-e .odel no3 #unctions alon%side ear=r-y.es. *ccordin% to t-e 3ay t-e r-y.es are arran%ed 3it-in t-e stanSa8 certain .odels -ave crystalliSed8 #or instance; 1. couplets c3-en t-e last 3ords o# t3o successive lines are r-y.ed. :-is is co..only .arRed aa. 2. triple r-y.escaaa !. cross r-y.esca5a5 '. #ra.in% or rin% r-y.esca55a :-ere is still anot-er variety o# r-y.e 3-ic- is called i n t e m n a I r-y.e. :-e r-y.in% 3ords are placed not at t-e zT; t-e lilies 5ut 3it-in t-e line8 as in; LI 5rin% #res- s-o3ers #or t-e t-irstin% #lo3ers.L (S-elley) or; L,nce upon a .idni%-t dreary 3-ile P pondered 3eaR and 3eary.L (xVi) Internal r-y.e 5reaRs t-e line into t3o distinct parts8 at t-e sa.e ti.e .ore stron%ly consolidatin% t-e ideas expressed in t-ese t3o parts. :-us r-y.e .ay 5e said tO possess t3o see.in%ly contradictory #unctions; disseverin%8 on t-e one -and8 and= consolidatin %< on t-e ot-er. *s in .any stylistic devices8 t-ese t3o #unctions o# r-y.e are realiSed si.ultaneously in a %reater or lesser de%ree dependin% on t-e distri5ution o# t-e r-y.es. In aa r-y.es t-e consolidatin% #unction is rat-er conspicuous. In aa5aa5 r-y.es t-e r-y.in% 3ords 55 .ay not i..ediately reveal t-eir&consolidatin% #unction. :-e disseverin% #unction o# internal r-y.e .aRes itsel# #elt in a distinctive pause8 3-ic- is a natural result o# t-e lon%er line. :-is 9uality o# internal r-y.e .ay 5e re%arded as a leadin% one. :-e distinctive #unction o# r-y.e is particularly #elt 3-en it occurs unexpectedly in ordinary speec- or in prose. :-e listener&s attention is cau%-t 5y t-e r-y.e and -e .ay lose t-e t-read o# t-e discourse. R$%t$m B-yt-. exists in all sp-eres o# -u.an activity and assu.es .ulti#arious #or.s. It is a .i%-ty 3eapon in stirrin% up e.otions 3-atever its nature or ori%in8 3-et-er it is .usical8= .ec-anical8 or sy..etrical8 as in arc-itecture.8 :-e .ost %eneral de#inition o# r-yt-. .ay 5e expressed as #ollo3s; LB-yt-. is a #lo38 .ove.ent8 procedure8 etc.8 c-aracteriSed 5y 5asically re%ular recurrence o# ele.ents or #eatures8 as 5eat8 or accent8 in alternation 3it- opposite or di##erent ele.ents or #eaturesL (?e5ster&s Ne3 ?orld Dictionary). B-yt-. can 5e perceived only provided t-at t-ere is so.e Rind o# experience in catc-in% t-e opposite ele.ents or #eatures in t-eir correlation8 and8 3-at is o# para.ount i.portance8 experience in catc-in% t-e re%ularity o# alternatin% patterns. B-yt-. is pri.arily 0periodicity8 3-ic- re9uires speci#ication as to t-e type o# periodicity. *ccordin% to so.e investi%ations8 r-yt-.ical periodicity in verse Lre= 9uires intervals o# a5out t-ree 9uarters o# a second 5et3een successive peaRs o#

periods.L / It is a deli5erate arran%e.ent o# speec- into re%ularly recurrin% units intended to 5e %rasped as a de#inite periodicity 3-ic- .aRes r-yt-. a stylistic device. B-yt-.8 t-ere#ore8 is t-e .ain #actor 3-ic- 5rin%s order into t-e utterance. :-e in#luence o# t-e r-yt-. on t-e se.antic aspect o# t-e utterance is no3 5ein% care#ully investi%ated and it 5eco.es apparent t-at orderly p-onetic arran%e.ent o# t-e utterance calls #ort- orderly syntactical structures 3-ic-8 in t-eir turn8 su%%est an orderly se%.entin% o# t-e sense=%roups. :-e conscious perception o# r-yt-.s .ust 5e G ac9uired 5y trainin%8 as .ust t-e perception o# any stylistic device. So.e people are said to. 5e co.pletely dea# to r-yt-. and 3-atever e##orts are exerted to develop t-is sense in t-e. inevita5ly #ail. +ut t-is is not true. * person .ay not 5e a5le to produce a #lo3 o# r-yt-.ical units8 5ut -e can certainly ac9uire a #eelin% #or r-yt-. i# -e trains -is ear. B-yt-. in lan%ua%e necessarily de.ands oppositions t-at alternate; lon%8 s-ortC stressed8 unstressedC -i%-8 lo3C and ot-er contrastin% se%.ents o# speec-. So.e t-eoreticians .aintain t-at r-yt-. can only 5e perceived i# t-ere are occasional deviations #ro. t-e re%ularity o# alternations. In t-is connection De Groot 3rites; LIt is very stran%e indeed t-at deviations #ro. t-e t-e.e (i.e. t-e accepted Rind o# periodicity8 I. G.) in separate lines (called irre%ularities o# t-e line) -ave 5een looRed upon as de#iciencies o# t-e poe. 5y suc- e.inent sc-olars as Aespersen and >eusseler. ,n t-e contrary8 t-ey are indispensa5le8 and -ave 5ot- a #or.al and expressive #unction. >ar.ony is not only a .atter o# si.ilarity8 5ut also o# dissi.ilarity8 and in %ood poetry8 irre%ularities o# lines are a.on% t-e .ost i.portant #eatures o# t-e poe. 5ot- in t-eir #or.al and t-eir expressive #unctions. *ctually8 t-e 5eauty o# a poe. is less dependent upon t-e re%ularities t-an upon t-e irre%ularities o# t-e poe..L x *cade.ician (. M. Fir.unsRy su%%ests t-at t-e concept o# r-yt-. s-ould 5e distin%uis-ed #ro. t-at o# .etre. M e t r e is any #or. o# periodicity in verse8 its Rind 5ein% deter.ined 5y t-e c-aracter and nu.5er o# sylla5les o# 3-ic- it consists. :-e .etre is an ideal p-eno.enon c-aracteriSed 5y its strict re%ularity8 consistency and unc-an%ea5ility.2 B-yt-. is #lexi5le and so.eti.es an e##ort is re9uired to perceive it. In classical verse it is perceived at t-e 5acR%round o# t-e .etre. In accented verse c5y t-e nu.5er o# stresses in a line. In prosec5y t-e alternation o# si.ilar syntactical patterns. >e %ives t-e #ollo3in% de#inition o# verse r-yt-.. It is Lt-e actual alternation o# stress 3-ic- appears as a result o# interaction 5et3een t-e ideal .etrical la3 and t-e natural p-onetic properties o# t-e %iven .lan%ua%e .aterial.L ! >e -olds t-e vie3 t-at ro.antic poetry re%ards .etrical #or.s as a conventional tradition8 3-ic- -inders t-e vi%orous individual creativity o# t-e poet and narro3s t-e potential variety o# poetic .aterial. :-is trend in literature Gusti#ies all Rinds o# deviations #ro. t-e .etrical sc-e.e as 3ell as t-e dissi.ilarity o# stanSasC it #avours enGa.5.ent (see p. 2 7) 5ecause it violates t-e .onotonous concurrence o# t-e r-yt-.ical and syntactical units o# t-e .etrical syste.C it .aRes a.ple use o# i.per#ect r-y.es8 inas.uc- as t-ey violate

t-e trivial exactness o# sound correspondence. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e concept o# r-yt-. s-ould not 5e identi#ied 3it- t-at o# .etre8 t-e latter8 5e it repeated8 appearin% only in& classical verse as an ideal #or.8 an invariant o# t-e %iven sc-e.e o# alternation. >o3ever8 t-e deviations (t-e variants) .ust not %o so #ar as to o5scure t-e consciously perceived ideal sc-e.e. *s -as 5een pointed out 5e#ore8 stylistic e##ect can only 5e ac-ieved i# t-ere is a clear=cut dic-oto.y o# t-e constituent ele.ents. In t-e present case t-e dic-oto.y is perceived in t-e si.ultaneous .aterialiSation o# t-e ort-odox and #ree patterns o# .etrical alternation. A. Middleton Murry states; LIn order t-at r-yt-.ic e##ects s-ould 5e success#ul t-ey .ust 5e di##erentiated 3itcertaintyC and to .ana%e contrasts o# r-yt-.c3it-out contrast t-ere is no di##erentiationc3it- so .uc- su5tlety t-at t-ey 3ill re.ain su5ordinate to t-e in= tellectual su%%estion o# t-e 3ords8 is t-e .ost delicate 3orR i.a%ina5le.Lm In -is notes on S-aRespeare&s plays our Bussian poet +. 2asternaR expressed t-e sa.e idea in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords; L...:-e .etre (t-at o# 5lanR verse8 I. G.) is not .ade conspicuous. :-is is not a recitation. :-e #or. 3it- its sel#=ad.iration does not overs-ado3 t-e content8 3-icis in#at-o.a5le and c-aste. It is an exa.ple o# su5li.e poetry 3-ic- in its #inest exa.ples -as al3ays t-e si.plicity and #res-ness o# prose.L 2 (. MayaRovsRy #ra.ed t-is idea in poetic #or.. LB-yt-.L8 -e 3rites8 Lis t-e #oundation o# every poetic 3orR8 and passes t-rou%- it liRe a cla.our.L *nd #urt-er8 LI %et .y .etre 5y coverin% t-is cla.our 3it- 3ords.L! :-e Bussian poet *. +loR said t-at t-e poet is not one 3-o 3rites verses8 5ut t-e 5earer o# r-yt-.. (erse did not 5eco.e entirely divorced #ro. .usic 3-en it 5e%an to live as an independent #or. o# art. *s is Rno3n8 verse -as its ori%in in son%C 5ut still t-e .usical ele.ent -as never 5een lostC it -as&assu.ed a ne3 #or. o# existencecr-yt-.. It #ollo3s t-en t-at r-yt-. is not a .ere addition to verse or e.otive prose8 3-icalso -as its r-yt-.8 and it .ust not 5e re%arded as possessin% Lp-onetic autono.y a.ountin% to an &irrelevant texture&8 5ut -as a .eanin%.L' :-is point o# vie3 is no3 %ainin% %round. Many atte.pts -ave 5een .ade to ascri5e .eanin% to r-yt-. and even to speci#y di##erent .eanin%s to di##erent types o# .etre. :-is is i.portant8 inas.uc- as it contri5utes to t-e no3=prevailin% idea t-at any #or. .ust .aRe so.e contri5ution to t-e %eneral sense. B-yt-. intensi#ies t-e e.otions. It also speci#ies e.otions. So.e students o# r-yt-. %o so #ar as to declare t-at L...one o5vious a%ency #or t-e expression o# -is (a poet&s) attitude is surely .etreL l and t-at L...t-e poet&s attitude to3ard -is reader is re#lected in -is .anipulationcso.eti.es -is disre%ardco# .etre.L 2 So diver%ence #ro. t-e ideal .etrical sc-e.e is an in-erent 9uality o# r-yt-. in verse. !. :-e ran%e o# diver%ence .ust8 -o3ever8 -ave its li.its. Deviations #ro. t-e .etrical t-e.e are #ree 3it-in t-e %iven #ra.e o# variation8 5ut t-ey cannot %o 5eyond t-at #ra.e lest t-e r-yt-.ical pattern s-ould 5e destroyed. 2er.issi5le deviations #ro. t-e %iven .etre are called .odi#ications o# t-e r-yt-.ical pattern. So.e o# t-e. occur so #re9uently in classical verse t-at t-ey 5eco.e8 as it 3ere8 constituents o# t-e

r-yt-.. LI# violations o# t-e .etre taRe root8L 3rites B. AaRo5son8 Lt-ey t-e.selves 5eco.e rules...L and #urt-er8 L...t-ese are allo3ed oscillations8 departures 3it-in t-e li.its o# t-e la3. In +ritisparlia.entary ter.s8 it is not an opposition to its .aGesty t-e .etre8 5ut an opposition o# its .aGesty.L ' It -as already 5een pointed out t-at i# r-yt-. is to 5e a stylistic cate%ory8 one t-in% is re9uiredct-e si.ultaneous Lperception o#. t3o contrastin% p-eno.ena8 a Rind o# dic-oto.y. :-ere#ore r-yt-. in verse as an SD is de#ined as a co.5ination o# t-e ideal .etrical sc-e.e and t-e variations o# it8 variations 3-ic- are %overned 5y t-e standard. :-ere are8 -o3ever8 certain cases in verse 3-ere no departures are allo3ed and t-e r-yt-. striRes t-e ear 3it- its strict re%ularity. :-ese are cases 3-ere t-e r-yt-. contri5utes to t-e sense. :-us in Bo5ert Sout-ey&s L>o3 t-e ?ater 4o.es Do3n at $adoreL (see p. 121) t-e r-yt-. itsel# is .eant to interpret t-e .onotonous roar o# t-e 3ater#allC or in Ed3ard $ear&s poe. L:-e NutcracRers and t-e Su%ar= ton%sL 3-ere t-e r-yt-. reproduces t-e 5eat o# %allopin% -orses& #eet8 or in .arcr-yt-. 3-ere t-e 5eat o# t-0 lines su%%ests a .usical #oundation. In s-ort8 3-erever t-ere is a reco%niSa5le se.antic #unction o# t-e r-yt-. #e38 i# any8 deviations are evident. B-yt-. reveals itsel# .ost conspicuously in .usic8 dance and verse. ?e -ave so #ar dealt 3it- verse 5ecause t-e properties o# r-yt-. in lan%ua%e are .ost o5serva5le in t-is .ode o# co..unication.. ?e s-all no3 proceed to t-e analysis o# r-yt-. in prose8 5earin% in .ind t-at t-e essential properties o# prose r-yt-. are %overned 5y t-e sa.e %eneral rules8 t-ou%- not so apparent8 per-aps8 as in verse8 and #allin% under di##erent para.eters o# analysis. Muc- -as 5een said and 3ritten a5out r-yt-. in prose. So.e investi%ators8 in atte.ptin% to #ind r-yt-.ical patterns o# prose8 super = 4#. A. *. Bic-ard&s state.ent t-at L:-e ear ... %ro3s tired o# strict re%ularity8 = 5ut deli%-ts in reco%niSin% 5e-ind t-e variations t-e standard t-at still %overns t-e.L (2ractical 4riticis.8 p. 227). i.pose .etrical .easures on prose and re%ard instances 3-ic- do not #all under t-e su%%ested .etrical sc-e.e as variants. +ut t-e para.eters o# t-e r-yt-. in verse and in prose are entirely di##erent. B. AaRo5son states; L... any .etre uses t-e sylla5le as a= unit o# .easure at least in certain sections o# t-e verse.L x :-e unit o# .easure in prose8 -o3ever8 is not t-e sylla5le 5ut a structure8 a 3ord=co.5ination8 a se9uence o# 3ords8 t-at is8 p-rases8 clauses8 sentences8 even supra=p-rasal units.2 :-e structural pattern8 3-ic- in t-e particular case is t-e r-yt-.ical unit8 3ill 5e repeated 3it-in t-e %iven span o# prose. :-e r-yt-. 3ill 5e 5ased not on t-e re%ular alternation o# opposin% units8 i.e. a re%ular 5eat8 5ut on t-e repetition o# si.ilar structural units #ollo3in% one anot-er or repeated a#ter s-ort intervals. :-e peculiar property o# prose r-yt-.8 particularly in 27t- century prose8 is t-at it occurs only in relatively s-ort spans o# text8 and t-at it constantly c-an%es its patterns and .ay suddenly drop to a

nor.al8 al.ost unapparent r-yt-.ical desi%n or to no r-yt-. at all. It .ust 5e .ade clear t-at .etrical or accented r-yt-.8 3-ic- is an internal and indispensa5le property o# verse8 is incidental in prose8 3-ic- in its very essence is ar-yt-.ical. * prose passa%e interpolated into a 3orR 3ritten in verse8 a device so #avoured 5y so.e poets8 -as its si%ni#icance in t-e acute opposition o# t-e t3o .odes o# expression; r-yt-.ical versus ar-yt-.ical. :-e .ost o5serva5le r-yt-.ical patterns in prose are 5ased on t-e use o# certain stylistic syntactical devices8 na.ely8 enu.eration8 repetition8 parallel construction (in particular8 5alance) and c-ias.us. :-e 5e%innin% o# DicRens&s L* :ale o# :3o 4itiesL (see p. 22!) .ay serve as an illustration o# prose r-yt-.. >ere t-e r-yt-. is easily discerni5le. In t-e #ollo3in% passa%e it is .ore di##icult to catc- t-e r-yt-.8 t-ou%- 3-en t-e passa%e is read aloud8 t-e r-yt-. is clear. L:-e -i%-=slopin% roo#8 o# a #ine sooty pinR 3as al.ost Danis-8 and t3o &ducRy/ little 3indo3s looRed out o# it8 %ivin% an i.pression t-at very tall servants lived up t-ere.L (Gals3ort-y) >ere t-e r-yt-.ical pattern o# t-e utterance is al.ost i.percepti5le to an untrained ear8 5ut 3ill clearly 5e #elt 5y one 3it- r-yt-.ical experience. :-e paired attri5utes -i%-=slopin%8 #ine sooty8 ducRy little and liRe3ise t-e attri5ute 3it- an adver5ial .odi#ier very tall are all structurally si.ilar 3ord=co.5inations and t-ere#ore create t-e r-yt-.. *s a %ood exa.ple o# oscillatin% prose r-yt-. -ardly dissecta5le into r-yt-.ical units is t-e #ollo3in% excerpt #ro. So.erset Mau%-a.&s L:-e 2ainted (eilL; L?alter8 I 5eseec- you to #or%ive .e8L s-e said8 leanin% over -i.. "or #ear t-at -e could not 5ear t-e pressure s-e tooR care not to touc- -i.. LI&. so desperately sorry #or t-e 3ron% I did you. I so 5itterly re%ret it.L >e said not-in%. >e did not see. to -ear. S-e 3as o5li%ed to insist. It see.ed to -er stran%ely t-at -is soul 3as a #lutterin% .ot- and its 3in%s 3ere -eavy 3it- -atred. LDarlin%.L * s-ado3 passed over -is 3an and sunRen #ace. It 3as less t-an a .ove.ent8 and yet it %ave all t-e e##ect o# a terri#yin% convulsion. S-e -ad never used t-at 3ord to -i. 5e#ore. 2er-aps in -is dyin% 5rain t-ere passed t-e t-ou%-t8 con#used and di##icultly %rasped8 t-at -e -ad only -eard -er use it8 a co..onplace o# -er voca5ulary8 to do%s8 and 5a5ies and .otorcars. :-en so.et-in% -orri5le occurred. S-e clenc-ed -er -ands8 tryin% 3it- all -er .i%-t to control -ersel#8 #or s-e sa3 t3o tears run slo3ly do3n -is 3asted c-eeRs. L,-8 .y precious8 .y dear8 i# you ever loved .ecI Rno3 you loved .e and I 3as -ate#ulcI 5e% you to #or%ive .e. I&ve no c-ance no3 to s-o3 .y repentance. >ave .ercy on .e. I 5eseec- you to #or%ive.L S-e stopped. S-e looRed at -i.8 all 5reat-less8 3aitin% passionately #or a reply. S-e sa3 t-at -e tried to speaR. >er -eart %ave a %reat 5ound.L :-e lon% passa%e is necessary in order t-at t-e #luctuatin%8 r-yt-.ical pattern o# 5ot-

t-e aut-or&s and t-e c-aracter&s speec- .i%-t 5e o5served. :-e .ost o5vious r-yt-.ical unit -ere is t-e structural si.ilarity o# t-e sentences. :-e over3-el.in% .aGority o# t-e sentences are s-ort8 si.ple8 al.ost unextended8 rese.5lin% eac- ot-er in structural desi%n;c&>e said not-in%&8 &>e did not see. to -ear&8 &S-e 3as o5li%ed to insist&8 &* s-ado3 passed over -is 3an and sunRen #ace&8 &S-e -ad never used t-at 3ord to -i. 5e#ore&8 &S-e sa3 t-at -e tried to speaR&8 &>er -eart %ave a %reat 5ound&. $iRe3ise t-e c-aracter&s speec- is .arRed 5y t-e sa.e #eaturec t-e sentences are s-ort8 si.ple8 rese.5lin% eac- ot-er in t-eir structural desi%n;c &?alter8 I 5eseecyou to #or%ive .e&8 &I 5e% you to #or%ive .e&8 &I&ve no c-ance no3 to s-o3 .y repentance&8 &I 5eseec- you to #or%ive& and earlier &I&. so desperately sorry... I so 5itterly re%ret it.& +ut it is not only t-e repetition o# t-e structural desi%n o# t-e sentences t-at .aRes t-e r-yt-rri; t-ere are ot-er ele.ents contri5utin% to it. ?it- t-e increatsevo# e.9tional tension t-e aut-or al.ost slips into t-e ia.5ic r-yt-. o# 5lanR verse. Dra.atic #eelin% de.ands re%ular r-yt-.. *s t-e e.otion 5eco.es tenser8 t-e r-yt-.ical 5eat and cadence o# t-e 3ords 5eco.es .ore evident. MarR t-e sentence 3-ic- 5e%ins 3it- &2er-aps in -is dyin% 5rain....& >ere a Rind o# .etrical r-yt-. can easily 5e discernedc Lt-ere passed t-e t-ou%-t con#used and 3 .1 0 =$ 3 =$ 0 di##icultly %ras t-at -e -ad only -eard -er use it8 ... and so it %oes on until t-e p-rase Lt-en so.et-in% -orri5le occurred.L ,# course t-is inter=correlation o# t-e r-yt-.ical units in t-e passa%e is open to discussion. :-ere .ay 5e various delivery instances. In t-is connection B. AaRo5son says t-at La variation o# verse instances 3it-in a %iven poe. .ust 5e strictly distin%uis-ed #ro. t-e varia5le delivery instances.L l Indeed8 al.ost any piece o# prose8 t-ou%- in essence ar-yt-.ical8 can 5e .ade r-yt-.ical 5y isolatin% 3ords or se9uences o# 3ords and .aRin% appropriate pauses 5et3een eac-. In order to distin%uis- t-e varia5le delivery instances o# an utterance #ro. its in-erent structural and se.antic properties8 it is necessary to su5Gect t-e text to a t-orou%- analysis o# t-e correlated co.ponent parts. :-e s-ort survey o# t-e passa%e a5ove s-o3s t-at t-e prose r-yt-. is interspersed 3it-=%enuine .etrical r-yt-. not devoid8 o# course8 o# t-e .odi#ications 3-ic- .aRe t-e verse r-yt-. less conspicuous. * very %ood exa.ple o# prose r-yt-. can 5e seen in t-e c-apter #ro. Gals3ort-y&s LMan o# 2ropertyL entitled &Aune&s :reat& a passa%e #ro. 3-ic- is %iven later (see p. 211). It .ust 5e noted t-at t-e irruption o# prose into a .etrical pattern is %enerally perceived as anni-ilation o# r-yt-.8 3-ereas t-e introduction o# .etrical pattern into prose ai.s at consolidatin% t-e already va%uely perceived r-yt-. o# t-e utterance. 2rose r-yt-.8 unliRe verse r-yt-.8 lacRs consistency8 as it #ollo3s various principles. +ut nevert-eless a trained ear 3ill al3ays detect a Rind o# alternation o# syntactical

units. :-e tasR is t-en to #ind t-ese units and to ascertain t-e .anner o# alternation. :-is is not an easy tasR 5ecause8 as -as already 5een pointed out8 r-yt-. is not an essential property o# prose8 3-ereas it is essential in verse. 2rose is t-e opposite o# verse and t-is opposition is pri.arily structural8 in t-is case8 r-yt-.ical structure versus8 ar-yt-.ical structure. :-e incursion o# prose into poetry is a deli5erate device to 5reaR a3ay #ro. its strict r-yt-..

PART IV LEXICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

A. INTENTIONAL MI&ING O' T(E STYLISTIC ASPECT O' )ORDS >etero%eneity o# t-e co.ponent parts o# t-e utterance is t-e 5asis #or a stylistic device called 5 a t- V s. Mnrelated ele.ents are 5rou%-t to%et-er as i# t-ey denoted t-in%s e9ual in ranR or 5elon%in% to one class8 as i# t-ey 3ere o# t-e sa.e stylistic aspect. +y 5ein% #orci5ly linRed to%et-er8 t-e ele.ents ac9uire a sli%-t .odi#ication o# .eanin%. LSooner s-all -eaven Riss eart-c(-ere -e #ell sicRer) ,-8 AuliaK 3-at is every ot-er 3oezc ("or God&s saRe let .e -ave a %lass o# li9uorC 2edro8 +attista8 -elp .e do3n 5elo3) Aulia8 .y loveKc(you rascal8 2edro8 9uicRer)c ,-8 AuliaKc(t-is curst vessel pitc-es so)c +eloved Aulia8 -ear .e still 5eseec-in%KL (>ere -e %re3 inarticulate 3it- retc-in%.) Suc- poetic expressions as &-eaven Riss eart-&8 &3-at is every ot-er 3oe&C &5eloved Aulia8 i_m .e still 5eseec-in%& are Goined in one #lo3 o# utterance 3it- collo9uial expressionsc&"or God&s .saReC you rascalC -elp .e do3n 5elo3&8 &t-is eurst vessel pitc-es so&. :-is produces an e##ect 3-ic- serves t-e purpose o# lo3erin% t-e lo#tiness o# expression8 inas.uc- as t-ere is a sudden drop #ro. t-e elevated to t-e co..onplace or even t-e ridiculous. *s is seen #ro. t-is exa.ple8 it is not so easy to distin%uis- 3-et-er t-e device is .ore lin%uistic8or .ore lo%ical. +ut t-e lo%ical and lin%uistic are closely inter3oven in pro5le.s o# stylistics. *not-er exa.ple i~ t-e #ollo3in%c L+ut o-z a.5rosial cas-l *-K 3-o 3ould lose t-eez ?-en 3e no .ore can use8 or even a5use t-eeKL (LDon AuanL) *.5rosial is a poetic 3ord .eanin% &delicious&8 &#ra%rant&8 Idivine/. &4as- is a co..on collo9uial 3ord .eanin% &.oney&8 &.oney t-at a person actually -as&8 &ready .oney&. ?-enever literary 3ords co.e into collision 3it- non=literary ones t-ere arises incon%ruity8 3-ic- in any style is al3ays deli5erate8 inas.uc- as a style presupposes a conscious selection o# lan%ua%e .eans8 1!1 :-e #ollo3in% sentence #ro. DicRens&s L* 4-rist.as 4arolL illustrates 3it- 3-at sRill t-e aut-or co.5ines elevated 3ords and p-rases and co..on collo9uial ones in order to ac-ieve t-e desired i.pact on t-e reader c it 5ein% t-e co.5ination o# t-e

supernatural and t-e ordinary. L+ut t-e 3isdo. o# our ancestors is in t-e si.ileC and .y un-allo3ed -ands s-all not distur5 it8 or t-e 4ountry&s done #or.L :-e elevated ancestors8 si.ile8 un-allo3ed8 distur5 (in t-e no3 o5solete .eanin% o# tear to pieces) are put alon%side t-e collo9uial contraction t-e 4ountry&s (t-e country is) and t-e collo9uial done #or. :-is device is a very su5tle one and not al3ays discerni5le even to an experienced literary critic8 to say not-in% o# t-e ranR=and=#ile read= er. :-e di##iculty lies #irst o# all in t-e ina5ility o# t-e inexperienced reader to perceive t-e incon%ruity o# t-e co.ponent parts o# t-e utterance. +yron o#ten uses 5at-os8 #or exa.ple8 L:-ey %rieved #or t-ose 3-o peris-ed 3it- t-e cutter *nd also #or t-e 5iscuit=casRs and 5utter.L 0 copulative conGunction and as 3ell as t-e adver5 also su%%est t-e -o.o%eneity o# t-e concepts t-ose 3#io peris-ed and 5iscuit=casRs and 5utter. :-e people 3-o peris-ed are placed on t-e sa.e level as t-e 5iscuits and 5utter lost at t-e sa.e ti.e. :-is arran%e.ent .ay lead to at least t3o in#erences; 1) #or t-e survivors t-e loss o# #ood 3as as tra%ic as t-e loss o# #riends 3-o peris-ed in t-e s-ip3recRC 2) t-e loss o# #ood 3as even .ore disastrous8 -ence t-e elevated %rieved ... #or #ood. It .ust 5e 5orn in .ind8 -o3ever8 t-at t-is interpretation o# t-e su5tle stylistic device e.ployed -ere is pro.pted 5y purely lin%uistic analysis; t-e ver5s to %rieve and to peris-8 3-ic- are elevated in connotation8 are .ore appropriate 3-en used to re#er to people c and are out o# place 3-en used to re#er to #ood. :-e eyery=day=li#e= cares and 3orries overs-ado3 t-e %rie# #or t-e dead8 or at least are put on t-e sa.e level. :-e ver5 to %rieve8 3-en used In re#erence to 5ot- t-e people 3-o peris-ed and t-e #ood 3-ic- 3as lost8 3eaRens8 as it 3ere8 t-e e##ect o# t-e #irst and stren%t-ens t-e e##ect o# t-e second. :-e i.plications and in#erences dra3n #ro. a detailed and .eticulous analysis o# lan%ua%e8 .eans and8 stylistic devices can dra3 additional in#or.ation #ro. t-e co..unication. :-is Rind o# i.plied .eanin% is derived not directly #ro. t-e 3ords 5ut #ro. a .uc- #iner analysis called supralinear or sup rase% .ental. *l.ost o# t-e sa.e Rind are t-e #ollo3in% lines8 also #ra. +yron; L$et us -ave 3ine and 3o.en8 .irt- and lau%-ter8 Ser.ons and soda=3ater c t-e day a#ter.L *%ain 3e -ave incon%ruity o# concepts caused 5y t-e -etero%eneity o# t-e conventionally paired classes o# t-in%s in t-e #irst line and t-e alliterated unconventional pair in t-e second line. It needs no proo# t-at t-e 3ords ser.ons and soda=3ater are used .etony.ically -ere si%ni#yin% &repentance& and &sicRness& correspondin%ly. :-e decoded #or. o# t-is utterance 3ill t-us 5e; L$et us no3 enGoy ourselves in spite o# conse9uences.L +ut t-e .ost si%ni#icant ite. in t-e lin%uistic analysis -ere 3ill8 o# course8 5e t-e identical #or.al

structure o# t-e pairs 1. 3ine and 3o.enC 2. .irt- and lau%-ter and !. ser.ons and soda=3ater. :-e second pair consists o# 3ords so closely related t-at t-ey .ay 5e considered al.ost synony.ous. :-is a##ects t-e last pair and .aRes t-e 3ords ser.ons and soda=3ater sound as i# t-ey 3ere as closely related as t-e 3ords in t-e #irst t3o pairs. * deeper insi%-t into t-e aut-or&s intention .ay lead t-e reader to interpret t-e. as a tedious 5ut unavoida5le re.edy #or t-e sins co..itted. +yron especially #avours t-e device o# 5at-os in -is LDon Auan.L *l.ost every stanSa contains ordinarily unconnected concepts linRed to%et-er 5y a coordinatin% conGunction and producin% a .ocRin% e##ect or a realistic approac- to t-ose p-eno.ena o# li#e 3-ic- i.peratively de.and reco%nition8 no .atter -o3 elevated t-e su5Gect=.atter .ay 5e. >ere are ot-er illustrations #ro. t-is epoc-=.aRin% poe.; L-eaviness o# -eart or rat-er sto.ac-CL L:-ere&s nou%-t8 no dou5t8 so .uc- t-e spirit cal.s *s ru. and true reli%ionL L...-is tutor and -is spanielL L3-o loved p-ilosop-y and a %ood dinnerL LI cried upon .y #irst 3i#e&s dyin% day *nd also 3-en .y second ran a3ayL ?e -ave already pointed out t-e peculiarity o# t-e device8 t-at it is -al# lin%uistic8 -al# lo%ical. +ut t-e lin%uistic side 5eco.es especially conspicuous 3-en t-ere is a co.5ination o# stylistically -etero%eneous 3ords and p-rases. Indeed8 t-e Guxtaposition o# -i%-ly literary nor.s o# expression and 3ords or p-rases t-at .ust 5e classed as non=literary8 so.eti.es lo3 collo9uial or even vul%ar8 3ill a%ain undou5tedly produce a stylistic e##ect8 and 3-en decoded8 3ill contri5ute to t-e content o# t-e utterance8 o#ten addin% an ele.ent o# -u.our. :-us8 #or instance8 t-e #ollo3in% #ro. So.erset Mau%-a.&s L:-e >our 5e#ore Da3nL; 0 v L&?ill you o5li%e .e 5y Reepin% your trap s-ut8 darlin%z& -e retorted.L :-e device is #re9uently presented in t-e structural .odel 3-ic- 3e s-all call -etero%eneous enu.eration (see p. 211). B. INTERACTION O' DI''ERENT TYPES O' LE&ICAL MEANING ?ords in context8 as -as 5een pointed out8 .ay ac9uire additional lexical .eanin%s not #ixed in dictionaries8 3-at 3e -ave called contextual .eanin%s. :-e latter .ay so.eti.es deviate #ro. t-e 1!@ dictionary .eanin% to suc- a de%ree t-at t-e ne3 .eanin% even 5eco.es t-e opposite o# t-e pri.ary .eanin%8 as8 #or exa.ple8 3it- t-e 3ord sop-isticated (see p. 121). :-is is especially t-e case 3-en 3e deal 3it- trans#erred .eanin%s. ?-at is Rno3n in lin%uistics as trans#erred .eanin% is practically t-e interrelation 5et3een t3o types o# lexical .eanin%; dictionary and contextual. :-e contextual .eanin% 3ill al3ays depend on t-e dictionary (lo%ical) .eanin% to a %reater or lesser extent. ?-en t-e deviation #ro. t-e acRno3led%ed .eanin% is carried to a de%ree t-at

it causes an unexpected turn in t-e reco%niSed lo%ical .eanin%s8 3e re%ister a stylistic device. :-e trans#erred .eanin% o# a 3ord .ay 5e #ixed in dictionaries as a result o# lon% and #re9uent use o# t-e 3ord ot-er t-an in its pri.ary .eanin%. In t-is case 3e re%ister a derivative .eanin% o# t-e 3ord. :-e ter. &trans#erred& points to t-e process o# #or.ation o# t-e derivative .eanin%. >ence t-e ter. &trans#erred& s-ould 5e used8 to our .ind8 as a lexico%rap-ical ter. si%ni#yin% diac-ronically t-e develop.ent o# t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord. In t-is case 3e do not perceive t3o .eanin%s. ?-en8 -o3ever8 3e perceive t3o .eanin%s o# a 3ord si.ultaneously8 3e are con#ronted 3it- a stylistic device in 3-ic- t-e t3o .eanin%s interact.
9. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS

:-e interaction or interplay 5et3een t-e pri.ary dictionary .eanin% (t-e .eanin% 3-ic- is re%istered in t-e lan%ua%e code as an easily reco%niSed si%n #or an a5stract notion desi%natin% a certain p-eno.enon or o5Gect) and a .eanin% 3-ic- is i.posed on t-e 3ord 5y a .icro=context .ay 5e .aintained alon% di##erent lines. ,ne line is 3-en t-e aut-or identi#ies t3o o5Gects 3-ic- -ave not-in% in co..on8 5ut in 3-ic-e su5Gectively sees a #unction8 or a property8 or a #eature8 or a 9uality t-at .ay .aRe t-e reader perceive t-ese t3o o5Gects as identical. *not-er line is 3-en t-e aut-or #inds it possi5le to su5stitute one o5Gect #or anot-er on t-e %rounds t-at t-ere is so.e Rind o# interdependence or interrelation 5et3een t-e t3o correspondin% o5Gects. * t-ird line is 3-en a certain property or 9uality o# an o5Gect is used in an opposite.or contradictory sense. :-e stylistic device 5ased on t-e principle o# identi#ication o# t3o o5Gects is called a .etap-or. :-e SD 5ased on t-e principle o# su5stitution o# one o5Gect #or anot-er is called .etony.y and t-e SD 5ased on contrary concepts is called irony. $et us no3 proceed 3it- a detailed analysis o# t-e ontolo%y8 structure and #unctions o# t-ese stylistic devices. "etaphor :-e ter. &.etap-or&8 as t-e ety.olo%y o# t-e 3ord reveals8 .eans trans#erence o# so.e 9uality #ro. one o5Gect to anot-er. "ro. t-e ti.es o# ancient GreeR and Bo.an r-etoric8 t-e ter. -as 5een Rno3n to denote t-e trans#erence o# .eanin% #ro. one 3ord to anot-er. It is still 3idely used to desi%nate t-e process in 3-ic- a 3ord ac9uires a derivative .eanin%. Ouintilian re.arRs; LIt is due to t-e .etap-or t-at eac- t-in% see.s to -ave its na.e in lan%ua%e.L $an%ua%e as a 3-ole -as 5een #i%uratively de#ined as a dictionary o# #aded .etap-ors. :-us 5y trans#erence o# .eanin% t-e 3ords %rasp8 %et and see co.e to -ave t-e derivative .eanin% o# understand. ?-en t-ese 3ords are used 3it- t-at .eanin% 3e can only re%ister t-e derivative .eanin% existin% in t-e se.antic structures o# t-e

3ords. :-ou%- t-e derivative .eanin% is .etap-orical in ori%in8 t-ere is no stylistic e##ect 5ecause t-e pri.ary .eanin% is no lon%er #elt. * .etap-or 5eco.es a stylistic device 3-en t3o di##erent p-eno.ena (t-in%s8 events8 ideas8 actions) are si.ultaneously 5rou%-t to .ind 5y t-e i.position o# so.e or all o# t-e in-erent properties o# one o5Gect on t-e ot-er 3-ic- 5y nature is deprived o# t-ese properties. Suc- an i.position %enerally results 3-en t-e creator o# t-e .etap-or #inds in t-e t3o correspondin% o5Gects certain #eatures 3-ic- to -is eye -ave so.e= t-in% in co..on. :-e idea t-at .etap-or is 5ased on si.ilarity or a##inity o# t3o (correspondin%) o5Gects or notions is8 as I understand it8 erroneous. :-e t3o o5Gects are identi#ied and t-e #act t-at a co..on #eature is pointed to and .ade pro.inent does not .aRe t-e. si.ilar. :-e notion o# si.ilarity can 5e carried on ad a5surdu.8 #or exa.ple8 ani.als and -u.an 5ein%s .ove8 5reat-e8 eat8 etc. 5ut i# one o# t-ese #eatures8 i.e. .ove.ent8 5reat-in%8 is pointed to in ani.als and at t-e sa.e ti.e in -u.an 5ein%s8 t-e t3o o5Gects 3ill not necessarily cause t-e notion o# a##inity. Identi#ication s-ould not 5e e9uated to rese.5lance. :-us in t-e #ollo3in% .etap-or; LDear Nature is t-e Rindest Mot-er stillL (+yron) t-e notion Mot-er arouses in t-e .ind t-e actions o# nursin%8 3eanin%8 carin% #or8 etc.8 3-ereas t-e notion Nature does not. :-ere is no true si.ilarity8 5ut t-ere is a Rind o# identi#ication8 :-ere#ore it is 5etter to de#ine .etap-or as t-e po3er o# realiSin% t3o lexical .eanin%s si.ultaneously. Due to t-is po3er .etap-or is one o# t-e .ost potent .eans o# creatin% i.a%es. *n i.a%e is a sensory perception o# an a5stract notion already existin% in t-e .ind. 4onse9uently8 to create an i.a%e .eans to 5rin% a p-eno.enon #ro. t-e -i%-ly a5stract to t-e essentially concrete. :-us t-e exa.ple %iven a5ove 3-ere t-e t3o concepts Mot-er and Nature are 5rou%-t=to%et-er in t-e irtterplay0o# t-eir .eanin%s8 5rin%s up t-e i.a%e o# Nature .aterialiSed into 5ut not liRened to t-e i.a%e o# Mot-er. :-e identi#ication is .ost clearly o5served 3-en t-e .etap-or is e.5odied eit-er in an attri5utive 3ord8 as in pearly teet-8 voiceless sounds8 or in a predicative 3ord=co.5ination8 as in t-e exa.ple 3it- Nature and Mot-er. +ut t-e identi#ication o# di##erent .ove.ents 3ill not 5e so easily perceived 5ecause t-ere is no explanatory unit. $et us looR at t-is sentence; LIn t-e slantin% 5ea.s t-at strea.ed t-rou%- t-e open 3indo3 t-e dust danced and 3as %olden8L (,8 ?ilde) :-e .ove.ent o# dust particles see. to t-e eye o# t-e 3riter to 5e re%ular and orderly liRe t-e .ove.ents in dancin%. ?-at -appens practically is t-at our .ind runs in t3o parallel lines; t-e a5stract and t-e concrete8 i.e. .ove.ent (o# any Rind) and dancin% (a de#inite Rind). So.eti.es t-e process o# identi#ication can -ardly.5e decoded. >ere is a .etap-or e.5odied in an adver5; L:-e leaves #ell sorro3#ully.L

:-e .ove.ent o# #allin% leaves is pro5a5ly identi#ied 3it- t-e .ove.ent o# a -u.an 5ein% experiencin% so.e Rind o# distresscpeople s3in% t-eir 5odies or -eads to and #ro 3-en in t-is state o# .ind. ,ne can -ardly perceive any si.ilarity in t-e t3o Rinds o# .ove.ents 3-ic- are 5y t-e #orce o# t-e 3riter&s i.a%ination identi#ied. Generally speaRin%8 one #eature out o# t-e .ultitude o# #eatures o# an o5Gect #ound in co..on 3it- a #eature o# anot-er o5Gect 3ill not produce rese.5lance. :-is idea is 3orded 5est o# all in ?ords3ort-&s #a.ous lines; L:o #ind a##inities in o5Gects in 3-ic- no 5rot-er-ood exists to passive .inds.L >ere is a reco%nition o# t-e unli.ited po3er o# t-e poet in #indin% co..on #eatures in -etero%eneous o5Gects. Metap-oriSation can also 5e descri5ed as an atte.pt to 5e precise8 as A. Middleton Murry t-inRs. +ut t-is precision is o# an e.otional and aest-etic c-aracter and not lo%ical. :-is is 3-at Middleton Murry 3rites; L:ry to 5e precise and you are 5ound to 5e .etap-oricalC you si.ply cannot -elp esta5lis-in% a##inities 5et3een all t-e provinces o# t-e ani.ate and inani.ate 3orld.L m Metap-ors8 liRe all stylistic devices8 can 5e classi#ied accordin% to t-eir de%ree o# unexpectedness. :-us .etap-ors 3-ic- are a5solutely unexpected8 i.e. are 9uite unpredicta5le8 are called %enuine .etap-ors. :-ose 3-ic- are co..only used in speec- and t-ere#ore are .so.eti.es even #ixed in dictionaries as expressive .eans o# lan%ua%e are trite .etap-ors8 or dead .etap-ors. :-eir predicta5ility t-ere#ore is apparent Genuine .etap-ors are re%arded as 5elon%in% to lan%ua%e=in=action8 i. e. speec- .etap-orsC trite .etap-ors 5elon% to t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.8 i.e. lan%ua%e proper8 and are usually #ixed in dictionaries as units o# t-e lan%ua%e. (. (. (ino%radov states; L...a .etap-or8 i# it is not a clic-e 8 is an act o# esta5lis-in% an individual 3orld outlooR8 it is an act o# su5Gective isolation... :-ere#ore .a 3ord .etap-or is narro38 su5Gectively enclosed8 ...it i.poses on t-e reader a su5Gective vie3 o# t-e o5Gect or p-eno.enon and its se.antic ties.L :-e exa.ples %iven a5ove .ay serve as illustrations o# %enuine .etap-ors. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# .etap-ors t-at are considered trite. :-ey are ti.e=3orn and 3ell ru55ed into t-e lan%ua%e; /a ray o# -ope&8 &#loods o# tears&8 &a stor. o# indi%nation&8 &a #li%-t o# #ancy&8 /a %lea. o# .irt-&8 /a s-ado3 o# a s.ile& and t-e liRe. :-e interaction o# t-e lo%ical dictionary .eanin% and t-e lo%ical contextual .eanin% assu.es di##erent #or.s. So.eti.es t-is interaction is perceived as a deli5erate interplay o# t-e t3o .eanin%s. In t-is case eac- o# t-e .eanin%s preserves its relative independence. So.eti.es8 -o3ever8 t-e .etap-oric use o# a 3ord 5e%ins to a##ect t-e source .eanin%8 i.e. t-e .eanin% #ro. 3-ic- t-e .etap-or is derived8 3it- t-e result t-at t-e tar%et .eanin%8 t-at is8 t-e .etap-or itsel#8 taRes t-e upper -and and .ay even oust t-e source .eanin%. In t-is case8 3e speaR o# dead .etap-ors. In suc- 3ords as to .elt (a3ay)8 as in Lt-ese .is%ivin%s %radually .elted a3ayL 3e can still reco%niSe re.nants o# t-e ori%in8al .eanin% and in spite o# t-e #act t-at t-e

.eanin% 'o vanis-&8 'o disappear& is already #ixed in dictionaries as one o# t-e derivative .eanin%s8 t-e pri.ary .eanin% still8 .aRes itsel# #elt. :rite .etap-ors are so.eti.es inGected 3it- ne3 vi%our8 i.e. t-eir pri.ary .eanin% is re=esta5lis-ed alon%side t-e ne3 (derivative) .eanin%. :-is is done 5y supplyin% t-e central i.a%e created 5y t-e .etap-or 3it- additional 3ords 5earin% so.e re#erence to t-e .ain 3ord. "or exa.ple; LMr. 2icR3icR 5ottled up -is ven%eance and corRed it do3n.L :-e ver5 to 5ottle up is explained in dictionaries as #ollo3s; 'o Reep in c-ecR& (L2en%uin DictionaryL)C 'o conceal8 to restrain8 repress& (LGas=sell&s Ne3 En%lisDictionaryL). :-e .etap-or in t-e 3ord can -ardly 5e #elt. +ut it is revived 5y t-e direct .eanin% o# t-e ver5 to corR do3n. :-is context re#res-es t-e al.ost dead .etap-or and %ives it a second li#e. Suc- .etap-ors are called sustained or p m V l V W %e d. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# a=sustained .etap-or; LMr. Do.5ey&s cup0ol satis#action 3as so #ull at t-is .o.ent8 -o3ever8 t-at -e #elt -e could a##ord a drop or t3o o# its contents8 even to sprinRle on t-e dust in t-e 5y=pato# -is little dau%-ter.L (DicRens8 LDo.5ey and SonL) ?e .ay call t-e principal .etap-or t-e central i.a%e o# t-e sustained .etap-or= and t-e ot-er 3ords 3-ic- 5ear re#erence to t-e central i.a%eccontri5utory i.a%es. :-us in t-e exa.ple %iven t-e 3ord cup (o# satis#action) 5ein% a trite .etap-or is revived 5y t-e #ollo3in% contri5utory i.a%es; #ull8 drop8 contents8 sprinRle. It is interestin% to note t-at t-e 3ords conveyin% 5ot- t-e central i.a%e (t-e cup) and t-e contri5utory i.a%es are used in t3o senses si.ultaneously; direct and indirect. :-e second plane o# utterance is .aintained 5y t-e Rey 3ordc0satis#action. It is t-is 3ord t-at -elps us to decip-er t-e idea 5e-ind t-e sustained .etap-or8 8 So.eti.es8 -o3ever8 t-e central i.a%e is not %iven8 5ut t-e strin% o# 3ords all 5earin% upon so.e i.plied central point o# re#erence are so associated 3it- eacot-er t-at t-e reader is 5ound to create t-e re 9uired i.a%e in -is .ind. $et us taRe t-e #ollo3in% sentence #ro. S-aRespeare; LI -ave no spur to pricR t-e sides o# .y intent.L :-e 3ords spur8 to pricR8 t-e sides in t-eir interrelation 3ill inevita5ly create t-e i.a%e o# a steed8 3it- 3-ic- t-e speaRer&s intent is identi#ied. = :-e sa.e is to 5e seen in t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. S-elley&s L4loudL; / LIn a cavern under is #ettered t-e t-under8 It stru%%les and -o3ls at #its.L >ere t-e central i.a%ect-at o# a captive 5eastcis su%%ested 5y t-e contri5utory i.a%esc#ettered8 stru%%les and -o3ls. :-e .etap-or is o#ten de#ined as a co.pressed si.ile. +ut t-is de#inition lacRs precision. Moreover8 it is .isleadin%8 inas.uc- as t-e .etap-or ai.s at identi#yin% t-e o5Gects8 3-ile t-e si.ile ai.s at #indin% so.e point o# rese.5lance 5y Reepin% t-e o5Gects apart. :-at is 3-y t-ese t3o stylistic devices are vie3ed as 5elon%in% to t3o di##erent %roups o# SDs. :-ey are di##erent in t-eir lin%uistic nature. :rue8 t-e de%ree o# identi#ication o# o5Gects or p-eno.ena in a .etap-or varies accordin% to its syntactic #unction in t-e sentence and to t-e part o# speec- in 3-ic- it is e.5odied.

Indeed8 in t-e sentence &Expression is t-e dress o# t-ou%-t& 3e can -ardly see any process o# identi#ication 5et3een t-e concepts expression and dress8 3-ereas in t-e lines Lwet :i.e8 3-o c-an%es all8 -ad altered -i. In soul and aspect as in a%e; years steal "ire #ro. t-e .ind as vi%our #ro. t-e li.5C *nd $i#e&s enc-anted cup 5ut sparRles near t-e 5ri.. (+yron8 L4-ilde >aroldL) :-e .etap-ors steal8 #ire8 cup8 5ri. e.5odied in ver5s and nouns not used predicatively can 5e re%arded as #ully identi#ied 3it- t-e concepts t-ey ai. at producin%. . = I Genuine .etap-ors are .ostly to 5e #ound in poetry and e.otive prose. :rite .etap-ors are %enerally used as expressive .eans in ne3spaper articles8 in oratorical style and even in scienti#ic lan%ua%e. :-e use o# trite .etap-ors s-ould not 5e re%arded as a dra35acR o# style. :-ey -elp t-e 3riter to enliven -is 3orR and even .aRe t-e .eanin% .ore concrete. :-ere is constant interaction 5et3een %enuine and trite .etap-ors. Genuine .etap-ors8 i# t-ey are %ood and can stand t-e test o# ti.e8 .ay8 t-rou%- #re9uent repetition8 5eco.e trite and conse9uently easily predicta5le. :rite .etap-ors8 as -as 5een s-o3n8 .ay re%ain t-eir #res-ness t-rou%- t-e process o# prolon%ation o# t-e .etap-or. Metap-ors .ay 5e sustained not only on t-e 5asis o# a trite .etap-or. :-e initial .etap-or .ay 5e %enuine and .ay also 5e developed t-rou%- a nu.5er o# contri5utory i.a%es so t-at t-e 3-ole o# t-e utterance 5eco.es one sustained .etap-or. * sRil#ully 3ritten exa.ple o# suc- a .etap-or is to 5e #ound in S-aRespeare&s Sonnet No. 2'. Mine eye -at- play&d t-e painter and -at- stell&d :-y 5eauty&s #or. in ta5le o# .y -eartC My 5ody is t-e #ra.e 3-erein &tis -eld8 *nd perspective it is 5est painter&s art. "or t-rou%- t-e painter .ust you see -is sRill8 :o #ind 3-ere your true i.a%e pictured liesC ?-ic- in .y 5oso.&s s-op is -an%in% still8 :-at -at- -is 3indo3s %laSed 3it- t-ine eyes. No3 see 3-at %ood turns eyes #or eyes -ave done; Mine eyes -ave dra3n t-y s-ape8 and t-ine #or .e *re 3indo3s to .y 5reast8 3-ere=t-rou%- t-e sun Deli%-ts to peep8 to %aSe t-erein on t-eeC wet eyes t-is cunnin% 3ant to %race t-eir art8 :-ey dra3 5ut 3-at t-ey see8 Rno3 not t-e -eart. :-e central i.a%ec&:-e eyect-e painter& is developed t-rou%- a nu.5er o# contri5utory i.a%es; to dra38 to stell8 ta5le8 #ra.e8 -an%in% (picture) and t-e liRe. In conclusion it 3ould 5e o# interest to s-o3 t-e results o# t-e interaction 5et3een t-e

dictionary and contextual .eanin%s. :-e constant use o# a .etap-or %radually leads to t-e 5reaRin% up o# t-e pri.ary .eanin%. :-e .etap-oric use o# t-e 3ord 5e%ins to a##ect t-e dictionary .eanin%8 addin% to it #res- connotations or s-ades o# .eanin%. +ut t-is in#luence8 -o3ever stron% it .ay 5e8 3ill never reac- t-e de%ree 3-ere t-e dictionary .eanin% entirely disappears. I# it did8 3e s-ould -ave no stylistic device. It is a la3 o# stylistics t-at in a stylistic device t-e sta5ility o# t-e dictionary .eanin% is al3ays retained8 no .atter -93 %reat t-e in#luence o# t-e contextual .eanin% .ay 5e. "etonymy Metony.y is 5ased on a di##erent type o# relation 5et3een t-e dictionary and contextual .eanin%s8 a relation 5ased not on identi#ication8 5ut on so.e Rind o# association connectin% t-e t3o concepts 3-ic- t-ese .eanin%s represent. :-us8 t-e 3ord cro3n .ay stand #or &Rin% or 9ueen&8 cup or %lass #or &t-e drinR it contains&8 3oolsacR #or &t-e 4-ancellor o# t-e Exc-e9uer 3-o sits on it8 ,A: t-e position and di%nity o# t-e $ord 4-ancellor/8 e. %.8 L>ere t-e no5le lord inclined -is Rnee to t-e ?oolsacR.L (#ro. >ansard). >ere also t-e interrelation 5et3een t-e dictionary and contextual .eanin%s s-ould stand out clearly and conspicuously. ,nly t-en can 3e state t-at a stylistic device is used. ,t-er3ise 3e .ust turn our .ind to lexicolo%ical pro5le.s8 i.e. to t-e 3ays and .eans 5y 3-ic- ne3 3ords and .eanin%s are coined. :-e exa.ples o# .etony.y %iven a5ove are traditional. In #act t-ey are derivative lo%ical .eanin%s and t-ere#ore #ixed in dictionaries. >o3ever8 3-en suc- .eanin%s are included in dictionaries8 t-ere is usually a la5el #i% (&#i%urative use&). :-is s-o3s t-at t-e ne3 .eanin% -as not replaced t-e pri.ary one8 5ut8 as it 3ere8 co=exists 3it- it. Still t-e ne3 .eanin% -as 5eco.e so co..on8 t-at it is easily predicta5le and t-ere#ore does not 5ear any additional in#or.ation8 3-ic- is an indispensa5le condition #or an SD. >ere are so.e .ore 3idely used .etony.ical .eanin%s8 so.e o# 3-ic- are already #ixed in dictionaries 3it-out t-e la5el #i%; t-e press #or &(t-e personnel =connected 3it-) a printin% or pu5lis-in% esta5lis-.ent&8 or #or &t-e ne3spaper and periodical literature 3-ic- is printed 5y t-e printin% press&. :-e 5enc- is used as a %eneric ter. #or &.a%istrates and Gustices&. * -and is used #or a 3orRer8 t-e cradle stands #or in#ancy8 earliest sta%es8 place o# ori%in8 and t-e %rave stands #or deat-. Metony.y used in lan%ua%e=in=action8 i.e. contextual .etony.y8 is %enuine .etony.y and reveals a 9uite unexpected su5stitution o# one 3ord #or anot-er8 or one concept #or anot-er8 on t-e %round o# so.e stron% i.pression produced 5y a c-ance #eature o# t-e t-in%8 #or exa.ple; LMiss :ox&s -and tre.5led as s-e slipped it t-rou%- Mr. Do.5ey&s ar.8 and #elt -ersel# escorted up t-e steps8 preceded 5y aGSocRed -at and a +a5ylonian collar.L

(DicRens) &* cocRed -at and a +a5ylonian collar& stand #or t-e 3earer o# t-e articles in 9uestion. ,ne can -ardly ad.it t-at t-ere is a special c-aracteriSin% #unction in suc- a su5stitution. :-e #unction o# t-ese exa.ples o# %enuine .etony.y is .ore liRely to point out t-e insi%ni#icance o# t-e 3earer rat-er t-an -is i.portance8 #or -is personality is reduced to -is externally conspicuous #eatures8 t-e -at and red collar. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# %enuine .etony&.y; L:-en t-ey ca.e in. :3o o# t-e.8 a .an 3it- lon% #air .oustac-es and a silent darR .an... De#initely8 t-e .oustac-e and I -ad not-in% in co..on.L (Doris $essin%8 LBetreat to InnocenceL) *%ain 3e -ave a #eature o# a .an 3-ic- catc-es t-e eye8 in t-is case -is #acial appearance; t-e .oustac-e stands #or t-e .an -i.sel#. :-e #unction o# t-e .etony.y -ere is to indicate t-at t-e speaRer Rno3s not-in% o# t-e .an in 9uestion8 .oreover8 t-ere.is a de#inite i.plication t-at t-is is t-e #irst ti.e t-e speaRer -as seen -i.. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# t-e sa.e Rind; L:-ere 3as so.et-in% so very a%reea5le in 5ein% so inti.ate 3it- suc- a 3aistcoat&8 in 5ein% on suc- o##=-and ter.s so soon 3it- suc- a pair o# 3-isRers t-at :o. 3as unco..only pleased 3it- -i.sel#.L (DicRens8 L>ard :i.esL) In t-ese t3o cases o# %enuine .etony.y a 5roader context t-an t-at re9uired 5y a .etap-or is necessary in order to decip-er t-e true .eanin% o# t-e stylistic device. In 5ot- cases it is necessary to understand t-e 3ords in t-eir proper .eanin%s #irst. ,nly t-en is it possi5le to %rasp t-e .etony.y. In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple t-e .etony.y &%rapeL also re9uires a 5road context; L*nd t-is is stron%er t-an t-e stron%est %rape 4ould e&er express in its expanded8 s-ape.L (+yron) Metony.y and .etap-or di##er also in t-e 3ay t-ey are decip-ered. In t-e process o# disclosin% t-e .eanin% i.plied in a .etap-or8 one i.a%e excludes t-e ot-er8 t-at is8 t-e .etap-or &la.p& in t-e &:-e sRy la.p o# t-e ni%-t&8 3-en decip-ered8 .eans t-e .oon8 and t-ou%- t-ere is a de#inite interplay o# .eanin%s8 3e perceive only one o5Gect8 t-e .oon. :-is is not t-e case 3it- .etony.y. Metony.y8 3-ile presentin% one o5Gect to our .ind8 does not exclude t-e ot-er. In t-e exa.ple %iven a5ove t-e .oustac-e and t-e .an -i.sel# are 5ot- perceived 5y t-e .ind. Many atte.pts -ave 5een .ade to pin=point t-e types o# relation 3-ic- .etony.y is 5ased on. *.on% t-e. t-e #ollo3in% are .ost co..on; 1. * concrete t-in% used instead o# an a5stract notion. In t-is case t-e t-in% 5eco.es a sy.5ol o# t-e notion8 as in L:-e ca.p8 t-e pulpit and t-e la3 "or ric- .en&s sons are #ree.L (S-elley) L 2. :-e container instead o# t-e t-in% contained; J :-e -all applauded. !. :-e relation o# proxi.ity8 as in; L:-e round %a.e ta5le 3as 5oisterous and -appy.L (DicRens) '. :-e .aterial instead o# t-e t-in% .ade o# it8 as in; L:-e .ar5le spoRe.L 8 = . :-e instru.ent 3-ic- t-e doer uses in per#or.in% t-e action instead o# t-e action or

t-e doer -i.sel#8 as in; L?ell8 Mr. ?eller8 says t-e %ent2.n8 you&re a very %ood 3-ip8 and can do 3-at you liRe 3it- your -orses8 3e Rno3.L (DicRens) L*s t-e s3ord is t-e 3orst ar%u.ent t-at can 5e used8 so s-ould it 5e t-e last.L (+yron) :-e list is'n no 3ay co.plete. :-ere are .any ot-er types o# relations 3-ic- .ay serve as a 5asis #or .etony.y. It .ust also 5e noted t-at .etony.y8 5ein% a .eans o# 5uildin% up i.a%ery8 %enerally &concerns concrete o5Gects8 3-ic- are %eneraliSed. :-e process o# %eneraliSation is easily carried out 3it- t-e -elp o# t-e I de#inite article. :-ere#ore instances o# .etony.y are very o#ten used 3it- t-e de#inite article8 or 3it- no article at all8 as in L:-ere 3as per#ect sy.pat-y 5et3een 2ulpit and 2e3L8 3-ere &2ulpit& stands #or t-e cler%y.an and &2e3& #or t-e con%re%ation. :-is is pro5a5ly due to t-e #act '-at any de#inition o# a 3ord .ay 5e taRen #or .etony.y8 inas.uc- =as it s-o3s a property or an essential 9uality o# t-e concept8 t-us disclosin% a Rind o# relation 5et3een t-e t-in% as a 3-ole and a #eature o# it 3-ic- .ay 5e re%arded as part o# it. &rony Irony is a stylistic device also 5ased on t-e si.ultaneous realiSation o# t3o lo%ical .eanin%scdictionary and contextual8 5ut t-e t3o .eanin%s stand in opposition to eac- ot-er. "or exa.ple; LIt .ust 5e deli%-t#ul to #ind onesel# in a #orei%n country 3it-out a penny in one&s pocRet.L :-e italiciSed 3ord ac9uires a .eanin% 9uite t-e opposite to its pri.ary dictionary .eanin%8 t-at is8 &unpleasant&8 &not deli%-t#ul&. :-e 3ord containin% t-e irony is stron%ly .arRed 5y intonation. It -as an e.p-atic stress and is %enerally supplied 3it- a special .elody desi%n8 unless t-e context itsel# renders t-is intonation pattern unnecessary8 as in t-e #ollo3in% excerpt #ro. DicRens&s L2ost-u.ous 2apers o# t-e 2icR3icR 4lu5L; LNever .ind8L said t-e stran%er8 cuttin% t-e address very s-ort8 Lsaid enou%-cno .oreC s.art c-ap t-at ca5.anc-andled -is #ives 3ellC 5ut i# I&d 5een your #riend in t-e %reen Ge..ycda.n .ecpunc- -is -eadc7 4od I 3ouldc pi%&s 3-isperc pie.an too8cno %a..on.L L:-is co-erent speec- 3as interrupted 5y t-e entrance o# t-e Boc-ester coac-.an8 to announce t-at...L :-e 3ord &co-erent&8 3-ic- descri5es Mr. Ain%le&s speec-8 is inconsistent 3it- t-e actual utterance8 and t-ere#ore 5eco.es sel#=contradictory. In no ot-er device 3-ere 3e can o5serve t-e interplay o# t-e dictionary and contextual .eanin%s8 is t-e latter so #luctuatin%8 su%%estive8 and dependent on t-e environ.ent as is irony. :-at is 3-y

t-ere are practically no cases o# irony in lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. Irony .ust not 5e con#used 3it- -u.our8 alt-ou%- t-ey -ave very .uc- in co..on. >u.our al3ays causes lau%-ter. ?-at is #unny .ust co.e as a sudden clas- o# t-e positive and t-e ne%ative. In t-is respect irony can 5e liRened to -u.our. +ut t-e #unction o# irony is not con#ined to producin% a -u.orous e##ect. In a sentence liRe L>o3 clever o# youKL 3-ere8 due to t-e intonation pattern8 t-e 3ord &clever& conveys a sense opposite to its literal si%ni#ication8 t-e irony does not cause a ludicrous e##ect. It rat-er expresses a #eelin% o# irritation8 displeasure8 pity or re%ret. * 3ord used ironically .ay so.eti.es express very su5tle8 al.ost i.percepti5le nuances o# .eanin%8 as t-e 3ord &liRe&= in t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. L+eppoL 5y +yron8 $(II I liRe a parlia.entary de5ate8 2articularly 3-en &tis not too late. $(II I 1 liRe t-e taxes8 3-en t-ey&re not too .anyC I liRe a seacoal #ire8 3-en not too dearC I liRe a 5ee#=steaR8 too8 as 3ell as anyC >ave no o5Gection to a pot o# 5eerC I liRe t-e 3eat-er8 3-en it is not rainy8 :-at is I liRe t3o .ont-s o# every year. *nd so God save t-e Be%ent8 4-urc- and uin%K ?-ic- .eans t-at I liRe all and everyt-in%. In t-e #irst line t-e 3ord &liRe&&.%ives only a sli%-t -int o# irony. 2arlia.entary de5ates are usually lon%. :-e 3ord &de5ate& itsel# su%=. %ests a len%t-y discuss#on8 t-ere#ore t-e 3ord &liRe& -ere s-ould 5e taRen 3it- so.e reservation. In ot-er 3ords8 a -int o# t-e interplay 5et3een positive arid ne%ative 5e%ins 3it- t-e #irst &liRe&. :-e second use o# t-e 3ord iRe& is de#initely ironical. No one 3ould 5e expected to liRe taxes. It is so o5vious t-at no context is necessary to decode t-e true .eanin% o# &liRe&. :-e attri5utive p-rase &3-en t-ey&re not too .any& stren%t-ens t-e irony. :-en +yron uses t-e 3ord &liRe& in its literal .eanin%8 &$iRe& in co.5inations 3it&seacoal #ire& and &a 5ee#=steaR& and 3it- &t3o .ont-s o# every year& .aintains its literal .eanin%8 alt-ou%- in t-e p-rase LI liRe t-e&?eat-erL t-e notion is very %eneral. +ut t-e last line a%ain s-o3s t-at t-e 3ord &liRe& is used 3it- an ironic touc-8 .eanin% &to liRe& and &to put up 3it-& si.ultaneously. Bic-ard *lticR says8 L:-e e##ect o# irony lies in t-e striRin% disparity 5et3een 3-at is said and 3-at is .eant.L1 / :-is LstriRin% disparityL is ac-ieved t-rou%- t-e intentional interplay o# t3o .eanin%s8 3-ic- are in opposition to eac- ot-er. *not-er i.portant o5servation .ust 5e 5orne in .ind 3-en analysin% t-e lin%uistic nature o# irony. Irony is %enerally used to convey a ne%ative .eanin%. :-ere#ore only positive concepts .ay 5e used in t-eir lo%ical dictionary .eanin%s. In t-e exa.ples 9uoted a5ove8 irony is e.5odied in suc- 3ords as &deli%-t#ul&8 &clever&8 &co-erent&8 &liRe&. :-e contextual .eanin% al3ays conveys t-e ne%ation o# t-e positive concepts e.5odied in t-e dictionary .eanin%.
2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS

Stylistic evices %ased on ,olysemantic !ffect, Heugma and ,un *s is Rno3n8 t-e 3ord is8 o# all lan%ua%e units8 t-e .ost sensitive to c-an%eC its .eanin% %radually develops and as a result o# t-is develop=L& .ent ne3 .eanin%s appear alon%side t-e pri.ary one. It is WVmg_PVm al.ost every 3ord to ac9uireLderivatiIve .eanin%sC so.eti.es t-e pri.ary .eanin% -as to0.aRe 3ay #or09uite a ne3 .eanin% 3-ic- ousts it co.pletelyC In dealin% 3it- t-e pro5le. o# nonce=3ords and ne3 .eanin%s 3e -ave already stated t-e #act t-at8 in t-e develop.ent o# lan%ua%e units 3e are constantly #acin% t-e op posin% concepts o# per.anence and ep-e.=erality. So.e .eanin%s are c-aracteriSed 5y t-eir per.anence8 ot-ers8 liRe nonce=3ords and contextual .eanin%s8 are %enerally ep-e.eral8 i.e. t-ey appear in so.e contexts and vanis- leavin% no trace in t-e voca5ulary o# t-e lan%ua%e. 2ri.ary and t-e derivative .eanin%s are c-ar= acteriSedG50-eir relative sta5ility and t-ere#ore areG0ixec!QGr0diction= anes7&0`\0YVt00tt_tPY'&structure o# t-e 3dn!7 :-e pro5le. o# G#tai#ee.wGs one o# t-e vexed 9uestions o# lexicolo%y. It is so.eti.es i.possi5le to dra3 a line o# de.arcation 5et3een a derivative .eanin% o# a polyse.antic 3ord and a separate 3ord8 i.e. a 3ord t-at -as 5roRen its se.antic ties 3it- t-e -ead 3ord and -as 5eco.e a -o.ony. to t-e 3ord it 3as derived #ro.. 2olyse.y is a cate%ory o# lexicolo%y and as suc- 5elon%s to lan%ua%e=as=a=0yste.0 In actual everyday Speec- G0lase.y vanis-es unless it is !el: e#a#eiy retained #or certain Lstylistic purposes. * context t-at does not seeR to produce any particular stylistic e##ect %enerally .aterialiSes &5ut one de#inite .eanin%D LLLLL>o3ever8 3-en a 3ord 5e%ins to .ani#est an interplay 5et3een t-e G%n.ary and one o# t-e derivative .eanin%s 3e are a%ain con#ronted 3it- ar:SD. L btet us analyse t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple #ro. Sonnet 97 5y S-aRespearem 3-ere t-e Rey=3ords are intentionally .ade to reveal t3o or .ore .eanin%s. L:-en -ate .e i# t-ou 3ilt8 i# ever no3. No3 3-ile t-e 3orld is 5ent .y deeds to cross.L :-e 3ord&-ate& .aterialiSes several .eanin%s in t-is context. :-e pri.ary .eanin% o# t-e 3ord8 accordin% to t-e S-orter ,x#ord En%lis- Dictionary8 is &to -old in very stron% disliRe&. :-is 5asic .eanin% -as 5rou%-t to li#e so.e L&derivative .eanin%s 3-ic-8 t-ou%- -avin% very .uc- in co..on8 still s-o3 so.e nuances8 special s-ades o# .eanin% 3-ic- enric- t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord. :-ey are; 1) &to detest&C 2) V8i_m .alice to&C !) t-e opposite o# to love (3-ic- in itsel# is not s5 e.otionally coloured as in t-e de#inition o# t-e pri.ary .eanin%; it al.ost a.ounts to 5ein% indi##erent)C ') 'o #eel a repulsive attitude&. ,t-er dictionaries #ix suc- senses as ) 'o 3is> to s-un& (>erita%e Dictionary)C 1) V #eel aversion #or& (Bando. >ouse Dictionary)C 7) &to 5ear =3ill8.a%ainst&C&@) &to desire evil to (persons)&.(?yld&s Dictionary). LL:-ere is a peculiar in#erplay a.on% derivative .eanin%s o# t-e 3ord &-ate& in Sonnet 97 3-ere t-e la.entation o# t-e poet a5out t-e cala.ities 3-ic- -ad 5e#allen -i. results in -is pleadin% 3it- -is 5eloved not to leave -i. in despair. :-e 3-ole o# t-e

context #orci5ly su%%ests t-at t-ere is a certain interaction o# t-e #ollo3in% .eanin%s; 2) &to 5ear .alice& (su%%ested 5y t-e line &Goin 3it- t-e spite o# #ortune&)c') &to #eel a repulsive attitude&c ) 'o 3is- to s-un& (su%%ested 5y t-e line &i# t-ou 3ilt leave .e do not leave .e last& and also &co.pared 3it- loss o# t-ee&)c7) and @) &to desire evil and 5ear ill=3ill a%ainst& (su%%ested 5y t-e line &Goin 3i#- t-e spite o# #ortune& and &so s-all I taste t-e very 3orst o# #ortune&s .i%-t&). *ll t-ese derivative .eanin%s inter3eave yrit- t-e pri.ary one and t-is net3orR o# .eanin%s constitutes a stylistic device 3-ic- .ay 5e called t-e poly se.antic # # e Y t. :-is SD can 5e detected only 3-en a rat-er lar%e span o# utterance8 up to a 3-ole text8 is su5Gected to a scrupulous and .inute analysis. It also re9uires so.e sRill in evaluatin% t-e ratio o# t-e pri.ary and derivative .eanin%s in t-e %iven environ.ent8 t-e ratio 5ein% dependent on t-e %eneral content o# t-e text. :-e 3ord &5ent& in t-e second line o# t-e sonnet does not present any di##iculty in decodin% its .eanin%. :-e .etap-orical .eanin% o# t-e 3ord is apparent. * contextual .eanin% is i.posed on t-e 3ord. :-e .icro=context is t-e Rey to decode its .eanin%. :-e past participle o# t-e ver5 to 5end to%et-er 3it- t-e ver5 to cross 5uilds a .etap-or t-e .eanin% o# 3-ic- is 'o -inder&8 'o 5locR&8 'o inter#ere&. :-e polyse.antic e##ect is a very su5tle and so.eti.es -ardly percepti5le stylistic device. +ut it is i.possi5le to underrate its si%ni#icance Lin discoverin% t-e aest-etically pra%.atic #unction o# t-e utterance. MnliRe t-is device8 t-e t3o SDs c Feu%.a and 2un lie8 as it 3ere8 on t-e sur#ace o# t-e text. Feu%.a is t-e use o# a 3ord in t-e sa.e %ra..atical 5ut di##erent se.antic:elatio-s to t3o adGacent 3ords in t-e context8 t-e se0 5ein%I on t-e one -and8 literal8 and8 on t-e ot-er8 trans#erred. LDora8 plun%in% at once into privile%ed inti.acy and Into t-e .iddle o# t-e roo.L. (+. S-a3) &:o plun%e& (into t-e .iddle o# a roo.) .aterialiSes t-e .eanin% 'o rus- into& or &enter i.petuously&. >ere it is used in its concrete8 pri.ary8 literal .eanin%C in &to plun%e into privile%ed inti.acy& t-e 3ord &plun%e& is used in its derivative .eanin%. :-e sa.e can 5e said o# t-e use o# t-e ver5s &stain& and &lose& in t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. 2ope&s L:-e Bape o# t-e $ocRL; LP.. ?-et-er '-e Ny.p- S-all stain -er >onour or -er ne3 +rocade ,r lose -er >eart or necRlace at a +all.L. :-is stylistic device is particularly #avoured in En%lis- e.otive prose and in poetry. :-e revival o# t-e ori%inal .eanin%s o# 3ords .ust 5e re%arded as an essential 9uality o# jVa 3orR in t-e 5elles=lettres style. * %ood 3riter al3ays Reeps t-e c-ie# .eanin%s o# 3ords #ro. #adin% a3ay8 provided t-e .eanin%s are 3ort- 5ein% Rept #res- and vi%= orous. Feu%.a |.isGa|strpn%8 and e##ective device to .aintain t-e purity o#

A-e0ri.ary 0.eanin% 3-en t-e t3o .eanin%s clas-. +y .aRin% t-e t3o .eanin%s conspicuous in t-is particular 3ay8 eac- o# t-e. stands out clearly. :-e structure o# Seu%.a .ay present variations #ro. t-e patterns %iven a5ove. :-us in t-e sentence; L...*nd May&s .ot-er al3ays stood on -er %entilityC and Dot&s .ot-er never stood on anyt-in% 5ut. -er active little #eetL (DicRens) :-e 3ord &stood& is used t3ice. :-is structural variant o# Seu%.a8 t-ou%- producin% so.e sli%-t di##erence in .eanin%8 does not violate t-e principle o# t-e stylistic device. It still .aRes t-e reader realiSe t-at t-e t3o .eanin%s o# t-e 3ord &stand& are si.ultaneously expressed8 one pri.ary and t-e ot-er derivative. ~ &Ii e p ` 8W| is anot-er stylistic device 5ased on t-e interaction o# t3o bvzien= lcn53i0 or p-rase. It is di##icult do dra3 ,a#d and #ast distinction 5et3een Seu%.a and t-e pun. :-e only relia5le distin%uis-in% #eature is a structural one; Seu%.a |is t-e0realG=0 L Sation o#t3o .eanisiyi=t-e0-el a ver5 3##icn is g_iV re#er #90 . (direct or indirect). :-e pun is .ore independent. :-ere need not necessarily 5e a 3ord in t-e sentence =te 3-ic- t-e pun= 3ord re#ers. :-is does not .ean8 -o3ever8 t-at t-e pun I":ntire:y #ree. $iRe any ot-er stylistic device8 Gt .ust depend on a context. +ut t-e context .ay 5e o# a .ore expanded c-ar acter7Lso.e=tl.es even as lar%e as a 3-ole 3orR o# e.otive prose. :-us t-e title o# one o# ,scar ?ilde&s plays8 L:-e I.portance o# +ein% EarnestL -as a pun in it8 inas.uc- as t-e na.e o# t-e -ero and t-e adGective .eanin% &seriously= .inded& are 5ot- present in our .ind. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# a pun 3-ere a lar%er context #or its realiSation is used; &L+o3 to t-e 5oardL said +u.5le. ,liver 5rus-ed a3ay t3o or t-ree tears t-at 3ere lin%erin% in -is eyesC and seein% no 5oard 5ut t-e ta5le8 #ortunately 5o3ed to t-at&. (DicRens) In #act8 t-e -u.orous e##ect is caused 5y t-e interplay0not o# t3o .eanin%s o# one 3ord8 5ut o# t3o 3ords. &+oard& as a %roup o# o##icials 3it- #unctions o# ad.inistration and .ana%e.ent and &5oard& as a piece o# #urniture (a ta5le) -ave 5eco.e t3o distinct 3ords. l. 2uns are o#ten used in riddles and GoRes8 #or exa.ple8 in t-is riddle; ?-at is t-e di##erence 5et3een a sc-ool.aster and an en%ine=driverz (,ne trains t-e .ind and t-e ot-er .inds t-e train.) Devices o# si.ultaneously realiSin% t-e various .eanin%s o# 3ords8 3-ic- are o# a .ore su5tle c-aracter t-an t-ose e.5odied in puns and Seu%.a8 are to 5e #ound in poetry and poetical descriptions and in speculations in e.otive prose. Men=o#=letters are especially sensitive to t-e nuances o# .eanin% e.5odied in al.ost every co..on 3ord8 and to .aRe t-ese 3ords live 3it- t-eir .ulti#arious se.antic aspects is t-e tasR o# a %ood 3riter. :-ose 3-o can do it easily are said to -ave talent. In t-is respect it is 3ort- su5Gectin% to stylistic analysis 3ords ordinarily perceived in t-eir pri.ary .eanin% 5ut 3-ic- in poetic diction 5e%in to ac9uire so.e additional8 contextual .eanin%. :-is latter .eanin% so.eti.es overs-ado3s t-e pri.ary

.eanin% and it .ay8 in t-e course o# ti.e8 cease to denote t-e pri.ary .eanin%8 t-e derived .eanin% esta5lis-in% itsel# as t-e .ost reco%niSa5le one. +ut to deal 3it1 ?e s-all -ere disre%ard t-e di##erence 5et3een polyse.y and -o.ony.y8 it 5ein% irrelevant8 .ore or less8 #or stylistic purposes. t-ese cases .eans to leave t-e do.ain o# stylistics and #ind ourselves in t-e do.ain o# lexicolo%y. :o illustrate t-e interplay o# pri.ary and contextual .eanin%s8 < let us taRe a #e3 exa.ples #ro. poetical 3orRs; In Bo5ert "rost&s poe. LStoppin% 5y ?oods on a Sno3y Evenin%L t-e poet8 taRin% deli%-t in 3atc-in% t-e sno3 #all on t-e 3oods8 concludes -is poe. in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords; L:-e 3oods are lovely8 darR and deep. +ut I -ave pro.ises to Reep8 *nd .iles to %o 5e#ore I sleep8 *nd .iles to %o 5e#ore I sleep.L :-e 3ord &pro.ises& -ere is .ade to si%ni#y t3o 0concepts8 viS. 1) a previous en%a%e.en#lo 5e #ul#illed and 2) gVm_PVPL1iTtP,5li%ation. :-e plural #or. o# t-e 3ord as 3ell as t-e 3-ole context o# t-e poe. are convincin% proo# t-at t-e second o# t-e t3o .eanin%s is t-e .ain one8 in spite o# t-e #act t-at in co.5ination 3it- t-e ver5 to Reep (to Reep a pro.ise) t-e #irst .eanin% is .ore predicta5le. >ere is anot-er exa.ple. In S-aRespearian Sonnet 29 t-ere are t-e #ollo3in% lines; L?-en= in dis%race 3it- #ortune and .en&s eyes8 I all alone 5e3eep .y outcast state8 *nd trou5le dea# -eaven 3it- .y 5ootless cries *nd t-inR upon .ysel# and curse .y #ate.L *l.ost every 3ord -ere .ay 5e interpreted in di##erent senses; so.eti.es t-e di##erences are -ardly percepti5le8 so.eti.es t-ey are o5viously anta%onistic to t-e pri.ary .eanin%. +ut 3e s-all con#ine our analysis only to t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ord &cries& 3-icsi%ni#ies 5ot- prayer and la.entation. :-ese t3o .eanin%s are su%%ested 5y t-e relation o# t-e 3ord &cries& to &trou5le dea# -eaven&. +ut t-e 3ord &cries& su%%ests not only prayer and la.entation8 it also i.plies violent prayer and la.entation as i# in deep despair8 al.ost 3it- tears (see t-e 3ord &5e3eep& in t-e second line o# t-e part o# t-e sonnet 9uoted). It is very i.portant to 5e a5le to #ollo3 t-e aut-or&s intention #ro. -is .anner o# expressin% nuances o# .eanin% 3-ic- are potentially present in t-e se.antic structure o# existin% 3ords. :-ose 3-o #ail to de#ine t-e su%%ested .eanin%s o# poetic 3ords 3ill never understand poetry 5ecause t-ey are una5le/ to decode t-e poetic lan%ua%e. In various #unctional styles o# lan%ua%e t-e capacity o# a 3ord to si%ni#y several .eanin%s si.ultaneously .ani#ests itsel# in di##erent de%rees. In scienti#ic prose it al.ost e9uals Sero. In poetic style t-ii is an essential property. :o o5serve t-e #luctuations o# .eanin%s in t-e 5elles=lettres style is not only

i.portant #or a 5etter understandin% o# t-e purpose or intention o# t-e 3riter8 5ut also pro#ita5le to a lin%uistic sc-olar en%a%ed in t-e study o# se.antic c-an%es in 3ords. 1 2 ..
3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS

:-e %eneral notions concernin% e.otiveness -ave 5een set out in part I8 T 1 cLMeanin% #ro. a Stylistic 2oint o# (ie3L (p. 7). >o3ever8 so.e additional in#or.ation is necessary #or a 5etter understandin% o# -o3 lo%ical and e.otive .eanin%s interact. It .ust 5e clearly understood t-at t-e lo%ical and t-e e.otive are 5uilt into our .inds and t-ey are present t-ere in di##erent de%rees 3-en 3e t-inR o# various p-eno.ena o# o5Gective reality. :-e ratio o# t-e t3o ele.ents is re#lected in t-e co.position o# ver5al c-ains8 i.e. in expression. l Di##erent e.otional ele.ents .ay appear in t-e utterance dependin% on its c-aracter and pra%.atic aspect. :-e0 e.otional ele.ents o# t-e lan%ua%e -ave a tendency to 3ear out anc:are constantly replaced 5y ne3 ones (see exa.ples on p. 171ct-e L3ord dra.atic and ot-ers). *l.ost any 3ord .ay ac9uire a %reater or a lesser de%ree o# e.otiveness. :-is is due to t-e #act t-at8 as +. :o.as-=evsRy-as it8 L:-e 3ord is not only understood8 it8is also experienced.L2 :-ere are 3ords t-e #unction o# 3-ic- is to arouse e.otion in t-e leader or listener. In suc- 3ords s.oiiy.eriess prevails over intellectuali=A0. :-ere are also 3ords in 3-idi t-e lo%ical .eanin% is al.ost entirely ousted. >o3ever8 t-ese 3ords express #eelin%s 3-ic- -ave passed t-rou%- our .ind and t-ere#ore t-ey -ave ac9uired an intellectual e.5odi.ent. In ot-er 3ords8 e.otiveness in lan%ua%e is a cate%ory o# our .inds and8 conse9uently8 our #eelin%s are expressed not directly 5ut indirectly8 t-at is8 5y passin% t-rou%- our .inds. It is t-ere#ore natural t-at sp.e e.o=&i 3ords -ave 5eco.e t-e reco%niSed sy.5ols o# e.otionsC t-e e.otions are8 as it 3ere8 not expressed directly 5ut re#erred to. / L:-e sensory sta%e o# co%nition o# o5Gective reality is not only t-e 5asis o# a5stract t-inRin%8 it also acco.panies it8 5rin%in% t-e ele.ents o# sensory sti.uli into t-e process o# conceptual t-inRin%8 and t-us de#inin% t-e sensory %rounds o# t-e concepts as 3ell as t-e co.5ination o# sensory i.a%es and lo%ical concepts in a sin%le act o# t-inRin%.L a L ?e s-all try to distin%uis- 5et3een ele.ents o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- -ave e.otive .eanin% in t-eir se.antic structure and t-ose 3-ic- ac9uire t-is .eanin% in t-e context under t-e in#luence o# a stylistic device or so.e ot-er .ore expressive .eans in t-e utterance. * %reater or lesser volu.e o# e.otiveness .ay 5e distin%uis-ed in 3ords 3-ic- -ave e.otive .eanin% in t-eir se.antic structure. :-e .ost -i%-ly e.otive 3ords are 3ords c-ar%ed 3it- e.otive .eanin%L: btl:0L extent t-att-e lo%ical .eanin% can -ardly 5e re%istered. :-ese are #ti=li0cAiOns and.Gal.1 Rinds o# excla.ations. Next

co.0 epit-ets8 in 3-ic- 3e can o5serve a Rirtd o# parity 5et3een e.otive and lo%ical .eanin%. :-irdly co.e eG!it.-etvGoKA0 in 3-ic- t-e lo%ical .eanin% prevails over t-e e.otive 5ut 3-ere t-e e.otive is t-eC. result o# t-e clas- 5et3een t-e lo%ical and illo%ical. &nter6ections and !xclamatory +ords InterGections are 3ords 3e use 3-en 3e express our #eelin%s 0stron%ly and 3-ic- .ay 5e said to exist in lan%ua%e as coriyeritional sy.5ols o# -u.an e.otionsI:-e role o# interGections in creatin% e.otive .eanin%s -as already 5een dealt 3it- (see p. 17). It re.ains only to s-o3 -o3 t-e lo%ical and e.otive .eanin%s interact and to ascertain t-eir %eneral #unctions and sp-eres o# application) In traditional %ra..ars t-e interGection is re%arded as a part o# speec-8 alon%side ot-er parts o# speec-8 as t-e noun8 adGective8 ver58 etc. +ut t-ere is anot-er vie3 3-ic- re%ards t-e interGection not as a part o# speec- 5ut as a sentence. :-ere is .ucto up-old t-is vie3/ Indeed8 a 3ord taRen separately is deprived o# any intonation 3-ic- 3ill su%%est a co.plete idea8 t-at is8 a pronounce.entC 3-ereas a 3ord=| interGection 3ill al3ays .ani#est a de#inite attitude on t-e part o# t-e speaRer to3ards t-e pro5le. and t-ere#ore -ave intonation. :-e pauses 5et3een 3ords are very 5rie#8 so.eti.es -ardly percepti5le8 3-ereas t-e pause 5et3eenL t-e interGection and t-e 3ords t-at #ollo3 is so lon%8 so si%ni#icant t-at it .ay 5e e9ualled to t-e pauses 5et3een sentences. >o3ever8 a closer investi%ation into t-e nature and #unctions o# t-e interGection proves 5eyond dou5t t-at t-e interGection is not a sentenceC it is a 3ord 3it- stron% e.otive .eanin%. :-e pauses t-at #ra.e interGections can 5e accounted #or 5y t-e sudden trans#er #ro. t-e e.otion=/// al to t-e lo%ical or vice versa. "urt-er8 t-e de#inite intonation 3it- 3-icli interGections are pronounced '02e0ds on t-e sense o# t-e precedin% o#/0 #ollo3in% sentence. InterG&ections -ave no sentence .eanin% i# taRen in0 dependently. $et us taRe so.e exa.ples o# t-e use o# interGections; ,#t8 3-ere are you %oin% to8 all you +i% Stea.ersz (uiplin%) :-e interGection o- 5y itsel# .ay express various #eelin%s8 suc- as re%ret8 despair8 dis0ppointpierit8 sorro38 3oe8 surprise8 astonis-.ent8 la.entation8 entreaty and .any ot-ers. >ere it precedes a de#inite sentence and .ust 5e re%arded as a part o# it. It denotes t-e ar=Ldent tone o# t-e 9uestion. :-e ,- -ere .ay 5e re%arded8 to use t-e ter.inolo%y o# t-eory o# in#or.ation8 as a si%nal indicatin% e.otional tension in t-e #ollo3in% utterance. :-e sa.e .ay 5e o5served in t-e use o# t-e interGection o- in t-e #ollo3in% sentence #ro. L* 4-rist.as 4arolL 5y DicRens; I L,#tK 5ut -e 3as a ti%-t=#isted -and at t-e %rind=stone8 Scroo%e.L :-e ,#t -ere is&8a si%naMndicatin% t-e stren%t- o# t-e e.otions o# t-e aut-or8 3-ic- are #urt-er revealed in a nu.5er o# devices8 .ostly syntactical8 liRe elliptical sentences8 tautolo%ical su5Gects8 etc. :-e tneanin% o# t-e

interGection ,#t in t-e sentence can a%ain 5e pinned do3n only #ro. t-e se.antic analysis o# t-e sentence #ollo3in% it and t-en it 5eco.es clear t-at t-e e.otion to 5e understood is one o# dis%ust or scorn. So interGections8 as it 3ere8 radiate t-e e.otional ele.ent over t-e 3-ole o# t-e utterance8 provided8 o# course8 t-at t-ey precede it. It is interestin% to note in passin% -o3 o#ten interGections are used 5y S-aRespeare in -is sonnets. Most o# t-e. serve as si%nals #or t-e sestet 3-ic- is t-e se.antic orIand e.otional counterpart to t-e octave81 or exa.ple; L78 carve not 3it- t-y -orns ...L (Sonnet 19) L78 $et .e8 true in love8 5ut...L (21) L78 t-ere#ore8 love 5e o# t-ysel#....L (22) L78 let .y 5ooRs 5e8 t-en8 t-e...L (2!) L78 t-en vouc-sa#e .e...L (!2) L78 a5sence8 3-at a tor.ent...L (!9) L78 noK t-y love8 t-ou%- .uc-...L (11) L78 #ear#ul .editation...L (1 ) L78 i# I say8 you looR...L (71) L78 lest your true love...L (72) L78 Rno38 s3eet love...L (71) M#t8 do not8 3-en .y -eart...L (91)2 InterGections can 5e divided into p r i .ar a and derivative. 2ri.ary interGections are %enerally devoid o# any lo%ical .eanin%. Derivative interGections .ay retain a .odicu. o# lo%ical .eanin%8 t-ou%- t-is is al3ays suppressed 5y t-e volu.e o# e.otive .eanin%. ,#tK *-l +a-l 2oo-l GosM >us-l *lasl are pri.ary interGections8 t-ou%- so.e o# t-e. once -ad lo%ical .eanin%. &>eavensK&8 &%ood %raciousK&8 &dear .eK&8 &GodK&8 &4o.e onK&8 &$ooR -ereK&8 &dearK&8 &5y t-e $ordK&8 &God Rno3sK&8 &+less .eK&8 &>u.5u%K& and .any ot-ers o# t-is Rind are not interGections as suc-C a 5etter na.e #or t-e. 3ould 5e excla.atory 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations %enerally used as interGections8& r.e. t-eir #unction is t-at o# t-e interGection. It .ust 5e noted -ere t-at so.e adGectives8 nouns and adver5s can also taRe on t-e #unction o# interGectionsc#or exa.ple8 suc- 3ords as terri5leK8 a3#ulK8 %reatK&8 3onder#ulK8 splendidK&8 #ineK8 .anK8 5oyK ?it- proper intonation and 3it- an ade9uate pause suc- as #ollo3s an interGection8 t-ese 3ords .ay ac9uire a stron% e.otional colourin% and are e9ual in #orce to interGections. In t-at case 3e rr#ay say t-at so.e adGectives and adver5s -ave ac9uired an additional %ra..atical .eanin%8 t-at o# t-e interGection. Men=o#=letters8 .ost o# 3-o. possess an acute #eelin% #or 3ords8 t-eir .eanin%8 sound8 possi5ilities8 potential ener%y8 etc.8 are al3ays a3are # t-e e.otional c-ar%e o# 3ords in a context. *n instance o# suc- acute 2 It is interestin% to note -ere t-at out o# t-e #our interGections used 5y S-aRespeare Gn -is0sonnets (78 *-8 alacR (alas)8 ay) t-e interGection 7 is used #orty=ei%-t ti.es8 */ive ti.es8 alacR c t3ice8 and ay c t3ice.

a3areness is t-e #ollo3in% excerpt #ro. So.erset Mau%-a.&s L:-e BaSor&s Ed%eL 3-ere in a conversation t-e 3ord God is used in t3o di##erent senses; #irst in its lo%ical .eanin% and t-en 3it- t-e %ra..atical .eanin% o# t-e interGection; L2er-aps -e 3on&t. It&s a lon% arduous road -e&s startin% to travel8 5ut it .ay 5e t-at at t-e end o# it -e&ll #ind 3-at -e&s seeRin%.L L?-at&s t-atzL L>asn&t it occurred to youz It see.s to .e t-at in 3-at -e said to you -e indicated it pretty plainly. God.L LGodKL s-e cried. +ut it 3as an excla.ation o# incredulous surprise. ,ur use o# t-e sa.e 3ord8 5ut in suc- a di##erent sense8 -ad a co.ic e##ect8 so t-at 3e 3ere o5li%ed to lau%-. +ut Isa5el i..ediately %re3 serious a%ain and I #elt in -er 3-ole attitude so.et-in% liRe #ear. t-e c-an%e in t-e sense o# t-e 3ord %od is indicated 5y a .arR o# excla.ation8 5y t-e use o# t-e 3ord &cried& and t-e 3ords &excla.ation o# incredulous surprise& 3-ic- are 3ays o# conveyin% in 3ritin% t-e sense carried in t-e spoRen lan%ua%e 5y t-e intonation. InterGections al3ays attac- a de#inite .odal nuance to t-e utterance. +ut it is i.possi5le to de#ine exactly t-e s-ade o# .eanin% contained in a %iven interGection8 t-ou%- t-e context .ay su%%est one. >ere are so.e o# t-e .eanin%s t-at can 5e expressed 5y interGections; Goy8 deli%-t8 ad.iration8 approval8 dis5elie#8 astonis-.ent8 #ri%-t8 re%ret8 3oe8 dissatis#action8 ennui (5oredo.)8 sadness8 5la.e8 reproac-8 protest8 -orror8 irony8 sarcas.8 .eanness8 sel#=assurance8 despair8 dis%ust and .any ot-ers. Interestin% atte.pts -ave 5een .ade to speci#y t-e e.otions expressed 5y so.e o# t-e interGections. >ere are a #e3 lines #ro. +yron&s LDon AuanA 3-ic- .ay serve as an illustration; L*ll present li#e is 5ut an interGection *n &,-& or &*-& o# Goy or .isery8 ,r a &>aK -aK& or &+a-K&ca ya3n or &2oo-K& ,# 3-icper-aps t-e latter is .ost true.L * stron% i.pression is .ade 5y a/ poe. 5y M. :svetayeva HVsor) in 3-ic- t-ree Bussian interGections Hox)8 Hax) and Hf ) are su5Gected to a poetically ex9uisite su5tle analysis #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-e .eanin%s t-ese t-ree interGections .ay express. InterGections8 liRe ot-er 3ords in t-e En%lis- voca5ulary8 5ear #eatures 3-ic- .arR t-e. as 5ooRis-8 neutral/ or Y V I I o 9 ` ib a I. :-us o#t8 a#t8 +a#t and t-e liRe are neutralC aIas8 e%ad (eup-e.is. #or H5y Goc2)8 $o8 _m1P_mi 5ooRis- /< %os-8 3-y8 3ell are collo9uial. +ut ais 3it- ot-er 3o:c:s:## any stratu. o# voca5ulary8 t-e 5order=line 5et3een t-e t-ree %roups is 5road and #lexi5le. So.eti.es t-ere#ore a %iven interGection .ay 5e considered as 5ooRis- 5y one sc-olar and as neutral 5y anot-er8 or collo9uial 5y one and neutral 5y anot-er. >o3ever8 t-e di##erence 5et3een collo9uial and 5ooRis- 3ill al3ays 5e clear enou%-. In evaluatin% t-e attitude o# a 3riter to t-e t-in%s8 ideas8 events and p-eno.ena -e is dealin% 3it-8 t-e a5ility o# t-e reader to pin=point t-e e.otional ele.ent 5eco.es o# para.ount i.portance. It is so.eti.es -idden under see.in%ly i.partial description or narrative8 and only an

insi%ni#icant lexical unit8 or t-e syntactical desi%n o# an utterance8 3ill reveal t-e aut-or&s .ood. +ut interGections8 as -as 5een said8 are direct si%rialstlia0 c-ar%ed8 and insu##icient attention on t-e part& o# t-e literary critic :o.c#use 1K interGections 3ill deprive -i. o# a truer understandin% o# t-e 3riter&s ai.s. 1 :-e last t3o are so.e3-at arc-aic and used .ostly in poetical lan%ua%e. E%ad is also arc-aic. The !pithet "ro. t-e stron%est .eans o# displayin% t-e 3riter&s or speaRer&s e.otionaG. attitude to -is co..unication8 3e no3 pass to a 3eaRer 5ut still #orce#ul8 .eans c t-e ep i t- e t. .:-e epit-et is su5tle and delicate in c-aracter. It is not so direct as t-e interGection. So.e people 0even c5nsider t>a# it can create an at.osp-ere o# o5Gective evaluation8 3-ereas it actually conveys t-e su5Gective attitude o# t-e 3riter8 s-o3in% t-at lie is partial in one 3ay or anot-erC LL:-e epit-et is a stylistic device 5ased on t-e interplay o# e.otiv8e and lo%ica: .eanin% in an attri5utive 3ordIp-rase or even sentencT used to c-aracteriSe an o5Gect and pointin% out to t-e reader8 and # re=9uently i.posin% on -i.8 so.e o# t-e properties or #eatures o# t-e o5=Gect 3it- t-e ai. o# %ivin% an individual perception and evaluation o# t-ese #eatures or properties. :-e epit-et is .arRedly su5Gective and evaluative. :-e lo%ical attri5ute is purely o5Gective8 non=evaluatin%. It is descriptive and indicates an in-erent or pro.inent #eature o# t-e t-in% or p-eno.enon in 9uestion. :-us8 in &%reen .eado3s&8 &3-ite sno3&8 &round ta5le&8 &5lue sRies&8 &pale co.plexion&8 &lo#ty .ountains& and t-e liRe8= t-e adGectives are .ore lo%ical attri5utes t-an epit-ets. :-ey indicate t-ose 9ualities o# t-e o5Gects 3-ic- .ay 5e re%arded as %enerally reco%niSed. +ut in &3ild 3ind&8 &loud ocean&88 &re.orseless das- o# 5illo3s&8 &#or.ida5le 3aves&8 &>eart=5urnin% s.ile&8 t-e adGectives do not point to in-erent 9ualities o# t-e o5Gects descri5ed. :-ey are su5Gectively evaluative. :-e epit-et .aRes a stron% i.pact on t-e reader8 so .uc- so8 t-at -e0i.3ittin%ly 5e%ins to see and evaluate t-in%s as t-e 3riter 3ants :urn io. Indeed8 in suc- 3ord= co.5inations as &destructive c-ar.s&8 &%lorious si%-t&8 &encoura%in% s.ile&8 t-e interrelation 5et3een lo%ical and e.otive .eanin%s .aG 5e said to .ani#est itsel# in di##erent de%rees. :-e 3ord destructive -as retained its lo%ical .eanin% to a consid= era5le extent8 =5ut at t-e sa.e ti.e an experienced reader cannot -elp perceivin% t-e e.otive .eanin% o# t-e 3ord 3-ic- in t-is co.5ination 3ill si%ni#y &con9uerin%8 irresisti5le8 dan%erous&. :-e lo%ical .eanin% o# t-e 3ord %lorious in co.5ination 3itt-e 3ord si%-t -as al.ost entirely #aded out. Glorious is already #ixed in dictionaries as a 3ord -avin% an e.otive .eanin% alon%side its pri.ary8 lo%ical .eanin%. *s to t-e 3ord encoura%in% (in t-e co.5ination &encoura%in% s.ile&) it is -al# epit-et and -al# lo%ical attri5ute. In #act8 it is so.eti.es di##icult to dra3 a clear line o# de.arcation 5et3een epl##ie# and lo%t=Lcal attri5ute. I## so.e passa%es t-e lo%ical attri5ute 5eco.es so

stron%ly enveloped in t-e e.otional aspect o# t-e utterance t-at it 5e%ins to radiate e.otiveness8 t-ou%- 5y nature it is lo%ically descriptive. :aRe8 #or exa.ple8 t-e adGectives %reen8 3-ite8 5lue8 lo#ty (5ut so.e-o3 not round) in t-e co.5inations %iven a5ove. In a suita5le context t-ey .ay all -ave a de#inite e.otional i.pact on t-e reader. :-is is pro5a5ly explained 5y t-e #act t-at t-e 9uality .ost c-aracteristic o# t-e %iven o5Gect is attac-ed to it8 t-us stren%t-enin% t-e 9uality. Epit-ets .ay 5e classi#ied #ro. di##erent standpoints; s e g a n=t i Y and &LTt r ` Y t ` r at. Se.antically8 epit-ets .ay 5e divided into 3o %roups; t-ose associated 3it- t-e noun #ollo3in% arid t-ose n a s s I a t e d 30- it. *ssociated epit-ets are t-ose 3-ic- point to a #eature 3-ic- bis es=descri5e; t-e idea expressed in t-e epit-et is to 0%n0Oo0A50Ai5Gects t-ey aescnoe; qi .ea YsX0VV0 /// {0 br...|8| || a cer#a. extent Gn#ierent in t-e concept o# t-e o5Gect. :-e associated epll-e#&I..ediately re#ers t-e .ind to t-e concept in 9uestion due to so.e actual 9uality o# t-e o5Gect it is attac-ed to8 #or instance8 &darR =J#orest18 &dreary .idni%-t&8 &care#ul attention&8 &un3earyin% researc-&8 &i#2L0 de# at i%a5le assiduity&8 &#antastic terrors&8 etc. Mnassociated epit-ets are attri5utes used to c-aracteriSe t-e o5Gect 5y addin% a #eature not in-erent inA$ i.e. a #eature 3-ic- .ay 5e so unexpected as to striRe t-e reader 5y its novelty8 as8 #or instance8 &-eart5urnin% s.ile&8 &5ootless cries&8 &sullen eart-&8 &voiceless sands&8 etc. :-e adGectives -ere do not indicate any property in-erent in t-e o5Gects in 9uestion. :-ey i.pose8 as it 3ere8 a property on t-e. 3-ic- is #ittin% only in t-e %iven circu.stances. It .ay see. stran%e8 unusual8 or even accidental. /JJ In any co.5ination o# 3ords it is very i.portant to o5serve to 3-at de%ree t-e co.ponents o# t-e co.5ination are linRed. ?-en t-ey are so J closely linRed t-at t-e co.ponent parts 5eco.e insepara5le8 3e note t-at 3e are dealin% 3it- a set expression. ?-en t-e linR 5et3een t-e co.ponent parts is co.paratively close8 3e say t-ere is a sta5le 3ord=0 co.5ination8 and 3-en 3e can su5stitute any 3ord o# t-e sa.e %ra..atiL cal cate%ory #or t-e one %iven8 3e note 3-at is called a #ree co.5ination o# 3ords. ?it- re%ard to epit-ets8 t-is=division 5eco.es o# para.ount i.portance8 inas.uc- as t-e epit-et is=a po3er#ul .eans #or .aRin% t-e desired i.pact on t-e reader8 and t-ere#ore its ties 3it- t-e noun are %enerally contextual. >o3ever8 t-ere are co.5inations in 3-ic- t-e ties 5et3een t-e attri5ute and t-e noun de#ined are very close8 and t-e 3-ole co.5ination is vie3ed as a lin%uistic 3-ole. 4o.5inations o# t-is type appear as a result o# t-e #re9uent use o# certain de#inite epit-ets 3it- de#inite nouns. :-ey 5eco.e sta5le 3ord=co.5inations. Exa.ples are; &5ri%-t #ace&8 valua5le connections& &s3eet s.ile&8 &uneart-ly 5eauty&8 &pitc- darRness&8 &t-irsty deserts&8L&deep #eelin%&8 &classic exa.ple&8 &po3er#ul in#lu=

ence&8 &s3eet per#u.e& and t-e liRe. :-e predicta5ility o# suc- epit-ets is very %reat. :#ae #unctGGao o# epit-ets o# t-is Rind re.ains 5asically t-e sa.e; Lto s-o3 t-e evaluatin%8 su|5GeGctiye attitude8o# t-e 3riter to3ards t-e t#iin%Ldescn5ed. +ut:o# t-is purpose t-e aut-or does not create -is o3n8 &ne38 unexpected epit-etsC -e uses ones t-at -ave 5eco.e traditional8 and .ay 5e ter.ed Llan%ua%e epit-etsL as t-ey A5eI1n%01L?elan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. :-us epit-ets:#riayb 5e liivided into lan%ua%e epit-ets and sp e e c0(:pbbtt-ets. Exa.ples o# speec- epit-ets are; &slavis- Rnees&8 &sleepless 5ay.& bbb :-e process o# stren%t-enin% t-e connection 5et3een t-e epit-et and t-e nouaAtn000nGeti.es %o0o #ar as to 5uild a speci#ic unit 3-ic- does not lose its poeticI:avour. Suc- epit-ets are calle8d8l00 d and 0e.osi0 ly used in 5allads0aGni(i#pGQ0 son%s. >er o# #ixed epit-ets; &true love&8 &darR #orest&8 &s3eet Sir&8 &%reen 3ood&8 &%ood s-ip&8 &5rave cavaliers( J= = = ...c.......8... ..|||| Structurally8 epit-ets can 5e vie3ed #ro. t-e an%le o# a) co.position and 5) distri5ution. "ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-eir co.positional structure epit-ets .ay 5e divided into si.ple8 Y V g p V ` n d8 p - r a s e and sentence epit-ets. Si.ple epit-ets are ordinary adGectives. Exa.ples -ave 5een %iven a5ove. &4o.pound epit-ets are 5uilt liRe co.= pound adGectives. Exa.ples are; &-eart=5urnin% si%-&8 &sylp-=liRe #i%ures&8 &cloud= s-apen %iant&8 L...curly=-eaded %ood=#or=not-in%8 *nd .isc-ie#=.aRin% .onRey #ro. -is 5irt-.L (+yron) :-e tendency to cra. into one lan%ua%e unit as .uc- in#or.ation as possi5le -as led to ne3 co.positional .odels #or epit-ets 3-ic- 3e s-all call p - r as e e p i t - e t s. * p-rase and even a 3-ole sentence .ay 5eco.e an epit-et i# t-e .ain #or.al re9uire.ent o# t-e epit-et is .aintained8 viS. its attri5utive use. +ut unliRe si.ple and co.pound epit-ets8 3-ic- .ay -ave pre= or post=position8 p-rase epit-ets are al3ays placed 5e#ore t-e nouns t-ey re#ei to. *n interestin% o5servation in t-is respect -as 5een .ade 5y ,. S. *R-=.anova. L:-e syntactical co.5inations are8 as it 3ere8 .ore explicit8 descriptive8 ela5orateC t-e lexical are .ore o# an indication8 a -int or a clue to so.e previously co..unicated or %enerally Rno3n #act8 as i# one s-ould say; &wou Rno3 3-at I .ean and all I -ave to do no3 is to point it out to you in t-is concise and #a.iliar 3ay&.L x :-is inner se.antic 9uality o# t-e attri5utive relations in lexical co.5inations8 as t-ey are called 5y ,. S. *R-.anova8 is8 per-aps8 .ost striRin% in t-e p-rase and sentence epit-ets. >ere t-e &concise 3ay& is .ost e##ectively used. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# p-rase epit-ets; .. lu*R-.anova 7. S. $exical and Syntactical 4ollocations in 4onte.porary En%= lis-. Feitsc-ri#t #ur *nerli.stiR un> *.pri5inRttRL M 17 >p## : n 1O LIt is t-is do=it=yoursel#8 %o=it=alone attitude t-at -as t-us #ar -eldlAacR real develop.ent o# t-e:(liddle East&s river resources.L (N. w. :. Ma%aSine8 19 ,ct.8 19 @.)

L2ersonally I detest -er (Gioconda&s) s.u%8 .ystery=.aRin%8 Oo.e=-it-er=5ut=%o= a3ay=a%ain=5ecause=5utter=3ouldn&t=.elt=in=.y=.out- expression.L (Ne3 States.an and Nntion8 Aan. 8 19 7) L:-ere is a sort o# &,-=3-at=a=3icRed=3orld=t-is=is=and=-o3= I=3is-=I=could=do=so.et-in%=to=.aRe=it=5etter=and=no5ler/ expression a5out Mont.orency t-at -as 5een Rno3n to 5rin% t-e tears into t-e eyes o# pious old ladies and %entle.en.L (Aero.e u. Aero.e8 L:-ree Men in a +oatL) L"reddie 3as standin% in #ront o# t-e #ireplace 3it- a &3ell=t-a#s=t-e=story=3-at=are= 3e=%oin%=to=do=a5out=it/ air t-at .ade -i. a #ocal point.L ($eslie "ord8 LSiren in t-e Ni%-:7) *n interestin% structural detail o# p-rase and sentence epit-ets is t-at t-ey are %enerally #ollo3ed 5y t-e 3orus0expression8 air8 attitude and ot-ers 3-ic- descri5e 5e-aviour or #acial expression. In ot-er 3ords8 suc- epit-ets see. to transcri5e into lan%ua%e sy.5ols a co..unication usuallyL conveyed 5y non=lin%uistic .eans. *not-er structural #eature o# suc- p-rase epit-ets is t-at a#ter t-e nouns t-ey re#er to8 t-ere o#ten co.es a su5ordinate attri5utive clause 5e%innin% 3it- t-at. :-is attri5utive clause8 as it 3ere8 serves t-e purpose o# decodin% t-e e##ect o# t-e co..unication. It .ust 5e noted t-at p-rase epit-ets are al3ays -yp-enated8 t-us pointin% to t-e te.porary structure o# t-e co.pound 3ord. :-ese t3o structural #eatures -ave predeter.ined t-e #unctionin% o# p-rase epit-ets. 2ractically any p-rase .or8 sentence 3-ic- deals 3it- t-e psyc-olo%ical state o# a person .ay serve as an epit-et. :-e p-rases and sentences trans#or.ed into epit-ets lose t-eir independence and assu.e a ne3 9uality 3-ic- is revealed 5ot- in t-e intonation pattern (t-at o# q attri5ute) and %rap-ically (5y 5ein% -yp-enated). *not-er structural variety o# t-e epit-et is t-e Vji 3-ic- 3e s-all ter. r eve r s e d. :-e reversed epit-et is co.posed o# t3o nouns linRed '#t an eI=p-rase. :-e su5Gective8 evaluatin%8 e.otional ele.ent is e.5odied not in t-e noun attri5ute 5ut in t-e noun structurally descri5ed8 #or exa.ple; Lt-e s-ado3 o# a s.ileLC La devil o# a Go5L (Mau%-a.)C L...-e s.iled 5ri%-tly8 neatly8 e##iciently8 a .ilitary a55reviation o# a s.ileL (Gra-a. Green)C L* devil o# 8a sea rolls in t-at 5ayL (+yron)C L* little "lyin% Dutc-.an o# a ca5L (Gals3ort-y)C La do% o# a #ello3L (DicRens)C L-er 5rute o# a 5rot-erL (Gals3ort-y)C L...a lon% ni%-ts-irt o# a .acRintos-...L (4ronin) It 3ill 5e o5served t-at suc- epit-ets are .etap-orical. :-e noun to 5e assessed is contained in t-e o#=p-rase and t-e noun it 9uali#ies isL.a&&.etap-or 0(s-ado38 devil8 .ilitary a55reviation8 "lyin%/Dutc-.an8 02b0Grb:-e %ra..atGcai aspect8 viS. attri5utive relation 5et3een t-e .e.5ers o# t-e co.5ination s-o3s t-at t-e SD -ere la an epit-et. It -as 5een acRno3led%ed t-at it is so.eti.es di##icult to dra3 a line o# de.arcation 5et3een attri5utive and predicative relations. So.e at= tri5utes carry so .uc- in#or.ation t-at t-ey .ay Gustly 5e considered 5earers o# predicativeness. :-is is particularly true o# t-e epit-et8 especially %enuine or speec-

epit-ets8 3-ic- 5elon% to lan%ua%e=in=action and not to lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. :-ese epit-ets are predicative in essence8 t-ou%- not in #or.. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 so.e 3ord=co.5inations 3-ere 3e -ave predicative relations convey so stron%ly t-e e.otional assess.ent o# t-e o5Gect spoRen o#8 t-at in spite o# t-eir #or.al8 structural desi%n8 t-e 2redi0GyGss|c0 as epit-ets. >ere are so.e exa.ples; &"ools t-at t-ey are&C &?icRed as -e is.& C :-e inverted position o# t-e predicatives tools& and &3icRed& as 3ell as t-e intensi#yin% '-at t-ey are& and &as -e is& .arR t-is 5order=line variety o# epit-et. So.e lan%ua%e epit-ets8 in spite o# opposition on t-e part o# ort-odox lan%ua%e purists8 esta5lis- t-e.selves in standard En%lis- as conventional sy.5ols o# assess.ent #or a %iven period. :o t-ese 5elon% 3ords 3e -ave already spoRen o# liRe terri5le8 a3#ul8 .assive8 top8 dra.atic8 .i%-ty8 crucial (see p. 11). "ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-e dis0tGi0uGG0n00# t-e epit-ets in t-e sentence8 t-e #irst .odel to 50o.:ec:oul:s t-es t r i n % o#epi=t-e is. In -is depiction o# Ne3 worR8 ,. >enry 0:vS:+0lo:ro3in% s##in%0 o# epit-ets; LSuc- 3as t-e 5acR%round o# t-e 3onder#ul8 cruel8 enc-antin%8 5e3ilderin%8 #atal8 %reat cityCL ,t-er exa.ples are; a plu.p8 rosy=c-eeRed8 3-oleso.e apple=#aced youn% 3o.an (DicRens)C La 3ell=.atc-ed8 #airly=5alanced %ive=and=taRe couple.L (DicRens) *s in any enu.eration8 t-e .strin% o# epit-ets %ives a .any=sided dep#ttton o# t-e o5Gect. !ut in t-is .any=sidedness t-ere is al3ays a su%%estion o# an ascendin% order o# e.otive ele.ents. :-is can easily 5e o5served in t-e intonation pattern o# a strin% o# epit-ets. :-ere is %enerally an ascendin% scale 3-ic- cul.inates in t-e last epit-etC i# t-e last epit-et is a lan%ua%e epit-et (%reat)8 or riot an epit-et (youn%)8 t-e cul.inatin% point is t-e last %enuine epit-et. :-e cul.inatin% point in t-e a5ove exa.ples is at #atal8 apple=#aced8 and %ive=and=taRe. *not-er distri5utional .odel is t-e ~ra n0s # e r r e d epit-et. :rans#erred epit-ets are ordinary lo%ical 0attri5utes %enerally descri5in% t-e state o# a -u.an 5ein%8 5ut .ade to re#er to an inani.ate o5Gect8 #or exa.ple; LsicR c-a.5er8 sleepless pillo38 restless pace8 5reat-less ea%erness8 tin5reaR#asted .ornin%8 .erry -ours8 a disapprovin% #in%er8 Isa5el s-ru%%ed an indi##erent s-oulder. *s .ay 5e seen8 it is t-e #orce contri5uted to t-e attri5ute 5y its position8 and not 5y its .eanin%8 t-at -allo3s it into an epit-et. :-e .ain #eature o# t-e epit-et8 t-at o# e.otional assess.ent8 is %reatly di.inis-ed in t-is .odelC 5ut it never 9uite vanis-es. :-e .eanin% o# t-e lo%ical attri5utes inGuc- co.5inations ac9uires a de#inite e.otional colourin%. $an%ua%e epit-ets as part o# t-e e.otional 3ord=stocR o# t-e lan%ua%e -ave a tendency to 5eco.e o5solescent. :-at is t-e #ate o# .any e.otional ele.ents in t-e lan%ua%e. :-ey %radually lose t-eir e.otive c-ar%e and are replaced 5y ne3 ones 3-ic-8 in t-eir turn8 3ill 5e replaced 5y neolo%is.s. Suc- 3as t-e #ate o# t-e lan%ua%e epit-et %ood=natured. In t-e 3orRs o# >enry "ieldin% t-is epit-et appears very o#ten8

as8 #or exa.ple8 /a %ood=natured -ole&8 &%ood=natured side&. :-e 3ords vast and vastly 3ere also used as epit-ets in t-e 3orRs o# .en=o#=letters o# t-e 1@t- century8 as in &vast rains&8 &vastly a.used&. :-e pro5le. o# t-e epit-et is too lar%e and too si%ni#icant to 5e #ully dealt 3it- in a s-ort c-apter. Indeed8 it .ay 5e re%arded as t-e crucial pro5le. in e.otive lan%ua%e and epit-ets8 correspondin%ly8 a.on% t-e stylistic devices o# t-e lan%ua%e. It re.ains only to say t-at t-e%pit-et is a direct and strai%-t#or3ard 3ay o# s-o3in% t-e aut-or&s attitude to3ards t-e t-in%s descri5ed8 3-ereas ot-er stylistic devices8 even i.a%e=5earin% ones8 3ill reveal t-e aut-or&s evaluation o# t-e o5Gect only indirectly. :-at is pro5a5ly 3-y t-ose aut-ors 3-o 3is- to s-o3 a see.in% i.partiality and o5Gectivity in depictin% t-eir -eroes and descri5in% events use #e3 epit-ets. Bealistic aut-ors use epit-ets .uc- .ore sparin%ly8 as statistical data -ave s-o3n. Bou%-ly speaRin%8 Bo.anticis.8 on t-e ot-er -and8 .ay to so.e extent 5e c-aracteriSed 5y its a5undant use o# epit-ets. In illustration 3e -ave taRen at rando. a #e3 lines #ro. a stanSa in +yron&s L4-ilde >arold&s 2il%ri.a%eL; :-e -orrid cra%s8 5y topplin% convent8 cro3ned8 :-e corR=trees -oar t-at clot-e t-e s-a%%y steep8 :-e .ountain=.oss 5y scorc-in% sRies i.5ro3n&d8 :-e sunRen %len8 3-ose sunless s-ru5s .ust 3eep8 :-e oran%e tints t-at %ild t-e %reenest 5ou%-..@ @xymoron ,xy.oron is a co.5ination o# t3o 3ords (.ostly an adGective and a noun or an adver5 3it- an adGective) in 3-ic- t-e .eanin%s o# t-e t3o clas-8 5ein% opposite in sense8 #or exa.ple; &lo3 sRyscraper&8 &s3eet sorro3&8 &nice rascal&8 &pleasantly u%ly #ace&8 &-orri5iy 0i_``P8 &a dea#enin% silence&8 I# t-e pri.ary .eanin% o# t-e 9uali#yin% 3ord c-an%es or 3eaRens8 t-e stylistic e##ect o# oxy.oronMs lost. :-is is t-e case 3it- 3-at 3ere once oxy.oronic co.5inations8 #or exa.ple8 &a3#ully nice&8 &a3#ully %lad&8 &terri5ly sorry& and t-e liRe8 3-ere t-e 3ords a3#ully and terri5ly -ave lost t-eir pri.ary lo%ical .eanin% and are no3 used 3it- e.otive .eanin% only8 as intensi#iers. :-e essence o# oxy.oron consists in t-e capacity o# t-e pri.ary .eanin% o# t-e adGective or adver5 to resist #or so.e ti.e t-e over3-el.in% po3er o# se.antic c-an%e 3-ic- 3ords under%o in co.5ination. :-e #orci5le co.5ination o# non=co.5inative 3ords see.s to develop 3-at .ay 5e called a Rind o# centri#u%al #orce 3-ic- Reeps t-e. apart8 in contrast to ordinary 3ord= co.5inations 3-ere centripetal #orce is in action. ?e -ave already pointed out t-at t-ere are di##erent ratios o# e.otive=lo%ical relations in epit-ets. In so.e o# t-e. t-e lo%ical .eanin% is -ardly perceived8 in ot-ers t-e t3o .eanin%s co=exist. In oxy.oron t-e lo%ical .eanin% -olds #ast 5ecause t-ere is no true 3ord=co.5ination8 only t-e Guxtaposition o# t3o non=co.5inative 3ords. +ut still 3e .ay notice a peculiar c-an%e in t-e .eanin% o# t-e 9uali#yin% 3ord. It

assu.es a ne3 li#e in oxy.oron8 de#initely indicative o# t-e assessin% tendency in t-e 3riter&s .ind. $et us taRe t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple #ro. ,. >enry&s story L:-e DuelL in 3-ic- one o# t-e -eroes t-us descri5es -is attitude to3ards Ne3 worR8 LI despise its very vastness and po3er. It -as t-e poorest .illionaires8 t-e littlest %reat .en8 t-e -au%-tiest 5e%%ars8 t-e plainest 5eauties8 t-e lo3est sRyscrapers8 t-e dole#ulest pleasures o# any to3n I ever sa38L Even t-e superlative de%ree o# t-e adGectives #ails to extin%uis- t-e pri.ary .eanin% o# t-e adGectives; poor8 little8 -au%-ty8 etcs +ut 5y so.e inner la3 o# 3ord= co.5inations t-ey also s-o3 t-e attitude o# t-e speaRer8 rein#orced8 o# course8 5y t-e precedin% sentence; LI despise its very vast=ness and po3er.L It 3ill not co.e a.iss to express t-is lan%ua%e p-eno.enon in ter.s o# t-e t-eory o# in#or.ation8 3-ic- states t-at t-ou%- t-e %eneral tendency o# entropy is to enlar%e8 t-e encodin% tendency in t-e lan%ua%e8 3-ic- strives #or an or%aniSed syste. o# lan%ua%e sy.5ols8 reduces entropy. 2er-aps8 t-is is due to t-e or%aniSin% spirit o# t-e lan%ua%e8 i.e. t-e strivin% a#ter a syste. (3-ic- in its very essence is an or%aniSed 3-ole) t-at oxy.oronic %roups8 i# repeated #re9uently8 lose t-eir stylistic 9uality and %radually #all into t-e %roup o# acRno3led%ed 3ord=co.5inations 3-ic- consist o# an intensi#ier and t-e concept intensi#ied. ,xy.oron -as one .ain structural .odel; a d G e Y t i v e '= n V ` W. It is in t-is structural .odel t-at t-e resistance o# t-e t3o co.ponent parts to #usion into one unit .ani#ests itsel# .ost stron%ly. In t-e a d=v e r 5 adGective .odel t-e c-an%e o# .eanin% in t-e #irst ele.ent8 t-e adver58 is .ore rapid8 resistance to t-e uni#yin% process not 5ein% so stron%. So.eti.es t-e tendency to use oxy.oron is t-e .arR o# certain literary trends and tastes. :-ere are poets in searc- o#=ne3 s-ades o# .eanin% in existin% 3ords8 3-o .aRe a point o# Goinin% to%et-er 3ords o# contradictory .eanin%. L:3o ordinary 3ords .ay 5eco.e al.ost ne38L 3rites (. (. (ino%radov8 Li# t-ey are Goined #or t-e #irst ti.e or used in an unexpected context.L l :-us8 &peopled desert&8 &populous solitude&8 &proud -u.ility& are oxy.oronic. So.eti.es8 -o3ever8 t-e tendency to co.5ine t-e unco.5inative is revealed in structurally di##erent #or.s8 not in adGective=noun .odels. GorRi criticiSes -is o3n sentence; LI su##ered t-en #ro. t-e #anaticis. o# Rno3led%e8L and called it La 5lunderL. >e points out t-at t-e ac9uirin% o# Rno3led%e is not 5lind as #anaticis. is. :-e syntactic relations -ere are not oxy.oronic. +ut co.5inations o# t-is Rind can 5e liRened to oxy.oron. :-e sa.e can 5e said o# t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. +yron&s L4-ilde >arold&s 2il%ri.a%eL; L"air GreeceK sad relic o# departed ?ort-K I..ortal8 t-ou%- no .ore8 t-ou%- #allen8 %reatKL ,xy.oronic relations in t-e italiciSed part can scarcely 5e #elt8 5ut still t-e contrary si%ni#ication is clearly perceived. Suc- structures .ay 5e looRed upon as inter.ediate 5et3een oxy.oron and antit-esis (see p. 222).

. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS

-ntonomasia ?e -ave already pointed out t-e peculiarities o# no.inal .eanin%. :-e interplay 5et3een t-e lo%ical and no.inal .eanin%s o# a 3ord is call=ed antono.asia. *s in ot-er stylistic devices 5ased on t-e inter=acttotr&t0=tettal0.eaiiln%s8 t-e t3o Rinds o# .eanin%s .ust 5e realiSed in t-e 3ord si.ultaneously. I# only one .eanin% is .aterialiSed in t-e context8 t-ere is no stylistic device8 as in -ooli%an8 5oycott and ot-er exa.ples %iven earlier. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# %enuine antono.asia. L*.on% t-e -erd o# Gournals 3-ic- are pu5lis-ed in t-e States8 t-ere are so.e8 t-e reader scarcely need 5e told8 o# c-aracter and credit. "ro.=personal intercourse 3itacco.plis-ed %entle.en connected 3it- pu5lications o# t-is class8 I -ave derived 5ot- pleasure and pro#it. +ut t-e na.e o# t-ese is "e38 and o# t-e ot-er $e%ion8 and t-e in#luence o# t-e %ood is po3erless to counteract t-e .ortal poison o# t-e 5ad. (DicRens) :-e use o# t-e 3ord na.e .ade t-e aut-or 3rite t-e 3ords &"e3&8 and &$e%ion& 3itcapital letters. It is very i.portant to note t-at t-is device is .ainly realiSed in8 t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 5ecause %enerally capital letters are t-e only si%nals to denote t-a presence o# t-e stylistic device. :-e sa.e can also 5e o5served in t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple #ro. +yron&s LDon AuanL; LSociety is no3 one polis-ed -orde8 "or.&d o# t3o .i%-ty tri5es8 t-e +ores and +ored.L In t-ese t3o exa.ples o# t-e use o# antono.asia t-e no.inal .eanin% is -ardly perceived8 t-e lo%ical .eanin% o# t-e 3ords #e38 le%ion8 5ores8 5ored 5ein% too stron%. +ut t-ere is anot-er point t-at s-ould 5e .entioned. Most proper na.es are 5uilt on so.e la3 o# analo%y. Many o# t-e. end in =son (as Ao-nson) or =er ("letc-er). ?e easily reco%niSe suc- 3ords as S.it-8 ?-ite8 +ro3n8 Green8 "o3ler and ot-ers as proper na.es. +ut suc- na.es as Miss +GM=EtIes (4arter +ro3n) or Scroo%e or Mr. Fero .ay 5e called t V R en or tellin% na.es. :-ey %iveC0Gn#o~G0aGtionit6oiit-e reader a5out t-e 5earer o# t-e na.e. In t-is coniiectioiii0r:s:nre&re>rn%&to recall t-e 3ell=Rno3n re.arR 5y uarl Marx8 3-o said t-at 3e do not Rno3 anyt-in% a5out a .an i# 3e only Rno3 t-at -e is called Aaco5. :-e no.inal .eanin% is not intended to %ive any in#or.ation a5out t-e person. It only serves t-e purpose o# identi#ication. 2roper na.es8 i.e. t-e 3ords 3it- no.inal .eanin%8 can ety.olo%ically8 in t-e .aGority o# cases8 5e traced to so.e 9uality8 property or trait o# a person8 or to -is occupation. +ut t-is ety.olo%ical .eanin% .ay 5e #or%otten and t-e 3ord 5e understood as a proper na.e and not-in% else. It is not so 3it- antono.asia. *ntono.asia is intended to point out t-e leadin%8 .ost c-ar= acteristic #eature o# a person or event8 at ##ie&sa.e ti.e pinnin% t-is leadin% trait as a proper na.e to t-e person or event concerned. In #act8 antono.asia is a#evivar o# t-e initial sta%e in na.in% individuals. *ntono.asia .ay 5e liRened to t-e epit-et in essence i# not in #or.. It cate%oriSes t-e

person and t-us si.ultaneously indicates 5ot- t-e %eneral and t-e particular. *ntono.asia is a .uc- #avoured device in t-e 5elles=lettres style. In an article L?-at&s in a na.ezL8 Mr. B. Davis says; LIn decidin% on na.es #or -is c-aracters8 an aut-or -as an un#air advanta%e over ot-er parents. >e Rno3s so .uc- 5etter -o3 -is c-ild 3ill turn out. ?-en Saul +ello3 na.ed *u%ie Marc-8 -e -ad already conceived a -ero restlessly on t-e .ove8 .arc-in% a-ead 3it- au%ust ideas o# -i.sel#. >enry Aa.es sa3 in *da. (erver o# L:-e Golden +o3lL a sel#=.ade *.erican8 sprun% #ro. t-e soil8 #ull o# verve and Sest #or li#e. In c-oosin% na.es liRe &Murd=stone&8 &Scroo%e&8 and &Grad%rind&8 DicRens 3as 5ein% even .ore o5vious.L l In Bussian literature t-is device is e.ployed 5y .any o# our classic 3riters. It 3ill su##ice to .ention suc- na.es as (ral.an8 Molc-alin8 uoro5oc-Ra and So5aRevic- to illustrate t-is e##icient device #or c-aracteriSin% literary -eroes8 a device 3-ic- is no3 #allin% out o# use. :-ese Bussian na.es are also coined on t-e analo%y o# %enerally acRno3led%ed .odels #or proper na.es8 3it- endin%s in =.an8 =in8 =vic-. *n interestin% literary device to e.p-asiSe toRen na.es is e.ployed 5y +yron in -is LDon AuanL 3-ere t-e na.e is #ollo3ed or preceded 5y an explanatory re.arR8 as in t-e #ollo3in%; LSir Ao-n 2ottledeep8 t-e .i%-ty drinRer.L L:-ere 3as t-e sa%e Miss Beadin%.L L*nd t-e t3o #air co=-eiresses Gilt5eddin%L L:-ere 3as DicR Du5ious8 t-e .etap-ysician8 ?-o loved p-ilosop-y and a %ood dinnerC *n%le8 t-e soi=disant .at-e.atician&8 Sir >enry Silvercup8 t-e %reat race=3innerL :-e explanatory 3ords8 as it 3ere8 revive t-e lo%ical .eanin% o# t-e proper na.es8 t-us .aRin% .ore apparent t-e interplay o# lo%ical and no.inal .eanin%s. :-e use o# antono.asia is no3 not con#ined to t-e 5elles=lettres style. It is o#ten #ound in pu5licistic style8 t-at is8 in .a%aSine and ne3spaper articles8 in essays and also in .ilitary lan%ua%e. :-e #ollo3in% are exa.ples; LI say t-is to our *.erican #riends. Mr. "acin%=+ot-=?ays does not %et very #ar in t-is 3orld.L (:-e :i.es) LI suspect t-at t-e Noes and Don&t uno3s 3ould #ar outnu.5er t-e wessesL (:-e Spectator) So #ar 3e -ave dealt 3it- a variety o# antono.asia in 3-ic- co..on 3ords 3ito5vious lo%ical .eanin% are %iven no.inal .eanin% 3it-out losin% t-eir pri.ary8 5asic si%ni#icance. +ut antono.asia can 0Iso .aRe a 3ord 3-ic- no3 -as a 5asic no.inal .eanin% ac9uire a %e=. neric si%ni#ication8 t-us supplyin% t-e 3ord 3it- an additional lo%ical .eanin%. :-e latter can only 5e decip-ered i# t-e events connected 3it- a certain place .entioned or 3it- a conspicuous #eature o# a person are 3ell Rno3n. :-us8 t-e 3ord DunRirR no3 .eans '-e evacuation o# troops under -eavy 5o.5ard.ent 5e#ore it is too late&8 Sedan .eans /a co.plete de#eat&8 4oventryc&t-e destruction o# a city 5y air raids&8 a 9uiSlin% no3 .eans &a traitor 3-o aids occupyin% ene.y #orces&. :-e spellin% o# t-ese 3ords de.onstrates t-e sta%es 5y 3-ic- proper nouns ac9uire ne38 lo%ical .eanin%s; so.e o# t-e. are still spelt 3it- capital letters (%eo%rap-ical

na.es)8 ot-ers are already spelt 3it- s.all letters s-o3in% t-at a ne3 3ord 3it- a pri.ary lo%ical .eanin% -as already co.e into existence. :-is variety o# antono.asia is not so 3idely used as a stylistic device8 .ost pro5a5ly due to t-e nature o# 3ords 3it- no.inal .eanin%; t-ey tell very Aittle or even not-in% a5out t-e 5earer o# t-e na.e8 C. INTENSI'ICATION O' A CERTAIN 'EATURE O' A T(ING OR P(ENOMENON In order to understand t-e lin%uistic nature o# t-e SDs o# t-is %roup it is necessary to clear 'up so.e pro5le.s8 so #ar untouc-ed8 o# d e # i n i=t i V W as a p-ilosop-ical cate%ory8 *ny de#inition can point out only one or t3o properties o# a p-eno.enon/ :-ere#ore in 5uildin% up a de#inition t-e de#iner tries to sin%le out t-e .ost essential #eatures o# t-e o5Gect. :-ese are pinned do3n 5y t-e de#iner t-rou%- a lon% period o# o5servation o# t-e o5Gect8 its #unctionin%8 its %ro3t- and its c-an%es. >o3ever8 no de#inition can co.prise all t-e inner 9ualities o# t-e o5Gect and ne3 co.5inations o# it 3it- ot-er o5Gects as 3ellC a deeper penetration into t-e ontolo%y o# t-e o5Gect 3ill al3ays reveal so.e -it-erto unRno3n 9ualities and #eatures. In t-e t-ird %roup o# stylistic devices8 3-ic- 3e no3 co.e to8 3e #ind t-at one o# t-e 9ualities o# t-e o5Gect in 9uestion is .ade to sound essential8 :-is is an entirely di##erent principle #ro. t-at on 3-ic- t-e second %roup is 5ased8 t-at o# interaction 5et3een t3o lexical .eanin%s si.ultaneously .aterialiSed in t-e context. In t-is t-ird %roup t-e 9uality picRed out .ay 5e see.in%ly uni.portant8 and it is #re9uently transitorv 5ut #or a special reason it is elevated to t-e %reatest i.portance and .ade into a tellin% #eature8
Si)il'

:-in%s are 5est o# all learned 5y si.ile. (. G. +elinsRy :-e intensi#ication o# so.e one #eature o# t-e concept in 9uestion is realiSed in a device called si.ile. ,rdinary co.parison and si.ile .ust not 5e con#used. :-ey represent t3o diverse processes. 4o.parison .eans 3ei%-in% t3o o5Gects 5elon%in% to one class o# t-in%s 3it- t-e purpose o# esta5lis-in% t-e de%ree o# t-eir sa.eness or di##erence. :o use a si.ile is to c-aracteriSe one o5Gect 5y 5rin%in% it into contact 3it- anot-er o5Gect 5elon%in% to an entirely di##erent class o# t-in%s. 4o.parison taRes into consideration all t-e properties o# t-e t3o o5Gects8 stressin% t-e one t-at is co.pared. Si.ile excludes all t-e properties o# t-e t3o o5Gects except one 3-ic- is .ade co..on to t-e.. "or exa.pM$AiF#e=$ 5oy see.sAo 5e as clever as -is .ot-er& is ordinary co.parison. &+oy& and 0##lotue" 5elon% to t-e sa.e class o# o5Gectsc -u.an 5ein%scso t-is is not a si.ile 5ut ordinary co.parison. +ut in t-e sentence; LMaidens8 liRe .ot-s8 are ever cau%-t 5y %lareL (+yron)8 3e -ave a si.ile. &Maidens& and &.ot-s& 5elon% to -etero%eneous classes o# o5Gects and +yron -as #ound t-e concept .ot- to indicate one o# t-e secondary #eatures o# t-e concept .aiden8 i.e.

5ein% easily lured. ,# t-e t3o concepts 5rou%-t to%et-er in t-e si.ilecone c-aracteriSed (.aidens)8 and t-e ot-er c-aracteriSin% (.ot-s)ct-e #eature intensi#ied 3ill 5e .ore in-erent in t-e latter t-an in t-e #or.er. Moreover8 t-e o5Gect c-aracteriSed is seen in 9uite a ne3 and unexpected li%-t8 5ecause t-e 3riter8 as it 3ere8 i.poses t-is #eature on it. Si.iles #orci5ly set one o5Gect a%ainst anot-er re%ardless o# t-e #act t-at t-ey .ay 5e co.pletely alien to eac- ot-er. *nd 3it-out our 5ein% a3are o# it8 t-e si.ile %ives rise to a ne3 understandin% o# t-e o5Gect c-aracteriSin% as 3ell as o# t-e o5Gect c-aracteriSed. :-e properties o# an o5Gect .ay 5e vie3ed #ro. di##erent an%les8 #or exa.ple8 its state8 actions8 .anners8 etc. *ccordin%ly8 si.iles .ay 5e 5ased on adGective=attri5utes8 adver5=.odi#iers8 ver5=predicates8 etc. Si.iles -ave #or.al ele.ents in t-eir structure; connective 3ords suc- as liRe8 as8 suc- as8 as i#8 see.. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# si.iles taRen #ro. various sources and illustratin% t-e variety o# structural desi%ns o# t-is stylistic device. L>is .ind 3as restless8 5ut it 3orRed perversely and t-ou%-ts AerRed t-rou%- -is 5rain liRe t-e .is#irin%s o# a de#ective car5urettorL (Mau%-a. :-e structure o# t-is si.ile is interestin%8 #or it is sustained. $et us analyse it. :-e 3ord &GerRed& in t-e&.icro=context8 i.e. in co.5ination 3it- &t-ou%-ts& is a .etap-or8 3-ic- led to t-e si.ile &liRe t-e .is#ir=in%s o# a de#ective car5urettor& 3-ere t-e ver5 to GerR carries its direct lo%ical .eanin%. So t-e linRin% notion is t-e .ove.ent GerRin% 3-ic- 5rin%s to t-e aut-or&s .ind a rese.5lance 5et3een t-e 3orRin% o# t-e .an&s 5rain and t-e 5adly 3orRin%8 i.e. .is#irin%8 car5urettor. In ot-er 3ords8 it is action t-at is descri5ed 5y .eans o# a si.ile. *not-er exa.ple; LIt 3as t-at .o.ent o# t-e year 3-en t-e countryside see.s to #aint #ro. its o3n loveliness8 #ro. t-e intoxication o# its scents and sounds.L (A. Gals3ort-y) :-is is an exa.ple o# a si.ile 3-ic- is -al# a .etap-or. I# not #or t-e structural 3ord &see.s&8 3e 3ould call it a .etap-or. Indeed8 i# 3e drop t-e 3ord &see.s/ and say8 Lt-e countryside #aints #ro....8L t-e clue=3ord &#aint& 5eco.es a .etap-or. +ut t-e 3ord &see.s& Reeps apart t-e notions o# stillness and #aintin%. It is a si.ile 3-ere t-e second .e.5erct-e -u.an 5ein%cis only su%%ested 5y .eans o# t-e concept #aint. :-e se.antic nature o# t-e si.ile=#or.in% ele.ents see. and as i# is suc- t-at t-ey only re.otely su%%est rese.5lance. Ouite &di##erent are t-e connectives liRe and as. :-ese are .ore cate%orical and esta5lis- 9uite strai%-t#or3ardly t-e analo%y 5et3een t-e t3o o5Gects in 9uestion. So.eti.es t-e si.ile=#or.in% liRe is placed at t-e end o# t-e p-rase al.ost .er%in% 3it- it and 5eco.in% -al#=su##ix8 #or exa.ple; LE.ily +arton 3as very pinR8 very Dresden=c-ina=s-ep-erdess liRe.L In si.ple non=#i%urative lan%ua%e8 it 3ill assu.e t-e #ollo3in% #or.; LE.ily +arton 3as very pinR8 and looRed liRe a Dresden=c-ina=s-ep-erdessL Si.iles .ay su%%est analo%ies in t-e c-aracter o# actions per#or.ed. In t-is case t-e t3o .e.5ers o# t-e structural desi%n o# t-e si.ile 3ill rese.5le eac- ot-er t-rou%-

t-e actions t-ey per#or.. :-us; L:-e $i5erals -ave plun%ed #or entry 3it-out considerin% its e##ects8 3-ile8 t-e $a5our leaders liRe cautious 5at-ers -ave put a ti.orous toe in#o t-e 3ater and pro.ptly 3it-dra3n itL :-e si.ile in t-is passa%e #ro. a ne3spaper article &liRe cautious 5at-ers& is 5ased on t-e si.ultaneous realiSation o# t-e t3o .eanin%s o# t-e 3ord plun%e. :-e pri.ary .eanin% &to t-ro3 onesel# into t-e 3ater&cpro.pted t-e #i%urative perip-rasis &-ave put a ti.orous toe into t-e 3ater and pro.ptly 3it-dra3n it& standin% #or &-ave a5stained #ro. taRin% action.& In t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e t-ere is a lon% list o# -acRneyed si.iles pointin% out t-e analo%y 5et3een t-e various 9ualities8 states or actions o# a -u.an 5ein% and t-e ani.als supposed to 5e t-e 5earers o# t-e %iven 9uality8 etc88 #or exa.ple; treac-erous as a snaRe8 sly as a #ox8 5usy as a 5ee8 industrious as an =ant8 5lind as a 5at8 #ait-#ul as a do%8 to 3orR liRe a -orse8 to 5e led liRe a s-eep8 to #ly liRe a 5ird8 to s3i. liRe a ducR8 stu55orn as a .ule8 -un%ry as a 5ear8 t-irsty as a ca.el8 to act liRe a puppy8 play#ul as a Ritten8 vain (proud) as a peacocR8 slo3 as a tortoise and .any ot-ers o# t-e sa.e type. :-ese co.5inations8 -o3ever8 -ave ceased to 5e %enuine si.iles and -ave 5eco.e clic-es (see p. 177) in 3-ic- t-e second co.ponent -as 5eco.e .erely an adver5ial intensi#ier. Its lo%ical .eanin% is only va%uely perceived8
P'(i:/(&sis

2erip-rasis is a device 3-ic-8 accordin% to ?e5ster&s dictionary8 denotes t-e use o# a lon%er p-rasin% in place o# a possi5le s-orter and plainer #or. o# expression. It is also called circu.locution due to t-e round=a5out or indirect 3ay used to na.e a #a.iliar o5Gect or p-eno.enon. (ie3ed #ro. t-e an%le o# its lin%uistic nature8 perip-rasis represents t-e rena.in% o# an o5Gect and as suc- .ay 5e considered alon% 3it- a .ore %eneral %roup o# 3ord desi%nations replacin% t-e direct na.es o# t-eir denotata. ,ne and t-e sa.e o5Gect .ay 5e identi#ied in di##erent 3ays and accordin%ly ac9uire di##erent appelations. :-us8 in di##erent situations a certain person can 5e denoted8 #or instance8 as eit-er &-is 5ene#actor&8 or &t-is 5ore&8 or &t-e narrator&8 or &t-e 3retc-ed 3itness&8 etc. :-ese na.es 3ill 5e -is only in a s-ort #ra%.ent o# t-e discourse8 t-e criterion o# t-eir c-oice 5ein% #urnis-ed 5y t-e context. Suc- na.in% units .ay 5e called secondary8 textually=con#ined desi%nations and are %enerally co.posed o# a 3ord=co.5ination. :-is device -as a lon% -istory. It 3as 3idely used in t-e +i5le and in >o.er&s Iliad. *s a poetic device it 3as very popular in $atin poetry ((ir%il). Due to t-is in#luence it 5eca.e an i.portant #eature o# epic and descriptive poetry t-rou%-out t-e Middle *%es and into t-e Benaissance. It is due to t-is practice o# re=na.in% t-in%s t-at perip-rasis 5eca.e one o# t-e .ost #avoured devices in t-e 17t- and 1@t- centuries %ivin% 5irt- even to a special trend in literature in "rance and ot-er countries called

perip-rastic. :-ere exists in En%lis- a 3-ole 5attery o# p-rases 3-ic- are still used as perip-rastic synony.s (see 5elo3) #or ordinary deno.inations o# t-in%s and p-eno.ena. (. N. wartseva 9uotes S. u. ?orR.an8 an En%lis- literature sc-olar 3-o states t-at Lt-e .ost pervasive ele.ent in t-e0aureate stylecand t-e .ost vitiatin%c3as perip-rasis.L 2ro#. wartseva states t-at t-e use o# perip-rasis in t-e 11t- century 3as in t-e nature o# e.5ellis-.ent8 t-us Gusti#yin% t-e attri5ute aureate8 and t-at perip-rasis 5eca.e a #eature o# a de#inite literary style.1 *s a SD8 perip-rasis ai.s at pointin% to one o# t-e see.in%ly insi%ni#icant or 5arely noticea5le #eatures or properties o# t-e %iven o5Gect8 and intensi#ies t-is property 5y na.in% t-e o5Gect 5y t-e property. 2erip-rasis .aRes t-e reader perceive t-e ne3 appellation a%ainst t-e 5acR%round o# t-e one existin% in t-e lan%ua%e code and t-e t3o#old si.ultaneous perception secures t-e stylistic e##ect. *t t-e sa.e ti.e perip-rasis8 liRe si.ile8 -as a certain co%nitive #unction inas.uc- as it deepens our Rno3led%e o# t-e p-eno.enon descri5ed. :-e essence o# t-e device is t-at it is decip-era5le only in context. I# a perip-rastic locution is understanda5le outside t-e context8 it is not a stylistic device 5ut .erely a synony.ous expression. Suc- easily decip-era5le perip-rases are also called traditional8 dictionary or lan%ua%e perip-rases. :-e ot-ers are speec- perip-rases. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# 3ell= Rno3n dictionary perip-rases (perip-rastic synony.s); t-e cap and %o3n (student 5ody)C a %entle.an o# t-e lon% ro5e (a la3yer)C t-e #air sex (3o.en)C .y 5etter -al# (.y 3i#e). Most perip-rastic synony.s are stron%ly associated 3it- t-e sp-ere o# t-eir application and t-e epoc- t-ey 3ere used in. "eudalis.8 #or exa.ple8 %ave 5irt- to a cluster o# perip-rastic synony.s o# t-e 3ord Rin%8 as; t-e leader o# -ostsC t-e %iver o# rin%sC t-e protector o# earlsC t-e victor lord. * play o# s3ords .eant &a 5attle&C a 5attle= seat 3as &a saddle&C a s-ield=5earer 3as &a 3arrior&. :raditional8 lan%ua%e or dictionary perip-rases and t-e 3ords t-ey stand #or are synony.s 5y nature8 t-e perip-rasis 5ein% expressed 5y a 3ord=co.5ination. 2erip-rasis as a stylistic device is a ne38 %enuine no.ination o# an o5Gect8 a process 3-ic- realiSes t-e po3er o# lan%ua%e to coin ne3 na.es #or o5Gects 5y disclosin% so.e 9uality o# t-e o5Gect8 even t-ou%- it .ay 5e transitory8 and .aRin% it alone represent t-e o5Gect8 >ere are so.e suc- stylistic perip-rases; LI understand you are poor8 and 3is- to earn .oney 5y nursin% t-e little 5oy88niy son8 3-o -as 5een so pre.aturely deprived o# 3-at can never 05e replaced.L (DicRens) :-e o5Gect clause &3-at can never 5e replaced& is a perip-rasis #or t-e 3ord .ot-er. :-e concept is easily understood 5y t-e reader 3it-in t-e %iven context8 t-e latter 5ein% t-e only code 3-ic- .aRes t-e decip-erin% o# t-e p-rase possi5le. :-is is su##iciently proved 5y a si.ple trans#or.ational operation8 viS. taRin% t-e p-rase out o# its context. :-e .eanin% o# &3-at can never 5e replaced& used independently 3ill 5ear no re#erence to t-e concept .ot-er and .ay 5e interpreted in .any 3ays. :-e perip-rasis -ere expresses a very=individual idea o# t-e concept.

>ere is anot-er stylistic perip-rasis 3-ic- t-e last p-rase in t-e sentence decip-ers; L*nd >arold stands upon t-e place o# sRulls8 :-e %rave o# "rance8 t-e deadly ?aterloo8L (+yron) In t-e #ollo3in%; L:-e -oarse8 dull dru. 3ould sleep8 *nd Man 5e -appy yet.L (+yron t-e perip-rasis can only 5e understood #ro. a lar%er context8 re#errin% to t-e concept 3ar. &:-e -oarse8 dull dru.& is a .etony.ical perip-rasis #or 3ar. In so.e cases perip-rasis is re%arded as a de.erit and s-ould -ave no place in %ood8 precise 3ritin%. :-is Rind o# perip-rasis is %enerally called circu.locution. :-us Bic-ard *lticR states t-at one o# t-e 3ays o# o5scurin% trut- L...is t-e use o# circu.locutions and eup-e.is.s.L l * round=a5out 3ay o# speaRin% a5out co..on t-in%s so.eti.es -as an unnecessarily 5o.5astic8 po.pous air and conse9uently is devoid o# any aest-etic value. :-at is 3-y perip-rasis -as %ained t-e reputation o# leadin% to redundancy o# expression. >ere is an exa.ple o# t-e excessive use o# perip-rasis 5y suc- an outstandin% classic En%lis- 3riter as DicRens; L:-e la.p=li%-ter .ade -is ni%-tly #ailure in atte.ptin% to 5ri%-ten up t-e street 3it%as (} lit t-e street la.ps).L In spite o# t-e dan%er o# 5ein% called L5lasp-e.erL8 I venture to state t-at DicRens #avoured redundant perip-rastic expressions8 seein% in t-e. a po3er#ul .eans to i.pose on -is readers -is o3n assess.ent o# events and people. >ere is anot-er o# -is perip-rases; L+ut an addition to t-e little party no3 .ade its appearance (} anot-er person ca.e in).L In c-aracteriSin% t-e individual .anner o# a 5ad 3riter8 (/ G. +e=linsRy says; L,ne is particularly strucR 5y t-e art -e displays in t-e use o# perip-rasis; one and t-e sa.e t-ou%-t8 si.ple and e.pty as8 #or exa.ple8 &3ooden ta5les are .ade o# 3ood&8 dra%s alon% in a strin% o# lon% sentences8 periods8 tropes and #i%ures o# speec-C -e turns it around and around8 extends it pa%es lon% and sprinRles it 3it- punctuation .arRs. Everyt-in% is so #lo3ery8 every3-ere t-ere is suc- an a5undance o# epit-ets and i.a%ery t-at t-e inexperienced reader .arvels at t-ese &purple&patc-es& o# Ge3elled prose8cand -is #ascination vanis-es only 3-en -e puts a 9uestion to -i.sel# as to t-e content o# t-e #la.5oyant article; #or to -is surprise in lieu o# any content -e #inds .ere 3oolly p-rases and 6 #lu##y sel#=conceit. :-is Rind o# 3ritin% o#ten appears in t-e ?est8 I particularly since t-e ?est 5e%an to rotC -ere in Bussia 3-ere aut-ors-ip -as not yet 5eco.e a -a5it8 suc- p-eno.ena are -ardly possi5le)L2 :-e .eans supplied to ena5le t-e reader to decip-er stylistic perip-rasis are very su5tle and -ave aest-etic value. In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple t-e 3ord o# address is t-e Rey to t-e perip-rasis; L2apa8 love. I a. a .ot-er. I -ave a c-ild 3-o 3ill soon call ?alter 5y t-e na.e 5y 3-ic- I call you.L (DicRens) In so.e cases t-e aut-or relies entiGelG=on t-e erudition o# t-e reader to decip-er t-e

perip-rasis. :-us in t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple; L,# -is #our sons8 only t3o could 5e #ound su##iciently 3it-out t-e &Nz& to %o on .aRin% plou%-s.L (Gals3ort-y) :-e letter &e& in so.e proper na.es is considered an indirect indication o# no5le or supposed no5le descent8 c#. Moreton and Morion8 Srnyt-e and S.it-8 +ro3ne and +ro3n8 ?ilde (,scar) and ?yld (4ecil). :-e italiciSed p-rase is a rounda5out 3ay o# statin% t-at t3o o# -is sons 3ere unaristocratic enou%- to 3orR at .aRin% plou%-s. Genuine poetical perip-rasis so.eti.es depicts t-e e##ect 3it-out .entionin% t-e cause8 %ives particulars 3-en -avin% in vie3 t-e %eneral8 points out one trait 3-ic3ill represent t-e 3-ole. Stylistic perip-rasis8 it .ust 5e repeated8 liRe al.ost all lexical stylistic .eans8 .ust e##iciently and intentionally introduce a dic-oto.y8 in t-is case t-e dic-oto.y o# t3o desi%nations #or one o5Gect or idea. I# it #ails to do so8 t-ere is no stylistic device8 only a -acRneyed p-rase. 2erip-rases8 once ori%inal 5ut no3 -acRneyed8 are o#ten to 5e #ound in ne3spaper lan%ua%e. Mr. A. Donald *da.s8 3-o -as 3ritten a nu.5er o# articles and 5ooRs on t-e use o# En%lis- 3ords in di##erent contexts8 says in one o# -is articles; L?e are all #a.iliar 3it- t-ese exa.ples o# distended En%lis-8 and I s-all pause #or only one8 9uoted 5y :-eodore M. +ernstein8 3-o as assistant .ana%in% editor o# t-is ne3spaper acts as %uardian over t-e En%lis- e.ployed in its ne3s colu.ns. It appears in -is recent 5ooR8 L?atc- wour $an%ua%eL8 and reads LI.proved #inancial support and less onerous 3orR loads.L :ranslation (5y 4li#ton Daniel); L>i%- pay and less 3orR.1& l >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# a 3ell=Rno3n8 traditional perip-rasis 3-ic- -as 5eco.e esta5lis-ed as a perip-rastic synony.; Nr*#ter only a s-ort'/ ti.e o# .arria%e8 -e 3asn&t prepared to o##er advice to ot-er youn%sters intendin% to tie t-e Rnot... +ut8 -e said8 -e&s looRin% #or3ard to -avin% a #a.ily.L (#ro. a ne3spaper article) >ere 3e -ave a perip-rasis .eanin% to .arry (to tie t-e Rnot). It -as lon% 5een -acRneyec$pnd .ay 5e called a clic-e. :-e di##erence 5et3een a clic-e and a perip-rastic synony. lies in t-e de%ree to 3-ic- t-e perip-rasis -as lost its vi%our. In clic-es 3e still sense t-e dic-oto.y o# t-e ori%inal clas- 5et3een t-e 3ords #or.in% a se.antic unityC in perip-rastic synony.s t-e clas- is no lon%er #elt unless t-e synony.s are su5Gected to ety.olo%ical analysis. In suc- collocations as &I a. seein% t-in%s&8 or &I&. -earin% 5ells& 3e -ardly ever perceive t-e novelty o# t-e p-rases and are apt to understand t-e. #or 3-at t-ey stand #or no3 in .odern collo9uial En%lis-8 i.e. to -ave -allucinations. :-ere#ore t-ese p-rases .ust 5e reco%niSed as perip-rastic collo9uial synony.s o# t-e concepts deliriu. or -allucinations. Stylistic perip-rasis can also 5e divided into lo%ical and I i %=u r a t i v e. $o%ical perip-rasis is 5ased on one o# t-e in-erent properties or per-aps a passin% #eature o# t-e o5Gect descri5ed8 as in instru.ents o# destruction (DicRens) } &pistols&C t-e .ost pardona5le o# -u.an 3eaRnesses (DicRens) c&love&C t-e o5Gect o# -is ad.iration

(DicRens)C t-at proportion o# t-e population 3-ic-... is yet a5le to read 3ords o# .ore t-an one sylla5le8 and to read t-e. 3it-out percepti5le .ove.ent o# t-e lips 0&-al#= literate&. "i%urative perip-rasis is 5ased eit-er on .etap-or or on .etony.y8 t-e Rey=3ord o# t-e collocation 5ein% t-e 3ord used #i%uratively8 as in &t-e punctual servant o# all 3orR& (DicRens) ==0&t-e sun&C &in dis%race 3it- #ortune and .en&s eyes& (S-.aRespeare) }&in .is#ortune&C &to tie t-e Rnot& }&to .arry&. :-ere is little di##erence 5et3een .etap-or or .etony.y8 on t-e one -and8 and #i%urative perip-rasis8 on t-e ot-er. It is t-e structural aspect o# t-e perip-rasis8 3-ical3ays presupposes a 3ord=co.5ination8 t-at is t-e reason #or t-e division.
E1:/')is)

:-ere is a variety o# perip-rasis 3-ic- 3e s-all call eup-e.istic. Eup-e.is.8 as is Rno3n8 is a 3ord or p-rase used to replace an unpleasant 3ord or expression 5y a conventionally .ore accepta5le one8 #or exa.ple8 t-e 3ord &to die& -as 5red t-e #ollo3in% eup-e.is.s; to pass a3ay8 to expire8 to 5e no .ore8 to depart8 to Goin t-e .aGority8 to 5e %one8 and t-e .ore #acetious ones; to RicR t-e 5ucRet8 to %ive up t-e %-ost8 to %o 3est. So eup-e.is.s are synony.s 3-ic- ai. at producin% a deli5erately .ild e##ect. :-e ori%in o# t-e ter. &eup-e.is.& discloses t-e ai. o# t-e device very clearly8 i.e. speaRin% 3ell (#ro. GreeRceu } 3ell =p-e.e } speaRin%). In t-e voca5ulary o# any lan%ua%e8 synony.s can 5e #ound t-at so#ten an ot-er3ise coarse or unpleasant idea. Eup-e.is. is so.eti.es #i%uratively called La 3-ite3as-in% deviceL.. :-e lin%uistic peculiarity o# eup-e.is. lies in t-e #act t-at every eup-e.is. .ust call up a de#inite synony. in t-e .ind o# t-e reader or listener. :-is synony.8 or do.inant in a %roup o# synony.s8 as it is o#ten called8 .ust #ollo3 t-e eup-e.is. liRe a s-ado38 as &to possess a vivid i.a%ination&8 or &to tell stories& in t-e proper context 3ill call up t-e unpleasant ver5 to lie. :-e eup-e.istic synony.s %iven a5ove are part o# t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste.. :-ey -ave not 5een #res-ly invented. :-ey are expressive .eans o# t-e lan%ua%e and are to 5e #ound in all %ood dictionaries. :-ey cannot 5e re%arded as stylistic devices 5ecause t-ey do not call to .ind t-e Rey3ord or do.inant o# t-e %roupC in ot-er 3ords8 t-ey re#er t-e .ind to t-e concept directly8 not t-rou%- t-e .ediu. o# anot-er 3ord. 4o.pare t-ese eup-e.is.s 3it- t-e #ollo3in% #ro. DicRens&s L2icR3icR 2apersL; L:-ey t-inR 3e -ave co.e 5y t-is -orse in so.e dis-onest .annerL :-e italiciSed parts call #ort- t-e 3ord &steal& (-ave stolen it). Eup-e.is.s .ay 5e divided into several %roups accordin% to t-eir sp-eres o# application. :-e .ost reco%niSed are t-e #ollo3in%; 1) reli%ious8 2) .oral8 !) .edical and ') parlia.entary. :-e li#e o# eup-e.is.s is s-ort. :-ey very soon 5eco.e closely associated 3it- t-e re#erent (t-e o5Gect na.ed) and %ive 3ay to a ne3ly=coined 3ord or co.5ination o# 3ords8 3-ic-8 5ein% t-e si%n o# a si%n8 t-ro3s anot-er veil over an unpleasant or

indelicate concept. >ere is an interestin% excerpt #ro. an article on t-is su5Gect. L:-e evolution over t-e years o# a civiliSed .ental -ealt- service -as 5een .arRed 5y periodic c-an%es in ter.inolo%y. :-e .ad-ouse 5eca.e t-e lunatic asylu.C t-e asylu. .ade 3ay #or t-e .ental -ospitalceven i# t-e 5uildin% re.ained t-e sa.e. Idiots8 i.5eciles and t-e #ee5le=.inded 5eca.e lo38 .ediu. and -i%-=%rade .ental de#ectives. *ll are no3 to 5e lu.ped to%et-er as patients o# severely su5nor.al personality. :-e insane 5eca.e persons o# unsound .ind8 and are no3 to 5e .entally= ill patients. *s eac- p-rase develops t-e sti%.ata o# popular preGudice8 it is a5andoned in #avour o# anot-er8 so.eti.es less precise t-an t-e old. Mni.portant in t-e.selves8 t-ese c-an%es o# na.e are t-e si%nposts o# pro%ress.L l *l5ert 4. +au%- %ives anot-er instance o# suc- c-an%es; L...t-e co..on 3ord #or a 3o.an&s under%ar.ent do3n to t-e ei%-teent- century 3as &s.ocR&. It 3as t-en replaced 5y t-e .ore delicate 3ord &s-i#t& In t-e nineteentcentury t-e sa.e .otive led to t-e su5stitution o# t-e 3ord &c-e.ise& and in t-e t3entiet- t-is -as 5een replaced 5y &co.5inations&8 &step=ins&8 and ot-er eup-e.is.s8L 2 :oday 3e -ave a nu.5er o# 3ords denotin% si.ilar %ar.ents8 as &5rie#s&8 and ot-ers. 0 4onventional eup-e.is.s==e.ployed in con#or.ity to social usa%es are 5est illustrated 5y t-e parlia.entary codes o# expression. In an article -eaded LIn 4o..ons8 a $ie is InexactitudeL 3ritten 5y Aa.es "e=ron in :-e Ne3 worR :i.es8 3e .ay #ind a nu.5er o# 3ords t-at are not to 5e used in 2arlia.entary de5ate. L?-en Sir ?inston 4-urc-ill8 so.e years a%o8L 3rites "eron8 Lter.ed a parlia.entary opponent a &purveyor o# ter.inolo%ical inexactitudes&8.every one in t-e c-a.5er Rne3 -e .eant &liar&. Sir ?inston -ac: 5een ordered 5y t-e SpeaRer to 3it-dra3 a stron%er epit-et. So -e used t-e eup-e.is.8 3-ic- 5eca.e #a.ous and is still used in t-e 4o..ons. It conveyed t-e insult 3it-out soundin% o##ensive8 and it satis#ied t-e SpeaRer.L ! = :-e aut-or #urt-er points out t-at certain 3ords8 #or instance8 traitor and co3ard8 are speci#ically 5anned in t-e >ouse o# 4o..ons 5ecause earlier SpeaRers -ave ruled t-e. disorderly or unparlia.entary8 SpeaRers -ave decided t-at GacRass is unparlia.entary 5ut %oose is accepta5leC do%8 rat and s3ine are out o# order8 5ut -al#3it and :ory clot are in order. ?e also learn #ro. t-is article t-at La 3ord cannot 5eco.e t-e su5Gect o# parlia.entary rulin% unless a .e.5er directs t-e attention o# t-e SpeaRer to it.L / :-e c-an%es in desi%natin% o5Gects disclose t-e true nature o# t-e relations 5et3een 3ords and t-eir re#erents. ?e .ust ad.it t-at t-ere is a positive .a%ic in 3ords and8 as 2ro#8 Bandolp- OuirR -as it8 L...3e are lia5le to 5e dan%erously .isled t-rou%- 5ein% .es.eriSed 5y a 3ord or t-rou%- .istaRin% a 3ord #or its re#erent.L 2 :-is 5eco.es particularly noticea5le in connection 3it- 3-at are called political eup-e.is.s. :-ese are really understate.ents8 t-e ai. o# 3-ic- is to .islead pu5lic opinion and to express 3-at is unpleasant in a .ore delicate .anner. So.eti.es

disa%reea5le #acts are even distorted 3it- t-e -elp o# a eup-e.istic expression. :-us t-e -eadline in one o# t-e +ritis- ne3spapers L:ension in uas-.irL 3as to -ide t-e #act t-at t-ere 3as a real uprisin% in t-at areaC LMndernouris-.ent o# c-ildren in IndiaL stood #or &starvation&. In *. A. 4ronin&s novel L:-e Stars $ooR Do3nL one o# t-e .e.5ers o# 2arlia.ent8 re#errin% to t-e 3ords LMndernouris-.ent o# c-ildren in IndiaL says; L>onoura5le Me.5ers o# t-e >ouse understand t-e .eanin% o# t-is polite eup-e.is..L +y callin% undernouris-.ent a polite eup-e.is. -e discloses t-e true .eanin% o# t-e 3ord. *n interestin% article dealin% 3it- t-e 9uestion o# Lpolitical eup-e.is.sL appeared in L`giX_gaX^_[ m_\ig_L T 3ritten 5y t-e Italian Gournalist EntSo Bava and -eaded L:-e (oca5ulary o# t-e +earers o# t-e +urden o# 2o3er.L In t-is article EntSo Bava 3ittily discusses t-e eup-e.is.s o# t-e Italian capitalist press8 3-ic- see. to -ave 5een 5orro3ed #ro. t-e *.erican and En%lis- press. :-us8 #or instance8 -e .ocRin%ly states t-at capitalists -ave disappeared #ro. Italy. ?-en t-e ad-erents o# capitalis. #ind it necessary to .ention capitalists8 t-ey replace t-e 3ord capitalist 5y t-e co.5ination &#ree enterprisers&8 t-e 3ord pro#it is replaced 5y &savin%s&8 t-e 5uildin% up o# la5our reserves stands #or &une.ploy.ent&8 &dis.issal& (&disc-ar%e&8 &#irin%&) o# 3orRers is t-e reor%aniSation o# t-e enterprise8 etc. *s -as already 5een explained8 %enuine eup-e.is. .ust call up t-e 3ord it stands #or. It is al3ays t-e result o# so.e deli5erate clas- 5et3een t3o synony.s. I# a eup-e.is. #ails to carry alon% 3it- it t-e 3ord it is intended to replace8 it is not a eup-e.is.8 5ut a deli5erate veilin% o# t-e trut-. *ll t-ese 5uildin% up o# la5our reserves8 =savin%s8 #ree enterprisers and t-e liRe are not intended to %ive t-e re#erent its true na.e8 5ut to distort t-e trut-. :-e a5ove expressions serve t-at purpose. 4o.pare t-ese 3ord=co.5inations 3it- real eup-e.is.s8 liRe a #our=letter 3ord (} an o5scenity)C or a 3o.an o# a certain type (} a prostitute8 a 3-ore)C to %lo3 J(} to s3eat)8 all o# 3-ic- 5rin% to our .ind t-e ot-er 3ord (3ords) and only t-rou%- t-e. t-e re#erent. >ere is anot-er %ood exa.ple o# eup-e.istic p-rases used 5y Gals3ort-y in -is LSilver Spoon.L LIn private I s-ould .erely call -i. a liar. In t-e 2ress you s-ould use t-e 3ords; &BecRless disre%ard #or trut-1 and in 2arlia.entct-at you re%ret -e &s-ould -ave 5een so .isin#or.ed.&&L 2erip-rastic and eup-e.istic expressions 3ere c-aracteristic o# certain literary trends and even produced a ter. perip-rastic style. +ut it soon %ave 3ay to a .ore strai%-t#or3ard 3ay o# descri5in% t-in%s. L:-e veiled #or.s o# expression8L 3rites G. >. Mcuni%-t8 L3-ic- served 3-en one 3as un3illin% to looR #acts in t-e #ace -ave 5een succeeded 5y naRed expressions ex-i5itin% reality.L1
#y:'(*+l'

*not-er SD 3-ic- also -as t-e #unction o# intensi#yin% one certain property o# t-e

o5Gect descri5ed is - a p e r 5 V I e. It can 5e de#ined as a deli5erate overstate.ent or exa%%eration o# a #eature essential (unliRe perip-rasis) to t-e o5Gect or p-eno.enon. In its extre.e #or. t-is exa%%eration is carried to an illo%ical de%ree8 so.eti.es ad a5surdu.. "or exa.ple; L>e 3as so tall t-at I 3as not sure -e -ad a #ace.L (,. >enry) or8 L:-ose t-ree 3ords (Do.5ey and Son) conveyed t-e one idea o# Mr. Do.5ey&s li#e. :-e eart- 3as .ade #or Do.5ey and Son to trade in and t-e sun and .oon 3ere .ade to %ive t-e. li%-t. Bivers and seas 3ere #or.ed to #loat t-eir s-ipsC rain5o3s %ave t-e. pro.ise o# #air 3eat-erC 3inds 5le3 #or or a%ainst t-eir enterprisesC st0rs and planets circled in t-eir or5its to preserve inviolate a syste. o# 3-ic- t-ey 3ere t-e centre.L (DicRens) In order to depict t-e 3idt- o# t-e river Dnieper Go%ol uses t-e #ollo3in% -yper5ole; LIt&s a rare 5ird t-at can #ly to t-e .iddle o# t-e Dnieper.L $iRe .any stylistic.devices8 -yper5ole .ay lose its 9uality as a stylistic device t-rou%- #re9uent repetition and 5eco.e a unit o# t-e lan=%ua%e=as=a=syste.8 reproduced =in speec- in its unaltered #or.. >ere are so.e exa.ples o# lan%ua%e -yper5ole; /* t-ousand pardons&C &scared to deat-< &i..ensely o5li%edC& &I&d %ive t-e 3orld to see -i..& +yron says; L?-en people say L:ve told you #i#ty ti.esL :-ey .ean to scold8 and very o#ten do.L >yper5ole di##ers #ro. .ere exa%%eration in t-at it is intended to 5e understood as an exa%%eration. In t-is connection t-e #ollo3in% 9uotations deserve a passin% note; L>yper5ole is t-e result o# a Rind o# intoxication 5y e.otion8 3-ic- prevents a person #ro. seein% t-in%s in t-eir true di.ensions... I# t-e reader (listener) is not carried a3ay 5y t-e e.otion o# t-e 3riter (speaRer)8 -yper5ole 5eco.es a .ere lie.L / (. (. (ino%radov8 developin% GorRi&s state.ent t-at L%enuine art enGoys t-e ri%-t to exa%%erate8L states t-at -yper5ole is t-e la3 o# art 3-ic- 5rin%s t-e existin% p-eno.ena o# li#e8 di##used as t-ey are8 to t-e point o# .axi.u. clarity and conciseness.2 >yper5ole is a device 3-ic- s-arpens t-e reader&s a5ility to .aRe a lo%ical assess.ent o# t-e utterance. :-is is ac-ieved8 as is t-e case 3it- ot-er devices8 5y a3aRenin% t-e dic-oto.y o# t-ou%-t and #eelin% 3-ere t-ou%-t taRes t-e upper -and t-ou%- not to t-e detri.ent o# #eelin%. D. PECULIAR USE O' SET E&PRESSIONS In lan%ua%e studies t-ere are t3o very clearly=.arRed tendencies t-at t-e student s-ould never lose si%-t o#8 particularly 3-en dealin% 3it- t-e pro5le. o# 3ord= co.5ination. :-ey are 1) t-e analytical tendency8 3-ic- seeRs to dissever one co.ponent #ro. anot-er and 2) t-e synt-etic tendency 3-ic- seeRs to inte%rate t-e parts o# t-e co.5ination into a sta5le unit. :-ese t3o tendencies are treated in di##erent 3ays in lexicolo%y and stylistics. In lexicolo%y t-e parts o# a sta5le lexical unit .ay 5e separated in order to .aRe a

scienti#ic investi%ation o# t-e c-aracter o# t-e co.5ination and to analyse t-e co.ponents. In stylistics 3e analyse t-e co.ponent parts in order to %et at so.e co..unicative e##ect sou%-t 5y t-e 3riter. It is t-is co..unicative e##ect and t-e .eans e.ployed to ac-ieve it t-at Aie 3it-in t-e do.ain o# stylistics. :-e inte%ratin% tendency also is closely studied in t-e real. o# lexicolo%y8 especially 3-en lin%uistic sc-olars seeR to #ix 3-at see.s to 5e a sta5le 3ord=co.5ination and ascertain t-e de%ree o# its sta5ility8 its variants and so on. :-e inte%ratin% tendency is also 3it-in t-e do.ain o# stylistics8 particularly 3-en t-e 3ord=co.5ination -as not yet #or.ed itsel# as a lexical unit 5ut is in t-e process o# 5ein% so #or.ed. >ere 3e are #aced 3it- t-e pro5le. o# 3-at is called t-e clic-e.
T/' Clic/'

* clic-e is %enerally de#ined as an expression t-at -as 5eco.e -acRneyed and trite. *s Bando. >ouse Dictionary -as it8 La clic-e ... -as lost ori%inality8 in%enuity8 and i.pact 5y lon% over=use...L :-is #le#inition lacRs one point t-at s-ould 5e e.p-asiSedC t-at is8 a clic-e strives a#ter ori%inality8 3-ereas it -as lost t-e aest-etic %eneratin% po3er it once -ad. :-ere is al3ays a contradiction 5et3een 3-at is ai.ed at and 3-at is actually attained. Exa.ples o# real clic-es are &rosy drea.s o# yout-&8 &t-e patter o# little #eet&8 &deceptively si.ple&. De#initions taRen #ro. various dictionaries s-o3 t-at clic-e is a dero%atory ter. and it is t-ere#ore necessary to avoid anyt-in% t-at .ay 5e called 5y t-at na.e. +ut t-e #act is t-at .ost o# t-e 3idely reco%niSed 3ord=co.5inations 3-ic- -ave 5een adopted 5y t-e lan%ua%e are unGustly classi#ied as clic-es. :-e aversion #or clic-es -as %one so #ar t-at .ost o# t-e lexical units 5ased on si.ile (see p. 117) are 5randed as clic-es. In an interestin% article entitled LGreat 4lic-e De5ateL pu5lis-ed in t-e Ne3 worR :i.es Ma%aSine l 3e can read t-e pros and cons concernin% clic-es. :-e article is revealin% on one .ain point. It illustrates t-e #act t-at an uncertain or va%ue ter. 3ill lead to various and even con#lictin% interpretations o# t-e idea e.5odied in t-e ter.. ?-at8 indeed8 do t-e 3ords &stereotyped&8 &-acRneyed&8 &trite/ convey to t-e .indz "irst o# all t-ey indicate t-at t-e p-rase is in co..on use. Is t-is a de.eritz Not at all. ,n t-e contrary; so.et-in% co..on8 -a5itual8 devoid o# novelty is t-e only ad.issi5le expression in so.e types o# co..unications. In t-e article Gust .entioned one o# t-e de5aters o5Gects to t-e p-rase &AacR=o#=all=trades& and su%%ests t-at it s-ould 5e Lone 3-o can turn -is -and to any (or to .any Rinds o#) 3orR.L >is opponent naturally reGects t-e su5stitute on t-e %rounds t-at &AacR o# all trades& .ay8 as -e says8 -ave lon% ceased to 5e vivid or ori%inal8 5ut -is su5stitute never 3as. *nd it is #ourteen 3ords instead o# #our. LDeter.ine to avoid clic-es at all costs and you are al.ost certain to 5e led into %o55ledy%ooR.L2 De5ates o# t-is Rind proceed #ro. a %rossly .istaRen notion t-at t-e ter. &clic-e& is used to denote all sta5le 3ord=co.5inations8 3-ereas it 3as coined8/to denote03ord= co.5inations 3-ic- -ave lon% lost t-eir novelty and 5eco.e trite8& 5ut 3-ic- are used

as i# t-ey 3ere #res- and ori%inal and so -ave 5eco.e irritatin% to people 3-o are sensitive to t-e lan%ua%e t-ey -ear and read. ?-at is #a.iliar s-ould not 5e %iven a dero%atory la5el. ,n t-e contrary8 i# it -as 5eco.e #a.iliar8 t-at .eans it -as 3on %eneral reco%nition and 5y iteration -as 5een accepted as a unit o# t-e lan%ua%e. +ut t-e process o# +ein% acRno3led%ed as a unit o# lan%ua%e is slo3. It is next to i.possi5le to #oretell 3-at .ay 5e accepted as a unit o# t-e lan%ua%e and 3-at .ay 5e reGected and cast a3ay as 5ein% un#it8 inappropriate8 alien to t-e internal la3s o# t-e lan%ua%e8or #ailin% to .eet t-e de.and o# t-e lan%ua%e co..unity #or sta5le 3ord=co.5inations to desi%nate ne3 notions. >ence t-e t3o con#lictin% ideas; lan%ua%e s-ould al3ays 5e #res-8 vi%orous and expressive8 and8 on t-e ot-er -and8 lan%ua%e8 as a co..on tool #or interco..unication8 s-ould .aRe use o# units t-at are easily understood and 3-ic- re9uire little or no e##ort to convey t-e idea and to %rasp it. B. D. *lticR in -is L2re#ace to 4ritical Beadin%L conde.ns every 3ord se9uence in 3-ic- 3-at #ollo3s can easily 5e predicted #ro. 3-at precedes. L?-en does an expression 5eco.e a clic-ez :-ere can 5e no de#inite ans3er8 5ecause 3-at is trite to one person .ay still 5e #res- to anot-er. +ut a %reat .any expressions are universally understood to 5e so t-read5are as to 5e useless except in t-e .ost casual discourse... * %ood practical test is t-is; I#8 3-en you are listenin% to a speaRer8 you can accurately anticipate 3-at -e is %oin% to say next8 -e is pretty certainly usin% clic-es8 ot-er3ise -e 3ould 5e constantly surprisin% you.L l :-en -e %ives exa.ples8 liRe ?e are %at-ered -ere to=day to .ourn (&t-e unti.ely deat-&) o# our 5eloved leader...C ?ords are inade9uate (&to express t-e %rie# t-at is in our -earts&). LSi.ilarly 3-en you read8L -e %oes on8 Li# one 3ord al.ost inevita5ly invites anot-er8 i# you can read -al# o# t-e 3ords and Rno3 pretty certainly 3-at t-e ot-er are8 you are readin% clic-es.L *nd t-en a%ain co.e illustrations8 liRe ?e 3atc-ed t-e #la.es (&licRin%&) at t-e side o# t-e 5uildin%. * pall (&o# s.oRe&) -un% t-icR over t-e nei%-5our-ood...&8 >e -eard a dull (&t-ud&) 3-ic- 3as #ollo3ed 5y an o.inous (&silence&).2 :-is passa%e s-o3s t-at t-e aut-or -as 5een led into t-e erroneous notion t-at everyt-in% t-at is predicta5le is a clic-e. >e is con#usin% use#ul 3ord=co.5inations circulatin% in speec- as .e.5ers o# t-e 3ord=stocR o# t-e lan%ua%e 3it- 3-at clai.s to 5e %enuine8 ori%inal and vi%orous. *ll 3ord=co.5inations t-at do not surprise are la5elled as clic-es. I# 3e a%ree 3it- suc- an understandin% o# t-e ter.8 3e .ust ad.it t-at t-e #ollo3in% sta5le and necessary 3ord=co.5inations used in ne3spaper lan%ua%e .ust 5e vie3ed as clic-es; &e##ective %uarantees&8 &i..ediate issues&8 &t-e 3-ip and carrot policy18 &state.ent o# policy98 &to .aintain so.e e9uili5riu. 5et3een relia5le sources&8 &5u##er Sone &-e laid it do3n e9ually clearly t-at...& and so on. B. D. *lticR t-us denounces as clic-es suc- ver5= and noun=p-rases as &to live to a ripe old a%e&8 &to %ro3 5y leaps and 5ounds18 &to 3it-stand .e test o# ti.e&8 &to let 5y%ones 5e 5y%ones&8 &to 5e una5le to see t-e 3ood #or t-e trees&8 &to upset t-e apple=

cart&8 &to -ave an ace up one&s sleeve&. *nd0#inally -e reGects suc- 3ord=co.5inations as/&t-e #ull #lus- o# victory&8 Ht-e patter o# rain&8 &part and parcel&8 &a dia.ond in t-e rou%-& and t-e liRe on t-e %rounds t-at t-ey -ave outlasted t-eir #res-ness. ! In -is protest a%ainst -acRneyed p-rases8 *lticR -as %one so #ar as to declare t-at people -ave adopted p-rases liRe &clocR=3orR precision&8 &ti%-t=lipped (or stony) silence&8 &crus-in% de#eat&8 &5u.per=to=5u.per tra##ic&8 &sRy= rocRetin% costs& and t-e liReL... as a 3ay o# evadin% t-eir o5li%ation to .aRe t-eir o3n lan%ua%e.L1 ,# course8 i# instead o# .aRin% use o# t-e existin% .eans o# co..unication8 i. e. t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e co..unity8 people are to coin Lt-eir o3n lan%ua%e8L t-en *lticR is ri%-t. +ut no5ody 3ould ever t-inR suc- an idea eit-er sound or reasona5le. :-e set expressions o# a lan%ua%e are &part and parcel& o# t-e voca5ulary o# t-e lan%ua%e and cannot 5e dispensed 3it- 5y .erely la5ellin% t-e. clic-es. >o3ever8 at every period in t-e develop.ent o# a lan%ua%e8 t-ere appear stran%e co.5inations o# 3ords 3-ic- arouse suspicion as to t-eir .eanin% and connotation. Many o# t-e ne3=5orn 3ord=co.5inations in .odern En%lis-8 5ot- in t-eir *.erican and +ritis- variants8 -ave 5een .ade #un o# 5ecause t-eir .eanin% is still o5scure8 and t-ere#ore t-ey are used rat-er loosely. Becently in t-e Ne3&worR :i.es suc- cli= c-es as &speaRin% realiSation&8 &%ro3in% a3areness&8 &risin% expectations&8 'o t-inR unt-inRa5le t-ou%-ts& and ot-ers 3ere 3ittily criticiSed 5y a Gournalist 3-o s-o3ed t-at ordinary ranR=and=#ile *.erican people do not understand t-ese ne3 3ord= co.5inations8 Gust as t-ey #ail to understand certain neolo%is.s8 as opt (} to .aRe a c-oice)8 and revived 3ords8 as dee. (} to consider8 to 5elieve to 5e) and ot-ers and reGect t-e. or use t-e. 3ron%ly. +ut as -istory -as proved8 t-e protest o# too=Sealous purists o#ten #ails to 5ar t-e 3ay to all Rinds o# innovations into standard En%lis-. Illustrative in t-is respect is t-e protest .ade 5y +yron in -is LDon AuanL; and also; or; &&...&#ree to con#ess&c(3-ence co.es t-is p-rasez Is&t En%lis-z Noc&tis only parlia.entary).L L stran%e coincidence to use a p-rase +y 3-ic-=suc-'' t-in%s are settled no3adays.L L:-e .arc- o# Science (>o3 deli%-t#ul t-ese clic-es areK)...L (*ldin%ton) +yron8 5ein% very sensitive to t-e aest-etic aspect o# -is native lan%ua%e8 could not -elp o5servin% t-e triteness o# t-e p-rases -e co..ents on8 5ut at t-e sa.e ti.e -e accepts t-e. as ready=.ade units. $an%ua%e -as its stren%t- and its 3eaRnesses. * lin%uistic sc-olar .ust 5e e9uipped 3it- .et-ods o# stylistic analysis to ascertain t-e 3riter&s ai.8 t-e situation in 3-ic- t-e co..unication taRes place and possi5ly t-e i.pact on t-e reader8 to decide 3-et-er or not a p-rase is a clic-e or Lt-e ri%-t 3ord in t-e ri%-t placeL. I# -e does not taRe into consideration all t-e properties o# t-e %iven

3ord or 3ord=co.5ination8 t-e intricacies o# lan%ua%e units .ay 5eco.e a trap #or -i.. I5id. Men=o#=letters8 i# t-ey are real artists8 use t-e stocR o# expressive p-rases contained in t-e lan%ua%e naturally and easily8 and 3ell=Rno3n p-rases never produce t-e i.pression o# 5ein% clic-es8
P(+6'(*s &,- S&yi,.s

2rover5s and sayin%s are #acts o# lan%ua%e. :-ey are collected in dictionaries. :-ere are special dictionaries o# prover5s and sayin%s. It is i.possi5le to arran%e prover5s and sayin%s in a #or. t-at 3ould present a pattern even t-ou%- t-ey -ave so.e typical #eatures 5y 3-ic- it is 1 possi5le to deter.ine 3-et-er or not 3e are dealin% 3it- one. :-ese Qtypical #eatures are; r-yt-.8 so.eti.es r-y.e andIor alliteration. +ut t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eature o# a prover5 or a sayin% lies not #n its #or.al lin%uistic expression8 5ut in t-e content=#or. o# t-e utter=pnce. *s is Rno3n8 a prover5 or a sayin% is a peculiar .ode o# utterance (-ic- is .ainly c-aracteriSed 5y its 5revity. :-e utterance itsel#8 taRen at +its #ace value8 presents a pattern 3-ic- can 5e success#ully used #or ot-er liitterances. :-e peculiarity o# t-e use o# a prover5 lies in t-e #act t-at It-e actual 3ordin% 5eco.es a pattern 3-ic- needs no ne3 3ordin% to Qsu%%est extensions o# .eanin% 3-ic- are contextual. In ot-er 3ords8 la prover5 presupposes a si.ultaneous application o# t3o .eanin%s; Qt-e #ace=value or pri.ary .eanin%8 and an extended .eanin% dra3n >ro. t-e context8 5ut 5ridled 5y t-e #ace= value .eanin%. In ot-er 3ords8 Qt-e prover5 itsel# 5eco.es a vessel into 3-ic- ne3 content is poured. I:-e actual 3ordin% o# a prover58 its pri.ary .eanin%8 narro3s t-e Q#ield o# possi5le extensions o# .eanin%8 i. e. t-e #illin% up o# t-e #or.. J:-at is 3-y 3e .ay re%ard t-e prover5 as a pattern o# t-ou%-t. Soit is I&. every ot-er case at any ot-er level o# lin%uistic researc-. *5stract Q#or.ulas o##er a 3ider ran%e o# possi5le applications to practical pur=Iposes t-an concrete 3ords8 t-ou%- t-ey -ave t-e sa.e purpose. *l.ost every %ood 3riter 3ill .aRe use o# lan%ua%e idio.s8 5y=Qp-rases and prover5s. *s GorRi -as it8 t-ey are t-e natural 3ays in 0-ic- speec- develops. 2rover5s and sayin%s -ave certain purely lin%uistic #eatures 3-ic- Q.ust al3ays 5e taRen into account in order to distin%uis- t-e. #ro. Qordinary sentences. 2rover5s are 5rie# state.ents s-o3in% in condensed Q#or. t-e accu.ulated li#e experience o# t-e co..unity and servin% as conventional practical sy.5ols #or a5stract ideas. :-ey are usually I didactic and i.a%e 5earin%. Many o# t-e. t-rou%- #re9uency o# repetition -ave 5eco.e polis-ed and 3rou%-t into verse=liRe s-ape8 as in t-e Q#ollo3in%; Lto cut one&s coat accordin% to one&s clot-.L LEarly to 5ed and early to rise8 MaRes a .an -ealt-y8 3ealt-y and 3ise.L +revity in prover5s .ani#ests itsel# also in t-e o.ission o# connec=#ives8 as in; L"irst co.e8 #irst served.L L,ut o# si%-t8 out o# .ind.L

+ut t-e .ain #eature distin%uis-in% prover5s and sayin%s #ro. ordinary utterances re.ains t-eir se.antic aspect. :-eir literal .eanin% is suppressed 5y 3-at .ay 5e ter.ed t-eir trans#erred .eanin%. In ot-er 3ords8 one .eanin% (literal) is t-e #or. #or anot-er .eanin% (trans#erred) 3-ic- contains t-e idea. 2rover5s and sayin%s8 i# used appropriately8 3ill never lose t-eir #res-ness and vi%our. :-e .ost noticea5le t-in% a5out t-e #unctionin% o# sayin%s8 prover5s and catc-=p-rases is t-at t-ey .ay 5e -andled not in t-eir #ixed #or. (t-e traditional .odel) 5ut 3it- .odi#ications. :-ese .odi#ications8 -o3ever8 3ill never 5reaR a3ay #ro. t-e invariants to suc- a de%ree t-at t-e correlation 5et3een t-e invariant .odel o# a 3ord=co.5ination and its variant ceases to 5e perceived 5y t-e reader. :-e predicta5ility o# a variant o# a 3ord= co.5ination is lo3er in co.parison 3it- its invariant. :-ere#ore t-e use o# suc- a unit in a .odi#ied #or. 3ill al3ays arrest our attention8 causin% a .uc- closer exa.ination o# t-e 3ordin% o# t-e utterance in order to %et at t-e idea. :-us8 t-e prover5 &all is not %old t-at %litters& appears in +yron&s LDon AuanL in t-e #ollo3in% #or. and environ.ent 3-ere at #irst t-e .eanin% .ay see. o5scure; L>o3 all t-e needy -onoura5le .isters8 Eac- out=at=el5o3 peer or desperate dandy8 :-e 3atc-#ul .ot-ers8 and t-e care#ul sisters (?-o8 5y t-e 5y8 3-en clever8 are .ore -andy *t .aRin% .atc-es 3-ere Lt&is %old t-at %listersL l& :-an t-eir -e relatives)8 liRe #lies o&er candy +uSS round t-e "ortune 3it- t-eir 5usy 5attery8 :o turn -er -ead 3it- 3altSin% and 3it- #lattery.L ,ut o# t-e 3ell=Rno3n prover5 +yron 5uilds a perip-rasis8 t-e .eanin% o# 3-ic- is decip-ered t3o lines 5elo3; &t-e "ortune&8 t-at is8 &a .arria%ea5le -eiress&). It -as already 5een.pointed out t-at +yron is #ond o# playin% 3it- sta5le 3ord= co.5inations8.so.eti.es inGectin% ne3 vi%our into t-e co.ponents8 so.eti.es entirely disre%ardin% t-e se.antic unity o# t-e co.5ination. In t-e #ollo3in% lines8 #or instance8 eac- 3ord o# t-e p-rase sa#e and sound %ets its #ull .eanin%. LI leave Don Auan #or t-e present8 sa#ec Not sound8 poor #ello38 5ut severely 3oundedCL :-e prover5 >ell is paved 3it- %ood intentions and t-e set expression to .ean 3ell are used 5y +yron in a peculiar 3ay8 t-us .aRin% t-e reader re=appraise t-e -acRneyed p-rases. (N ................ i# -e 3arr&d ,r loved8 it 3as 3it- 3-at 3e call t-e 5est Intentions8 3-ic- #or. all .anRind&s tru.p card8 :o 5e produced 3-en 5rou%-t up to t-e test8 :-e states.an8 -ero8 -arlot8 la3yerc 3ard ,## eac- attacR8 3-en people are in 9uest 1 t-e arc-aic #or. o# %litters ,# t-eir desi%ns8 5y sayin% t-ey .eant 3ell. Q&:is pity t-at suc- .eanin% s-ould pave

-ellL :-e stylistic e##ect produced 5y suc- uses o# prover5s and sayin%s is t-e result o# a t3o#old application o# lan%ua%e .eans8 3-ic-8 as -as already 5een e.p-asiSed8 is an indispensa5le condition #or t-e appearance o# all stylistic devices. :-e .odi#ied #or. o# t-e prover5 is perceived a%ainst t-e 5acR%round o# t-e #ixed #or.8 t-us enlivenin% t-e latter. So.eti.es t-is inGection o# ne3 vi%our into t-e prover5 causes a sli%-t se.antic re=evaluation o# its %enerally accepted .eanin%. ?-en a prover5 is used in its unaltered #or. it can 5e 9uali#ied as an expressive .eans (EM) o# t-e lan%ua%eC 3-en used in a .odi#ied variant it assu.es t-e one o# t-e #eatures o# an SD8 it ac9uires a stylistic .eanin%8 t-ou%- not 5eco.in% an SD. ?e s-all taRe only a #e3 o# t-e nu.erous exa.ples o# t-e stylistic use o# prover5s and sayin%s to illustrate t-e possi5le 3ays o# deco.posin% t-e units in order si.ply to su%%est t-e idea 5e-ind t-e.; L4o.eKL -e said8 L.ilR&s spilt.L (Gals3ort-y) (#ro. &It is no use cryin% over spilt .ilRK&). L+ut to all t-at .ovin% experience t-ere -ad 5een a s-ado3 (a darR linin% to t-e silver cloud)8 insistent and plain8 3-ic- disconcerted -er8L (Mau%-a.) (#ro. &Every cloud -as a silver linin%&). L?e 3ere das-ed unco.#orta5le in t-e #ryin% pan8 5ut 3e s-ould -ave 5een a da.ned si%-t 3orse o## in t-e #ireL (Mau%-a.) (#ro. &,ut o# t-e #ryin%=pan into t-e #ire&). Lwou Rno3 3-ic- side t-e la3&s 5uttered.L (Gals3ort-y) (#ro. &>is 5read is 5uttered on 5ot- sides&). :-is device is used not only in t-e 5elles=lettres style. >ere are so.e instances #ro. ne3spapers and .a%aSines illustratin% t-e stylistic use o# prover5s8 sayin%s and ot-er 3ord=co.5inations; L...and 3-et-er t-e Ministry o# Econo.rc ?ar#are is 5ein% allo3ed enou%- #inancial rope to do its 3orst.L (#ro. &Give a t-ie# rope enou%- and -e&ll -an% -i.sel#). L:-e 3aters 3ill re.ain su##iciently trou5led #or so.e5ody&s #is-in% to 5e pro#ita5leL (Econo.ist) (#ro. &It is %ood #is-in% in trou5led 3aters&). * ne3spaper editorial once -ad t-e #ollo3in% -eadline; L2roo# o# t-e 2uddin%L (#ro. &:-e proo# o# t-e puddin% is in t-e eatin%&). >ere is a recast o# a 3ell=Rno3n prover5 used 5y an advertiSin% a%ency; LEarly to 5ed and early to rise No usecunless you advertiSeL (#ro. &Early to 5ed and early to rise/ MaRes a .an -ealt-y8 3ealt-y and 3ise&)/ Notice t-is recast 5y $e3is 4arroll o# a 3ell=Rno3n sayin%;1 L:aRe care o# t-e sense and t-e sounds 3ill taRe care o# t-e.selves.L
E:i.(&)s

*n epi%ra. is a stylistic device aRin to a prover58 t-e only di##erence 5ein% t-at epi%ra.s are coined 5y individuals 3-ose na.es 3e Rno38 3-ile prover5s are t-e

coina%e o# t-e people. In ot-er 3ords8 3e are al3ays a3are o# t-e parenta%e o# an epi%ra. and t-ere#ore8 3-en usin% one8 3e usually .aRe a re#erence to its aut-or. Epi%ra.s are terse8 3itty8 pointed state.ents8 s-o3in% t-e in%enious turn o# .ind o# t-e ori%inator. :-ey al3ays -ave a literary=5ooRis- air a5out t-e. t-at distin%uis-es t-e. #ro. prover5s. Epi%ra.s possess a %reat de%ree o# independence and t-ere#ore8 i# taRen out o# t-e context8 3ill retain t-e 3-oleness o# t-e idea t-ey express. :-ey -ave a %eneraliSin% #unction and are sel#=su##icient. :-e .ost c-aracteristic #eature o# an epi%ra. is t-at t-e sentence %ets accepted as a 3ord=co.5ination and o#ten 5eco.es part o# t-e lan%ua%e as a 3-ole. $iRe prover5s8 epi%ra.s can 5e expanded to apply to a5stract notions (t-us e.5odyin% di##erent sp-eres o# application). +revity is t-e essential 9uality o# t-e epi%ra.. *. 4-eR-ov once said t-at 5revity is t-e sister o# talentC &+revity is t-e soul o# t-e 3it& -olds true o# any epi%ra.. Epi%ra.s are o#ten con#used 3it- ap-oris.s and paradoxes. It is di##icult to dra3 a de.arcation line 5et3een t-e.8 t-e distinction 5ein% very su5tle. Beal epi%ra.s are true to #act and t-at is 3-y t-ey 3in %eneral reco%nition and acceptance. $et us turn to exa.ples. So.erset Mau%-a. in L:-e BaSor&s Ed%eL says; L*rt is triu.p-ant 3-en it can use convention as an instru.ent o# its o3nCCpurpose.L :-is state.ent is interestin% #ro. .ore t-an one point o# vie3. It s-o3s t-e in%enious turn o# .ind o# t-e 3riter8 it %ives an indirect de#inition o# art as Mau%-a. understands it8 it is co.plete in itsel# even i# taRen out o# t-e context. +ut still t-is sentence is not a .odel epi%ra. 5ecause it lacRs one essential 9uality8 viS. 5revity. It is too lon% and t-ere#ore cannot #unction in speec- as a ready=.ade lan%ua%e unit. +esides8 it lacRs ot-er #eatures 3-ic- are in-erent in epi%ra.s and .aRe t-e. si.ilar to prover5s8 i.e. r-yt-.8 alliteration and o#ten r-y.e. It cannot 5e expanded to ot-er sp-eres o# li#e8 it does >ot %eneraliSe. 4o.pare t-is sentence 3it- t-e #ollo3in% used 5y t-e sa.e aut-or in t-e sa.e novel. L* God t-at can 5e understood is no God.L :-is sentence see.s to .eet all t-e necessary re9uire.ents o# t-e epi%ra.; it is 5rie#8 %eneraliSin%8 3itty and can 5e expanded in its application. :-e sa.e applies to +yron&s L...in t-e days o# old .en .ade .annersC Manners no3 #tiaRe .enL (LDon AuanL) or ueats&s L* t-in% o# 5eauty is a Goy #orever.L ?riters 3-o seeR aest-etic precision use t-e epi%ra. a5undantlyC ot-ers use it to c-aracteriSe t-e -ero o# t-eir 3orR. So.erset Mau%-a. is particularly #ond o# it and .any o# -is novels and stories a5ound in epi%ra.s. >ere are so.e #ro. L:-e 2ainted (eil.L L>e t-at 5ends s-all 5e .ade strai%-t.L L"ailure is t-e #oundation o# success and success is t-e lurRin% place o# #ailure...L LMi%-ty is -e 3-o con9uers -i.sel#.L :-ere are utterances 3-ic- in #or. are epi%ra..aticct-ese are verses and in

particular de#inite Rinds o# verses. :-e last t3o lines o# a sonnet are called epi%ra..atic 5ecause8 accordin% to t-e se.antic structure o# t-is #or. o# verse8 t-ey su. up and synt-esiSe 3-at -as 5een said 5e#ore. :-e -eroic couplet8 a special co.positional #or. o# verse8 is also a suita5le .ediu. #or epi%ra.s8 #or instance; L:o o5servations 3-ic- ourselves8 3e .aRe8 ?e %ro3 .ore partial #or t-& o5server&s saRe.L (*lexander 2ope) :-ere are special dictionaries 3-ic- are called LDictionaries o# Ouotations.L :-ese8 in #act8 are .ostly dictionaries o# epi%ra.s. ?-at is 3ort- 9uotin% .ust al3ays contain so.e de%ree o# t-e %eneraliSin% 9uality and i# it co.es #ro. a 3orR o# poetry 3ill -ave .etre (and so.eti.es r-y.e). :-at is 3-y t-e 3orRs o# S-aRespeare8 2ope8 +yron and .any ot-er %reat En%lis- poets are said to 5e #ull o# epi%ra..atic state.ents. :-e epi%ra. is8 in #act8 a supra=p-rasal unit in sense8 t-ou%- not in structure (see p. 19'). L L 2oetry is epi%ra..atic in essence. It al3ays strives #or 5revity o# expression8 leavin% to t-e .ind o# t-e reader t-e pleasure o# a.pli#yin% t-e idea. +yron&s L:-e dryin% up a sin%le tear -as .ore ,# -onest #a.e8 t-an s-eddin% seas o# %ore8L is a stron%ly 3orded epi%ra.8 3-ic- i.presses t-e/ reader 3it- its %eneraliSin% trut-. It .ay 5e re%arded as a supra=p-rasal unit inas.uc- as it is se.antically connected 3it- t-e precedin% lines and at t-e sa.e ti.e enGoys a considera5le de%ree o# independence. :-e inner 9uality o# any sentence to 3-ic- t-e ranR o# epi%ra.8 in t-e %eneric sense o# t-e ter.8 can 5e attri5uted8 is t-at t-e particularity o# t-e event is replaced 5y a ti.eless non=particularity.1 :aRe care o# t-e pence and t-e pounds 3ill taRe care oi t-e.selves8 Ouotations Next to t-e ori%inator o# a %ood sentence is t-e #irst 9uoter o# it. E.erson * 9uotation is a repetition o# a p-rase or state.ent #ro. a 5ooR8 speec- and t-e liRe used 5y 3ay o# aut-ority8 illustration8 proo# or as a 5asis #or #urt-er speculation on t-e .atter in -and. +y repeatin% a passa%e in a ne3 environ.ent8 3e attac- to t-e utterance an i.portance it .i%-t not -ave -ad in t-e context 3-ence it 3as taRen. Moreover8 3e %ive it t-e status8 te.porary t-ou%- it .ay 5e8 o# a sta5le lan%ua%e unit. ?-at is 9uoted .ust 5e 3ort- 9uotin%8 since a 9uotation 3ill inevita5ly ac9uire so.e de%ree o# %eneraliSation. I# repeated #re9uently8 it .ay 5e reco%niSed as an epi%ra.8 i#8 o# course8 it -as at least so.e o# t-e lin%uistic properties o# t-e latter. Ouotations are usually .arRed o## in t-e text 5y inverted co..as (L L)8 das-es (c)8 italics or ot-er %rap-ical .eans. :-ey are .ostly used acco.panied 5y a re#erence to t-e aut-or o# t-e 9uotation8 unless -e is 3ell Rno3n to t-e reader or audience. :-e re#erence is .ade eit-er in t-e text or in a #oot=note and assu.es various #or.s8 as8 #or instance;

Las (so and so) -as itLC L(So and so) once said t-atL...C L>ere 3e 9uote (so and so)L or in t-e .anner t-e re#erence to E.erson -as 5een .ade in t-e epi%rap- to t-is c-apter. * 9uotation is t-e exact reproduction o# an actual utterance .ade 5y a certain aut-or. :-e 3orR containin% t-e utterance 9uoted .ust -ave 5een pu5lis-ed or at least spoRen in pu5licC #or 9uotations are ec-oes o# so.e5ody else&s 3ords. Mtterances8 3-en 9uoted8 under%o a peculiar and su5tle c-an%e. :-ey are ranR=and= #ile .e.5ers o# t-e text t-ey 5elon% to8 .er%in% 3it- ot-er sentences in t-is text in t-e .ost natural and or%anic 3ay# 5earin% so.e part o# t-e %eneral sense t-e text as a 3-ole e.5odiesC yet8 3-en t-ey are 9uoted88 t-eir si%ni#icance is -ei%-tened and t-ey 5eco.e di##erent #ro. ot-er parts o# t-e text. ,nce 9uoted8 t-ey are no lon%er ranR= and=#ile units. I# t-ey are used to 5acR up t-e idea expressed in t-e ne3 text8 t-ey 5eco.e Lparent sentencesL 3it- t-e correspondin% aut-ority and respect and ac9uire a sy.5oliSin% #unctionC in s-ort8 t-ey not in#re9uently 5eco.e epi%ra.s8 #or exa.ple8 >a.let&s L:o 5e or not to 5eKL * 9uotation is al3ays' set a%ainst t-e ot-er sentences in t-e text 5y its %reater volu.e o# sense and si%ni#icance. :-is sin%les it out8 particularly i# it is #re9uently repeatedL8 as any utterance 3ort- co..ittin% to .e.ory %enerally is. :-e use o# 9uotations:presupposes a %ood Rno3led%e o# t-e past experience o# t-e nation8 its literature and culture.1 :-e stylistic value o# a 9uotation lies .ainly in t-e #act t-at it co.prises t3o .eanin%s; t-e pri.ary .eanin%8 t-e one 3-ic- it -as in its ori%inal surroundin%s8 and t-e applicative .eanin%8 i.e. t-e one 3-ic- it ac9uires in t-e ne3 context. 1 * 9uotation #ro. +yron&s LEn%lis- +ards and Scotc- Bevie3ersL 3ill 5e apt as a co..ent -ere; L?it- Gust enou%- o# learnin% to .is9uote.L Ouotations8 unliRe epi%ra.s8 need not necessarily 5e s-ort. * 3-ole para%rap- or a lon% passa%e .ay 5e 9uoted i# it suits t-e purpose. It is to 5e noted8 -o3ever8 t-at so.eti.es in spite o# t-e #act t-at t-e exact 3ordin% is used8 a 9uotation in a ne3 environ.ent .ay assu.e a ne3 s-ade o# .eanin%8 a s-ade necessary or sou%-t 5y t-e 9uoter8 5ut not intended 5y t-e 3riter o# t-e ori%inal 3orR. >ere 3e %ive a #e3 exa.ples o# t-e use o# 9uotations. LSocrates said8 our only Rno3led%e 3as L:o Rno3 t-at not-in% could 5e Rno3nL a pleasant Science enou%-8 3-ic- levels to an ass Eac- .an o# ?isdo.8 #uture8 past or present. Ne3ton (t-at prover5 o# t-e .ind) alasK Declared 3it- all -is %rand discoveries recent :-at -e -i.sel# #elt only LliRe a yout2icRin% up s-ells 5y t-e %reat oceanc:rut-.L (+yron) LEcclesiastes said8 Lt-at all is vanityLc/ Most .odern preac-ers say t-e sa.e8 or s-o3 it +y t-eir exa.ples o# t-e 4-ristianity..8L (+yron) Ouotations are used as a stylistic device8 as is seen #ro. t-ese exa.=G pies8 3it- t-e

ai. o# expandin% t-e .eanin% o# t-e sentence 9uoted and settin% t3o .eanin%s one a%ainst t-e ot-er8 t-us .odi#yin% t-e ori%inal .eanin%. In t-is 9uality t-ey are used .ostly in t-e 5elles=lettres style. Ouotations used in ot-er styles o# speec- allo3 no .odi#ications o# .eanin%8 unless actual distortion o# #or. and .eanin% is t-e ai. o# t-e 9uoter. Ouotations are also used in epi%rap-s. :-e 9uotation in t-is case possesses %reat associative po3er and calls #ort- .uc- connotative .eanin%8
All1si+,s

*n allusion is an indirect re#erence8 5y 3ord or p-rase8 to a -istorical8 literary8 .yt-olo%ical8 5i5lical #act or to La #act o#&everyday li#e .ade in t-e course o# speaRin% or 3ritin%. :-e use o# allusion presupposes Rno3led%e o# t-e #act8 t-in% or person alluded to on t-e part o# t-e reader or listener. *s a rule no indication o# t-e source is %iven. :-is is one o# t-e nota5le di##erences 5et3een 9uotation and allusion. *not-er di##erence is o# a structural nature; a 9uotation .ust repeat t-e exact 3ordin% o# t-e ori%inal even t-ou%- t-e .eanin% .ay 5e .odi#ied 5y t-e ne3 contextC an allusion is only a .ention o# a 3ord or p-rase 3-ic- .ay 5e re%arded as t-e Rey= 3ord o# t-e utterance. *n allusion -as certain i.portant se.antic peculiarities8 in t-at t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ord (t-e allusion) s-ould 5e re%arded as a #or. #or t-e ne3 .eanin%. In ot-er 3ords8 t-e pri.ary .eanin% o# t-e 3ord or p-rase 3-ic- is assu.ed to 5e Rno3n (i.e. t-e allusion) serves as a vessel into 3-ic- ne3 .eanin% is poured. So -ere t-ere is also a Rind o# interplay 5et3een t3o .eanin%s. >ere is a passa%e in 3-ic- an allusion is .ade to t-e coac-.an8 ,ld Mr. ?eller8 t-e #at-er o# DicRens&s #a.ous c-aracter8 Sa. ?eller8 In t-is case t-e no.inal .eanin% is 5roadened into a %eneraliSed concept; L?-ere is t-e road no38 and its .erry incidents o# li#eK.8 old -onest8 pi.ple=nosed coac-.enz I 3onder 3-ere are t-ey8 t-ose %ood #ello3sz Is old ?elter alive or deadzL (:-acReray) :-e volu.e o# .eanin% in t-is allusion %oes 5eyond t-e actual Rno3led%e o# t-e c-aracter&s traits. Even t-e p-rases a5out t-e road and t-e coac-.en 5ear indirect re#erence to DicRens&s L2icR3icR 2apers.L >ere is anot-er instance o# allusion 3-ic- re9uires a %ood Rno3led%e o# .yt-olo%y8 -istory and %eo%rap-y i# it is to 5e co.pletely understood. LS-aRespeare talRs o# t-e -erald Mercury Ne3 li%-ted on a -eaven=Rissin% -ill&8 *nd so.e suc- visions cross&d -er .aGesty ?-ile -er youn% -erald Rnelt 5e#ore -er still. &:is very true t-e -ill see.&d rat-er -i%-8 "or a lieutenant to cli.5 upC 5ut sRill S.oot-ed even t-e Si.plon&s steep8 and 5y God&s 5lessin% ?it- yout- and -ealt- all Risses are -eaven=Rissin%.L (+yron) Mercury8 Aupiter&s .essen%er8 is re#erred to -ere 5ecause Don Auan 5rin%s a dispatcto 4at-erine II o# Bussia and is t-ere#ore -er .aGesty&s -erald. +ut t-e p-rase L...sRill s.oot-&d even t-e Si.plon&s steep...L 3ill 5e 9uite inco.pre-ensi5le to t-ose readers

3-o do not Rno3 t-at Napoleon 5uilt a carria%e road near t-e villa%e o# Si.plon in t-e pass 1 97 #eet over t-e *lps and #ounded a -ospice at t-e su..it. :-en t-e 3ords &Si.plon&s steep& 5eco.e c-ar%ed 3it- si%ni#icance and i.plications 3-ic- no3 need no #urt-er co..ent. *llusions are 5ased on t-e accu.ulated experience and t-e Rno3led%e o# t-e 3riter 3-o presupposes a si.ilar experience and Rno3led%e in t-e reader. +ut t-e Rno3led%e stored in our .inds is called #ort- 5y an allusion in a peculiar r#ianner. 0*ll Rinds o# associations 3e .ay not yet -ave realiSed cluster round t-e #acts alluded to. Illustrative in t-is respect is t-e 9uotation=allusion .ade in So.erset Mau%-a.&s novel L:-e 2ainted (eilL. :-e last 3ords uttered 5y t-e dyin% .an are L:-e do% it 3as t-at died.L :-ese are t-e concludin% lines o# Golds.it-&s LEle%y on t-e Deat- o# a Mad Do%.L Mnless t-e reader Rno3s t-e Ele%y8 -e 3ill not understand t-e i.plication e.5odied in t-is 9uotation. 4onse9uently8 t-e 9uotation -ere 5ecorpes an allusion 3-ic- runs t-rou%- t-e 3-ole plot o# t-e novel. Moreover8 t-e psyc-olo%ical tunin% o# t-e novel can 5e decip-ered only 5y dra3in% a parallel 5et3een t-e poe. and t-e plot o# t-e novel. :-e .ain c-aracter is dyin%8 -avin% #ailed to reven%e -i.sel# upon -is un#ait-#ul 3i#e. >e 3as punis-ed 5y deat- #or -avin% plotted evil. :-is is t-e in#erence to 5e dra3n #ro. t-e allusion. :-e #ollo3in% passa%e #ro. DicRens&s L>ard :i.esL 3ill serve to prove -o3 re.ote .ay 5e t-e associations called up 5y an allusion8 LNo little Grand%rind -ad ever associated a co3 in a #ield 3it- t-at #a.ous co3 3itt-e cru.pled -orn t-at tossed t-e do% t-at 3orried t-e cat t-at Rilled t-e rat t-at ate t-e .alt8 or 3it- t-at yet .ore #a.ous co3 t-at s3allo3ed :o. :-u.5C it -ad never -eard o# t-ose cele5rities.L :-e .eanin% t-at can 5e derived #ro. t-e t3o allusions8 one to t-e nursery r-y.e L:-e >ouse t-at AacR 5uiltL and t-e ot-er to t-e old tale L:-e >istory o# :o. :-u.5L is t-e #ollo3in%; No one 3as per.itted to teac- t-e little Grand%rind c-ildren t-e lively8 vivid nursery r-y.es and tales t-at every En%lis- c-ild Rno3s 5y -eart. :-ey 3ere su5Gected to not-in% 5ut dry a5stract drillin%. :-e 3ord co3 in t-e t3o allusions 5eco.es i.pre%nated 3it- concrete .eanin% set a%ainst t-e a5stract .eanin% o# co3=in=a= #ield8 or co3=in=%eneral. :o put it into t-e ter.s o# t-eoretical lin%uistics8 co3=in=a=#ie Id re#ers to t-e no.inatin% rat-er t-an to t-e si%ni#yin% aspect o# t-e 3ord. *llusions and 9uotations .ay 5e ter.ed nonce=set=expressions 5ecause t-ey are used only #or t-e occasion. *llusion8 as -as 5een pointed out8 needs no indication o# t-e source. It is assu.ed to 5e Rno3n. :-ere#ore .ost allusions are .ade to #acts 3it- 3-ic- t-e %eneral reader s-ould 5e #a.iliar. >o3ever8 allusions are so.eti.es .ade to t-in%s and #acts 3r-icneed co..entary 5e#ore t-ey are understood. *llusions are used in di##erent styles8 5ut t-eir #unction is every3-ere t-e sa.e. :-e

decip-erin% o# an allusion8 -o3ever8 is not al3ays easy. In ne3spaper -eadlines allusions .ay 5e decoded at #irst %lance8 as8 #or instanceC L&2ie in t-e sRy& #or Bail.enL / Most people in t-e MS* and +ritain Rno3 t-e re#rain o# t-e 3orRers& son%; Lwou&ll %et pie in t-e sRy 3-en you die.L :-e use o# part o# t-e sentence=re#rain i.plies t-at t-e rail.en -ad 5een %iven .any pro.ises 5ut not-in% at t-e present .o.ent. $in%uistically t-e allusion &pie in t-e sRy& assu.es a ne3 .eanin%8 viS. not-in% 5ut pro.ises. :-rou%- #re9uency o# repetition it .ay enter into t-e 3ord=stocR o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e as a #i%urative synony.s
D'c+):+siti+, +4 S't P/(&s's

$in%uistic #usions are set p-rases8 t-e .eanin% o# 3-ic- is understood only #ro. t-e co.5ination as a 3-ole8 as to pull a person&s le% or to -ave so.et-in% at one&s #in%er tips. :-e .eanin% o# t-e 3-ole cannot 5e derived #ro. t-e .eanin%s o# t-e co.ponent parts. :-e stylistic device o# deco.position o# #used set p-rases consists in revivin% t-e independent .eanin%s 3-ic- .aRe up t-e co.ponent parts o# t-e #usion. In ot-er 3ords8 it .aRes eac- 3ord o# t-e co.5ination ac9uire its literal .eanin% 3-ic-8 o# course8 in .any cases leads to t-e realiSation o# an a5surdity. >ere is an exa.ple o# t-is device as e.ployed 5y DicRens; LMindK I don&t .ean to say t-at I Rno3 o# .y o3n Rno3led%e8 3-at t-ere is particularly dead a5out a door=nail. I .i%-t -ave 5een inclined8 .ysel#8 to re%ard a co##in nail as t-e deadest piece o# iron.on%ery in t-e trade. +ut t-e 3isdo. o# our ancestors is in t-e si.ileC and .y un-allo3ed -ands s-all not distur5 it or t-e 4ountry&s done #or. wou 3ill8 t-ere#ore8 per.it .e to repeat e.p-atically t-at Marley 3as as dead as a door=nail.L (DicRens) *s is seen in t-is excerpt8 t-e #usion &as dead as a door=nail&8 3-ic- si.ply .eans co.pletely dead8 is deco.posed 5y 5ein% used in a di##erent structural pattern. :-is causes t-e violation o# t-e %enerally reco%niSed .eanin% o# t-e co.5ination 3-ic-as %ro3n into a .ere e.otional intensi#ier. :-e reader8 5ein% presented 3it- t-e parts o# t-e unit8 5eco.es a3are o# t-e .eanin%s o# t-e parts8 3-ic-8 5e it repeated8 -ave little in co..on 3it- t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3-ole. ?-en8 as DicRens does8 t-e unit is re=esta5lis-ed in its ori%inal #or.8 t-e p-rase ac9uires a #res- vi%our and e##ect8 9ualities i.portant in t-is utterance 5ecause t-e unit itsel# 3as .eant to carry t-e stron%est possi5le proo# t-at t-e .an 3as actually dead. *not-er exa.ple #ro. t-e sa.e story; LScroo%e -ad o#ten -eard it said t-at .oney -ad no 5o3els8 5ut -e -ad never 5elieved it until no3.L :-e 5o3els (%uts8 intestines) 3ere supposed to 5e t-e seat o# t-e e.otions o# pity and co.passion. +ut -ere DicRens uses t-e p-rase &to -ave no 5o3els& in its literal .eanin%; Scroo%e is looRin% at Marley&s %-ost and does not see any intestines. In t-e sentence LIt 3as rainin% cats and do%s8 and t3o Rittens and a puppy landed on .y 3indo3=sillL (4-esterton) t-e #usion 'o rain cats and do%s& is #res-ened 5y t-e

introduction o# LRittens and a puppy8L 3-ic- c-an%es t-e un.otivated co.5ination into a .etap-or 3-ic- in its turn is sustained.8| :-e exppession &to save one&s 5acon& .eans to escape #ro. inGury or loss. +yron in -is LDon AuanL deco.poses t-is unit 5y settin% it a%ainst t-e 3ord -o% in its lo%ical .eanin%; L+ut -ere I say t-e :urRs 3ere .uc- .istaRen8 ?-o -atin% -o%s8 yet 3is-&d to save t-eir 5acon.&& +yron particularlyA#avoure'd t-e device o# si.ultaneous .aterialiSation o# t3o .eanin%sz t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3-ole set p-rase and t-e independent .eanin%s o# its co.ponents8 3it- t-e result t-at t-e independent .eanin%s unite ane3 and %ive0t-e 3-ole a #res- si%ni#icance. >ere is a %ood exa.ple o# t-e e##ective use o# t-is device. :-e poet .ocRs at t-e a5surd notion o# idealists 3-o deny t-e existence o# every Rind o# .atter 3-atsoever; L?-en +is-op +erRley said; Lt-ere 3as no .atterL *nd proved itc&t3as no .atter 3-at -e said.L (+yron)

PART V SYNTACTICAL EXPRESSIVE MEANS AND STYLISTIC DEVICES

A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ?it-in t-e lan%ua%e=as=a=syste. t-ere esta5lis- t-e.selves certain Qde#inite types o# relations 5et3een 3ords8 3ord=co.5inations8 sentences I and also 5et3een lar%er spans o# utterances. :-e 5ranc- o# lan%ua%e science 3-ic- studies t-e types o# relations 5et3een t-e units enu.erated is called syntax. In t-e do.ain o# syntax8 as -as 5een Gustly pointed out 5y $. *. +ula=R-ovsRy8 it is di##icult to distin%uis- 5et3een 3-at is purely %ra..atical8 i. e. .arRed as correspondin% to t-e esta5lis-ed nor.s8 and 3-at is stylistic8 i. e. s-o3in% so.e Rind o# vacillation o# t-ese nor.s. :-is is particularly evident 3-en 3e 5e%in to analyse lar%er=t-an=t-e=entence units. Generally speaRin%8 t-e exa.ination o# syntax provides a deeper insi%-t into t-e stylistic aspect o# utterances. :-e study o# t-e sentence and its types and especially t-e study o# t-e relations 5et3een di##erent parts o# t-e sentence -as -ad a lon% -istory. B-etoric 3as .ainly en%a%ed in t-e o5servation o# t-e Guxtaposition o# t-e .e.5ers o# t-e sentence and in #indin% 3ays and .eans o# 5uildin% lar%er and .ore ela5orate spans o# utterance8 as8 #or exa.ple8 t-e period or periodical sentence. Modern %ra..ars -ave %reatly extended t-e scope o# structural analysis and -ave taRen under o5servation t-e pecul= iarities o# t-e relations 5et3een t-e .e.5ers o# t-e sentence8 3-ic- so.e-o3 -as overs-ado3ed pro5le.s connected 3it- structural and se.antic patterns o# lar%er syntactical units. It 3ould not 5e an exa%%eration to state t-at t-e study o# units o#

speec- lar%er t-an t-e sentence is still 5ein% ne%lected 5y .any lin%uists. So.e o# t-e. even consider suc- units to 5e extralin%uistic8 t-us excludin% t-e. entirely #ro. t-e do.ain o# lin%uistics. Sty:is tics taRes as t-e o5Gect o# its analysis t-e expressive .eans and stylistic devices o# t-e lan%ua%e 3-ic- are 5ased on so.e si%ni#icant structural point in an utterance8 3-et-er it consists o# one sentence or a strin% o# sentences. In %ra..ar certain types o# utterances -ave already 5een patternedC t-us8 #or exa.ple8 3e -ave all Rinds o# si.ple8 co.pound or co.plex sentences8 even a para%rap- lon%8 t-at .ay 5e re%arded as neutral or non=stylistic patterns. *t t-e sa.e ti.e8 t-e peculiarities o# t-e structural desi%n o# utterances 3-ic- 5ear so.e particular e.otional colourin%8 t-at is8 3-icare stylistic and t-ere#ore non=neutral8 .ay also 5e patterned and presented as a special syste.. Stylistic syntactical patterns .ay 5e vie3ed as variants o# t-e %eneral syntactical .odels o# t-e lan%ua%e and are t-e .ore o5vious and conspicuous i# presented not as isolated ele.ents or accidental usa%es8 5ut as %roups easily o5serva5le and lendin% t-e.selves to %eneraliSation. :-is idea is expressed 5y G. ,. (inoRur in -is L_[]VoY]`t c ^Vo_gVX [\Z]_L 3-ere -e .aintains t-at in syntax it is no ne3 .aterial t-at is coined8 5ut ne3 relations8 5ecause t-e syntactical aspect o# speec- is not-in% .ore t-an a de#inite co.5ination o# %ra..atical #or.s8 and in t-is sense t-e actual 3ords used are essentially i..aterial. :-ere#ore syntactical relations8 particularly in poetic lan%ua%e8 are t-at aspect o# speec- in 3-ic- everyt-in% presents itsel# as actualiSation o# t-e potential and not .erely t-e repetition o# t-e ready=.ade.1 +y Lt-e potentialL O. (inoRur apparently .eans variations o# syntactical patterns. It #ollo3s8 t-ere#ore8 t-at in order to esta5lis- t-e per.issi5le #luctuations o# t-e syntactical nor.8 it is necessary to ascertain 3-at is .eant 5y t-e syntactical nor. itsel#. *s a .atter o# #act any c-an%e in t-e relative positions o# t-e .e.5ers o# t-e sentence .ay 5e re%arded as a variant o# t-e received standard8 provided t-at t-e relation 5et3een t-e. 3ill not -inder t-e understandin% o# t-e utterance. +ut -ere 3e are #aced 3it- t-e indisputa5le interdependence 5et3een #or. and contentC in ot-er 3ords8 5et3een t-e syntactical desi%n o# t-e utterance and its concrete lexical .aterialiSation. Syntactical relations can 5e studied in isolation #ro. se.antic content. In t-is case t-ey are vie3ed as constituents o# t-e 3-ole and assu.e t-eir independent %ra..atical .eanin%. :-is is .ost apparent in #or.s e.5odyin% nonsense lexical units8 as in $e3is 4arroll&s #a.ous lines8 so o#ten 9uoted 5y lin%uists. L:3as 5rillin%8 and t-e slit-y toves . . Did %yre and %i.5ol in t-e 3a5e; *ll .i.sy 3ere t-e 5oro%roves8 *nd t-e .o.e rat-s out%ra5e.L :-e structural ele.ents o# t-ese lines stand out conspicuously and .aRe sense even t-ou%- t-ey8 are .aterialiSed 5y nonsense ele.ents. Moreover8 t-ey i.pose0on t-e .orp-e.es t-ey are attac-ed to a de#inite %ra..atical .eanin% .aRin% it possi5le to

class t-e units. So it is due to t-ese ele.ents t-at 3e can state 3-at t-e nonsense 3ords are supposed to .ean. :-us8 3e Rno3 t-at t-e se9uence o# t-e #or.s #orci5ly su%%ests t-at a#ter t3as 3e s-ould -ave an adGectiveC t-e a in slit-y .aRes t-e 3ord an adGectiveC %yre a#ter t-e e.p-atic did can only 5e a ver5. ?e Rno3 t-at t-is is a poe. 5ecause it -as r-yt-. (ia.5ic tetra.eter) and r-y.e (a5a5 in / tovesc 5oro%rovesC& &3a5ecout%ra5e&). * closer exa.ination o# t-e structural ele.ents 3ill s-o3 t-at t-ey outnu.5er t-e se.antic units; nineteen structural ele.ents and eleven are .eant to 5e se.antic. :-e #ollo3in% in#erences .ay 5e dra3n #ro. t-is #act; 1) it is t-e structural ele.ent o# t-e utterance t-at predeter.ines t-e possi5le se.antic aspectC 2) t-e structural ele.ents -ave t-eir o3n independent .eanin% 3-ic- .ay 5e called structural or8 .ore 3idely8 %ra..aticalC !) t-e structural .eanin% .ay a##ect t-e lexical8 %ivin% contextual .eanin% to so.e o# t-e lexical units. B. PROBLEMS CONCERNING T(E COMPOSITION O' SPANS O' UTTERANCE LARGER T(AN T(E SENTENCE In recent years a ne3 t-eory concernin% t-e inner relations 5et3een context and #or. 3it-in t-e sentence -as appeared. :-is t-eory8 ela5orated 5y S. >arris8 N. 4-o.sRy8 M. 2ostal and ot-ers8 is called Generative Gra..ar. It .aintains t-at %ra..ar .ust not only descri5e t-e la3s 3-ic- re%ulate t-e #unctionin% o# lin%uistic units 5ut .ust also 5e capa5le o# %eneratin% ne3 sentences. L* %ra..ar o# t-is Rind8L 3rites Ao-n $yons8 Lis &predictive& in t-at it esta5lis-es as %ra..atical8 not only &actual& sentences8 5ut also &potential& sentences.L l :-e re#erence to $yons&s state.ent -as direct 5earin% on t-e pro5le.s o# stylistic syntax. :-e #act is8 as 3ill 5e seen later8 t-at any one o# t-e syntactical SDs is capa5le o# %eneratin% an unli.ited nu.5er o# sentences 3it-in t-e %iven pattern. >o3ever8 accordin% to ort-odox %enerative %ra..ar8 so.e o# t-e. are re%arded as &ill=#or.ed& and even &un%ra.=.atical& inas.uc- as t-ey #ail to .eet t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e 5asic (Rernel) structures. :-e t-eory #urt-er .aintains t-at t-ere are t3o Rinds o# structures c a deep structure and a sur#ace structure. :-e latter are t-e actual sentences produced 5y t-e #or.er8 3-ic- is not presented in lan%ua%e units and t-ere#ore uno5serva5le. Mention o# t-is t-eory is .ade -ere8 #irstly8 5ecause in .odern sty=listics atte.pts are 5ein% .ade to 5uild up a %ra..ar 3-ic- 3ould %enerate deviant constructions and t-us 5roaden t-e li.its o# t-e &3ell=#or.ed& sentences 3-ic- are re%arded as t-e only ones t-at are &%ra..atical&. *not-er reason is t-at trans#or.ation8 one o# t-e 5asic .et-ods e.ployed in %enerative %ra..ars8 is very e##ectively used in stylistics 3-en it is necessary to #ind t-e stylistic .eanin% o# t-is or t-at sentence structure. * t-ird reason is t-at %enerative %ra..ars ai. at reconstructin% t-e processes connected 3it-

t-e #or.ation o# sentences. :-is -as direct 5earin% on t-e interpretation o# syntactical SDs and particularly on t-eir lin%uistic nature. :-is t-eory ena5les t-e interpreter to looR at a sentence #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# 3-at is &5e-ind& t-e sentence. *s A. 2. :-orne states8 LGenerative %ra..ar is i.portant to stylistics 5ecause in addition to t-ese&sur#ace structure& #acts8 it is concerned 3it- t-e so=called &deep structure& aspects o# lan%ua%e8 t-at is8 t-ose #acts a5out lin%uistic structure 3-ic- cannot 5e directly related to 3-at can 5e o5served. Most stylistic Gud%e.ents relate to deep structure.L1 It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e so=called %enerative %ra..ar is not so striRin%ly ne3. :-is is also noted 5y t-e 3ell=Rno3n lin%uists Ao-n $yons and D. +olin%er8 2 3-o state positively t-at t-ere is not-in% ne3 in t-e t-eory o# %enerative %ra..ar. *not-er develop.ent in lin%uistics also -avin% direct 5earin% on t-e pro5le.s 3-icconcern us 3-en dealin% 3it- syntactical SDs8 is &text=lin%uistics&8 as it is called. :-is develop.ent8 3-ic- as yet -as not 5een #or.ed as a separate t-eory8 ai.s at investi%atin% t-e o5Gective criteria concernin% 3ays and .eans o# constructin% texts o# di##erent Rinds and %enres. ! "or t-is purpose it is #irst o# all necessary to #ind t-e ele.ents into 3-ic- any text .ay #all. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ere .ust 5e certain constituent units o# 3-ic- any text is co.posed. 2-one.es8 t-e s.allest lan%ua%e units8 #unction 3it-in .orp-e.es and are dependent on t-e.8 .orp-e.es #unction 3it-in 3ords8 3ords c 3it-in sentences8 and sentences #unction in lar%er structural #ra.es 3-ic- 3e s-all call Lsupra=p-rasal unitsL. 4onse9uently8 neit-er 3ords nor separate sentences can 5e re%arded as t-e 5asic constituents o# a text. :-ey are t-e 5asic units o# lo3er levels o# lan%ua%e=as=a= syste.8 as is s-o3n a5ove.
S1:(&2P/(&s&l U,its

:-e ter. supra=p-rasal unit (S2M) is used to denote a lar%er unit t-an a sentence. It %enerally co.prises a nu.5er o# sentences interdependent structurally (usually 5y .eans o# pronouns8 connectives8 tense=#or.s) and se.antically (one de#inite t-ou%-t is dealt 3it-). Suc- a span o# utterance is also c-aracteriSed 5y t-e #act t-at it can 5e extracted #ro. t-e context 3it-out losin% its relative se.antic independence. :-is cannot 5e said o# t-e sentence8 3-ic-8 3-ile representin% a co.plete syntactical unit8 .ay8 -o3ever8 lacR t-e 9uality o# independence. * sentence #ro. t-e stylistic point o# vie3 does not necessarily express one idea8 as it is de#ined in .ost .anuals o# %ra..ar. It .ay express only part o# one idea. :-us t-e sentence; LGuy %lanced at -is 3i#e&s untouc-ed plateL8 i# taRen out o# t-e context8 3ill 5e perceived as a part o# a lar%er span o# utterance 3-ere t-e situation 3ill 5e .ade clear and t-e purport o# ver5al expression .ore co.plete. >ere is t-e co.plete S2M.
Guy glanced at his wife's untouched plate.

"If you've finished, we might stroll down. I think you ought to be starting." She did not answer. She rose from the table. She went into her room to see that nothing had been forgotten and then side by side with him walked down the steps. (Somerset augham!

:-e next sentence o# t-e para%rap- 5e%ins; L* little 3indin% pat-...L :-is is o5viously t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e next S2M. So a supra=p-rasal unit .ay 5e de#ined as a co.5ination o# sentences presentin% a structural and se.antic unity 5acRed up 5y r-yt-.ic and .elodic unity. *ny S2M 3ill lose its unity i# it su##ers 5reaRin%. +ut 3-at are t-e principles on 3-ic- t-e sin%lin% out o# an S2M can 5e .aintainedz In order to %ive an ans3er to t-is 9uestion8 it is #irst o# all necessary to deepen our understandin% o# t-e ter. utterance. *s a stylistic ter. t-e 3ord &utterance& .ust 5e expanded. *ny utterance #ro. a stylistic point o# vie3 3ill serve to denote a certain span o# speec- (lan%ua%e=in=action) in 3-ic- 3e .ay o5serve co-erence8 interdependence o# t-e ele.ents8 one de#inite idea8 and last 5ut not least8 t-e purport o# t-e 3riter. :-e purport is t-e ai. t-at t-e 3riter sets 5e#ore -i.sel#8 3-ic- is to .aRe t-e desired i.pact on t-e reader. So t-e ai. o# any utterance is a care#ully t-ou%-t=out i.pact. Syntactical units are connected to ac-ieve t-e desired e##ect and it is o#ten 5y t-e .anner t-ey are connected t-at t-e desired e##ect is secured. $et us taRe t-e #ollo3in% para%rap- #or analysis;
"". #ut a day or two later the doctor was not feeling well. $. %e had an internal malady that troubled him now and then, but he was used to it and disinclined to talk about it. &. 'hen he had one of his attacks, he only wanted to be left alone. (. %is cabin was small and stuffy, so he settled himself on a long chair on deck and lay with his eyes closed. ). iss *eid was walking up and down to get the half hour's e+ercise she took morning and evening. ,. %e thought that if he pretended to be asleep she would not disturb him. -. #ut when she had passed him half a do.en times she stopped in front of him and'stood /uite still. 0. 1hough he kept his eyes closed he knew that she was looking at him." (Somerset augham!

:-is para%rap- consists o# ei%-t sentences8 all .ore or less independentz :-e #irst t-ree sentences8 -o3ever8 s-o3 a considera5le de%ree I o# se.antic interdependence. :-is can 5e in#erred #ro. t-e use o# t-e #ollo3in% cluster o# concepts associated 3it- eac- ot-er; &not #eelin% I 3eir8 &internal .alady&8 &one o# -is attacRs&. Eac- p-rase is t-e Rey to t-e sentence in 3-ic- it occurs. :-ere are no #or.al connectives8 t-e connection is .ade apparent 5y purely se.antic .eans. :-ese t-ree sentences constitute an S2M 5uilt 3it-in t-e lar%er #ra.e3orR o# t-e para%rap-. :-e #ourt- sentence is se.antically independent o# t-e precedin% t-ree. It see.s at #irst %lance not to 5elon% to t-e para%rap- at all. :-e #act t-at t-e doctor&s&ca5in 3as s.all and stu##y& and t-at &-e settled -i.sel#... on decR& does not see. to 5e necessarily connected 3it- t-e t-ou%-t expressed in t-e precedin% S2M. +ut on a .ore care#ul analysis one can clearly see -o3 all #our sentences are actually interconnected. :-e linRin% sentence is '-e only 3anted to 5e le#t alone&. So t-e 3ords _a 3it- -is eyes closed& 3it- 3-ic- t-e #ourt- sentence ends8 are se.antically connected 5ot- 3it- t-e idea o# 5ein% le#t alone and 3it- t-e idea expressed in t-e sentence; &>e t-ou%-t t-at i#

-e pretended to 5e asleep s-e 3ould not distur5 -i..& +ut 5et3een t-is sentence and its se.antic linRs May 3it- -is eyes closed& and &3anted to 5e le#t alone&8 t-e sentence a5out Miss Beid t-rusts itsel# in. :-is is not irrelevant to t-e 3-ole situation and to t-e purport o# t-e 3riter8 3-o leads us to understand t-at t-e doctor 3as disinclined to talR to any5ody and pro5a5ly to Miss Beid in particular. So t-e 3-ole o# t-e para%rap- -as t-ere#ore se.antic and structural 3-oleness. It can8 -o3ever8 5e split into t3o S2Ms 3it- a linRin% sentence 5et3een t-e.. Sentence can 5e re%arded as an S2M8 inas.uc- as it enGoys considera5le independence 5ot- se.antically and structurally. Sentences 18 7 and @ are structurally and t-ere#ore se.antically inter3oven. +ut 3-en and t-ou%- in t-e sevent- and ei%-t- sentences are t-e structural ele.ents 3-ic- linR all t-ree sentences into one S2M. It #ollo3s t-en t-at an S2M can 5e e.5odied in a sentence i# t-e sentence .eets t-e re9uire.ents o# t-is co.positional unit. Most epi%ra.s are S2Ms #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-eir se.antic unity8 t-ou%- t-ey #ail to .eet t-e %eneral structural re9uire.ent8 viS. to 5e represented in a nu.5er o# sentences. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 an S2M8 t-ou%- usually a co.ponent part o# t-e para%rap-8 .ay occupy t-e 3-ole o# t-e para%rap-. In t-is case 3e say t-at t-e S2M coincides 3it- t-e para%rap-. It is i.portant to point out t-at t-is structural unit8 in its particular 3ay o# arran%in% ideas8 5elon%s al.ost exclusively to t-e 5elles=lettres style8 t-ou%- it .ay 5e .et 3it- to so.e extent in t-e pu5licistic style. ,t-er styles8 Gud%in% 5y t-eir reco%niSed leadin% #eatures8 do not re9uire t-is .ode o# arran%in% t-e parts o# an utterance except in rare cases 3-ic- .ay 5e ne%lected. & $et us taRe a passa%e #ro. anot-er piece o# 5elles=lettres style8 a para%rap#ro. *ldin%ton&s LDeat- o# a >ero.L It is a para%rap- easy to su5.it to stylistic and se.antic analysis; it #alls naturally into several S2Ms.
"". 2fter dinner they ,sat about and smoked. $. George took his chair over to the open window and looked down on the lights and movement of 3iccadilly.4&. 1he noise of the traffic was lulled by the height to a long continuous rumble. (. 1he placards of the evening papers along the railings beside the *it. were sensational and bellicose. ). 1he party dropped the sub5ect of a possible great war6 after deciding that there wouldn't be one, there couldn't. ,. George, who had great faith in r. #obbe's political acumen, glanced through his last article, and took great comfort from the fact that #obbe said there wasn't going to be a war. -. It was all a scare, a stock market ramp... 0. 2t that moment three or four people came in, more or less together, though they were in separate parties. 7. 8ne of them was a youngish man in immaculate evening dress. "9. 2s he shook hands with his host, George heard him say rather e+citedly, "I've 5ust been dining with..."

*nalysis o# t-is para%rap- 3ill s-o3 -o3 co.plicated t-e co.position o# 5elles=lettres syntactical units is. :-ere is no dou5t t-at8t-ere is a de#inite se.antic unity in t-e para%rap-. :-e .ain idea is t-e anxiety and uncertainty o# En%lis- society 5e#ore ?orld ?ar I as to 3-et-er t-ere 3ould 5e8 or 3ould not 5e8 a 3ar. +ut around

t-is .ain sense=axis t-ere centre a nu.5er o# utterances 3-ic- present .ore or less independent spans o# t-ou%-t. :-us8 3e can easily sin%le out t-e %roup o# sentences 3-ic- 5e%ins 3it- t-e 3ords &*#ter dinner& and ends 3it- &...and 5ellicose&. :-is part o# t-e text presents8 as it 3ere8 t-e 5acR%round a%ainst 3-ic- t-e purport o# t-e aut-or stands out .ore clearly8 t-e last sentence o# t-is S2M preparin% t-e reader #or t-e .ain idea o# t-e para%rap-ct-e possi5ility o# 3arc3-ic- is e.5odied in t-e next supra= p-rasal unit. :-is second S2M 5e%ins 3it- t-e 3ords &:-e party dropped t-e su5Gect o# a possi5le %reat 3ar& and ends 3it- &...a stocR .arRet ra.p...&. It is .ade structurally independent 5y t-e introduction o# ele.ents o# uttered represented speec- (see p. 2!@)8 t-e contractions 3ouldn&t8 couldn&t8 3asn&t8 t-e purely collo9uial syntactical desi%n t-ere 3ouldn&t 5e one8 t-ere couldn&t8 t-e collo9uial 3ord scare. :-e s-i#t to t-e t-ird S2M is indicated 5y t-e dots a#ter t-e 3ord ra.p (...). >ere a%ain it is t-e aut-or 3-o speaRs8 t-ere are no #urt-er ele.ents o# represented speec-8 t-e s-i#t 5ein% rat-er a5rupt8 5ecause Geor%e&s t-ou%-ts 3ere interrupted 5y t-e entrance o# t-e ne3co.ers. :-e connectin% &*t t-at .o.ent& so#tens t-e a5ruptness. :-e aut-or&s purport %ro3s apparent t-rou%- t-e interrelationc an interrelation 3-ic- see.s to 5e or%anicc5et3een t-e t-ree S2Ms; sensational and 5ellicose placards in t-e streets o# $ondon8 t-e anxiety o# t-e people at t-e party8 t-e conviction 5acRed up 5y suc- a reassurin% ar%u.ent as Mr. +o55e&s article t-at t-ere 3as not %oin% to #ee a 3ar8 and t-e ne3 %uests 5rin%in% unexpected ne3s. S2Ms are not al3ays so easily discerni5le as t-ey are in t-is para%rap- #ro. L:-e Deat- o# a >eroL. Due to individual peculiarities in co.5inin% ideas into a %rap-ical (and t-at .eans 5ot- syntactical and se.antic) unity8 t-ere .ay 5e considera5le variety in t-e arran%e.ent o# S2Ms and o# para%rap-s8 ran%in% #ro. 3-at .i%-t 5e called clearly=.arRed 5orderlines 5et3een t-e supra=p-rasal unit to al.ost i.percepti5le se.antic s-i#ts. Indeed8 it is o#ten #ro. .aRin% a co.parison 5et3een t-e 5e%innin% and t-e end o# a para%rap- t-at one can in#er t-at it contains separate S2Ms. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e para%rap-s in t-e 5elles=lettres prose style do not necessarily possess t-e 9ualities o# unity and co-erence as is t-e case 3it- para%rap-s in ot-er styles o# speec- and particularly in t-e scienti#ic prose style. S2Ms are to 5e #ound in particular in poetical style. >ere t-e S2Ms8 as 3ell as t-e para%rap-s8 are e.5odied in stanSas. Due to t-e .ost typical se.antic property o# any poetical 3orR8 viS. 5revity o# expression8 t-ere arises t-e need to co.5ine ideas so t-at see.in%ly independent utterances .ay 5e inte%rated into one poetical unity8 viS. a stanSa. $et us taRe #or analysis t-e #ollo3in% stanSa #ro. S-elley&s poe. L:-e 4loudL;
"I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers :rom the seas and the streams6 I bear light shade for the leaves when laid In their noon4day dreams. :rom my wings are shaken the dews that waken 1he sweet buds every one, 'hen rocked to rest on their mother's breast,

2s she dances about the sun. I wield the flail of the lashing hail, 2nd whiten the green plains under6 2nd then again I dissolve it in rain, 2nd laugh as I pass in thunder."

>ere t-ere are t-ree S2Ms separated 5y #ull stops. ?it-in t-e #irst8 3-ic- co.prises #our lines8 t-ere are t3o .ore or less independent units divided 5y a se.icolon and inte%rated 5y parallel constructions (I 5rin% #res- s-o3ersC I 5ear li%-t s-ade). ?it-in t-e second S2Mcalso #our linesct-ere are also t3o interdependent ideasct-e 5uds a3aRened 5y t-e de3s and t-e eart- .ovin% around t-e sun. :-ese are stron%ly 5ound to%et-er 5y t-e #or.al ele.ents 3-en and as #or.in% one co.plex sentence and an S2M. :-e #or.al .eans used to connect di##erent spans o# utterance a##ect t-eir se.antic inte%rity. :-e t-ree S2Ms o# t-e stanSa are united 5y one ideac t-e use#ulness o# t-e cloud %ivin% all Rind o# co.#ort8 -ere .oisture and s-ade8 to 3-at is %ro3in%../ s-o3ers8 s-ade8 de3s8 -ail8 rain. :-e S2Ms in sonnets 9#e0 especially .ani#est. :-is is due to t-eir strict structural and se.antic rules o# co.position.
T/' P&(&.(&:/

* p a r a % r a p - is a %rap-ical ter. used to na.e a %roup o# sentences .arRed o## 5y indentation at t-e 5e%innin% and a 5reaR in t-e line at t-e end. +ut t-is %rap-ical ter. -as co.e to .ean a distinct portion o# a 3ritten discourse s-o3in% an internal unity. *s a lin%uistic cate%ory t-e para%rap- is a unit o# utterance .arRed o## 5y purely lin%uistic .eans; intonation8 pauses o# various len%t-s8 se.antic ties 3-iccan 5e disclosed 5y scrupulous analysis o# t-e .orp-olo%ical aspect and .eanin% o# t-e co.ponent parts8 etc. It -as already 5een stated else3-ere t-at t-e lo%ical aspect o# an utterance 3ill al3ays 5e 5acRed up 5y purely lin%uistic .eans causin%8 as it 3ere8 an indivisi5le unity o# extralin=%uistic and intralin%uistic approac-. +earin% t-is in .ind8 3e s-all not dra3 a .arR o# de.arcation 5et3een t-e lo%ical and t-e lin%uistic analysis o# an utterance8 5ecause t-e para%rap- is a lin%uistic expression o# a lo%ical8 pra%.atic and aest-etic arran%e.ent o# t-ou%-t. 2ara%rap- structure is not al3ays 5uilt on lo%ical principles alone8 as is %enerally t-e case in t-e style o# scienti#ic prose. In t-e 5uildin% o# para%rap-s in ne3spaper style8 ot-er re9uire.ents are taRen into consideration8 #or instance8 psyc-olo%ical principles8 in particular t-e sensational e##ect o# t-e co..unication and t-e %raspin% capacity o# t-e reader #or 9uicR readin%. 4onsiderations o# space also play _j i.portant part. :-is latter consideration so.eti.es overrules t-e necessity #or lo%ical arran%e.ent and results in 5reaRin% t-e .ain rule o# para%rap- 5uildin%8 i.e. t-e unity o# idea. :-us8 a 5rie# note containin% in#or.ation a5out an oil treaty is cra..ed into one sentence8 it 5ein%8 in its turn8 a para%rap-; L:-e revised version o# an international oil treaty is to=day 5e#ore t-e Senate Belation 4o..ittee8 3-ic- recently .ade it clear t-at t-e *n%lo=*.erican oil treaty

ne%otiated last *u%ust 3ould not reac- t-e Senate #loor #or rati#ication8 5ecause o# o5Gections 5y t-e *.erican oil industry to it.L 2ara%rap- 5uildin% in t-e style o# o##icial docu.ents is .ainly %overned 5y t-e particular conventional #or.s o# docu.ents (c-arters8 pacts8 diplo.atic docu.ents8 5usiness letters8 le%al docu.ents and t-e liRe). >ere para%rap-s .ay so.eti.es e.5ody 3-at are %ra..atically called a nu.5er o# parallel clauses8 3-ic#or t-e saRe o# t-e 3-oleness o# t-e entire docu.ent are .ade #or.ally su5ordinate8 3-ereas in reality t-ey are independent ite.s. (See exa.ples in t-e c-apter on o##icial style8 p. !12.) 2ara%rap- structure in t-e 5elles=lettres and pu5licistic styles is stron%ly a##ected 5y t-e purport o# t-e aut-or. :o secure t-e desired i.pact8 a 3riter #inds it necessary to %ive details and illustrations8 to introduce co.parisons and contrasts8 to %ive additional reasons and8 #inally8 to expand t-e topic 5y looRin% at it #ro. di##erent an%les and parap-rasin% t-e idea. >e .ay8 especially in t-e pu5licistic style8 introduce t-e testi.ony o# so.e aut-ority on t-e su5Gect and even deviate #ro. t-e .ain topic 5y recountin% an anecdote or even a s-ort story to ease .ental e##ort and #acilitate understandin% o# t-e co..unication. :-e len%t- o# a para%rap- nor.ally varies #ro. ei%-t to t3elve sentences. :-e lon%er t-e para%rap- is8 t-e .ore di##icult it is to #ollo3 t-e purport o# t-e 3riter. In ne3spaper style8 -o3ever8 .ost para%rap-s consist o# one or per-aps t3o or t-ree sentences. 2ara%rap-s o# a purely lo%ical type .ay 5e analysed #ro. t-e 3ay t-e t-ou%-t o# t-e 3riter develops. *tte.pts -ave 5een .ade to classi#y para%rap-s #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-e lo%ical se9uence o# t-e sentences. :-us8 in .anuals on t-e art o# co.position t-ere are .odels o# para%rap-s 5uilt on di##erent principles; 1) #ro. t-e %eneral to t-e particular8 or #ro. t-e particular to t-e %eneralC 2) on t-e inductive or deductive principleC !) #ro. cause to e##ect8 or #ro. e##ect to causeC ') on contrast8 or co.parison. So t-e para%rap- is a co.positional device ai.ed eit-er at #acilitatin% t-e process o# appre-endin% 3-at is 3ritten8 or inducin% a certain reaction on t-e part o# t-e reader. :-is reaction is %enerally ac-ieved 5y intentionally %roupin% t-e ideas so as to s-o3 t-eir interdependence or interrelation. :-at is 3-y t-e para%rap-8 #ro. a .ere co.positional device8 turns into a stylistic one. It discloses t-e 3riter&s .anner o# depictin% t-e #eatures o# t-e o5Gect or p-eno.enon descri5ed. It is in t-e para%rapt-at t-e .ain #unction o# t-e 5elles=lettres style 5eco.es .ost apparent8 t-e .ain #unction8 as 3ill 5e s-o3n 5elo38 5ein% aest-etico=co%nitive and pra%.atic. In t-e para%rap- #ro. t-e LDeat- o# a >eroL8 as 3e sa38 t-ere are t-ree S2Ms 3-ic- to%et-er constitute one para%rap-. I# 3e 3ere to convert t-e passa%e into one o# t-e .atter=o#=#act styles it 3ould 5e necessary to split it into t-ree para%rap-s. +ut *ldin%ton #ound it necessary to co.5ine all t-e sentences into one para%rap-8 evidently seein% closer connections 5et3een t-e parts t-an t-ere 3ould 5e in a .ere

i.personal8 less e.otional account o# t-e events descri5ed. :-e para%rap- in so.e styles8 suc- as scienti#ic8 pu5licistic and so.e ot-ers8 %enerally -as a topic sentence8 i. e. a sentence 3-ic- e.5odies t-e .ain idea o# t-e para%rap- or 3-ic- .ay 5e interpreted as a Rey=sentence disclosin% t-e c-ie# t-ou%-t o# t-e 3riter. In lo%ical prose t-e topic sentence is8 as a rule8 placed eit-er at t-e 5e%innin% or at t-e end o# t-e para%rap-8 dependin% on t-e lo%ical pattern on 3-ict-e para%rap- is 5uilt. In t-e 5elles=lettres style t-e topic sentence .ay 5e placed in any part o# t-e para%rap-. It 3ill depend on -o3 t-e 3riter seeRs to ac-ieve -is e##ect. :-us in t-e para%rap- 3e -ave 5een re#errin% to8 t-e topic sentence (&:-e party dropped t-e su5Gect o# a possi5le %reat 3ar8 a#ter decidin% t-at t-ere 3ouldn&t 5e one8 t-ere couldn&t&) is placed in t-e .iddle o# t-e para%rap-. :-e parts t-at precede and #ollo3 t-e topic sentence correspondin%ly=lead to #t ,&t-e placards...&) and develop it (&Geor%e8 3-o...&). :-e topic sentence itsel#8 5ein% 5ased on uttered represented speec-8 is stylistically a very e##ective device to s-o3 t-at t-e conclusion (no 3ar) 3as not 5ased on sound lo%ical ar%u.ent8 5ut .erely on t-e s.all talR o# t-e party (&t-ere 3ouldn&t&8 &t-ere couldn&t&). >o3ever8 para%rap- 5uildin% in 5elles=lettres prose %enerally lacRs unity8 inas.uc- as it Is'%ove#ned 5y ot-er t-an lo%ical=principles8 t3o o# t-e re9uire.ents 5ein% e.otiveness and a natural representation o# t-e situation depicted. >ence it= is so.eti.es i.possi5le to decide 3-ic- sentence s-ould 5e re%arded as t-e topic one. Eac- S2M o# several co.5ined into one para%rap- .ay -ave its o3n topic sentence or 5e a topic sentence. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ere are no topic sentences in e.otive prose as a rule8 t-ou%- t-ere .ay 5e so.e para%rap-s 3it- one due to t-e prevalence o# t-e lo%ical ele.ent over t-e e.otional or t-e aest-etic. In pu5licistic style para%rap-s are 5uilt on .ore apparent lo%ical principles8 t-is style 5ein% inter.ediate 5et3een t-e 5elles=lettres and t-e scienti#ic style. $et us su5Gect to stylistic analysis t-e #ollo3in% para%rap- #ro. Macaulay&s essay on ,liver Golds.it-; L?-ile Golds.it- 3as 3ritin% L:-e Deserted (illa%eL and LS-e Stoops to 4on9uer8L -e 3as e.ployed in 3orRs o# a very di##erent Rind8 3orRs #ro. 3-ic- -e derived little reputation 5ut .uc- pro#it. >e co.piled #or t-e use o# sc-ools a L>istory o# Bo.e8L 5y 3-ic- -e .ade ~ !77C a L>istory o# En%land8L 5y 3-ic- -e .ade ~ 177C a L>istory o# Greece8L #or 3-ic- -e received ~2 7C a LNatural >istory8L #or 3-ic- t-e 5ooR=sellers covenanted to pay -i. @77 %uineas. :-ese 3orRs -e produced 3it-out any ela5orate researc-8 5y .erely selectin%8 a5rid%in% and trans= latin% into -is o3n clear8 pure8 and #lo3in% lan%ua%e 3-at -e #ound in 5ooRs 3ell Rno3n to t-e 3orld8 5ut too 5ulRy or too dry #or 5oys and %irls. >e co..itted so.e stran%e 5lundersC #or -e Rne3 not-in% 3it- accuracy. :-us in -is L>istory o# En%landL -e tells us t-at Nase5y is in worRs-ireC nor did -e correct t-is .istaRe 3-en t-e 5ooR 3as reprinted. >e 3as nearly -oaxed into puttin% into t-e L>istory o# GreeceL an account o# a 5attle 5et3een *lexander t-e Great and MonteSu.a. In -is L*ni.ated NatureL -e relates8 3it- #ait- and 3it- per#ect %ravity8 all t-e .ost a5surd lies 3-ic- -e could #ind in 5ooRs o# travels a5out %i%antic 2ata%onians8 .onReys t-at

preac- ser.ons8 ni%-tin%ales t-at repeat lon% con/ versations. LI# -e can tell a -orse #ro. a co38L said Ao-nson8 Lt-at is t-e extent o# -is Rno3led%e o# Soolo%y.L >o3 little Golds.it- 3as 9uali#ied to 3rite a5out t-e p-ysical sciences is su##iciently proved 5y t3o anecdotes. >e on one occasion denied t-at t-e sun is lon%er in t-e nort-ern/ t-an in t-e sout-ern si%ns. It 3as vain to cite t-e aut-ority o# Maupertuis. LMaupertuisKL -e criedC LI understand t-ose .atters 5etter t-an Maupertuis.L ,n anot-er occasion -e8 in de#iance o# t-e evidence o# -is o3n senses .aintained o5stinately8 and even an%rily8 t-at -e c-e3ed -is dinner 5y .ovin% -is upper Ga3. wet8 i%norant as Golds.it- 3as8 #e3 3riters -ave done .ore to .aRe t-e #irst steps in t-e la5orious road to Rno3led%e easy and pleasant...L = . :-e topic sentence o# t-is para%rap- is placed at t-e 5e%innin%. It consists o# t3o ideas presented in a co.plex sentence 3it- a su5ordinate clause o# ti.e. :-e idea o# t-e topic sentence is e.5odied in t-e .ain clause 3-ic- states t-at Golds.itderived &little reputation 5ut .uc- pro#it& out o# so.e o# -is 3orRs. :-e su5ordinate clause o# ti.e is used -ere as a linRin% sentence 5et3een t-e precedin% para%rap3-ic- deals 3it- L:-e Deserted (illa%eL and LS-e Stoops to 4on9uerL and t-e one under scrutiny. :-e next para%rap- o# t-e passa%e8 as t-e reader -as undou5tedly o5served8 5e%ins 3it- a ne3 topic sentence and is 5uilt on t-e sa.e structural .odel; t-e su5ordinate clause su.s up t-e idea o# t-e precedin% para%rap- (&wet8 i%norant as Golds.it- 3as&)8 and t-e .ain clause introduces a ne3 idea. :-is pattern is .aintained t-rou%-out t-e essay and8 5y t-e 3ay8 in .ost o# Macaulay&s essays. :-is easy8 #lo3in% .anner o# exposition -as a -i%- de%ree o# predicta5ility. :-e reader8 -avin% read t-e #irst sentence and 5ein% conscious o# t-e aut-or&s .anner o# 5uildin% para%rap-s8 3ill not #ail to %rasp t-e %ist o# t-e passa%e at once. It is interestin% to point out -o3 Macaulay develops t-e idea expressed in t-e topic sentence. >e 3is-ed to s-o3 3-y Golds.it- derived 1) &little reputation& and 2) &.uc- pro#it& #ro. certain o# -is 3orRs. ,# t-e t3o8 Macaulay considers t-e #or.er to 5e undou5tedly .ore si%ni#icant t-an t-e latter. :-at is 3-y -e 5e%ins 3itinsi%ni#icant detailsc enu.eratin% Golds.it-&s pro#its8 and t-en devotes all t-e rest o# t-e para%rap- to instances o# Golds.it-&s i%norance. * para%rap- in certain styles is a dialo%ue (3it- t-e reader) in t-e #or. o# a .onolo%ue. :-e 5reaRin%=up o# a piece o# 3ritin% into para%rap-s can 5e re%arded as an expression o# consideration #or t-e reader on t-e part o# t-e aut-or. It .ani#ests itsel# in t-e aut-or&s 5ein% a3are o# li.its in t-e reader&s capacity #or perceivin% and a5sor5in% in#or.ation. :-ere#ore para%rap-s in .atter=o#=#act styles8 as in scienti#ic prose8 o##icial docu.ents and so on8 are clear8 precise8 lo%ically co-erent8 and possess unity8 i. e. express one .ain t-ou%-t. 2ara%rap-s in e.otive prose are co.5inations o# t-e lo%ical and t-e e.otional. :-e ai. o# t-e aut-or in 5reaRin% up t-e narrative into para%rap-s is not only to #acilitate understandin% 5ut also #or e.p-asis. :-at is 3-y para%rap-s in t-e 5elles=lettres prose are so.eti.es 5uilt on contrast or on cli.ax8 as is t-e para%rap- #ro. L* 4-rist.as 4arolL 5y DicRens8 9uoted on p. 227.

:-e para%rap- as a unit o# utterance8 is so #ar entirely t-e do.ain o# stylistics. wet t-ere are o5vious #eatures o# a purely syntactical c-aracter in t-e para%rap- 3-ic.ust not 5e overlooRed. :-at is 3-y t-ere is every reason to study t-e para%rap- in syntax o# t-e lan%ua%e 3-ere not only t-e sentence 5ut also lar%er units o# co..unication s-ould 5e under o5servation. :-is 3ould co.e under 3-at 3e .ay call t-e &.acro=syntax& o# t-e lan%ua%e. C. COMPOSITIONAL PATTERNS O' SYNTACTICAL ARRANGEMENT :-e structural syntactical aspect is so.eti.es re%arded as t-e crucial issue in stylistic analysis8 alt-ou%- t-e peculiarities o# syntactical arran%e.ent are not so conspicuous as t-e lexical and p-raseolo%ical properties o# t-e utterance. Syntax is #i%uratively called t-e Lsine3s o# styleL. Structural syntactical stylistic d e v i Y i s are in special relations 3it- t-e intonation involved. 2ro#. 2es-RovsRy points out t-at t-ere is an interdependence 5et3een t-e intonation and syntactical properties o# t-e sentence8 3-ic- .ay 5e 3orded in t-e #ol= lo3in% .anner; t-e Gnore explicitly t-e0structural syntactical relations are expressed8 t-e 3eaRer 3ill 5e t-e intonation=pattern o# t-e utterance (tc:co.plete disappearance) and vice=versa8 t-e stron%er t-eb iritonalion8 t-e 3eaRer %ro3 t-e evident syntactical relations (also to co.plete disappearance) l. :-is can 5e illustrated 5y .eans o# t-e #ollo3in% t3o nairs o# sentences; &,nly a#ter dinner did I .aRe up .y .ind to %o t-ere& and &I .ade up .y .ind to %o t-ere only a#ter dinner.1 &It 3as in +uc-arest t-at t-e t- International 4on%ress o# $in%uists tooR place& and&:-e t- International 4on%ress o# $in%uists tooR place in +uc-arest.& :-e second sentences in t-ese pairs can 5e .ade e.p-atic only 5y inton##ionbLt:ieb:rrs:sentences are .ade e.p-atic 5Gr.eari0ortlie0 sy-= =##i##i#i00 I...& and &It 3as... t-atLz..& cc:-eLLbpro5le. o# syntactical stylistic devices appears to 5e closely linRed not only 3it- 3-at .aRes an utterance .ore e.p-atic 5ut also 3Gt- t-e .ore %eneral pro5le. o# predication. *s is Rno3n8 t-e En%lis- a##ir.ative sentence is re%arded as neutral i# it .aintains t-e re%ular 3p"d;1#der80i.e. su5Gectcpredicateco5Gect (or ot-er secondary .e.=WP o# t-e Lsentence8 as t-ey are called). *ny ot-er order o# t-e parts o# t-e sentence .ay also carry t-e necessary in#or.ation8 5ut t-e i.pact on t-e reader 3ill 5e di##erent. Even a sli%-t c-an%e in t-e 3ord=order o# a sentence or in t-e order o# t-e sentences in a .ore co.plicated syntactical unit 3ill inevita5ly cause a de#inite .odi#ication o# t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3-ole. *n al.ost i.percepti5le r-yt-.ical desi%n introduced into a prose sentence8 or a sudden 5reaR in t-e se9uence o# t-e parts o# t-e sentence8 or any ot-er c-an%e03ill add so.et-in% to t-e volu.e o# in#or.ation contained in t-e ori%inal sentence. MnliRe t-e syntactical expressive .eans o# t-e lan%ua%e8 3-ic- are naturally used in discourse in a strai%-t=#or3ard natural .anner8 syntactical stylistic de0I1c%s|GrNe|%00ve' as ela5orate desi%ns ai.ea al -avin%8 Ga.>e#iii0

Lany SD is .eant to 5e understood as a device and is calculated to produce a desired stylistic e##ect. ?-en vie3in% t-e stylistic #unctions o# di##erent syntactical desi%ns 3e .ust #irst o# all taRe into consideration t3o aspects; 1. :-e Guxtaposition o# di##erent parts o# t-e utterance. 2. :-e 3ay t-e parts are connected 3it- eac- ot-er. In addition to t-ese t3o lar%e %roups o# EMs.and SDs t3o ot-er %roups .ay 5e distin%uis-ed; !. :-ose 5ased on t-e peculiar use o# collo9uial constructions. '. :-ose 5ased on t-e stylistic use o#=structural .eanin%.
Stylistic I,6'(si+,

? V r d=o r d e r is a crucial syntactical pro5le. in .any lan%ua%es. In En%lis- it -as peculiarities 3-ic- -ave 5een caused 5y t-e concrete and speci#ic 3ay t-e lan%ua%e -as developed. ,. Aespersen states t-at t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e L...-as developed a tolera5ly #ired 3ord=order 3-ic- in t-e %reat .aGority o# cases s-o3s 3it-out #ail 3-at is t-e Su5Gect o# t-e sentence.L2 :-is Ltolera5ly #ixed 3ord=orderL is Su5Gect c 0e#R |A2redicate) c 0,5Gect AS02002). "urt-er8 Aespersen .entions Nt statistical investi%ation o# 3ord=order .ade on t-e 5asis o# a series o# Nrepresentative 19t- century 3riters. It 3as #ound t-at t-e order Sb 2c 3as0used in #ro. @2 to O:G0$SSu0$0$sentences S0taininGipiii t-ree KSe#i;il000 #or +eo3u::0as>r+&0M&:oruiri% 0egiYPP prose/ '7. :-is predo.inance o# Sc2c 3ord=order .aRes conspicuous any c-an%e in t-e structure o# t-e sentence and inevita5ly calls #ort- a .odi#ication in t-e intonation desi%n. :-#eGnpst; YCX1101Yqj0 consi(dered0to88.5e8i-e #irs"and t-e last; t-e #irst place 5ecause.A-eAull #orce o# t-e stress can De #elGC|0tM:0l.iin% o# an utterance and t-e last place 5ecause t-ere is|a pause a#t%rA-$ :-is traditional 3ord=order :ias developed a de#inite intonation Desi%n. :-rou%- #re9uency o# #epet it ion t-is desi%n "as I.posed :tsNeI#: #:any sentence even t-ou%- t-ere are c-an%es introduced in t-e se9uence o# t-e co.ponent parts. >ence t-e clas- 5et3een se.an=tically insi%ni#icant ele.ents o# t-e sentence 3-en t-ey are placed in structurally si%ni#icant position and t-e intonation 3-ic- #ollo3s t-e reco%niSed pattern. :-us in DicRens& .uc- 9uoted sentence; L:alent Mr. Mica35er -asC capital Mr. Mica35er -as not.L :-e #irst and t-e last positions 5ein% pro.inent8 t-e ver5 -as and t-e ne%ative not %et a #uller volu.e o# stressG-an t-ey 3ould in ordinary (uninverted) 3ord2or>e"r:nlM0rM:n5nal 3ord=order t-e predicates -as and -as not are closely attac-ed to t-eir o5Gects talent and capital. En%lis- predicate=o5Gect %roups are so 5ound to%et-er1 t-at 3-en Gye tear t-e o5Gect a3ay #ro. its predicate8 t-e latter re.ains dan%GGn% in t-e sentence and in t-is position so.eti.es calls #ort##&a c#ian%e; in .eanin% o# t-e predicate 3ord. In t-e inverted 3ord=order not &only t-e o5Gects

talent and capital 5eco.e conspicuous 5ut also t-e predicates -as and -as not. In t-is exa.ple t-e e##ect 5# t-e inverted 3ord=order is 5acRed up 5y t3o ot-er stylistic devices; antit-Tsis and parallel const ruction. MnliRe %ra..atical inversion8 st0ylGst#cGily0ersion does riot c-an%e t-e structural rneariri%G00 is8 t-e c-an%e in t-e Guxtapositio##5# lEe .e.5ers o# t-e senteE4Ge.0does=.noI indicate structural .eanin% AGut Ms0Gp0rE0silperstru.eluriaG #unction. S0yA0 i stG0iGiv e r s i V n aG.s/ Lat att ac- Gn % 1o%i Y a 1 stress or additional e.otional colourin% L# 1. t-e sur=tac+ rn%anGn% o#.. Pi/11PP0 intonation pattern is t-e inevita5le satell:#e0lriversion. Stylistic inversion in Modern En%lis- s-ould not 5e re%arded as a violation o# t-e nor.s o# standard En%lis-. It is only t-e practical realiSation o# 3-at is potential in t-e lan%ua%e itsel#. :-e #olIc0in%00 are .ost #re9uently .et in 5ot- En%lis- prose and En%lis- poetry. 1. :-e o5Gect As placed at t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e seatence (see t-e exa.ple a5ove)7 Lb pl<| 4lM(0(N=I. 2. :-eattri5ute is placed a#ter t-e 3ord it .odi#ies (postposition ,# t-e&attri5ute). :-is .odel is o#ten used 3-en t-ere is .ore t-an one attri5ute8 #or exa.ple; / &L&&LLLLLLLLLL&&?it- #in%ers 3eary and 3orn...L (:-o.as >ood) L,nce upon a .idni%-t dreary...L (E. *. 2oe) !. a) A:-e predicative is 0Ga~eNi 00 as in L* %ood %enerous prayer it 3as.L (MarR :3ain) or 5) t-e predicative stands 5e#ore t-e. linR=ver5 and #aGOlAlG00+GGiced0 5e#ore t-e sut:Gect8 as . LBude a. I in .y speec-...L (S-aRespeare) '. A:-e adyeriiiGai0Odi#ier is placed at t-e 5e%innin% p~Ai0ei:.tence8 as in; LEa%erly I 3is-ed t-e .orro3.L (2oe) LMy dearest dau%-ter8 at your #eet I #all.L (Dryderi) L* tone o# .ost extraordinary co.parison Miss :ox said it in.L (DicRens) . +ot- .odi#ier and predicate stand 5e#ore t-e su5Gect8 as in; LIn 3ent Mr. 2icR3icR.L (DicRens) LDo3n dropped t-e 5reeSe...L (4olerid%e) :-ese #ive .odels co.prise t-e .ost0c9.rnori els o# inversion. >o3ever8 in .odern En%lis- and *.erican poetry8 as -as 5een s-o3n else3-ere8 t-ere appears a de#inite tendency to experi.ent 3it- t-e 3ord=order to t-e extent 3-ic- .ay even render t-e .essa%e unintelli%i5le8 In t-is case t-ere .ay 5e an al.ost unli.ited nu.5er o# rearran%e.ents o# t-e .e.5ers o# t-e sentence. Inversion s a stylistic; AGyiAs0a-vays sense=;notiv~t~d a tindency:o0account #or inversion in poetry 5y r-yt-.ical cCoi.der= IBo>%r:-ls&.ay so.eti.es 5e true8 5ut really talented poets 3ill never sacri#ice sense #or #or. and in t-e .aGority o# cases inversion in poetry is called #ort- 5y considerations o# content rat-er t-an r-yt-.. Inverted 3ord=order8 or inversion8 is one o# t-e #or.s o# 3-at are Rno3n as e.p-atic constructions. ?-at is %enerally called traditional 3ord=order is iiot:i:ri%bniore Lt-anL une.p-atic construction. E.p-atic constructions -ave so #ar 5een re%arded as

non=typical structures and t-ere#ore are considered as violations o# t-e re%ular 3ord=.order in t-e sentence. +ut in practice t-ese structures are as co..on as t-e lixed or traditional 3ord=order structures. :-ere# ore0:n&vers:onnrnust&0eL re=%arded as a#rexpressive .eans o# tlie lan%ua%e -avin%A0ypiSSil structural .odels.
D't&c/'- C+,st(1cti+,

a sentence 5y so.e speci#ic consideration o# t-e 3riter is placed so t-at it see.s #or.ally independ= ent o# i0q0100 parts o# structures are called lie t ac-ed. :-ey see.|t4$Gdan~le in t-e sentence as isolated parts. LLLLL:-e detac#ted part8 5ein% torn a3ay #ro. its re#eren#8 assu.es a %reater lle%ree o# si%ni#icance and is %iven pro.inence 5y intonation. :-e structural patterns o# detac-ed constructions -ave not yet 5een classi#ied8 5ut t-e .ost noticea5le cases are t-ose in 3-ic-C.. ai$GIttri=5ute or an adver5iaGGn9di#ier is placed not in i..ediate proxi.ity to Its re#erent8 5ut in so.e5i-er posit"onL8 a::#i t-e#ollo3in%exa.ples; 1) LSteyne rose up8 %rindin% -is teet-8 pale8 and 3it- #ury in -is eyes.L (:-acReray) 2) LSir 2itt ca.e in #irst8 very .uc- #lus-ed8 and rat-er unsteady in -is %ait.L (:-acReray) So.eti.es a no.inal p-rase is t-ro3n into t-e sentence #or.in% a syntactical unit 3it- t-e rest o# t-e sentence8 as in; L*nd -e 3alRed slo3ly past a%ain8 alon% t-e rivercan evenin% o# clear8 9uiet 5eauty8 all -ar.ony and co.#ort8 except 3it-in -is -eart.L (Gals3ort-y) :-e essential 9uality o# detac-ed construction lies in t-e #act t-at t-e isolated parts represent a Rind o# independent 3-ole t-rust into :-e sentence or placed in a position 3-ic- 3ill&.aRe t-e p-rase (or 3ord) see. independent. +ut a detac-ed p-rase cannot rise to t-e ranR o# a pri.ary .e.5er o# t-e sentencecit al3ays re.ains secondary #ro. t-e se.antic point o# vie38 alt-ou%- structurally it possesses all t-e #eatures o# aLpri.ary;&b.e.5er. :-is clas- o# t-e structural and se.antic aspects o# detac-ed constructions produces t-e desired e##ectc#orcin% t-e reader to interpret t-e lo%ical connections 5et3een t-e co.ponent parts o# t-e sentence. $o%ical ties 5et3een t-e. al3ays exist in spite o# t-e a5sence o# syntactical indicators. Detac-ed constructions in t-eir co..on #or.s .aRe t-e 3ritten vari000lan%ua0l&Galcin to/ t-e spoRen variety 3-ere t-e relation 5et3een t-e co.ponent parts is e##ectively .aterialiSed 5y .eans o# into=::ation. Detac-ed construction8 as it 3ere8 5eco.es a peculiar device 5rid%in% t-e nor.s o# 3ritten and spoRen lan%ua%e. :-is stylistic device is aRin to inversion. :-e #unctions are al.ost t-e sa.e. +ut detac-ed construction produces a .uc- stron%er e##ect8 inas.uc- as it presents &parts o# t-e uttexance0si%ni#icant #ro. t-e aut-or&s ppi#lt0:yle0vI##i&&:&&.00&nDi#L&less independent .anner. L LLLL>ere are so.e .ore exa.ples o#=detac-ed constructions; LDayli%-t 3as dyin%8 t-e .oon risin%8 %old 5e-ind t-e poplars.L (Gals3ort-y)

L&I 3ant to %o87 -e said8 .isera5leL (Gals3ort-y) LS-e 3as lovely; all o# -erc deli%-t#ul.L (Dreiser) :-e italiciSed p-rases and 3ords in t-ese sentences see. to 5e isolated8 5ut still t-e connection 3it- t-e pri.ary .e.5ers o# t-e correspondin% sentences is clearly i.plied. :-us &%old 5e-ind t-e poplars& .ay 5e interpreted as a si.ile or a .etap-or; t-e .oon liRe %old 3as risin% 5e-ind t-e poplars8 or t-e .oon risin%8 it 3as %old... Detac-ed construction so.eti.es causes t-e si.ultaneous realiSa=tionbo#:3o %ra..atical .eanin%s o# a 3ord. In t-e LsentenceL 3ant to %o8& >e said8 .isera5leL8 t-e last 3ord .i%-t possi5ly -ave 5een understood as an adver5ial .odi#ier to t-e 3ord said i# not #or t-e co..a8 t-ou%- %ra..atically .isera5ly 3ould 5e expected. :-e pause indicated 5y t-e co..a i.plies t-at .isera5le is an adGective used a5solutely and re#errin% to t-e pronoun -e. :-e sa.e can 5e said a5out Dreiser&s sentence 3it- t-e 3ord deli%-t#ul. >ere a%ain t-e .arR o# punctuation plays an i.portant role. :-e das- standin% 5e#ore t-e 3ord .aRes t-e 3ord conspicuous and8 5ein% isolated8 it 5eco.es t-e cul.inatin% point o# t-e cli.axc lovely... cdeli%-t#ul8 i. e. t-e peaR o# t-e 3-ole utterance. :-e p-rase all o# -er is also so.e-o3 isolated. :-e %eneral i.pression su%%ested 5y t-e i.plied intonation8 is a stron% #eelin% o# ad.irationC and8 as is usually t-e case8 stron% #eelin%s reGect co-erent and lo%ical syntax. In t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e detac-ed constructions are %enerally used in t-e 5elles=lettres prose style and .ainly 3it- 3ords t-at -ave so.e explanatory #unction8 #or exa.ple; LAune stood in #ront8 #endin% o## t-is idle curiosity c a little 5it o# a t-in%8 as so.e5ody said8 &all -air and spirit&...L (Gals3ort-y) Detac-ed|cpnstruction as a stylistic device is a typi#ication o# t-e synractical peculiarities o# collo9uial lan%ua%e. Detac-ed construction is a stylistic p-eno.enon 3-ic- -as so #ar 5een little investi%ated. :-e device itsel#CGs|clOsely connected 3ii5$lMe intonation pattern o# t-e utterance. In conversation any 3ord or p-rase or even sentence .ay 5e .ade .ore conspicuous 5y .eans o# intonation. :-ere#ore precision in t-e syntactical structure o# t-e sentence is not so necessary #ro. t-e co..unicative point o# vie3. +ut it 5eco.es vitally i.portant in 3ritin%.1 >ere precision o#. syntactical=relations is t-e only 3ay to .aRe t-e utterance #ully co..unicative. :-ere#ore 3-en t-e syntactical relations 5eco.e o5scure8 eac- .e.5er o# t-e sentence t-at see.s to 5e dan%lin% 5eco.es lo%ically si%ni#icant. * variant o# detac-ed construction is p a re n t - e sis8 L2arent-esis is a 9uali#yin%8 explanatory or appositive 3ord0 p-rase8 clause8 sentence8 or ot-er se9uence 3-ic- interrupts0 syntactic construction 3it-out ot-er3ise a##ectin% it8 -avin% o#ten D c##a#acteristic intonation and indicated in 3ritin% 5y co..as8 5racRets or das-es.L2 In #act8 parent-esis so.eti.es e.5odies a considera5le volu.eGD# predicativeness8

t-us %ivin% t-e utterance.an. additional nuance o# .eanin% or a tin%e o# e.otional colourin%.
P&(&ll'l C+,st(1cti+,

2arallel construction is a device 3-ic- .ay 5e encountered not so .uc- in t-e sentence as in t-e .acro=structures dealt 3it- earlier8 viS. t-e S2M and t-e para%rap-. :-e necessary condition in parallel construction is identical8 or si.ilar8 syntactical structure in t3o or .ore sentences or parts o# a sentence in close succession8 as in; L:-ere 3ere8 ...8 real silver spoons to stir t-e tea 3it-8 and real c-ina cups to drinR it out o#8 and plates o# t-e sa.e to -old t-e caRes and toast in.L (DicRens) 2arallel constructions are o#ten 5acRed up 5y repetition o# 3ords (lexical repetition) and conGunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). 2ure parallel construction8 -o3ever8 does not depend on any ot-er Rind o# repetition 5ut t-e repetition o# t-e syntactical desi%n o# t-e sentence. 2arallel constructions .ay 5e partial or co.plete. 2artial parallel arran%e.ent is t-e repetition o# so.e parts o# successive sentences or clauses8 as in; LIt is t-e .o5 t-at la5our in your #ields and serve in your -ousesct-at .an your navy and recruit your ar.y8ct-at -ave ena5led you to de#y all t-e 3orld8 and can also de#y you 3-en ne%lect and cala.ity -ave driven t-e. to despair.L (+yron) :-e attri5utive clauses -ere all 5e%in 3it- t-e su5ordinate conGunction t-at 3-ic- is #ollo3ed 5y a ver5 in t-e sa.e #or.8 except t-e last (-ave ena5led). :-e ver5s8 -o3ever8 are #ollo3ed eit-er 5y adver5ial .odi#iers o# place (in your #ields8 in your -ouses or 5y direct o5Gects (your navy8 your ar.y). :-e t-ird attri5utive clause is not 5uilt on t-e pattern o# t-e #irst t3o8 alt-ou%- it preserves t-e parallel structure in %eneral (t-atver5=predicateo5Gect)8 3-ile t-e #ourt- -as 5roRen 0a3ay entirely. 4o.plete parallel arran%e.ent8 also called 5alance8 .aintains t-e principle o# identical structures t-rou%-out t-e correspondin% sentences8 as in; L:-e seeds ye so3 c anot-er reaps8 :-e ro5es ye 3eavecanot-er 3ears8 :-e arips ye #or%e c anot-er 5ears.L (2. +. S-elley) 2arallel construction is .ost #re9uently used in enu.eration8 antit-esis and in cli.ax8 t-us consolidatin% t-e %eneral e##ect ac-ieved 5y t-ese stylistic devices. 2arallel construction is used in di##erent styles o# 3ritin% 3it- sli%-tly di##erent #unctions. ?-en used in t-e .atter=o#=#act styles8 it carries8 in t-e .ain8 t-e idea o# se.antic e9uality o# t-e parts8 as in scienti#ic prose8 3-ere t-e lo%ical principle o# arran%in% ideas predo.inates. In t-e 5elles=lettres style parallel construction carries an e.otive #unction. :-at is 3-y it is .ainly used as a tec-nical .eans in 5uildin% up ot-er stylistic devices8 t-us securin% t-eir unity In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple parallelis. 5acRs up repetition8 alliteration and antit-esis8 .aRin% t-e 3-ole sentence al.ost epi%ra..atic. L*nd so8 #ro. -our to -our8 3e ripe and ripe8 *nd t-en8 #ro. -our to -our8 3e rot and rot.L (S-aRespeare) In t-e exa.ple 5elo38 parallel construction 5acRs up t-e r-etorical address and

r-etorical 9uestions. :-e e.otional aspect is also en#orced 5y t-e interGection &>eavenK& L>ear .e8 .y .ot-er Eart-K 5e-old it8 >eavenK c J >ave I not -ad to 3restle 3it- .y lotz >ave I not su##ered t-in%s to 5e #or%ivenz >ave I not -ad .y 5rain seared8 .y -eart riven8 >opes sapped8 na.e 5li%-ted8 $i#e&s li#e lied a3ayz&/ (+yron) In so.e cases parallelis. e.p-asiSes t-e si.ilarity and e9uates t-e si%ni#icance o# t-e parts8 as8 #or exa.ple; L,ur senses perceive no extre.es. :oo .uc- sound dea#ens usC too .uc- li%-t daSSles usC too %reat distance or proxi.ity -inders our vie3.L In ot-er cases parallel construction e.p-asiSes diversity and contrast o# ideas. (See t-e exa.ple on p. 22! #ro. t-e L:ale o# :3o 4itiesL 5y DicRens). *s a #inal re.arR it .ust 5e stated t-at t-e device o# parallelis. al3ays %enerates r-yt-.8 inas.uc- as si.ilar syntactical structures repeat in close succession. >ence it is natural t-at parallel construction s-ould very #re9uently 5e used in poetical structures. *lternation o# si.ilar units 5ein% t-e 5asic principle o# verse8 si.ilarity in lon%er units c i. e. in t-e stanSa8 is to 5e expected.
C/i&s)1s (R'6'(s'- P&(&ll'l C+,st(1cti+,)

4-ias.us 5elon%s to t-e %roup o# stylistic Ldevices 5ased on t-e re%etitiono#8 a syntacrticalGGali#iEDM 5ut it ll0|~A0os0|,I0=Ii$hOI;ds and *rSsS::#t"0 successive sentences or parts o# a sentence .ay 5e descri5ed as reversed|%arall~l| construction8 t-eG<vordrorder| o# v IA0 ot-er8 L*s -i%- as 3e -ave .ounted in deli%-t In our deGection do 3e sinR as lo3.L (?ords3ort-) = LDo3n dropped t-e 5reeSe8 :-e sails dropped do3nL (4olerid%e) 4-ias.us is so.eti.es ac-ieved 5y a sudden c-an%e #ro. active voice to passive or vice versa8 #or exa.ple; L:-e re%ister o# -is 5urial 3as si%ned 5y t-e cler%y.an8 t-e clerR8 t-e undertaRer and t-e c-ie# .ourner. Scroo%e si%ned it. (DicRens) as in; :-is device is e##ective in t-at it -elps to lay stress on t-e second part o# t-e utterance8 3-ic- is opposite in structure8 as &in our deGection&C &Scroo%e si%ned it/. :-is is due to t-e sudden c-an%e in t-e structure 3-ic- 5y its very unexpectedness lin%uistically re9uires a sli%-t pause 5e#ore it. *s is seen #ro. t-e exa.ples a5ove8 c-ias.us can appear only 3-en t-ere are t3o successive sentences or coordinate parts o# a sentence. So distri5ution8 -ere close succession8 is t-e #actor 3-ic- predeter.ines t-e 5irt- o# t-e device. :-ere are di##erent variants o# t-e structural desi%n o# c-ias.us. :-e #irst exa.ple

%iven s-o3s c-ias.us appearin% in a co.plex sentence 3-ere t-e second part -as an opposite arran%e.ent. :-e second exa.ple de.onstrates c-ias.us in a sentence expressin% se.antically t-e relation o# cause and e##ect. Structurally8 -o3ever8 t-e t3o parts are presented as independent sentences8 and it is t-e c-ias.atic structure 3-ic- supports t-e idea o# su5ordination. :-e t-ird exa.ple is co.posed o# t3o independent sentences and t-e c-ias.us serves to increase t-e e##ect o# cli.ax. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# c-ias.us 3-ere t3o parallel constructions are #ollo3ed 5y a reversed parallel construction linRed to t-e #or.er 5y t-e conGunction and; KL:-e ni%-t 3inds si%-8 t-e 5reaRers roar8 *nd s-rieRs t-e 3ild sea=.e3.L (+yron) It .ust 5e re.e.5ered t-at c-ias.us is a syntactical8 not a lexical device8 i. e. it is only t-e arran%e.ent o# t-e parts o# t-e utterance 3-ic- constitutes t-is stylistic device. In t-e #a.ous epi%ra. 5y +yron; LIn t-e days o# old .en .ade t-e .anners&8 Manners no3 .aRe .en8L t-ere is no inversion8 5ut a lexical device. +ot- parts o# t-e parallel construction AGave t-e sa.e8 t-e0nor.al 3ord=order. >o3ever8 t-e 3itty arran%e.ent o# t-e 3ords&-as %iven t-e utterance an epi%ra..atic c-aracter. :-is device .ay 5e classed as lexical c-ias.us or c-ias.atic repetition. +yron particularly #avoured it. >ere are so.e ot-er exa.ples; L>is GoRes 3ere ser.ons8 and -is ser.ons GoResL L&:is stran%e8c5ut trueC #or trut- is al3ays stran%ez L+ut :o.&s no .ore0and so no .ore o# :o.&& L:rue8 &tis a pitycpity &tis8 'is trueL LMen are t-e sport o# circu.stances8 3-en :-e circu.stances see. t-e &sport o# .en.L L&:is a pity t-ou%-8 in t-is su5li.e 3orld t-at 2leasure&s a sin8 and so.eti.es sin&s a pleasure.L Note t-e di##erence in .eanin% o# t-e repeated 3ords on 3-ic- t-e epi%ra..atic e##ect rests; &stran%ecstran%eC& &no .orecno .ore&8 &GoRescGoRes.& Syntactical c-ias.us is so.eti.es used to 5reaR t-e .onotony o# parallel constructions. +ut 3-atever t-e purpose o# c-ias.us8 it 3ill al3ays 5rin% in so.e ne3 s-ade o# .eanin% or additional e.p-asis on so.e portion o# t-e second part. :-e stylistic e##ect o# t-is construction -as 5een so #ar little investi%ated. +ut even casual o5servation 3ill s-o3 t-at c-ias.us s-ould 5e perceived as a co.plete unit. ,ne cannot -elp noticin% t-at t-e #irst part in c-ias.us is so.e3-at inco.plete8 it calls #or continuation8 and t-e anticipation is re3arded 5y t-e second part o# t-e construction8 3-ic- is8 as it 3ere8 t-e co.pletion o# t-e idea. $iRe parallel construction8 c-ias.us contri5utes to t-e r-yt-.ical 9uality o# t-e utterance8 and t-e pause caused 5y t-e c-an%e in t-e syntactical pattern .ay 5e liRened to a caesura in prosody. *s can 5e seen #ro. t-is s-ort analysis o# c-ias.us8 it -as developed8 liRe all stylistic devices8 3it-in t-e #ra.e3orR o# t-e literary #or. o# t-e lan%ua%e. >o3ever8 its prototype .ay 5e #ound in t-e nor.s o# expressions o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e8 as in t-e e.p-atic; &>e 3as a 5rave .an8 3as Ao-n.&

R':'titi+,

It -as already 5een pointed out t-at r eG0e ti t i V W is1 an expressive .eans o# lan%ua%e used 3-en t-e speaRer is i.der t-e stress o# stron% LLit0\Wm=At00 as in t-e #ollo3in% LpassaG%e:#o. Gals3ort-y; LStopKLcs-e cried8 LDon&t tell .eK I don&t 3ant to -ear8 I don&t 3ant to -ear 3-at you&ve co.e #or'I don&t 3ant to -ear.L :-e repetition o# &I don&t 3ant to -ear&8 is not a stylistic deviceC it is a .eans 5y 3-ict-e excited state o# .ind o# t-e speaRer is s-o3n. :-is state o# .ind al3ays .ani#ests itsel# t-rou%- intonation8 3-ic- is su%%ested -ere 5y t-e 3ords &s-e cried&. In t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e8 5e#ore direct speec- is introduced one can al3ays #ind 3ords indicatin% t-e intonation8 as so55ed8 s-rieRed8 passionately8 etc. A. (andryes 3rites; LBepetition is also one o# t-e devices8 -avin% its=ori%in in t-e e.otive lan%ua%e. Bepetition 3-en applied to t-e lo%ical lan%ua%e 5eco.es si.ply an 1W@1m0iW0VK 00_1W_1;.|p@ ori%in is to 5e seen in t-e excite.0r0acco.pany.% t-e expression o# a #eelin% 5ein% 5rou%-t to its -i%-est tension.L1 ?-en used as a stylistic device8 repetition ac9uires 9uite di##eren #urt##l.:rltL doe0#l00 , t-encontrary8 t-e stylistic device o# repetition ai.s at lo%ical e.p-asis8 an e.p-asis necessary to #ix t-e Lattention o# t-e reader on t-e Rey=3ord o# t-e utterance. "or exa.ple; L"or t-at 3as itK I%norant o# t-e lon% and stealt-y .arc- o# passion8 and o# t-e state to 3-ic- it -ad reduced "leurC i%norant o# -o3 Soa.es -ad 3atc-ed -er8 i%norant o# "leur&s recRless desperation... c i%norant o# all t-is8 every5ody #elt a%%rieved.L .6 8N!Nb Hl. (Gals3ort-y) Bepetition is classi#ied8 {accordin% to co.positional patterns. I# r90&te000orS0:or p-rase) corrres at t-e 5e%innin% o# t3o or .ore consecutiveL sentences0 clauses or p-rases8& LL3e: >ave bNPW_ p &PYeP_8 Las:n t-e exa.ple a5ove. I# t-e repeated unit is placed at t-e end XPW=secutive sentences8 clauses or p-rases8 3e -ave t-e0Atype o# repetition called ep ip > 1 # a8 as in; LI a. exactly t-e .an to 5e placed in a superior position in suc- a case as t-at. I a. a5ove t-e rest o# .anRind8 in suc- a case as t-at. I can act 3it- p-ilosop-y in suc- a case as t-at. (DicRens) >ere t-e repetition -as a sli%-tly di##erent #unction; it 5eco.es a acR%round a%ainst 3-ic- t-e state.ents precedin%0Gy0|G0e|at.eiG##iit are&.ade to stand out .ore conspicuously. :-is .ay 5e called t-e eP&Y& %r&o ` n d # unct io-:ir .ust 5e o5served8 -o3ever0 t-at Lt-e lo%ical #unction o# t-e repetition8 to %ive e.p-asis8 does not #ade 3-en it assu.es t-e 5acR%round #unction. :-is is an additional #unction. U Bepetition .ay also 5e arran%ed in t-e #or. o# a #ra.e; t-e initial parts o# a syntactical unit8 in .ost cases o# a para%rap-8 are repeated at t-e end o# it8 L2oor do?s dress.aRerK >o3 o#ten so dra%%ed do3n 5y -ands t-at s-ould -ave raised -er upC -o3 o#ten so .isdirected 3-en losin% -er 3ay on t-e eternal road and

asRin% %uidance. 2oor8 little doll&s dress.aRerL. (DicRens) :-is co.positional pattern o# repetition is called #ra.in%. :-e se.antic nuances o# di##erent co.positional structures o# repetition -ave 5een little looRed into. +ut even a super#icial exa.ination 3ill s-o3 t-at #ra.in%8*:or exa.ple8 .aRes t-e 3-ole utterance .ore co.pact a#td .oze co.plete. "ra.in%0isL .ost e##ective in sin%lin% out para%rap-s. *.on% ot-er co.positional .odels o# repetition is I inA0A0nGS or r e dG$#iA8A&8.0.08.lIG2.0 (also Rno3n as =a n a d i p l V s i s). :-e s#ruc=:Gri:oir#-is device is t-e #ollo3in%; t-e last 3ord or p-raseo#0pneG%art o# an utterance is repeated at t-e/ 5e%.n:n% o# t-e next part8 t-us -ooRin%t-e t3o parts5acR on -is tracRs arid picR up -is last 3ord. 0 instead o# .ovin% on. see.s #oMou5le L"ree.an and slave... earned on an uninterrupted8 no3 -idden8 no3 open #i%-t8 a #i%-t t-at& eac- ti.e ended8 eit-er in a revolutionary re=constitution o# society at lar%e8 or in t-e co..on ruin o# t-e contendin% classes.L (Marx8 En%els) *ny repetition o# a unit o# lan%ua%e 3ill inevita5ly cause so.e sli%-t .odi#ication o# .eanin%8 a .odi#ication su%%ested 5y a noticea5le c-an%e in t-e intonation 3it3-ic- t-e repeated 3ord is pronounced. So.eti.es a 3riter .ay use t-e linRin% device several ti.es in one utterance8 #or exa.ple; L s.ile 3ould co.e into Mr. 2icR3icR&s #ace; t-e s.ile extended into a lau%-; t-e lau%- into a roar8 and t-e roar 5eca.e %eneral.L (DicRens) or; L"or %lances 5e%et o%les8 o%les si%-s8 si%-s 3i-es8 3is-es 3ords8 and 3ords a letter.L (+yron) :-is co.positional pattern o# repetition is also called c-ain=IGGFGA$$M=M$ I. N~ 8a E 81/ A J&=cJ= . | &&&vI-at are t-e .ost o5vious stylistic #unctions o# repetitionz :-e #irst8 t-e pri.ary one8A0A00GnAGSl00 Intensi#ication is t-e direct outco.e o::>0Liis"/o#:neexpressive .eans e.ployed in ordinary intercourseC 5ut 3-en used in ot-er co.positional patterns8 t-e i..ediate e.otional c-ar%e is %reatly suppressed and is replaced 5y a purely aest-etic ai.8 as in t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple; :>E B,(EB * 3eary lot is t-ine8 #air .aid8 * 3eary tot is t-ineK :o pull t-e t-orn t-y 5ro3 to 5raid8 *nd press t-e rue #or 3ine. * li%-tso.e eye8 a soldier&s .ien * #eat-er o# t-e 5lue8 * dou5let o# t-e $incoln %reen c/ No .ore o# .e you Rne3 My $oveK No .ore o# .e you Rne3. (?alter Scott) 8{ :GG0eGrepetition o# t-e 3-ole line in its #ull #or. re9uires intexpretati.on. NG~ Supe":.ear I.Stysis 5ased on associations aroused 5y t-e sense o# &/ t-e 3-ole poe. su%%ests t-at t-is repetition expresses t-e re%ret o# t-e Bover #or -is $ove&s un-appy lot. 4o.pare also t-e repetition in t-e line o# :-o.as Moore&s;

L:-ose evenin% 5ellsK :-ose evenin% 5ellsKL Meditation8 sadness8 re.iniscence and ot-er psyc-olo%ical and e.otional states o# .ind are su%%ested 5y t-e repetition o# t-e p-rase 3it- t-e intensi#ier &t-ose&. :-e distri5utional .odel o# repetition8 t-~ ai. o# 3-ic- isGnten=si#ication8 is si.ple; it is i..ediate succession o# t-e parts repeatedI Bepetition .ay also stress .onotony o# action8 it .ay= su%%est #ati%ue8 or despair8 or -opelessness8 or doo.8 as in; L?-at -as .y li#e 5eenz "a% and %rind8 #a% and %rind. :urn t-e 3-eel8 turn t-e 3-eelL (DicRens) >ere t-e r-yt-. o# t-e repeated parts .aRes t-e .onotony and -opelessness o# t-e speaRer&s li#e still .ore Reenly #elt. :-is #unction o# repetition is to 5e o5served in :-o.as >ood&s poe. L:-e Son% o# t-e S-irtL 3-ere di##erent #or.s o# repetition are e.ployed. L?orRc3orRc3orRK :ill t-e 5rain 5e%ins to s3i.K ?orRc3orRc3orR :ill t-e eyes are -eavy and di.K Sea.8 and %usset8 and 5and8 +and8 and %usset and sea.8c :ill over t-e 5uttons I #all asleep8 *nd se3 t-e. on in a drea..L ,# course8 t-e .ain idea8 t-at o# lon% and ex-austin% 3orR8 is expressed 5y lexical .eans; 3orR &till t-e 5rain 5e%ins to s3i.& and '-e eyes are -eavy and di.78 till8 #inally8 &I #all asleep.& +ut t-e repetition -ere stron%ly en#orces t-is idea and8 .oreover8 5rin%s in additional nuances o# .eanin%. In %ra..ars it is pointed out t-at t-e repetition o# 3ords connected 5y t-e conGunct ion and 3ill express reiteration or #re9uentative action. "or exa.ple; L"led%e5y RnocRed and ran%8 and "led%e5y ran% and RnocRed8 5ut no one ca.e.L :-ere are p-rases containin% repetition 3-ic- -ave 5eco.e lexical units o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 as on and on8 000.0i0Over0Ga%9tn and a%ain and ot-ers. :-ey all express repetition or continuity o# t-e action8 as in; L>e played t-e tune over and over a%ain.L So.eti.es t-is s-ade o# .eanin% is 5acRed up 5y .eanin%#ul 3ords8 as in; I sat desperately8 3orRin% and 3orRin%. :-ey talRed and talRed all ni%-t. :-e telep-one #an% and ran% 5ut no one ans3ered. :-e idea o$continuity is expressed -ere not only 5y t-e repetition 5ut also 5y .odi#iers suc- as &all ni%-t&. +acR%round repetition8 3-ic- 3e -ave already pointed out8 is so.eti.es used to stress t-e ordinarily unstressed ele.ents o# t-e utterance. >ere is a %ood exa.ple; LI a. attac-ed to you. +ut I can&t consent and 3on&t consent and I never did consent and I never 3ill consent to 5e lost in you.L (DicRens) :-e e.p-atic ele.ent in t-is utterance is not t-e repeated 3ord &consent& 5ut t-e .odal 3ords &can&t&8 &3on&t&8 &3ill&8 and also t-e e.p-atic &did&. :-us t-e repetition -ere loses its .ain #unction and only serves as a .eans 5y 3-ic- ot-er ele.ents are .ade to stand out clear=#ylIt is 3ort-y o# note t-at in t-is sentence very stron% stress #alls= on t-e .odal ver5s and &did& 5ut not on t-e repeated &consent/ as is usually t-e case

3it- t-e stylistic device. $iRe .any stylistic devices8 repetition is poly#unctional. :-e #unctions enu.erated do not cover all its varieties. ,ne o# t-ose already 21' .entioned8 t-e r-yt-.ical #unction8 .ust not 5e under=esti.ated 3-en studyin% t-e e##ects produced 5y repetition. Most o# t-e exa.ples %iven a5ove %ive r-yt-. to t-e utterance. In #act8 any repetition en-ances t-e r-yt-.ical aspect o# t-e utterance. :-ere is a variety o# repetition 3-ic- 3e s-all call Lroot=repetitionL8 as in; L:o live a%ain in t-e yout- o# t-e youn%.L (Gals3ort-y) or8 L>e loves a dod%e #or its o3n saReC 5ein%...ct-e dod%erest o# all t-e dod%ersL (DicRens) or8 LSc-e..er8 uarl Sc-e..er8 3as a 5rute8 a 5rutis- 5rute.L ($ondon) In root=repetition it is not t-e sa.e 3ords t-at are repeated 5ut t-e Lsa.e root. 4onse9uently 3e are #aced 3it- di##erent 3ords -avin% di##erent .eanin%s (yout-;youn%&8 5rutis-; 5rute)8 5ut t-e s-ades o# .eanin% are Lper#ectly clear. *not-er varie#y o# repetition .ay 5e called s a W V Wag i Y a I repetition. :-is is t-e repetition o# t-e sa.e idea 5y usin% synony.ous 3ords and Gp-#ases 3-ic- 5y addin% a sli%-tly di##erent nuance o# .eanin% intensi#y t-e i.pact o# t-e utterance8 as in. L...are t-ere not capital punis-.ents su##icient in your statutes&z Is t-ere not 5lood enou%- upon your penal codeKL (+yron) >ere t-e .eanin% o# t-e 3ords &capital punis-.ents& and &statutes/ is repeated in t-e next sentence 5y t-e contextual synony.s &5lood& and &penal code&. >ere is anot-er exa.ple #ro. ueats& sonnet L:-e Grass-opper and t-e 4ricRet.L L:-e poetry o# eart- is never dead... =:-e poetry o# eart- is ceasin% never...L &:-ere are t3o ter.s #re9uently used to s-o3 t-e ne%ative attitude o# t-e critic to all Rinds o# synony.ical repetitions. :-ese are p I e V=L/L IP_ and ta ` to I o % y. :-e S-orter ,x#ord Dictionary de#ines pleonas. as Lt-e use o# .ore 3ords in a sentence t-an are necessary to express t-e .eanin%C redundancy o# expression.L :autolo%y is de#ined vL as Lt-e repetition o# t-e sa.e state.entC t-e repetition (especially in N t-e i..ediate context) o# t-e sa.e 3ord or p-rase or o# t-e sa.e idea or state.ent in ot-er 3ordsC usually as a #ault o# style.L >ere are t3o exa.ples %enerally %iven as illustrations; LIt 3as a clear starry ni%-t8 and not a cloud 3as to 5e seenL L>e 3as t-e only survivorC no one else 3as savedL It is not necessary to distin%uis- 5et3een t-ese t3o ter.s8 t-e distinction 5ein% very #ine. *ny repetition .ay 5e #ound #aulty i# it is not .otivated 5y t-e aest-etic purport o# t-e 3riter. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 any see.in%ly unnecessary repetition o# 3ords or o# ideas expressed in di##erent 3ords .ay 5e Gusti#ied 5y t-e ai. o# t-e co..unication "or exa.ple8 L:-e dayli%-t is #adin%8 t-e sun is settin%8 and ni%-t is co.in% onL as

%iven in a text5ooR o# En%lis- co.position is re%arded as tautolo%ical8 3-ereas t-e sa.e sentence .ay serve as an artistic exa.ple depictin% t-e approac- o# ni%-t. * certain Bussian literary critic -as 3iittily called pleonas. Lstylistic elep-antiasisI& a disease in 3-ic- t-e expression d&#&:i:ie:Sea&03ells up/ arid loses its #orce. 2leonas. .ay also|5e called Lt-e art o# 3ordy cJ b ==JJJJJ JJH c = = .=bbM'b...0.y.bbvb.b c..8 |.. L+ot- pleonas. and8 tautolo%y .ay 5e accepta5le in oratory inas.uc- as t-ey -elp t-e au.di.ence.8to.~raspG-e .eanin% o# t-e utterance. 1 t-is case8 -o3ever8 t-e repetition o# ide0G#sli00 alt-ou%- it .ay -ave no aest-etic #unctionK &b&L cL=cJ)//J ccb88=..8
E,1)'(&ti+,

E n ` g i m a tion is a stylistic device 5y 3-ic- separate t-in%s8 o5Gects8 p-eno.ena8 properties8 actions are na.ed one 5y one so t-at t-ey produce a c-ain8 t-e linRs o# 3-ic-8 5ein% syntactically in t-e sa.e position (-o.o%eneous parts o# speec-)8 are #orced to display so.e Rind o# se.antic -o.o%eneity8 re.ote t-ou%- it .ay see.. Most o# our notions are associated 3it- ot-er notions due to so.e Rind o# relation 5et3een t-e.; dependence8 cause and result8 liReness8 dissi.ilarity8 se9uence8 experience (personal andIor social)8 proxi.ity8 etc. In #act8 it is t-e associations plus social experience t-at -ave resulted in t-e #or.ation o# 3-at is Rno3n as Lse.antic #ields.L Enu.eration8 as an SD8 .ay 5e conventionally called a sporadic se.antic #ield8 inas.uc- as .any cases o# enu.eration -ave no continuous existence in t-eir .ani#estation as se.antic #ields do. :-e %roupin% o# so.eti.es a5solutely -etero%eneous notions occurs only in isolated instances to .eet so.e peculiar purport o# t-e 3riter. $et us exa.ine t-e #ollo3in% cases o# enu.eration; L:-ere >arold %aSes on a 3orR divine8 * 5lendin% o# all 5eautiesC strea.s and dells8 "ruit8 #olia%e8 cra%8 3ood8 corn#ield8 .ountain8 vine *nd c-ie#less castles 5reat-in% stern #are3ells "ro. %rey 5ut lea#y 3alls8 3-ere Buin %reenly d3ells.L (+yron) :-ere is -ardly anyt-in% in t-is enu.eration t-at could 5e re%arded as .aRin% so.e extra i.pact on t-e reader. Eac- 3ord is closely associated se.antically 3it- t-e #ollo3in% and precedin% 3ords in t-e enu.eration8 and t-e e##ect is 3-at t-e reader associates 3it- natural scenery. :-e utterance is per#ectly co-erent and t-ere is no -alt in t-e natural #lo3 o# t-e co..unication. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ere is not-in% specially to arrest t-e reader&s attentionC no e##ort is re9uired to decip-er t-e .essa%e; it yields itsel# easily to i..ediate perception. :-at is not t-e case in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e; LScroo%e 3as -is sole executor8 -is sole ad.inistrator8 -is sole 211 assi%n8 -is sole residuary le%atee8 -is sole #riend and -is sole .ourner.L (DicRens) :-e enu.eration -ere is -etero%eneousC t-e le%al ter.s placed in a strin% 3it- suc-

3ords as &#riend& and &.ourner& result in a Rind o# clas-8 a t-in% typical o# any stylistic device. >ere t-ere is a clas- 5et3een ter.inolo%ical voca5ulary and co..on neutral 3ords. In addition t-ere is a clas- o# concepts; &#riend& and &.ourner& 5y #orce o# enu= .eration are e9ual in si%ni#icance to t-e 5usiness o##ice o# &executor&8 'ad.inistrator&8 etc. and also to t-at o# &le%atee&. Enu.eration is #re9uently used as a device to depict scenery t-rou%- a tourist&s eyes8 as in Gals3ort-y&s L:o $etL; L"leur&s 3isdo. in re#usin% to 3rite to -i. 3as pro#ound8 #or -e reac-ed eac- ne3 place entirely 3it-out -ope or #ever8 and could concentrate i..ediate attention on t-e donReys and tu.5lin% 5ells8 t-e priests8 patios8 5e%%ars8 c-ildren8 cro3in% cocRs8 so.5reros8 cactus=-ed%es8 old -i%- 3-ite villa%es8 %oats8 olive=trees8 %reenin% plains8 sin%in% 5irds in tiny ca%es8 3atersellers8 sunsets8 .elons8 .ules8 %reat c-urc-es8 pictures8 and s3i..in% %rey=5ro3n .ountains o# a #ascinatin% land.L :-e enu.eration -ere is 3ort- analysin%. :-e various ele.ents o# t-is enu.eration can 5e approxi.ately %rouped in se.antic #ields; 1) donReys8 .ules8 cro3in% cocRs8 %oats8 sin%in% 5irdsC 2) priests8 5e%%ars8 c-ildren8 3atersellersC !) villa%es8 patios8 cactus=-ed%es8 c-urc-es8 tu.5lin% 5ells8 so.5reros8 picturesC ') sunsets8 s3i..in% %rey=5ro3n .ountains8 %reenin% plains8 olive=trees8 .elons. Gals3ort-y #ound it necessary toDarran%e t-e. not accordin% to lo%ical se.antic centres8 5ut in so.e ot-er orderC in one 3-ic-8 apparently8 3ould su%%est t-e rapidly c-an%in% i.pressions o# a tourist. Enu.eration o# t-is Rind assu.es a stylistic #unction and .ay.t-ere#ore 5e re%arded as a stylistic device8 inas.uc- as t-e o5Gects in t-e enu.eration are not distri5uted in lo%ical order and t-ere#ore 5eco.e striRin%. :-is -etero%eneous enu.eration %ives one an insi%-t into t-e .ind o# t-e o5server8 into -is love o# t-e exotic8 into t-e %reat variety o# .iscellaneous o5Gects 3-iccau%-t -is eye8 it %ives an idea o# t-e pro%ress o# -is travels and t-e .ost striRin% #eatures o# t-e land o# Spain as seen 5y one 3-o is in love 3it- t-e country. :-e parts o# t-e enu.eration .ay 5e liRened to t-e stroRes o# a painter&s 5rus- 3-o 5y an ini.ita5le c-oice o# colours presents to our eyes an un#or%etta5le i.a%e o# t-e li#e and scenery o# Spain. :-e passa%e itsel# can 5e liRened to a picture dra3n #or you 3-ile you 3ait. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# -etero%eneous enu.eration; L:-e principal production o# t-ese to3ns... appear to 5e soldiers8 sailors8 Ae3s8 c-alR8 s-ri.ps8 o##icers and docR=yard .enL(DicRens8 L2icR3icR 2apersL)
S1s:',s'

S usp eGi se i s a co.ppsitionGl device 3-ic- consists in arran%in% t-e ###a"Eez o# a co..Gu-:cation in suc- a 3ay t-at t-e less i.portant8 Ldescriptive8 su5ordinate parts are a.assed a# t-e 5e%innin%8 t-e .ain idea 5ein% 3it--eld till t-e end o# t-e sentence. :>us t-e reader&s attention is -eld and -is interest Rept up8 #or exa.ple; LManRind8 says a 4-inese .anuscript8 3-ic- .y #riend M. 3as o5li%in% enou%- to

read and explain to .e8 #or t-e #irst seventy t-ousand a%es ate t-eir .eat ra3&& (4-arles $a.5) Sentences o# t-is type are called p.er.iodi c.sen ten Y i s8 or periods. :-eir #unction is to create {suspense8 to Reep t-e reader .a state o# uncertainty and expectation. >ere is a %ood exa.ple o# t-e pilin% up o# details so as to create a state o# suspense in t-e listeners; L+ut suppose it / passedC suppose one o# t-ese .en8 as I -ave seen t-e.8c .ea%re 3it- #a.ine8 sullen 3it- despair8 careless o# a li#e 3-ic- your $ords-ips are per-aps a5out to value at so.et-in% less t-an t-e price o# a stocRin%=#ra.e; c suppose t-is .an surrounded 5y t-e c-ildren #or 3-o. -e is una5le to procure 5read at t-e -aSard o# -is existence8 a5out to 5e torn #or ever #ro. a #a.ily 3-ic- -e lately supported in peace#ul industry8 and 3-ic- it is not -is #ault t-at -e can no lon%er so supportC c suppose t-is .an8 and t-ere are ten t-ousand suc- #ro. 3-o. you .ay select your victi.s8 dra%%ed into court8 to 5e tried #or t-is ne3 o##ence8 5y t-is ne3 la3C still t-ere are t3o t-in%s 3antin% to convict and conde.n -i.C and t-ese are8 in .y opinion8c t3elve 5utc-ers #or a Gury8 and a Ae##reys #or a Gud%eKL (+yron) >ere t-e su5Gect o#=t-e su5ordinate clause o# concession (&one o# t-ese .en&)is//repeated t3ice8 (&tl#is .an&8 &t-is .an&)8 eac- ti.e #ollo3ed 5y a nu.5er o# su5ordinate parts8 5e#ore t-e predicate (&dra%%ed&) is reac-ed. *ll t-is is dra3n to%et-er in t-e principal clause (&t-ere are t3o t-in%s 3antin%...&)8 3-ic- 3as expected and prepared #or 5y t-e lo%ically inco.plete precedin% state.ents. +ut t-e suspense is not yet 5roRen; 3-at t-ese t3o t-in%s are8 is still 3it--eld until t-e orator co.es to t-e 3ords &arid t-ese are8 in .y opinion.& Suspense and cli.ax s'o.eti.es %o to%et-er. In t-is case all t-e in#or.ation contained in t-e series o# state.ent=clauses precedin% t-e solution=state.ent are arran%ed in t-e order o# %radation8 as in t-e exa.ple a5ove #ro. +yron&s .aiden speec- in t-e >ouse o# $ords. :-e device o# suspense is especially #avoured 5y orators. :-is is apparently due to t-e stron% in#luence o# intonation {3-ic- -elps to create t-e desired at.osp-ere0k 0expectation and e.otional tension 3-ic- %oes 3it- It. 000 1 * proposed la3 per.ittin% t-e deat- penalty #or 5reaRin% .ac-ines (at t-e ti.e o# t-e $uddite .ove.ent). Suspense al3ays re9uires lon% stretc-es o# speec- or .3ritin%= So.e=tiiries:t-e 3-ole o# a poe. is 5uiltLon t-is stylistic device8 as is t-e case 3it- uiplin%&s poe. LI#L 3-ere all t-e ei%-t stanSas consist o# II=clauses and only t-e last t3o lines constitute t-e principal clause. LI# you can Reep your -ead 3-en all a5out you *re losin% t-eirs and 5la.in% it on you8 II you can trust yoursel# 3-en all .en dou5t you *nd .aRe allo3ance #or t-eir dou5tin% too8 II you can drea. and not .aRe drea.s your .aster8 II you can t-inR and not .aRe t-ou%-ts your ai.8

wours is t-e eart- and everyt-in% t-at&s in it8... *nd 3-ic- is .ore8 you&ll 5e a Man8 .y son.L :-is device is e##ective in .ore t-an one 3ay8 5ut t-e .ain purpose is to prepare t-e reader #or t-e only lo%ical conclusionL5# t-e `imjjYiP/ It is a psyc-olo%ical e##ect t-at is ai.ed at in particular. * series o# X_mP 9uestion=sentences containin% su5ordinate parts is anot-er structural pattern 5ased on t-e principle o# suspense8 #or t-e ans3er is 3it--eld #or a ti.e8 as in +yron&s L:-e +ride o# *5ydosL; Luno3 ye t-e land 3-ere t-e cypress and .yrtle... uno3 ye t-e land o# t-e cedar and vine... &:is t-e cli.e o# t-e Eastc &tis t-e land o# t-e Sun.L :-e end o# an utterance is a specially e.p-atic part o# it. :-ere#ore i# 3e Reep t-e secret o# a co..unication until 3e reac- t-e end8 it 3ill lead to concentration o# t-e reader&s or listener&s attention8 and t-is is t-e e##ect .sou%-t. ,ne .ore exa.ple to s-o3 -o3 suspense can 5e .aintained; L2roud o# -is L>ear -i.KL proud8 too8 o# -is vote8 *nd lost vir%inity o# oratory8 2roud o# -is learnin% (Gust enou%- to 9uote) >e revell&d in -is 4iceronian %lory.L (+yron) It .ust 5e noted t-at suspense8 due to its partly psyc-olo%ical nature (it arouses a #eelin% o#!.xpectation)8 is #ra.ed in Vi sentence8 #or t-ere 0.usl 0 t-e in#pnatipn pattern8 ISeparate sentences 3ould violate t-e principle o# constant e.otional tension 3-ic- is c-aracteristic o# t-is device.
Cli)&; (G(&-&ti+,)

4li.ax is an arran%e.ent o# sentences (or o# t-e -o.o%eneous parts o# one sentence) 3-ic- secures a %radual increase in si%ni#icance8 i.portance8 or e.otional tension in t-e utterance8 as in; LIt 3as a lovely city8 a 5eauti#ul city8 a #air city8 a verita5le %e. o# a cityL or in; 5GK LNe 5arrier 3all8 ne river deep and 3ide8 l< Ne -orrid cra%s8 nor .ountains darR and tall Bise liRe t-e rocRs t-at part >ispania&s land #ro. Gaul.L (+yron) Gradual increase in e.otional evaluation in t-e #irst illustration and in si%ni#icance in t-e second is realiSed 5y t-e distri5ution o# t-e correspondin% lexical ite.s. Eacsuccessive unit is perceived as stron%er t-an t-e precedin% one. ,# course8 t-ere are no o5Gective lin%uistic criteria to esti.ate t-e de%ree o# i.portance or si%ni#icance o# eac- constituent. It is only t-e #or.al -o.o%eneity o# t-ese co.ponent parts and t-e test o# synony.y in t-e 3ords &lovely&8 &5eauti#ul&8 &#air8& &verita5le %e.& in t-e #irst exa.ple and t-e relative inaccessi5ility o# t-e 5arriers &3all&8 &river&8 &cra%s&8 &.ountains& to%et-er 3it- t-e epit-ets &deep and 3ide&8 &-orrid&8 &darR and tall& t-at .aRe us #eel t-e increase in i.portance o# eac-. * %radual increase in si%ni#icance .ay 5e .aintained in t-ree 3ays; lo%ical8 e.otional and 9uantitative. $o%ical Y I i g _ is 5ased on t-e relative i.portance o# t-e co.ponent parts looRed at #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-e concepts e.5odied in t-e.. :-is relative i.portance

.ay 5e evaluated 5ot- o5Gectively and su5Gectively8 t-e aut-or&s attitude to3ards t-e o5Gects or p-eno.ena in 9uestion 5ein% disclosed. :-us8 t-e #ollo3in% para%rap#ro. DicRens&s L4-rist.as 4arolL s-o3s t-e relative i.portance in t-e aut-or&s .ind o# t-e t-in%s and p-eno.ena descri5ed; LNo5ody ever stopped -i. in t-e street to say8 3it- %ladso.e looRs8 &My dear Scroo%e8 -o3 are youz ?-en 3ill you co.e to see .ez& No 5e%%ars i.%Gored -i. to 5esto3 a tri#le8 no c-ildren asRed Aii. 3-at it =3as o&clocR8 no .an or 3o.an ever once in all -is li#e in9uired t-e 3ay to suc- and suc- a place8 o# Scroo%e. Even t-e 5lind .en&s do%s appeared to Rno3 -i.8 and 3-en t-ey sa3 -i. co.in% on8 3ould tu% t-eir o3ners into door3ays and up courtsC and t-en 3ould 3a% t-eir tails8 as t-ou%- t-ey said8 &No eye at all is 5etter t-an n evil eye8 darR .asterK&L :-e order o# t-e state.ents s-o3s 3-at t-e aut-or considers t-e cul.ination o# t-e cli.ax. :-e passa%e 5y DicRens s-ould 5e considered Lsu5GectiveL8 5ecause t-ere is no %eneral reco%nition o# t-e relative si%ni#icance o# t-e state.ents in t-e para%rap-. :-e cli.ax in t-e lines #ro. +yron&s LNe 5arrier...L .ay 5e considered Lo5GectiveL 5ecause suc- t-in%s as &3all&8 &river&8 &cra%s&8 &.ountains& are o5Gectively ranRed accordin% to t-eir accessi5ility. E.otional Y I i g _ is 5ased on t-e relative e.otional tension produced 5y 3ords 3it- e.otive .eanin%8 as in t-e #irst exa.ple 3it- t-e 3ords &lovely&8 &5eauti#ul&8 &#air&. ,# course8 e.otional cli.ax 5ased on synony.ous strin%s o# 3ords 3it- e.otive .eanin% 3ill inevita5ly cause certain se.antic di##erences in t-ese 3ords c suc- is t-e lin%uistic nature o# stylistic synony.sc8 5ut e.otive .eanin% 3ill 5e t-e prevailin% one. E.otional cli.ax is .ainly #ound in sentences8 .ore rarely in lon%er syntactical units. :-is is natural. E.otional c-ar%e cannot -old lon%. *s 5eco.es o5vious #ro. t-e analysis o# t-e a5ove exa.ples o# cli.atic order8 t-e arran%e.ent o# t-e co.ponent parts calls #or parallel construction 3-ic-8 5ein% a Rind o# syntactical repetition8 is #re9uently acco.panied 5y lexical repetition. >ere is anot-er exa.ple o# e.otional cli.ax 5uilt on t-is pattern; p L>e 3as pleased 3-en t-e c-ild 5e%an to adventure across d #loors on -and and RneesC -e 3as %rati#ied8 3-en s-e .ana%ed t-e tricR o# 5alancin% -ersel# on t3o le%sC -e 3as deli%-ted 3-en s-e #irst said &ta=ta&C and -e 3as reGoiced 3-en s-e reco%niSed -i. and s.iled at -i..L (*lan 2aton) "inally8 3e co.e to 9uantitative cli.ax. :-is is an evident increase in t-e volu.e o# t-e correspondin% concepts8 as in; L:-ey looRed at -undreds o# -ousesC t-ey cli.5ed t-ousands o# stairsC t-ey inspected innu.era5le Ritc-ens.L (Mau%-a.) >ere t-e cli.ax is ac-ieved 5y si.ple nu.erical increase. In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple cli.ax is .aterialiSed 5y settin% side 5y side concepts o# .easure and ti.e; L$ittle 5y little8 5it 5y 5it8 and day 5y day8 and &year 5y year t-e 5aron %ot t-e 3orst o# so.e disputed 9uestion.L (DicRens) ?-at t-en are t-e indispensa5le constituents o# cli.axz :-ey are;

a) t-e distri5utional constituent; close proxi.ity o# t-e co.ponent parts arran%ed in increasin% order o# i.portance or si%ni#icanceC 5) t-e syntactical pattern; parallel constructions 3it- possi5le lexical repetitionC c) t-e connotative constituent; t-e explanatory context 3-ic- -elps t-e reader to %rasp t-e %radation8 as no... ever once in all -is li#e/8 no5ody ever8 no5ody8 No 5e%%ars (DicRens)C deep and 3ide8 -orrid8 darR and tall (+yron)C verita5le (%e. o# a city). 4li.ax8 liRe .any ot-er stylistic devices8 is a .eans 5y 3-ic- t-e aut-or discloses -is 3orld8 outlooR8 -is evaluation o# o5Gective #acts and p-eno.ena. :-e concrete stylistic #unction o# t-is device is to s-o3 t-e relative i.portance o# t-in%s as seen 5y t-e aut-or (especially in e.otional cli.ax)8 or to i.press upon t-e reader t-e si%ni#icance o# t-e t-in%s descri5ed 5y su%%ested co.parison8 or to depict p-eno.ena dyna.ically.1 1 Note; :-ere is a device 3-ic- is called anticli.ax. :-e ideas expressed .ay 5e arran%ed in ascendin% order o# si%ni#icance8 or t-ey .ay 5e poetical or elevated8 5ut t-e #inal one8 3-ic- t-e reader expects to 5e t-e cul.inatin% one8 as in cli.ax8 is tri#lin% or #arcical. :-ere is a sudden drop #ro. t-e lo#ty or serious to t-e ridiculous. * typical exa.ple is *esop&s #a5le L:-e Mountain in $a5our.L LIn days o# yore8 a .i%-ty ru.5lin% 3as -eard in a Mountain. It 3as said to 5e in la5our8 and .ultitudes #locRed to%et-er8 #ro. #ar and near8 to see 3-at
A,tit/'sis

In order to c-aracteriSe a t-in% or p-eno.enon #ro. a speci#ic point o# vie38 it .ay 5e necessary not to #ind points o# rese.5lance or association 5et3een it and so.e ot-er t-in% or p-eno.enon8 5ut to #ind points o# s-arp contrast8 t-at is8 to set one a%ainst t-e ot-er8 #or exa.ple; L* saint a5road8 and a devil at -o.eL (+unyan) L+etter to rei%n in -ell t-an serve in -eaven.L (Milton) * line o# de.arcation .ust 5e dra3n 5et3een lo%ical opposition and stylistic opposition. *ny opposition 3ill 5e 5ased on t-e contrastin% #eatures o# t3o o5Gects. :-ese contrastin% #eatures are represented in pairs o# 3ords 3-ic- 3e call antony.s8 provided t-at all t-e properties o# t-e t3o o5Gects in 9uestion .ay 5e set one a%ainst anot-er8 as &saint& c&devil&8 &rei%n&c&serve&8 &-ell&c&-eaven&. Many 3ord=co.5inations are 5uilt up 5y .eans o# contrastin% pairs8 as up and do3n8 inside and out8 #ro. top to 5otto. and t-e liRe. Stylistic opposition8 3-ic- is %iven a special na.e8 t-e ter. a n=t i t - e s i s8 is o# a di##erent lin%uistic nature; it is 5ased on relative opposition 3-ic- arises out o# t-e context t-rou%- t-e expansion o# o5Gectively contrastin% pairs8 as in; Lwout- is lovely8 a%e is lonely8 wout- is #iery8 a%e is #rostyCL ($on%#ello3) >ere t-e o5Gectively contrasted pair is &yout-& and &a%e&. &$ovely& and &lonely& cannot 5e re%arded as o5Gectively opposite concepts8 5ut 5ein% dra3n into t-e sc-e.e contrastin% &yout-& and &a%e&8 t-ey display certain #eatures 3-ic- .ay 5e counted as

antony.ical. :-is is stren%t-ened also 5y t-e next line 3-ere not only &yout-& and &a%e& 5ut also &#iery& and &#rosty& are o5Gective antony.s. It is not only t-e se.antic aspect 3-ic- explains t-e lin%uistic nature o# antit-esis8 t-e structural pattern also plays an i.portant role. *ntit-esis is %enerally .oulded in parallel construction. :-e anta%onistic #eatures o# t-e t3o o5Gects or p-eno.ena are .ore easily perceived 3-en t-ey stand out in si.ilar structures. :-is is particularly advanta%eous 3-en t-e anta%onistic #eatures are not in-erent in t-e o5Gects in 9uestion 5ut i.posed on t-e.. :-e structural desi%n o# antit-esis is so i.portant it 3ould produce. *#tervlon% expectation and .any 3ise conGectures #ro. t-e 5y= standerscout popped8 a MouseKL >ere 3e -ave deli5erate anticli.ax8 3-ic- is a reco%niSed #or. o# -u.our. *nti= cli.ax is #re9uently used 5y -u.orists >Re MarR :3ain and Aero.e u= Aero.e. In L:-ree Men in a +oatL8 #or exa.ple8 a poetical passa%e is invaria5ly #ollo3ed 5y ludicrous scene. "or exa.ple8 t-e aut-or expands on t-e 5eauties o# t-e sunset on t-e river and concludes; L+ut 3e didnt sail into t-e 3orld o# %olden sunset; 3e 3ent slap into t-at old punt 3-ere t-e %entle.en 3ere #is-in%L *not-er exa.ple is; L:-is 3ar=liRe speec-8 received 3it- .any a c-eer8 >ad #illed t-e. 3it- desire o# #a.e8 and 5eerL (+yron) t-at unless it is conspicuously .arRed in t-e utterance8 t-e e##ect .i%-t 5e lost. It .ust 5e re.e.5ered8 -o3ever8 t-at so stron% is t-e i.pact o# t-e various stylistic devices8 t-at t-ey dra3 into t-eir or5it stylistic ele.ents not speci#ied as inte%ral parts o# t-e device. *s 3e -ave pointed out8 t-is is o#ten t-e case 3it- t-e epit-et. :-e sa.e concerns antit-esis. So.eti.es it is di##icult to sin%le out t-e ele.ents 3-ic- distin= %uis- it #ro. lo%ical opposition. :-us in DicRens&s L* :ale o# :3o 4itiesL t-e #irst para%rap- is practically 5uilt on opposin% pairs. LIt 3as t-e 5est o# ti.es8 it 3as t-e 3orst o# ti.es8 it 3as t-e a%e o# 3isdo.8 it 3as t-e a%e o# #oolis-ness8 it 3as t-e epoc- o# 5elie#8 it 3as t-e epoc- o# incredulity8 i# 3as t-e season o# $i%-t8 it 3as t-e season o# DarRness8 it 3as t-e sprin% o# -ope8 it 3as t-e 3inter o# despair8 ?e -ad everyt-in% 5e#ore us8 3e -ad not-in% 5e#ore us8 3e 3ere all %oin% direct to >eaven8 3e are all %oin% direct t-e ot-er 3ay...L (DicRens) :-e structural pattern o# t-e utterance8 t-e pairs o# o5Gective antony.s as 3ell as o# t-ose on 3-ic- antony.ical .eanin%s are i.posed 5y t-e #orce o# analo%y .aRes t-e 3-ole para%rap- stylistically si%ni#icant8 and t-e %eneral device 3-ic- .aRes it so is antit-esis. :-is device is o#ten si%nalled 5y t-e introductory connective 5ut8 as in; L:-e cold in cli.e are cold in 5lood :-eir love can scarce deserve t-e na.eC +ut .ine 3as liRe a lava #lood.

:-at 5oils in Etna&s 5reast o# #la.e.L (+yron) ?-en 5ut is used as a si%nal o# antit-esis8 t-e ot-er structural si%nal8 t-e parallel arran%e.ent8 .ay not 5e evident. It .ay 5e unnecessary8 as in t-e exa.ple a5ove. *ntit-esis is a device 5orderin% 5et3een stylistics and lo%ic. :-e extre.es are easily discerni5le 5ut .ost o# t-e cases are inter.ediate. >o3ever8 it is essential to distin%uis- 5et3een antit-esis arid 3-at is ter.ed contrast. 4ontrast is a literary (not a lin%uistic) device 5ased on lo%ical opposition 5et3een t-e p-eno.ena set one a%ainst anot-er. >ere is a %ood exa.ple o# contrast. :>E BI(EB L:-e riverc3it- t-e sunli%-t #las-in% #ro. its dancin% 3avelets8 %ildin% %old t-e %rey=%reen 5eec-=trunRs8 %lintin% t-rou%- t-e darR8 cool 3ood pat-s8 c-asin% s-ado3s o&er t-e s-allo3s8 #lin%in% dia.onds #ro. t-e .ill=3-eels8 t-ro3in% Risses to t-e lilies8 3antonin% 3it- t-e 3eir&s 3-ite 3aters8 silverin% .oss=%ro3n 3alls and 5rid%es8 5ri%-tenin% every tiny to3nlet8 .aRin% s3eet eac- lane and .eado38 lyin% tan%led in t-e rus-es8 peepin%8 lau%-in%8 #ro. eac- inlet8 %lea.in% %ay on .any a #ar sail8 .aRin% so#t t-e air 3it- %lorycis a %olden #airy strea.. +ut t-e rivercc-ill and 3eary8 3it- t-e ceaseless rain drops #allin% on its 5ro3n and slu%%is- 3aters8 3it- t-e sound as o# a 3o.an8 3eepin% lo3 in so.e darR c-a.5er8 3-ile t-e 3oods all darR and silent8 s-rouded in t-eir .ists o# vapour8 stand liRe %-osts upon t-e .ar%in8 silent %-osts 3it- eyes reproac-#ul liRe t-e %-osts o# evil actions8 liRe t-e %-osts o# #riends ne%lectedc is a spirit=-aunted 3ater t-rou%- t-e land o# vain re%rets.L (Aero.e u. Aero.e) :-e t3o para%rap-s are .ade into one lon% span o# t-ou%-t 5y t-e si%nal +ut and t-e repetition o# t-e 3ord river a#ter 3-ic- in 5ot- cases a pause is indicated 5y a das3-ic- su%%ests a di##erent intonation pattern o# t-e 3ord river. :-e opposin% .e.5ers o# t-e contrast are t-e &sunli%-t #las-in%&c&ceaseless rain drops #allin%&C &%ildin% %old t-e %rey=%reen 5eec-=trunRs8 %lintin% t-rou%- t-e darR8 cool 3ood pat-s&c &t-e 3oods8 all darR and silent8 s-rouded in t-eir .ists o# vapour8 stand liRe %-osts...&C &%olden #airy strea.&c&spirit=-aunted 3ater&. Still t-ere are several t-in%s lacRin% to s-o3 a clear case o# a stylistic device8 viS. t-e 3ords involved in t-e opposition do not display any additional nuance o# .eanin% caused 5y 5ein% opposed one to anot-erC t-ere are no true parallel constructions except8 per-aps8 t-e %eneral pattern o# t-e t3o para%rap-s8 3it- all t-e descriptive parts placed 5et3een t-e %ra..atical su5Gect and predicate8 t-e t3o predicates servin% as a Rind o# su..in% up8 t-us co.pletin% t-e contrast. &:-e river... is a %olden #airy strea..&c&+ut t-e river ... is a spirit=-aunted 3ater t-rou%- t-e land o# vain re%rets.& :-e contrast e.5odied in t-ese t3o para%rap-s is8 -o3ever8 aRin to t-e stylistic device o# antit-esis. *ntit-esis -as t-e #ollo3in% 5asic #unctions; r-yt-.=#or.in% (5ecause o# t-e parallel arran%e.ent on 3-ic- it is #ounded)C copulativeC disseverin%C co.parative. :-ese #unctions o#ten %o to%et-er and inter.in%le in t-eir o3n peculiar .anner. +ut as a rule antit-esis displays one o# t-e #unctions .ore clearly t-an t-e ot-ers. :-is

particular #unction 3ill t-en 5e t-e leadin% one in t-e %iven utterance. *n interestin% exa.ple o# antit-esis 3-ere t-e co.parative #unction is predo.inant is t-e .adri%al ascri5ed to S-aRespeare; = l * M*DBIG*$ L4ra55ed a%e and yout- 4annot live to%et-er; wout- is #ull o# pleasance8 *%e is #ull o# careC wout- liRe su..er .orn8 *%e liRe 3inter 3eat-er8 wout- liRe su..er 5rave8 *%e liRe 3inter 5are; wout- is #ull o# sport8 *%e&s 5reat- is s-ort8 wout- is ni.5le8 *%e is la.e; wout- is -ot and 5old8 *%e is 3eaR and cold8 wout- is 3ild8 and *%e is ta.e;c *%e8 I do a5-ore t-ee8 wout-8 I do adore t-eeC .y $ove8 .y $ove is youn%K *%e8 I do de#y t-eec s3eet s-ep-erd8 -ie t-ee. "or .et-inRs t-ou stay&st too lon%. D. PARTICULAR )AYS O' COMBINING PARTS O' T(E UTTERANCE *LIN+AGE, Muc- li%-t can 5e t-ro3n on t-e nature o# I i n R a % e i# 3e do not con#ine t-e pro5le. to suc- notions as coordination and su5ordination. Most o# t-e .edia 3-icserve as %ra..atical #or.s #or co.5inin% parts 3it-in t-e sentence -ave 5een investi%ated and expounded in %ra..ars 3it- su##icient clarity and #ullness. +ut sentence=linRin% #eatures 3it-in lar%er=t-an=t-e=sentence structurescS2Ms8 para%rap-s and still lar%er structures c -ave so #ar 5een very little under o5servation. :-e current o# #as-ion at present8 due to pro5le.s raised 5y text=lin%uistics8 runs in t-eL direction o# investi%atin% 3ays and .eans o# co.5inin% di##erent stretc-es o# utterances 3it- t-e ai. o# disclosin% t-e 3-oleness o# t-e 3orR. (arious scienti#ic papers sin%le out t-e #ollo3in% .edia 3-ic- can #ul#il t-e structural #unction o# unitin% various parts o# utterances; repetition (anap-ora8 epip-ora8 anadiplosis8 #ra.in%)8 t-e de#inite article8 t-e de.onstrative pronouns8 t-e personal pronouns8 t-e use o# concord (in nu.5er8 #or. o# tenses8 etc.)8 adver5ial 3ords and p-rases (-o3ever8 conse9uently8 it #ollo3s t-en8 etc.)8 prosodic #eatures . (contrastive tone8 t-e Llistin%L intonation pattern)8 parallel constructions8 c-ias.us8 sustained .etap-ors and si.iles8 and a nu.5er o# ot-er .eans.1 :-e de#inition o# .eans o# co.5inin% parts o# an=utterance88=rests on t-e assu.ption t-at any unit o# lan%ua%e .i%-t8 in particular cases8 turn into a connective. Sucp-rases as t-at is to say8 it %oes 3it-out sayin%8 #or t-e 3-ic-8 -o3ever8 t-e precedin% state.ent and t-e liRe s-ould also 5e re%arded as connectives. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e capacity to serve as a connective is an in-erent property o# a %reat nu.5er o# 3ords and p-rases i# t-ey are set in a position 3-ic- calls #ort- continuation o# a t-ou%-t or

description o# an event. :o #ollo3 closely -o3 parts o# an utterance are connected and to clari#y t-e type o# interdependence 5et3een t-ese parts is so.eti.es di##icult eit-er 5ecause o# t-e a5sence o# #or.al si%ns o# linRa%e (asyndeton)8 or 5ecause o# t-e presence o# too .any identical si%ns (polysyndeton).
Asy,-'t+,

*syndeton8 t-at is8 connection 5et3een parts o# a sentence or 5et3een sentences 3it-out any #or.al si%n8 5eco.es a stylistic device i# t-ere is a deli5erate o.ission o# t-e connective 3-ere it is %enerally expected to 5e accordin% to t-e nor.s o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. >ere is an exa.ple; LSoa.es turned a3ayC -e -ad an utter disinclination #or talR liRe one standin% 5e#ore an open %rave8 3atc-in% a co##in slo3ly lo3ered.L (Gals3ort-y) :-e deli5erate o.ission o# t-e su5ordinate conGunction 5ecause or #or .aRes t-e sentence &-e -ad an utter...& al.ost entirely independent. It .i%-t 5e perceived as a c-aracteristic #eature o# Soa.es in %eneral8 5ut #or t-e co.parison 5e%innin% 3itliRe8 3-ic- s-o3s t-at Soa.es&s .ood 3as te.porary. >ere a re.inder is necessary t-at t-ere is an essential di##erence 5et3een t-e ordinary nor.s o# lan%ua%e8 5ot- literary and collo9uial8 and stylistic devices 3-ic- are sRil#ully 3rou%-t #or special in#or.ative and aest-etic purposes. In t-e sentence; L+icRet did not ans3er -is t-roat #elt too dry.L (Gals3ort-y) t-e a5sence o# t-e conGunction and a punctuation .arR .ay 5e re%arded as a deli5erate introduction o# t-e nor.s o# collo9uial speec- into t-e literary lan%ua%e. Suc- structures .aRe t-e utterance sound liRe one syntactical unit to 5e pronounced in one 5reat- %roup. :-is deter.ines t-e intonation pattern. It is interestin% to co.pare t-e precedin% t3o utterances #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# t-e len%t- o# t-e pause 5et3een t-e constituent parts. In t-e #irst utterance (Soa.es...)8 t-ere is a se.icolon 3-ic-8 5ein% t-e indication o# a lon%is- pause8 5reaRs t-e utterance into t3o parts. In t-e second utterance (+icRet...)8 no pause s-ould 5e .ade and t-e 3-ole o# t-e utterance.pronounced _\ one synta%.. :-e crucial p6o5le. in ascertainin% t-e true intonation pattern o# a sentence co.posed o# t3o or .ore parts lies in a deeper analysis o# t-e #unctions o# t-e connectives8 on t-e one -and8 and a .ore detailed investi%ation o# %rap-ical .eansct-e si%nals indicatin% t-e correct interpretation o# t-e utterancec8 on t-e ot-er8
P+lysy,-'t+,

2olysyndeton is t-e stylistic device o# connectin% sentences8 or p-rases8 or synta%.s8 or 3ords&5y usin% connectives (.ostly conGunctions and prepositions) 5e#ore eacco.ponent part8 as in; L:-e -eaviest rain8 and sno38 and -ail8 and sleet8 could 5oast 9# t-e advanta%e over -i. in only one respect.L (DicRens)

In t-is passa%e #ro. $on%#ello3&s L:-e Son% o# >ia3at-aL8 t-ere is 0repetition 5oto# conGunctions and prepositions; LS-ould you asR .e8 3-ence t-ese storiesz & ?-ence t-ese le%ends and traditions8 ?it- t-e odours o# t-e #orest8 ?it- t-e de38 and da.p o# .eado3s8 ?it- t-e curlin% s.oRe o# 3i%3a.s8 ?it- t-e rus-in% o# %reat rivers8 ?it- t-eir #re9uent repetitions8...L :-e repetition o# conGunctions and ot-er .eans o# connection .aRes an utterance .ore r-yt-.icalC so .uc- so t-at prose .ay even see. liRe verse. :-e conGunctions and ot-er connectives8 5ein% %enerally unstressed ele.ents8 3-en placed 5e#ore eac.eanin%#ul .e.5er8 3ill cause t-e alternation o# stressed and unstressed sylla5les c t-e essential re9uire.ent o# r-yt-. in verse. >ence8 one o# t-e #unctions o# polysyndeton is a r-yt-.ical one. In addition to t-is8 polysyndeton -as a disinte%ratin% #unction. It %enerally co.5ines -o.o%eneous ele.ents o# t-ou%-t into one 3-ole rese.5lin% enu.eration. +ut8 unliRe enu.eration8 3-ic- inte%rates 5ot- -o.o%eneous and -etero%eneous ele.ents into one 3-ole8 polysyndeton causes eac- .e.5er o# a strin% o# #acts to stand out conspicuously. :-at is 3-y 3e say t-at polysyndeton -as a disinte%ratin% #unction. Enu.eration s-o3s t-in%s unitedC polysyndeton s-o3s t-e. isolated. C 2olysyndeton -as also t-e #unction o# expressin% se9uence8 as in; L:-en Mr. +o##in... sat starin% at a little 5ooRcase o# $a3 2ractice and $a3 Beports8 and at a 3indo38 and at an e.pty 5lue 5a%8 and a sticR o# sealin%=3ax8 and at a pen8 and a 5ox o# 3a#ers8 and an apple8 and a 3ritin%=pad c all very dusty c and at a nu.5er o# inRy s.ears and 5lots8 and at an i.per#ectly dis%uised %un=case pretendin% to 5e so.et-in% le%al8 and at an iron 5ox la5elled L>ar.on EstateL8 until Mr. $i%-t3ood appeared.L (DicRens) *ll t-ese ands .ay easily 5e replaced 5y t-ens. +ut in t-is case too .uc- stress 3ould 5e laid on t-e lo%ical aspects o# t-e utterance8 3-ereas and expresses 5ot- se9uence and disinte%ration. Note also t-at DicRens 5e%ins 5y repeatin% not only and8 5ut also at. +ut in t-e .iddle o# t-e utterance -e drops t-e at8 picRs it up a%ain8 drops it once .ore and t-en #inally picRs it up and uses it 3it- t-e last t-ree ite.s.
T/' G&:2 S',t',c' Li,<

:-ere is a peculiar type o# connection o# sentences 3-ic- #or 3ant o# a ter. 3e s-all call t-e % ap=s en #ence linR (GS$). :-e connection is not i..ediately apparent and it re9uires a certain .ental e##ort to %rasp t-e interrelation 5et3een t-e parts o# t-e utterance8 in ot-er 3ords8 to 5rid%e t-e se.antic %ap. >ere is an exa.ple; LS-e and t-at #ello3 ou%-t in ItalyL (Gals3ort-y) to 5e t-e su##erers8 and t-ey 3ere In t-is sentence t-e second part8 3-ic- is -ooRed on to t-e #irst 5y t-e conGunction and8 see.s to 5e un.otivated or8 in ot-er 3ords8 t-e 3-ole sentence see.s to 5e lo%ically inco-erent. +ut t-is is only t-e #irst i.pression. *#ter a .ore care#ul

supralinear se.antic analysis it 5eco.es clear t-at t-e exact lo%ical variant o# t-e utterance 3ould 5e; &:-ose 3-o ou%-t to su##er 3ere enGoyin% t-e.selves in Italy (3-ere 3ell=to=do En%lis- people %o #or -olydays).& 4onse9uently8 GS$ is a 3ay o# connectin% t3o sentences see.in%ly unconnected and leavin% it to t-e reader&s perspicacity to %rasp t-e idea i.plied8 5ut not 3orded. Generally speaRin%8 every detail o# t-e situation need not 5e stated. So.e .ust re.ain #or t-e reader to divine. *s in .any ot-er cases8 t-e device o# GS$ is deeply rooted in t-e nor.s o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e. :-e o.issions are Gusti#ied 5ecause t-e situation easily pro.pts 3-at -as not 5een said. :-e proper intonation also -elps in decip-erin% t-e co..unication. It is also natural in conversation to add a p-rase to a state.ent .ade8 a p-rase 3-ic3ill point to uncertainty or lacR o# Rno3led%e or to t-e unpredicta5ility o# t-e possi= 5le issue8 etc.8 as in; says not-in%8 5ut it is clear t-at s-e is -arpin% on t-is en%a%e.ent8 and c %oodness Rno3s 3-at.L (Gals3ort-y) In 3ritin%8 3-ere t-e situation is explained 5y t-e 83riter and t-e intonation is only %uessed at8 suc- 5reaRs in t-e utterance are re%arded as stylistic devices. :-e %ap= sentence linR re9uires a certain .ental e##ort to e.5race t-e unexpressed additional in#or.ation. :-e %ap=sentence linR is %enerally indicated 5y and or 5ut. :-ere is no asyndetic GS$8 inas.uc- as connection 5y asyndeton can 5e carried out only 5y se.antic ties easily and i..ediately perceived. :-ese ties are8 as it 3ere8 su5stitutes #or t-e #or.al %ra..atical .eans o# connection. :-e %a#t=sente-ce linR -as no i..ediate se.antic connections8 t-ere#ore it re9uires #or.al indications o# connection. It de.ands an o5vious 5reaR in t-e se.antic texture o# t-e utterance and #or.s an Lunexpected se.antic leap.L :-e possi5ility o# #illin% in t-e se.antic %ap depends lar%ely on associations a3aRened 5y t-e t3o sentences linRed cu.ulatively. In t-e #ollo3in% utterance i-~ connection 5et3reen t-e t3o sentences needs no co..ent. LIt 3as an a#ternoon to drea.. *nd s-e tooR out Aon&s letters.L (Gals3ort-y) / ?-ile .aintainin% t-e unity o# t-e utterance syntactically t-e aut-or leaves t-e interpretation o# t-e linR 5et3een t-e t3o sentences to t-e .ind o# t-e reader. It is t-e i.a%inative .ind only t-at can decode a .essa%e expressed 5y a stylistic device. No3-ere do t-e conGunctions and and 5ut ac9uire suc- varied expressive s-ades o# .eanin% as in GS$ constructions. It is t-ese nuances t-at cause t-e peculiar intonation 3it- 3-ic- and or 5ut are pronounced. :-us in t-e #ollo3in% sentence t-e conGunction and is .ade very conspicuous 5y t-e intonation si%nalled. 5y t-e das-; L:-e "orsytes 3ere resent#ul o# so.et-in%8 not Individually8 5ut as a #a.ily8 t-is resent.ent expressed itsel# in an added per#ection o# rai.ent8 an exu5erance o# #a.ily cordiality8 an exa%%eration o# #a.ily i.portance8 andct-e sni##L (Gals3ort-y)

:-e GS$ andct-e sni## is .otivated. Its association 3it- &an exa%%eration o# #a.ily i.portance& is apparent. >o3ever8 so stron% is t-e e.otive .eanin% o# t-e 3ord sni## t-at it overs-ado3s t-e precedin% 3ords 3-ic- are used in t-eir pri.ary8 exact8 lo%ical .eanin%s. >ence t-e das- a#ter and to add special si%ni#icance to t-e cu.ulative e##ect. :-is exa.ple s-o3s t-at GS$ can 5e acco.panied 5y se.antic %aps 3ider or narro3er as t-e case .ay 5e. In t-is exa.ple t-e %ap is very narro3 and t-ere#ore t-e .issin% linR is easily restored. +ut so.eti.es t-e %ap is so 3ide t-at it re9uires a deep supralinear se.antic analysis to %et at t-e i.plied .eanin%. :-us in t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple #ro. +yron&s .aiden speec-; L*nd -ere I .ust re.arR 3it3-at alacrity you are accusto.ed to #ly to t-e succour o# your distressed allies8 leavin% t-e distressed o# your o3n country to t-e care o# 2rovidence orct-e paris-L >ere t-e GS$8 .aintained 5y or and #ollo3ed 5y t-e das-8 3-ic- indicates a rat-er lon% pause8 i.plies t-at t-e paris-8 3-ic- 3as supposed to care #or i.poveris-ed 3orRers8 3as una5le to do so. +y its intrinsic nature t-e conGunction8 5ut can Gusti#y t-e apparently un.otivated couplin% o# t3o unconnected state.ents. :-us8 in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e GS$ is .aintained 5y and8 5acRed up 5y 5ut. LIt 3as not 4apeto3n8 3-ere people only #ro3ned 3-en t-ey sa3 a 5lacR 5oy and a 3-ite %irl. +ut -ere... *nd -e loved -erL (*5ra-a.s) :-e %ap=sentence linR as a stylistic device is 5ased on t-e peculiarities o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e and is t-ere#ore .ost #re9uently used in represented speec-. It is GS$ alon%side ot-er c-aracteristics t-at .oulds t-e device o# unuttered represented speec-. :-e %ap=sentence linR -as various #unctions. It .ay serve to si%nal t-e introduction o# inner represented speec-C it .ay 5e used to indicate a su5Gective evaluation o# t-e #actsC it rnay introduce an e##ect resultin% #ro. a cause 3-ic- -as already -ad ver5al expression. In all t-ese #unctions GS$ displays an unexpected couplin% o# ideas. Even t-e cause= / and=e##ect relations8 lo%ical as t-ey are8 3-en e.5odied in GS$ structures are not so o5vious. In contra=diitinction to t-e lo%ical se%.entation o# t-e utterance8 3-ic- leaves no roo. #or personal interpretation o# t-e interdependence o# t-e co.ponent parts8 GS$ ai.s at stirrin% up in t-e reader&s .ind t-e suppositions8 associations and conditions under 3-ic- t-e& sentence uttered can really exist. E. PARTICULAR USE O' COLLOQUIAL CONSTRUCTIONS ?e -ave already pointed out so.e o# t-e constructions 3-ic- 5ear an i.print o# e.otion in t-e very arran%e.ent o# t-e 3ords8 3-et-er t-ey are neutral or stylistically coloured (seeL p. !9). Suc- constructions are al.ost exclusively used in lively collo9uial intercourse. :-e e.otional ele.ent can 5e stron%ly en#orced 5y e.p-atic intonation8 3-ic- is an indispensa5le co.ponent o# e.otional utterance. +ut 3-at is i.portant to o5serve is t-at t-e structure itsel#8 independent o# t-e actual lexical presentation8 is intended to carry so.e e.otional c-ar%e. E.otional syntactical8 structures typical o# t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e are

so.eti.es very e##ectively used 5y .en=o#=letters to depict t-e e.otional state o# .ind o# t-a c-aractersC t-ey..ay even 5e used8 in particular=cases8 in t-e narrative o# t-e aut-or. +ut even 3-en used in t-e dialo%ue o# novels and stories t-ese e.otional constructions8 5ein% deprived o# t-eir acco.pani.entcintonationcassu.e a %reater si%ni#icance and 5eco.e stylistically .arRed. >ere t-e e.otional structures stand out .ore conspicuously8 5ecause t-ey are t-ro3n into pro.inence not 5y t-e intonation pattern 5ut 5y t-e syntactical pattern. 4onse9uently8 it 3ill 5e #ound necessary to classi#y so.e o# t-e .ost typical structures o# t-ese Rinds8 in spite o# t-e lurRin% dan%er o# con#usin% idio.atic p-rases (set expressions8 p-raseolo%ical units) 3it- a5stract patterns. a) ,ne o# t-e .ost typical patterns is a si.ple state.ent #ollo3ed 5y t-e pronoun t-atnoun (pronoun)ver5 to 5e (in t-e appropriate #or.)8 #or exa.ple; LAune -ad ans3ered in -er i.perious 5risR 3ay8 liRe t-e little e.5odi.ent o# 3ill t-at s-e 3as.L (Gals3ort-y) L*nd "elix t-ou%-t; &S-e Gust 3ants to talR to .e a5out DereR8 Do% in t-e .an%er t-at I a..&L 5) *not-er pattern is a=9uestion #or. 3it- an excla.atory .eanin% expressin% a.aSe.ent8 indi%nation8 excite.ent8 enGoy.ent8 etc.8 #or exa.ple; L,ld ladies8 Do I ever -ate t-e.zL L>e said in an a3estrucR voice; &+oy8 is t-at a piece o# 5oatK&L L*nd 5oy8 could t-at /%uy spend .oney P L*nd 3as Ed3ard pleasedKL L&$ooR&8 s-e said. &Isn&t t-at your 5oss t-ere8 Gust co.in% inz& &My GodK wes8& said $ute8 &,-8 and -as -e a nice pacRa%ez& :il say. :-at&s -is 3i#e 3it- -i.8 isn&t itz&L (,&>ara) L* 3itc- s-e is. I Rno3 -er 5acR in t-e old country. Sure8 and didn&t s-e co.e over on t-e sa.e 5oat as .ysel#zL (+etty S.it-) Note t-at t-is pattern is %enerally preceded 5y an excla.atory 3ord8 or an interGection8 or t-e conGunction and in t-e sa.e #unction. c) :-e t-ird pattern is a .orp-olo%ical one (%enerally use o# continuous #or.s)8 5ut .entioned -ere 5ecause it is closely connected 3it- syntactical structures8 inversions8 repetitions and ot-ers8 #or exa.ple; Lwou are not 5ein% silly8 are youzL ($eslie "ord) LNo3 3e&re not %oin% to -ave any .ore o# t-at8 Mrs Euston.L (,&>ara) d) :-e #ourt- pattern8 also very co..on in collo9uial En%lis-8 is a construction 3-ere a noun or pronoun su5Gect #ollo3ed 5y t-e ver5s to -ave (nouno5Gect) or to 5e (nounpredicative) ends 3it- t-e t3o co.ponents in inverted order8 #or exa.ple; LS-e -ad a -i%- colour8 -ad SallyL L>e -as a rat-er curious s.ile8 -as .y #riendL LS-e is a %reat co.#ort to .e8 is t-at lassL (4ronin) So.eti.es t-ou%-8 t-e noun or pronoun su5Gect is predicated 5y notional ver5s. In t-is case #odoisused in t-is trailin% e.p-atic p-rase8 as in;

L>e #air 5eats .e8 does Aa.es +rodie&1 (4ronin) Ne%ative #or.s are #re9uently used to indicate an e.otional out=5urst o# t-e speaRer8 #or instance; Lwou don&t sayKL LI do say. I tell you I&. a student o# t-is.L (A. Stein5ecR) LDon&t 5e surprised i# -e doesn&t visit you one o# t-ese days.L (}i# -e visits you) :-e e.p-asis is 3eaRer in t-e second exa.ple. :-e 5asic patterns o# e.otional collo9uial constructions enu.erated a5ove -ave a particularly stron% stylistic e##ect 3-en t-ey are used in t-e aut-or&s speec-. :-e explanation o# t-is .ust 5e sou%-t in t-e 3ell=Rno3n dic-oto.y o# t-e oral vs t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. *s -as 5een previpusly pointed out8 t-e oral variety -as8 as one o# its distinctive #eatures8 an e.otional c-aracter revealed .ostly in t-e use o# special e.otive 3ords8 intensi#iers and additional se.anticiSin% #actors caused 5y intonation and voice 9ualities. :-e. 3ritten variety is .ore intellectualC it is reasoned and8 ideally8 is non= e.otional. So 3-en suc- constructions -ave travelled #ro. t-eir -o.elandcdialo%ue c into t-e aut-or&s do.ain c .onolo%uec8 t-ey assu.e t-e 9uality o# an SD. So.e o# t-e exa.ples %iven a5ove illustrate t-is 3it- su##icient clarity. *.on% ot-er cases o# t-e particular use o# collo9uial constructions are 1) ellipsis8 2) 5reaR=in=t-e=narrative8 !) 9uestion=in=t-e=narrative8 and ') represented speec-.
Elli:sis

Ellipsis is a typical p-eno.enon in conversation8 arisin% out o# t-e situation. ?e .entioned t-is .peculiar #eature o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e 3-en 3e c-aracteriSed its essential 9ualities and properties. +ut t-is typical #eature o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e assu.es a ne3 9uality 3-en used in t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. It 5eco.es a stylistic device inas.uc- as it supplies suprase%.ental in#or.ation. *n elliptical sentence in direct intercourse is not a stylistic device. It is si.ply a nor. o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e. $et u% taRe a #e3 exa.ples. LSo Austice ,5er3altSer c sole.nly and didactically #ro. -is -i%- seat to t-e Gury.L (Dreiser) ,ne #eels very acutely t-e a5sence o# t-e predicate in t-is sentence. ?-y 3as it o.ittedz Did t-e aut-or pursue any special purpose in leavin% out a prirrtary .e.5er o# t-e sentencez ,r is it Gust due to carelessnessz :-e ans3er is o5vious; it is a deli5erate device. :-is particular .odel o# sentence su%%ests t-e aut-or&s personal state o# .ind8 viS. -is indi%nation at t-e s-a.eless speec- o# t-e Austice. It is a co..on #act t-at any excited state o# .ind 3ill .ani#est itsel# in so.e Rind o# violation o# t-e reco%niSed literary sentence structure. Ellipsis8 3-en used as a stylistic device8 al3ays i.itates t-e co..on #eatures o# collo9uial lan%ua%e8 3-ere t-e situation predeter.ines not t-Ge..O.issip~...o#0 5ut t-eir a5sence. It 3ould per-aps 5e ade9uate io call sentences lac#an% certain

.e.5ers' Linco.plete=sentencesL8 leavin% t-e ter. ellipsis to speci#y structures 3-ere 3e reco%niSe a di%ression #ro. t-e traditional literary sentence structure. :-us t-e sentences &See you to=.orro3I8 &>ad a %ood ti.ez&8 &?on&t are typical&0o" G-e Gcollo00 00 structures in t-e spoRen lan%ua%e and to call t-e. elliptical8 .eans to Gud%e every sentence structure accordin% to t-e structural .odels o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e. $iRe3ise8 suc- sentences as t-e #ollo3in% can -ardly 5e called elliptical. L:-ere&s so.e5ody 3ants to speaR to you.L L:-ere 3as no =5reeSe ca.e t-rou%- t-e open 3indo3.L /J / & . . C u (>e.in%3ay) L:-ere&s .any a .an in t-is +orou%- 3ould 5e %lad to -ave t-e 5lood t-at runs in .y veins.L (4ronin) :-e relative pronouns 3-o8 3-ic-8 3-o a#ter &so.e5ody&8 &5reeSe&8 &a .an in t-is +orou%-& could not 5e re%arded as Lo.ittedL c t-is is t-e nor. o# collo9uial lan%ua%e8 t-ou%- no3 not in #re9uent use except8 per-aps8 3it- t-e t-ere (s ([mi) constructions as a5ove. :-is is due8 per-aps8 to t-e standardiSin% po3er o# t-e literary lan%ua%e. ,. Aespersen8 in -is analysis o# suc- structurea8 3rites; LI# 3e speaR -ere o# &o.ission& or &su5audition& or &ellipsis&/ t-e reader is apt to %et t-e #alse i.pression t-at t-e #uller expression is t-e 5etter one as 5ein% co.plete8 and t-at t-e s-orter expression is to so.e extent #aulty or de#ective8 or so.et-in% t-at -as co.e into existence in recent ti.es out o# slovenliness. :-is is 3ron%; t-e constructions are very old in t-e lan%ua%e and -ave not co.e into existence t-rou%t-e droppin% o# a. previously necessary relative pronoun.L 8 >ere are so.e exa.ples 9uoted 5y Aespetsen; &7 5rin% -i. ne3s 3ill raise -is droopin% spirits.L L...or liRe t-e sno3 #alls in t-e river.L L...3-en at -er door arose a clatter .i%-t a3aRe t-e dead.L >o3ever8 3-en t-e reader encounters suc- structures in literary texts8 even t-ou%t-ey ai. at representin% t-e lively nor.s o# t-e spoRen8 lan%ua%e8 -e is apt to re%ard t-e. as 5earin% so.e de#inite stylistic #unction. :-is is due to a psyc-olo%ical e##ect produced 5y t-e relative rarity o# t-e construction8 on t-e one -and8 and t-e non= expectancy o# any striRin%ly collo9uial expression in literary narrative. It .ust 5e repeated -ere t-at t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eature o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e is a.pli#ication8 3-ic- 5y. its very nature is opposite to ellipsis. *.pli#ication %enerally de.ands expansion o# t-e ideas 3it- as #ull and as exact relations 5et3een t-e parts o# t-e utterance as possi5le. Ellipsis8 on t-e contrary8 5ein% t-e property o# collo9uial lan%ua%e8 does not express 3-at can easily 5e supplied 5y t-e situation. :-is is per-aps t-e reason t-at elliptical sentences are rarely used as stylistic devices. So.eti.es t-e o.ission o# a linR=ver5 adds e.otional colourin% and .aRes t-e sentence sound .ore e.p-atic8 as in t-ese lines #ro. +yron; L:-rice -appy -e 3-o8 a#ter survey o# t-e %ood co.pany8 can 3in a corner.L LNot-in% so di##icult as a 5e%innin%.L LDenotes -o3 so#t t-e c-in 3-ic- 5ears -is touc-.L

It is 3ron% to suppose t-at t-e o.ission o# t-e linR=ver5s in t-ese sentences is due to t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e r-yt-..
"('&<2i,2t/'2N&((&ti6' (A::si+:'sis)

*posiopesis is a device 3-ic- dictionaries de#ine as L* stoppin% s-ort #or r-etorical e##ect.L :-is is true. +ut t-is de#inition is too %eneral to& disclose t-e stylistic #unctions o# t-e device. In t-e spoRen variety o# t-e lan%ua%e8 a 5reaR in t-e narrative is usually caused 5y un3illin%ness to proceedC or 5y t-e supposition t-at 3-at re.ains to 5e said can 5e understood 5y t-e i.plication e.5odied in 3-at -as 5een saidC or 5y uncertaGnty as to 3-at s-ould 5e said. In t-e 3ritten variety8 a 5reaR in t-e narrative is al3ays a stylistic device used #or so.e stylistic e##ect. It is di##icult8 -o3ever8 to dra3 a -ard and #ast distinction 5et3een 5reaR=in=t-e=narrative as a typical #eature o# lively collo9uial lan%ua%e and as a speci#ic stylistic device. :-e only criterion 3-ic- .ay serve as a %uide is t-at in conversation t-e i.plication can 5e conveyed 5y an ade9uate %esture. In 3ritin% it is t-e context8 3-ic- su%%ests t-e ade9uate intonation8 t-at is t-e only Rey to decodin% t-e aposiopesis. In t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple t-e i.plication o# t-e aposiopesis is a 3arnin% LI# you continue your inte.perate 3ay o# livin%8 in six .ont-s& ti.e ...L In t-e sentence; Lwou Gust co.e -o.e or I&ll ...L t-e i.plication is a t-reat. :-e second exa.ple s-o3s t-at 3it-out a context t-e i.plication can only 5e va%ue. +ut 3-en one Rno3s t-at t-e 3ords 3ere said 5y an an%ry #at-er to -is son over t-e telep-one t-e i.plication 5eco.es apparent. *posiopesis is a stylistic syntactical device to convey to t-e reader a very stron% upsur%e o# e.otions. :-e idea o# t-is stylistic device is t-at t-e speaRer cannot proceed8 -is #eelin%s deprivin% -i. o# t-e a5ility to express -i.sel# in ter.s o# lan%ua%e. :-us in Don Auan&s address to Aulia8 3-o is le#t 5e-ind; L*nd o-K i# e&er I s-ould #or%et8 I s3earc Ci +ut t-at&s i.possi5le8 and cannot 5e.L (+yron) +reaR=in=t-e=narrative -as a stron% de%ree o# predicta5ility8 3-ic- is ensured 5y t-e structure o# t-e sentence. *s a stylistic device it is used in co.plex sentences8 in particular in conditional sentences8 t-e II=clause 5ein% %iven in #ull and t-e second part only i.plied. >o3ever8 aposiopesis .ay 5e noted in di##erent syntactical structures. :-us8 one o# S-elley&s poe.s is entitled L:ocL8 3-ic- is an aposiopesis o# a di##erent c-aracter8 inas.uc- as t-e i.plication -ere is so va%ue t-at it can 5e liRened to a secret code. Indeed8 no one except t-ose in t-e Rno3 3ould 5e a5le to #ind out to 3-o. t-e poe. 3as addressed. So.eti.es a 5reaR in t-e narrative is caused 5y eup-e.istic considerationsc un3illin%ness to na.e a t-in% on t-e %round o# its 5ein% o##ensive to t-e ear8 #or

exa.ple; L:-en8 Ma..a8 i -ardly liRe to let t-e 3ords cross .y lips8 5ut t-ey -ave 3icRed8 3icRed attractions out t-erecliRe dancin% %irls t-atct-at c-ar. snaRes and dance 3it-outcMiss Moir 3it- do3ncast eyes8 5roRe o## si%ni#icantly and 5lus-ed8 3-ilst t-e do3n on -er upper lip 9uivered .odestly.L (4ronin) +reaR=in=t-e=narrative is a device 3-ic-8 on t-e one -and8 o##ers a nu.5er o# variants in0decip-erin% t-e i.plication and8 on t-e ot-er8 is -i%-ly predicta5le. :-evpro5le. o# i.plication is8 as it 3ere8 a crucial one in stylistics. ?-at is i.plied so.eti.es out3ei%-s 3-at is expressed. In ot-er stylistic devices t-e de%ree o# i.plication is not so -i%- as in 5reaR=in=t-e=narrative. * sudden &5reaR in t-e narrative 3ill inevita5ly #ocus t-e attention on 3-at is le#t unsaid. :-ere#ore t-e interrelation 5et3een 3-at is %iven and 3-at is ne3 5eco.es .ore si%ni#icant8 inas.uc- as t-e %iven is 3-at is said and t-e ne3c3-at is le#t unsaid. :-ere is a p-rase in collo9uial En%lis- 3-ic-as 5eco.e very #a.iliar; LGood intentions 5utcL :-e i.plication -ere is t-at not-in% -as co.e o# 3-at it 3as planned to acco.plis *posiopesis is a stylistic device in 3-ic- t-e role o# t-e intonation i.plied cannot 5e over=esti.ated. :-e pause a#ter t-e 5reaR is %enerally c-ar%ed 3it- .eanin% and it is t-e intonation only t-at 3ill decode t-e co..unicative si%ni#icance o# t-e utterance.
=1'sti+,2i,2t/'2N&((&ti6'

Ouestions8 5ein% 5ot- structurally and se.antically one o# t-e types o# sentences8 are asRed 5y one person and e&xpected to 5e ans3ered 5y anot-er. :-is is t-e .ain8 and t-e .ost c-aracteristic property o# t-e 9uestion8 i. e. it exists as a syntactical unit o# lan%ua%e to 5ear t-is particular #unction in co..unication. Essentially8 9uestions 5elon% to t-e spoRen lan%ua%e and presuppose t-e presence o# an interlocutor8 t-at is8 t-ey are co..only encountered in dialo%ue. :-e 9uestioner is presu.ed not to Rno3 t-e ans3er. O uestion= in= t-e= narrative c-an%es t-e real nature o# a 9uestion and turns it into a stylistic device. * 9uestion in t-e narrative is asRed and ans3ered 5y one and t-e sa.e person8 usually t-e aut-or. It 5eco.es aRin to a parent-etical state.ent 3it- stron% e.otional i.plications. >ere are so.e cases o# 9uest ion=in=t5e=narrative taRen #ro. +yron&s LDon AuanL; 1) &:or 3-at is le#t t-e poet -erez "or GreeRs a 5lus-c#or Greece a tear.L 2) L*nd startin%8 s-e a3oRe8 and 3-at to vie3z ,-8 2o3ers o# >eaven. ?-at darR eye .eets s-e t-erez &:isc&tis -er #at-er&sc#ix&d upon t-e pair.L *s is seen #ro. t-ese exa.ples8 t-e 9uestions asRed8 unliRe r-etorical 9uestions (see p. 2'')8 do not contain state.ents. +ut 5ein% ans3ered 5y one 3-o Rno3s t-e ans3er8 t-ey assu.e a se.i=excla.atory nature8 as in &3-at to vie3z& So.eti.es 9uest ion=in=t-e=narrative %ives t-e i.pression o# an inti.ate talR 5et3een t-e 3riter and t-e reader. "or exa.ple;

LScroo%e Rne3 -e 3as deadK ,# course -e did. >o3 could it 5e8 ot-er3isez Scroo%e and -e 3ere partners #or I don&t Rno3 -o3 .any years.L (DicRens) Ouest ion=in=t-e=narrative is very o#ten used in oratory. :-is is explained 5y one o# t-e leadin% #eatures o# oratorical stylec to induce t-e desired reaction to t-e content o# t-e speec-. Ouestions -ere c-ain t-e attention o# t-e listeners to t-e .atter t-e orator is dealin% 3it- and prevent it #ro. 3anderin%. :-ey also %ive t-e listeners ti.e to a5sor5 3-at -as 5een said8 and prepare #or t-e next point. Ouest ion=in=t-e=narrative .ay also re.ain unans3ered8 as in; L>o3 lon% .ust it %o onz >o3 lon% .ust 3e su##erz ?-ere is t-e endz ?-at is t-e endzL (Norris) :-ese sentences s-o3 a %radual transition to r-etorical 9uestions. :-ere are only -ints o# t-e possi5le ans3ers. Indeed8 t-e #irst and t-e second 9uestions su%%est t-at t-e existin% state o# a##airs s-ould 5e put an end to and t-at 3e s-ould not su##er any lon%er. :-e t-ird and t-e #ourt- 9uestions su%%est t-at t-e orator -i.sel# could not #ind a solution ta t-e pro5le.. L:-e speci#ic nature o# interro%ative sentences8L 3rites 2. S. 2o pov8 L3-ic- are transitional sta%es #ro. 3-at 3e Rno3 to 3-at 3e do not yet Rno38 is re#lected in t-e interconnection 5et3een t-e 9uestion and t-e ans3er. :-e interro%ative sentence is connected 3it- t-e ans3er=sentence #ar .ore closely t-an t-e in#erence is connected 3it- t3o interrelated pronounce.ents8 5ecause eac- o# t-e t3o pronounce.ents -as its o3n si%ni#icanceC 3-ereas t-e si%ni#icance o# t-e interro%ative sentence is only in t-e process o# seeRin% t-e ans3er.L l :-is very interestin% state.ent concernin% t-e psyc-olo%ical nature o# t-e 9uestion8 -o3ever8 does not taRe into consideration t-e sti.ulatin% aspect o# t-e 9uestion. ?-en a 9uestion 5e%ins to #ul#il a #unction not directly arisin% #ro. its lin%uistic and psyc-olo%ical nature8 it .ay -ave a certain volu.e o# e.otional c-ar%erOuestion=in= t-e=narrative is a case o# t-is Rind. >ere its #unction deviates sli%-tly #ro. its %eneral si%ni#ication. :-is deviation (5ein% in #act a .odi#ication o# t-e %eneral #unction o# interro%ative sentences) is .uc- .ore clearly apparent in r-etorical 9uestions.
R':('s',t'- S:''c/

:-ere are t-ree 3ays o# reproducin% actual speec-; a) repetition o# t-e exact utterance as it 3as spoRen (direct speec-)8 5) conversion o# t-e exact utterance into t-e relater&s.ode o# expression (indirect s p/e e Y -)8 arid c) representation o# t-e actual utterance 5y a second person8 usually t-e aut-or8 as i# it -ad 5een spoRenC 3-ereas it -as not really 5een spoRen 5ut is only represented in t-e aut-or&s 3ords (represented speec-). :-ere is also a device 3-ic- conveys to t-e reader t-e unuttered or inner speec- o# t-e c-aracter8 t-us presentin% -is t-ou%-ts and #eelin%s. :-is device is also ter.ed represented speec-. :o distin%uis- 5et3een t-e t3o varieties o# represented speec- 3e call t-e representation o# t-e actual utterance t-rou%- t-e aut-or&s lan%ua%e uttered r e

p r e =sen=ted speec-8 and t-e representation o# t-e t-ou%-ts and #eelin%s o# t-e c-aractercunuttered or&inner represented speec-. :-e ter. direct speec- ca.e to 5e used in t-e 5elles=lettres style in order to distin%uis- t-e 3ords o# t-e c-aracter #ro. t-e aut-or&s 3ords. *ctually8 direct speecis a 9uotation. :-ere#ore it is al3ays introduced 5y a ver5 liRe say8 utter8 declare8 reply8 exclai.8 s-out8 cry8 yell8 %asp8 5a55le8 c-ucRle8 .ur.ur8 si%-8 call8 5e%8 i.plore8 co.#ort8 assure8 protest8 o5Gect8 co..and8 ad.it8 and ot-ers. *ll t-ese 3ords -elp ot indicate t-e intonation 3it- 3-ic- t-e sentence 3as actually uttered. Direct speec- is al3ays .arRed 5y =inverted co..as8 as any 9uotation is. >ere is an exa.ple; Lwou 3ant your .oney 5acR8 I suppose8L said Geor%e 3it- a sneer. L,# course I docI al3ays did8 didn&t IzL says Do55in. (:-acReray) :-e .ost i.portant #eature o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%ecintonationc is indicated 5y di##erent .eans. In t-e exa.ple a5ove 3e -ave 1) %rap-ical .eans; t-e das- a#ter &I do&8 2) lexical; t-e 3ord &sneer&8 and !) %ra..atical; a) .orp-olo%icalcdi##erent tenses o# t-e ver5 to say (&said& and &says&)8 5) syntactical; t-e disGunctive 9uestion c&didn&t Iz&. Direct speec- is so.eti.es used =in t-e pu5licistic style o# lan%ua%e as a 9uotation. :-e introductory 3ords in t-is case are usually t-e #ollo3in%; as... -as it8 accordin% to...8 and t-e liRe. In t-e 5elles=lettres style direct speec- is used to depict a c-aracter t-rou%- -is speec-. In t-e e.otive prose o# t-e 5elles=lettres style 3-ere t-e predo.inant #or. o# utterance is narrative8 direct speec- is inserted to .ore #ully depict t-e c-aracters o# t-e novel. In t-e ot-er variety o# t-e 5elles=lettres prose style8 i.e. in plays8 t-e predo.inant #or. o# utterance is dialo%ue. In spite o# t-e various %rap-ical and lexical 3ays o# indicatin% t-e proper intonation o# a %iven utterance8 t-e su5tleties o# t-e intonation desi%n re9uired 5y t-e situation cannot 5e accurately conveyed. :-e ric-ness o# t-e -u.an voice can only 5e su%%ested. Direct speec- can 5e vie3ed as a stylistic device only in its settin% .s in t-e .idst o# t-e aut-or&s narrative or in contrast to all #or.s o# indirect speec-. Even 3-en8 an aut-or addresses t-e reader8 3e cannot classi#y t-e utterance as direct speec-. Direct speec- is only t-e speec- o# a c-aracter in a piece o# e.otive prose. ?e -ave indirect speec- 3-en t-e actual 3ords o# a c-aracter8 as it 3ere8 pass t-rou%t-e aut-or&s .out- in t-e course o# -is narrative and in t-is process under%o certain c-an%es. :-e intonation o# indirect speec- is even and does not di##er #ro. t-e rest o# t-e aut-or&s narrative. :-e %rap-ical su5stitutes #or t-e intonation %ive 3ay to lexical units 3-ic- descri5e t-e intonation pattern. So.eti.es indirect speec- taRes t-e #or. o# a precis in 3-ic- only t-e .ain points o# t-e actual utterance are %iven. :-us8 #or instance8 in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e;

LMars-al asRed t-e cro3d to disperse and ur%ed responsi5le di%%ers to prevent any distur5ance 3-ic- 3ould prolon% t-e tra%ic #orce o# t-e rus- #or 3-ic- t-e pu5lication o# inaccurate in#or.ation 3as c-ie#ly responsi5le.L (uat-erine 2ric-ard) In %ra..ars t-ere are rules accordin% to 3-ic- direct speec- can 5e converted into indirect. :-ese rules are lo%ical in= c-aracter8 t-ey .erely indicate 3-at c-an%es .ust 5e introduced into t-e utterance due to c-an%e in t-e situation8 :-us t-e sentence; Lwour .ot-er 3ants you to %o upstairs i..ediatelyL corresponds to L:ell -i. to co.e upstairs i..ediately.L ?-en direct speec- is converted into indirect8 t-e aut-or not in#re9uently interprets in -is o3n 3ay t-e .anner in 3-ic- t-e direct speec- 3as uttered8 t-us very o#ten c-an%in% t-e e.otional colourin% o# t-e 3-ole. >ence8 indirect speec- .ay #ail entirely to reproduce t-e actual e.otional colourin% o# t-e direct speec- and .ay distort it unreco%niSa5ly. * c-an%e o# .eanin% is inevita5le 3-en direct speec- is turned into indirect or vice versa8 inas.uc- as any .odi#ication o# #or. calls #ort- a sli%-t di##erence in .eanin%. It is pro5a5ly due to t-is #act t-at in order to convey .ore ade9uately t-e actual utterances o# c-aracters in e.otive prose8 a ne3 3ay to represent direct speec- ca.e into 5ein%cr epresented speec-. Bepresented speec- is t-at #or. o# utterance 3-ic- conveys t-e actual 3ords o# t-e speaRer t-rou%- t-e .out- o# t-e 3riter 5ut retains t-e peculiarities o# t-e speaRer&s .ode o# expression. Bepresented speec- exists in t3o varieties; 1) uttered represented speec- and 2) unuttered or inner represented speec-. a) Dttered Iepresented Speech Mttered represented speec- de.ands t-at t-e tense s-ould 5e s3itc-ed #ro. present to past and t-at t-e personal pronouns s-ould 5e c-an%ed #ro. 1st and 2nd person to !rd person as in indirect speec-8 5ut t-e syntactical structure o# t-e utterance does not c-an%e. "or exa.ple; L4ould -e 5rin% a re#erence #ro. 3-ere -e no3 3asz >e could.L (Dreiser) *n interestin% exa.ple o# t-ree ?ays o# representin% actual speec- is to 5e seen in a conversation 5et3een ,ld Aolyon and Aune in Gals3ort-y&s LMan p# 2roperty.L0 L,ld Aolyon 3as on t-e alert at once. ?asn&t t-e L.an o# propertyL %oin% to live in -is ne3 -ouse8 t-enz >e never alluded to Soa.es no3 5ut under t-is title. &No1cAune saidc&-e03as notC s-e Rne3 t-at -e 3as notK& >o3 did s-e Rno3z S-e could not tell -i.8 5ut s-e Rne3. S-e Rne3 nearly #or certain. It 3as .ost unliRelyC circu.stances -ad c-an%edKL :-e #irst sentence is t-e aut-or&s speec-. In t-e second sentence &?asn&t t-e L.an...L& t-ere is uttered represented speec-; t-e actual speec- .ust -ave 5een &Isn&t t-e...&. :-is sentence is #ollo3ed 5y one #ro. t-e aut-or; &>e never...&. :-en a%ain co.es uttered

represented speec- .arRed o## in inverted co..as8 3-ic- is not usual. :-e direct speec- &Noc&8 t-e introductory &Aune said& and t-e #ollo3in% inverted co..as .aRe t-e sentence -al# direct -al# uttered represented speec-. :-e next sentence &>o3 did s-e Rno3z& and t-e #ollo3in% one are clear=cut .odels o# uttered represented speec-; all t-e peculiarities o# direct speec- are preserved8 i. e. t-e repetition o# &s-e Rne3&8 t-e collo9uial &nearly #or certain&8 t-e a5sence o# any connective 5et3een t-e last t3o sentences and8 #inally8 t-e .a#R o# excla.ation at t-e end o# t-e passa%e. *nd yet t-e tenses and pronouns -ere s-o3 t-at t-e actual utterance passes t-rou%- t-e aut-or&s .out-. :3o .ore exa.ples 3ill su##ice to illustrate t-e use o# uttered represented speec-. L* .aid ca.e in no3 3it- a 5lue %o3n very t-icR and so#t. 4ould s-e do anyt-in% &#or Miss "reelandz No8 t-anRs8 s-e could not8 only8 did s-e Rno3 3-ere Mr. "reeland&s roo. 3aszL& (Gals3ort-y) :-e s-i#t #ro. t-e aut-or&s speec- to t-e uttered represented speec- o# t-e .aid is .arRed only 5y t-e c-an%e0 G% 10.0ajY_1 pattern er# t-e sentences #ro. declarative to i#ite# #o%atiaiXtPPi& narr at#ve pattern to t-e conversational. So.eti.es t-e s-i#t is al.ost i.percepti5lect-e aut-or&s narrative slidin% over into t-e c-aracter&s utterance 3it-out any #or.al indications o# t-e s3itc-=over8 as in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e; LS-e -ad =Rno3n -i. #or a #ull year 3-en8 in $ondon #or a 3-ile and as usual alone8 s-e received a note #ro. -i. to say t-at -e -ad to co.e up to to3n #or a ni%-t and couldn&t t-ey dine to%et-er and %o to so.e place& to dance. S-e t-ou%-t it very s3eet o# -i. to taRe pity on -er solitariness and accepted 3it- pleasure8 :-ey spent a deli%-t#ul evenin%.L (Mau%-a.) :-is .anner o# insertin% uttered represented speec- 3it-in t-e aut-or&s narrative is not co..on. It is peculiar to t-e style o# a nu.5er o# .odern En%lis- and *.erican 3riters. :-e .ore usual structural .odel is one 3-ere t-ere is eit-er an indication o# t-e s-i#t 5y so.e introductory 3ord (s.iled8 said8 asRed8 etc.) or 5y a #or.al 5reaR liRe a #ull stop at t-e end o# t-e sentence8 as in; LIn conse9uence -e ?as 9uicR to su%%est a 3alR... Didn&t 4lyde 3ant to %ozL (Dreiser) Mttered represented speec- -as a lon% -istory. *s #ar 5acR as t-e 1@t- century it 3as already 3idely used 5y .en=o#=letters8 evidently 5ecause it 3as a .eans 5y 3-ic3-at 3as considered vul%ar .i%-t 5e excluded #ro. literature8 i.e. expletives8 vivid collo9uial 3ords8 expressions and syntactical structures typical o# t-e lively collo9uial speec- o# t-e period. Indeed8 3-en direct speec- is represented 5y t-e 3riter8 -e can c-an%e t-e actual utterance into any .ode o# expression -e considers appropriate. In "ieldin%&s L>istory o# :o. Aones t-e "oundlin%L 3e #ind various 3ays o# introducin% uttered represented speec-. >ere are so.e interestin% exa.ples; L?-en dinner 3as over8 and t-e servants departed8 Mr. *l=3ort-y 5e%an to -aran%ue.

>e set #ort-8 in a lon% speec-8 t-e .any ini9uities o# 3-ic- Aones -ad 5een %uilty8 particularly t-ose 3-ic- t-is day -ad 5rou%-t to li%-tC and concluded 5y tellin% -i.8 &:-at unless -e could clear -i.sel# o# t-e c-ar%e8 -e 3as resolved to 5anis- -i. #ro. -is si%-t #or ever.L& In t-is passa%e t-ere is practically no represented speec-8 inas.uc- as t-e 3ords .arRed o## 5y inverted co..as are indirect=speec-8 i.e. t-e aut-or&s speec- 3it- no ele.ents o# t-e c-aracter&s speec-8 and t-e only si%ns&o# t-e c-an%e in t-e #or. o# t-e utterance are t-e inverted co..as and t-e capital letter o# &:-at&. :-e #ollo3in% para%rap- is 5uilt on t-e sa.e pattern. L>islieart 3as8 5esides8 al.ost 5roRen alreadyC and -is spirits 3ere so sunR8 t-at -e could say not-in% #or -i.sel# 5ut acRno3led%e t-e 3-ole8 and8 liRe a cri.inal in despair8 t-re3 -i.sel# upon .ercyC concludin%8 &t-at t-ou%- -e .ust o3n -i.sel# %uilty o# .any #ollies and inadvertencies8 -e -oped -e -ad done not-in% to deserve 3-at 3ould 5e to -i. t-e %reatest punis-.ent in t-e 3orld.&L >ere a%ain t-e introductory &concludin%& does not 5rin% #ort- direct speec- 5ut is a natural continuation o# t-e aut-or&s narrative. :-e only indication o# t-e c-an%e are t-e inverted co..as. Mr. *l3ort-y&s ans3er is also 5uilt on t-e sa.e pattern8 t-e only .odi#ication 5ein% t-e direct speec- at t-e end. Lc*l3ort-y ans3ered8 L:-at -e -ad #or%iven -i. too o#ten already8 in co.passion to -is yout-8 and in -opes o# -is a.end.ent; t-at -e no3 #ound -e 3as an a5andoned repro5ate8 and suc- as it 3ould 5e cri.inal in any one to support and encoura%e8L &Nay8& said Mr. *l3ort-y to -i.8 &your audacious atte.pt to steal a3ay t-e youn% lady8 calls upon .e to Gusti#y .y o3n c-aracter in punis-in% you.c&L :-en #ollo3s0a lon% speec- 5y Mr. *l3ort-y not di##erin% #ro. indirect speec- (t-e aut-or&s speec-) eit-er in structural desi%n or in t-e c-oice o# 3ords. * critical analysis 3ill s-o3 t-at t-e direct speec- o# t-e c-aracters in t-e novel .ust -ave under%one considera5le polis-in% up in order to #orce it to con#or. to t-e literary nor.s o# t-e period. 4ollo9uial speec-8 e.otional8 inconsistent and spontaneous8 3itits vivid intonation su%%ested 5y elliptical sentences8 5reaRs in t-e narrative8 #ra%.enta=riness and lacR o# connectives8 3as 5anned #ro. literary usa%e and re= placed 5y t-e passionless su5stitute o# indirect speec-. *l.ost in any 3orR o# 1@t- century literary art one 3ill #ind t-at t-e spoRen lan%ua%e is adapted to con#or. to t-e nor.s o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e o# t-e period. It 3as only at t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e 19t- century t-at t-e ele.ents o# collo9uial En%lis-8 5e%an to el5o3 t-eir 3ay into t-e sacred precincts o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e. :-e .ore t-e process 5eca.e apparent8 t-e .ore t-e conditions t-at t-is created 5eca.e #a= voura5le #or t-e introduction o# uttered represented speec- as a literary device. In t-e .odern 5elles=lettres prose style8 t-e speec- o# t-e c-aracters is .odelled on natural collo9uial patterns. :-e device o# uttered represented speec- ena5les t-e 3riter to res-ape t-e utterance accordin% to t-e nor.al polite literary usa%e. No3adays8 t-is device is used not only in t-e 5elles=lettres style. It is also e##iciently

used in ne3spaper style. >ere is an exa.ple; LMr. Silver.an8 -is 2arlia.entary lan%ua%e scarcely concealin% -is 5itter disappoint.ent8 accused t-e %overn.ent o# 5reaRin% its pled%e and o# violatin% constitutional proprieties. ?as t-e %overn.ent 5asin% its policy not on t-e considered Gud%e.ent o# t-e >ouse o# 4o..ons8 5ut on t-e considered Gud%e.ent o# t-e >ouse o# $ordsz ?ould it not 5e a %rave 5reac- o# constitutional duty8 not to %ive t-e >ouse a reasona5le opportunity o# exercisin% its ri%-ts under t-e 2arlia.ent *ctzL &?ait #or t-e ter.s o# t-e +ill8& 3as Eden&s reply.L s Mttered represented speec- in ne3spaper co..unications is so.e3-at di##erent #ro. t-at in t-e 5elles=lettres style. In t-e #or.er8 it is %enerally used to 9uote t-e 3ords o# speaRers in 2arlia.ent or at pu5lic .eetin%s. b) Dnuttered or &nner Iepresented Speech *s -as o#ten 5een pointed out8 lan%ua%e -as t3o #unctions; t-e co..unicative and t-e expressive. :-e co..unicative #unction serves to convey one&s t-ou%-ts8 volitions8 e.otions and orders to t-e .ind o# a second person. :-e expressive #unction serves to s-ape one&s t-ou%-ts and e.otions into lan%ua%e #or.s. :-is second #unction is 5elieved to 5e t-e only 3ay o# .aterialiSin% t-ou%-ts and e.otions. ?it-out lan%ua%e #or.s t-ou%-t is not yet t-ou%-t 5ut only so.et-in% 5ein% s-aped as t-ou%-t. :-e t-ou%-ts and #eelin%s %oin% on in one&s .iad and re#lectin% so.e previous experience are called inner speec-. L' Inas.uc- as inner speec- -as no co..unicative #unction8 it is very #ra%.entary8= inco-erent8 isolated8 and consists o# separate units 3-ic- only -int at t-e content o# t-e utterance 5ut do not 3ord it explicitly. Inner speec- is a psyc-olo%ical p-eno.enon. +ut 3-en it is 3rou%-t into #ull utterance8 it ceases to 5e inner speec-8 ac9uires a co..unicative #unction and 5eco.es a p-eno.enon o# lan%ua%e. :-e expressive #unction o# lan%ua%e is suppressed 5y its co..unicative #unction8 and t-e reader is presented 3it- a co.plete lan%ua%e unit capa5le o# carryin% in#or.ation. :-is device is called inner represented speec-. >o3ever8 t-e lan%ua%e #or.s o# inner represented speec- 5ear a rese.5lance to t-e psyc-olo%ical p-eno.enon o# inner speec-. Inner represented speec- retains t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eatures o# inner speec-. It is also #ra%.entary8 5ut only to an extent 3-ic- 3ill not -inder t-e understandin% o# t-e co..unication. Inner represented speec-8 unliRe uttered represented speec-8 expresses #eelin%s and t-ou%-ts o# t-e c-aracter 3-ic- 3ere not .aterial iSed in spoRen or 3ritten lan%ua%e 5y t-e c-aracter. :-at is 3-y it a5ounds in excla.atory 3ords and p-rases8 elliptical constructions8 5reaRs8 and ot-er .eans o# conveyin% #eelin%s and psyc-olo%ical states. ?-en a person is alone 3it- -is t-ou%-ts and #eelin%s8 -e can %ive vent to t-ose stron% e.otions.3-ic- -e usually Reeps

-idden. >ere is an exa.ple #ro. Gals3ort-y&s LMan o# 2ropertyL; L>is nervousness a5out t-is disclosure irritated -i. pro#oundlyC s-e -ad no 5usiness to .aRe -i. #eel liRe t-atca 3i#e and a -us5and 5ein% one person. S-e -ad not looRed at -i. once since t-ey sat do3n8 and -e 3ondered 3-at on eart- s-e -ad 5een t-inRin% a5out all t-e ti.e. It 3as -ard8 3-en a .an 3orRed -ard as -e did8 .aRin% .oney #or -ercyes and 3it- an ac-e in -is -eartc t-at s-e s-ould sit t-ere8 looRin% clooRin% as i# s-e sa3 t-e 3alls o# t-e roo. closin% in. It 3as enou%- to .aRe a .an %et up and leave t-e ta5le.L :-e inner speec- o# Soa.es "orsyte is -ere introduced 5y t3o 3ords descri5in% -is state o# .indcirritated& and &3ondered&. :-e collo9uial aspect o# t-e lan%ua%e in 3-ic- Soa.es&s t-ou%-ts and #eelin%s are expressed is o5vious. >e uses collo9uial collocations; &s-e -ad no 5usiness&8 &3-at on eart-&8 &liRe t-at& and collo9uial constructions; &yes and 3it-...& &looRin%clooRin% as i# ...&8 and t-e 3ords used are co..on collo9uial. Mnutteredor inner represented speec- #ollo3s t-e sa.e .orp-olo%ical pattern as uttered represented speec-8 5yiA-e0Olactical pattern s-o3s variations 3-ic- can 5e accounted #or#iy t-e #act #>atItis&##iner speec-8 not uttered speec-. b:>e tense #or.s are s-i#ted to t-e pastC t-e t-ird person personal pronouns replace t-e #irst and second. :-e interro%ative 3ord=order is .aintained as in direct speec-. :-e #ra%.entary c-aracter o# t-e utterance .ani#ests itsel# in un#inis-ed sentences8 excla.ations and in one=.e.5er sentences. >ere is anot-er exa.ple; L*n idea -ad occurred to Soa.es. >is cousin Aolyon 3as Irene&s trustee8 t-e #irst step 3ould 5e to %o do3n and see -i. at Bo5in >ill. Bo5in >illK :-e oddct-e very odd #eelin% t-ose 3ords 5rou%-t 5acR. Bo5in >illct-e -ouse +osinney -ad 5uilt #or -i. and Irenect-e -ouse t-ey -ad never lived inct-e #atal -ouseK *nd Aolyon lived t-ere .no3K >&.KL (Gals3ort-y) :-is device is undou5tedly an excellent one to depict a c-aracter. It %ives t-e 3riter an opportunity to s-o3 t-e inner sprin%s 3-ic- %uide -is c-aracter&s actions and utterances. +ein% a co.5ination o# t-e au=.t-or&s speec- and t-at o# t-e c-aracter8 inner represented speec-8 on t-e one -and8 #ully discloses t-e #eelin%s and t-ou%-ts o# t-e c-aracter8 -is 3orld outlooR8 and8 on t-e ot-er -and8 t-rou%- e##icient and so.eti.es -ardly percepti5le interpolations 5y t-e aut-or -i.sel#8 .aRes t-e desired i.pact on t-e reader. In En%lis- and *.erican literature t-is device -as %ained vo%ue in t-e 3orRs o# t-e 3riters o# t-e last t3o centuries c Aane *usten8 :-acReray8 DicRens8 4-arlotte and Ernily +ronte8 AacR $ondon8 Gals=2'2 3ort-y8 Dreiser8 So.erset Mau%-a. and ot-ers. Every 3riter -as -is o3n 3ay o# usin% represented speec-. 4are#ul lin%uistic analysis o# individual peculiarities in usin% it 3ill s-o3 its 3ide ran%e o# #unction and 3ill expand t-e -it-erto li.ited notions o# its use. Inner represented speec-8 unliRe uttered represented speec-8 is usually introduced 5y

ver5s o# .ental perception8 as t-inR8 .editate8 #eel8 occur (an idea occurred to...)8 3onder8 asR8 tell onesel#8 understand and t-e liRe. "or exa.ple; L,ver and over -e 3as asRin% -i.sel#; 3ould s-e receive -i.z 3ould s-e reco%niSe -i.z 3-at s-ould -e say to -erzL L?-y 3eren&t t-in%s %oin% 3ell 5et3een t-e.z -e 3ondered.L (ery #re9uently8 -o3ever8 inner represented speec- t-rusts itsel# into t-e narrative o# t-e aut-or 3it-out any introductory 3ords and t-e s-i#t #ro. t-e aut-or&s speec- to inner represented speec- is .ore or less i.percepti5le. So.eti.es t-e one %lidesGnto t-e ot-er8 so.eti.es t-ere is a sudden clear=cut c-an%e in t-e .ode o# expression. >ere are exa.ples; L+utler 3as sorry t-at -e -ad called -is youn%est a 5a%%a%eC 5ut t-ese c-ildrencGod 5less -is soulc3ere a %reat annoyance. ?-y8 in t-e na.e o# all t-e saints8 3asn&t t-is -ouse %ood enou%- #or t-e.zL (Dreiser) :-e only indication o# t-e trans#er #ro. t-e aut-or&s speec- to inner represented speec- is t-e se.icolon 3-ic- su%%ests a lon%is- pause. :-e e.otional tension o# t-e inner represented speec- is en-anced 5y t-e e.p-atic t-ese (in &t-ese c-ildren&)8 5y t-e excla.atory sentences &God 5less -is soul& and &in t-e na.e o# all t-e saints&. :-is e.otional c-ar%e %ives an additional s-ade o# .eanin% to t-e &3as sorry& in t-e au= t-or&s state.ent8 viS. +utler 3as sorry8 5ut -e 3as also tryin% to Gusti#y -i.sel# #or callin% -is dau%-ter na.es. *nd -ere is an exa.ple o# a practically i.percepti5le s-i#t; L:-en8 too8 in old Aolyon&s .ind 3as al3ays t-e secret ac-e t-at t-e son o# Aa.esco# Aa.es8 3-o. -e -ad al3ays t-ou%-t suc- a poor t-in%8 s-ould 5e pursuin% t-e pat-s o# success8 3-ile -is o3n soncKL (Gals3ort-y) In t-is passa%e t-ere are -ardly any si%ns o# AC-e s-i#t except8 per-aps8 t-e repetition o# t-e 3ords &o# Aa.es&. :-en co.es 3-at is -al# t-e aut-or&s narrative8 -al# t-e t-ou%-ts o# t-e c-aracter8 t-e inner speec- co.in% to t-e sur#ace in &poor t-in%& (a collo9uialis.) and t-e sudden 5reaR a#ter &-is o3n son& and t-e .arR o# excla.ation. Inner represented speec- re.ains t-e .onopoly o# t-e 5elles=lettres .style8 and especially o# e.otive prose8 a variety o# it. :-ere is -ardly any liReli-ood o# t-is device 5ein% used in ot-er styles8 due to its speci#ic #unction8 3-ic- is to penetrate into t-e inner li#e o# t-e persona%es o# an i.a%inary 3orld8 3-ic- is t-e exclusive do.ain o# 5elles=lettres. '. STYLISTIC USE O' STRUCTURAL MEANING ,n analo%y 3it- trans#erence o# lexical .eanin%88 in 3-ic- are used ot-er t-an in t-eir pri.ary lo%ical sense8 syntactical structures .ay also 5e used in .eanin%s ot-er t-an t-eir pri.ary ones. Every syntactical structure -asGts de#inite #unction8 3-ic- is so.eti.es called its sir uc tar _ ~b10 P7e0 used in so.eLot-er #u-c=LLL tion it .ay 5e said to assu.e a ne3 .eanin% 3-ic- is si.ilar to lexical trans#erred .eanin%. *.on% syntactical stylistic devices t-ere are t3o in 3-ic- t-is trans=i #erence o# structural .eanin% is to 5e seen. :-ey are r-etorical 9uestionsK and litotes.

R/'t+(ic&l =1'sti+,s

:-e r-etorical 9 ` e0s t i V n Is a special syntactical stylistic G device t-e essence o# 3-ic- consists in res-apin% t-e %ra..atical .ean=G in% o# t-e interro%ative sentence. In ot-er 3ords8 t-e 9uestion is noL lon%er a 9uestion 5ut a state.ent expressed in t-e #or. o# an interro%ative sentence. :-us t-ere is an interplay o# t3o structural .eanin%s; 1) t-at o# t-e 9uestion and 2) t-at o# t-e state.ent (eit-er a##ir.ative or ne%ative). +ot- are .aterialiSed si.ultaneously. "or exa.ple; L*re t-ese t-e re.edies #or a starvin% and desperate populacezL LIs t-ere not 5lood enou%- upon your penal code8 t-at Gnore .ust 5e poured #ort- to ascend to >eaven and testi#y a%ainst youzL (+yron) ,ne can a%ree 3it- 2ro#. 2opov 3-o states; L...t-e r-etorical 9uestion is e9ual to a cate%orical pronounce.ent plus an excla.ation.L x Indeed8 i# 3e co.pare a pronounce.ent expressed as a state.ent 3it- t-e sa.e pronounce.ent expressed as a r-etorical 9uestion 5y .eans o# trans#or.ational analysis8 3e 3il"#ind ourselves co.pelled to assert t-at t-e interro%ative #or. .aRes t-e pronounce.ent still .ore cate%orical8 in t-at it excludes any interpretation 5eyond t-at contained in t-e r-etorical 9uestion. "ro. t-e exa.ples %iven a5ove8 3e can see t-at r-etorical 9uestions are %enerally structurally e.5odied in co.plex sentences 3it- t-e su5ordinate clause containin% t-e pronounce.ent. >ere is anot-er exa.ple; L...S-all t-e sons=0o# 4-i.ary I ?-o never #or%ive t-e #ault o# a #riend .1 +id an ene.y livez...L (+yron) . 0?it-out t-e attri5utive clause t-e r-etorical 9uestion 3ould lose= its speci#ic 9uality and .i%-t 5e re%arded as an ordinary 9uestion. :-ei su5ordinate clause8 as it 3ere8 si%naliSes t-e r-etorical 9uestion. :-e .eanin% o# t-e a5ove utterance can -ardly #ail to 5e understood; i. e. :-e sons o# 4-i.ary 3ill never 5id an ene.y live. :-ere is anot-er structural pattern o# r-etorical 9uestions8 3-ic- is 5ased on ne%ation. In t-is case t-e 9uestion .ay 5e a si.ple sentence8 as in; LDid not t-e Italian Mosico 4aSSani Sin% at .y -eart six .ont-s at least in vainzL (+yron) L>ave I not -ad to 3restle 3it- .y lotz >ave I. not su##ered t-in%s to 5e #or%ivenzL (+yron) Ne%ative=interro%ative sentences %enerally -ave a peculiar nature. :-ere is al3ays an additional s-ade o# .eanin% i.plied in t-e.; so.eti.es dou5t8 so.eti.es assertion8 so.eti.es su%%estion. In ot-er 3ords8 t-ey are #ull o# e.otive .eanin% and .odality. ?e -ave already stated t-at r-etorical 9uestions .ay 5e looRed upon as a trans#erence o# %ra..atical .eanin%. +ut Gust as in t-e case o# t-e trans#erence o# lexical .eanin%8 t-e stylistic e##ect o# t-e trans#erence o# %ra..atical .eanin% can only 5e ac-ieved i# t-ere is a si.ultaneous realiSation o# t-e t3o .eanin%s; direct and trans#erred. So it is 3it- r-etorical 9uestions. +ot- t-e 9uestion=.eanin% and t-e

state.ent=.eanin% are .aterialiSed 3it- an e.otional c-ar%e8 t-e 3ei%-t o# 3-iccan 5e Gud%ed 5y t-e intonation o# t-e speaRer. :-e intonation o# r-etorical 9uestions8 accordin% to t-e .ost recent investi%ations8 di##ers .aterially #ro. t-e intonation o# ordinary 9uestions. :-is is also an additional indirect proo# o# t-e dou5le nature o# t-is stylistic device. In t-e 9uestion=sentence LIs t-e poor privile%e to turn t-e Rey Mpon t-e captive8 #reedo.zL (+yron) instead o# a cate%orical pronounce.ent one can detect irony. * .ore detailed analysis o# t-e se.antic aspect o# di##erent 9uestion=sentences leads to t-e conclusion t-at t-ese structural .odels -ave various #unctions. Not only ordinary 9uestions8 not only cate%orical pronounce.ents are expressed in 9uestion #or.. In #act t-ere are various nuances o# e.otive .eanin% e.5odied in 9uestion= sentences. ?e -ave already %iven an exa.ple o# one o# t-ese .eanin%s8 viS. irony. In S-aRespeare&s L?-o is -ere so vile t-at 3ill not love -is countryzL t-ere is a .eanin% o# c-allen%e openly and une9uivocally declared. It is i.possi5le to re%ard it as a r-etorical 9uestion .aRin% a cate%orical pronounce.ent. In t-e r-etorical 9uestion #ro. +yron&s .aiden speec- %iven a5ove (&Is t-ere not 5lood... ) t-ere is a clear i.plication o# scorn and conte.pt #or 2arlia.ent and t-e la3s it passes. So r-etorical 9uestions .ay also 5e de#ined as utterances in t-e #or. o# 9uestions 3-ic- pronounce Gud%e.ents and also express various Rinds o# .odal s-ades o# .eanin%8 as dou5t8 c-allen%e8 scorn8 irony and so on. It -as 5een stated else3-ere t-at 9uestions are .ore e.otional t-an state.ents. ?-en a 9uestion is repeated8 as in t-ese lines #ro. 2oe&s L:-e BavenL; LcIs t-erecis t-ere 5al. in GileadzK :ell .e=c & tell .ecI i.ploreKcL t-e de%ree o# e.otiveness increases and t-e particular s-ade o# .eanin% (in t-is case8 despair) 5eco.es .ore apparent. :-e r-etorical 9uestion re=en#orces t-is essential 9uality o# interro%ative sentences and uses it to convey a stron%er s-ade o# e.otive .eanin%. B-etorical 9uestions8 due to t-eir po3er o# expressin% a variety o# .odal s-ades o# .eanin%8 are .ost o#ten used in pu5licistic style and particularly in oratory8 3-ere t-e rousin% o# e.otions is t-e e##ect %enerally ai.ed at.
Lit+t's

$itotes is a stylistic device consistin% o# a peculiar use o# ne%ative constructions. :-e ne%ation plus noun or adGective serves to esta5lis- a positive #eature in a person or t-in%. :-is positive #eature8 -o3ever8 is so.e3-at di.inis-ed in 9uality as co.pared 3it- a synony.ous expression .aRin% a strai%-t#or3ard assertion o# t-e positive #eature. $et us co.pare t-e #ollo3in% t3o pairs o# sentences; 1. It&s not a 5od t-in%.cIt&s a %ood t-in%. 2. >e is no co3ard.c>e is a 5rave .an. Not 5ad is not e9ual to %ood alt-ou%- t-e t3o constructions are synony.ous. :-e sa.e can 5e said a5out t-e second pair8 no co3ard and a 5rave .an. In 5ot- cases t-e

ne%ative construction is 3eaRer t-an 8t-e a##ir.ative one. Still 3e cannot say t-at t-e t3o ne%ative constructions produce a lesser e##ect t-an t-e correspondin% a##ir.ative ones. Moreover8 it s-ould 5e noted t-at t-e ne%ative constructions -ere -ave a stron%er i.pact on t-e reader t-an t-e a##ir.ative ones. :-e latter -ave no additional connotationC t-e #or.er -ave. :-at is 3-y suc- constructions are re%arded as stylistic devices. $itotes is a deli5erate understate.ent used to produce a stylistic e##ect. It is not a pure ne%ation8 5ut a ne%ation t-at includes a##ir.ation. :-ere#ore -ere8 as in t-e case o# r-etorical 9uestions8 3e .ay speaR o# trans#erence o# .eanin%8 i. e. a device 3it- t-e -elp o# 3-ic- t3p .eanin%s are .aterialiSed si.ultaneously; t-e direct (ne= %ative) and trans#erred (a##ir.ative). So t-e ne%ation in litotes .ust not 5e re%arded as a .ere denial o# t-e 9uality .entioned. :-e structural aspect o# t-e ne%ative co.5ination 5acRs up t-e se.antic aspect; t-e ne%atives no and not are .ore e.p-atically pronounced t-an in ordinary ne%ative sentences8 t-us 5rin%in%&to .ind t-e correspondin% antony.. :-e stylistic e##eci: o# litotes depends .ainly on intonation. I# 3e co.pare t3o intonation patterns8 one 3-ic- su%%ests a .ere denial (It is not 5ad as a contrary to It is=5ad) 3it- t-e ot-er 3-ic- su%%ests t-e assertion o# a positive 9uality o# t-e o5Gect (It is not 5ad}it is %ood)8 t-e di##erence 3ill 5eco.e apparent. :-e de%ree to 3-iclitotes carries t-e positive 9uality in itsel# can 5e esti.ated 5y analysin% t-e se.antic structure o# t-e 3ord 3-ic- is ne%ated. $et us exa.ine t-e #ollo3in% sentences in 3-ic- litotes is used; 1. L?-atever de#ects t-e tale possessedcand t-ey 3ere not a #e3cit -ad8 as delivered 5y -er8 t-e one .erit o# see.in% liRe trut-.L 2'1 2. L>e 3as not 3it-out taste...L !. LIt trou5led -i. not a little..;& '. L>e #ound t-at t-is 3as no easy tasR.L . L>e 3as no %entle la.58 and t-e part o# second #iddle 3ould never do #or t-e -i%-= pitc-ed do.inance o# -is nature.L (AacR $ondon) 1. LS-e 3as 3earin% a #ur coat... 4arr8 t-e ent-usiastic appreciator o# s.art 3o.en and as %ood a Gud%e o# dress as any .an to 5e .et in a 2all Mall clu58 sa3 t-at s-e 3as no country cousin. S-e -ad style8 or &devil&8 as -e pre#erred to call it.L Even a super#luous analysis o# t-e litotes in t-e a5ove sentences clearly s-o3s t-at t-e ne%ation does not .erely indicate t-e a5sence o# t-e 9uality .entioned 5ut su%%ests t-e presence o# t-e opposite 9uality. 4-arles +ally8 a 3ell=Rno3n S3iss lin%uist8 states t-at ne%ative sentences are used 3it- t-e purpose o# Lre#usin% to a##ir.L. In sentences and 1 3-ere it is explained 5y t-e context8 litotes reveals its true #unction. :-e idea o# &no %entle la.5& is #urt-er stren%t-ened 5y t-e &-i%-=pitc-ed do.inance o# -is nature&C t-e #unction and .eanin% o# &no country cousin& is .ade clear 5y &as %ood a #ud%e o# dress...&8 &s-e -ad style...&. :-us8 liRe ot-er stylistic devices8 litotes displays a si.ultaneous .aterialiSation o# t3o .eanin%s; one ne%ative8 t-e ot-er a##ir.ative. :-is interplay o# t3o %ra..atical .eanin%s is Reenly

#elt8 so .uc- so indeed8 t-at t-e a##ir.ation suppresses t-e ne%ation8 t-e latter . 5ein% only t-e #or. in 3-ic- t-e real pronounce.ent is .oulded. *ccordin% to t-e science o# lo%ic8 ne%ation as a cate%ory can -ardly express a pronounce.ent. ,nly an assertion can do so. :-at is 3-y 3e .ay say t-at any ne%ation only su%%ests an assertion. $itotes is a .eans 5y 3-ic- t-is natural lo%ical and lin%uistic property o# ne%ation can 5e stren%t-ened. :-e t3o senses o# t-e litotic expression8 ne%ative and positive8 serve a de#inite stylistic purpose. * variant o# litotes is a construction 3it- t3o ne%ations8 as in not unliRe8 not unpro.isin%8 not displeased and t-e liRe. >ere8 accordin% to %eneral lo%ical and .at-e.atical principles8 t3o ne%atives .aRe a positive. :-us in t-e sentence cLSoa.es8 3it- -is lips and -is s9uared c-in 3as not unliRe a 5ull do%L (Gals3ort-y)8 t-e litotes .ay 5e interpreted as so.e3-at rese.5lin%. In spite o# t-e #act t-at suc- constructions .aRe t-e assertion .ore lo%ically apparent8 t-ey lacR precision. :-ey .ay truly 5e re%arded as deli5erate understate.ents8 3-ereas t-e pattern structures o# litotes8 i. e. t-ose t-at -ave only one ne%ative are .uc- .ore cate%orical in statin% t-e positive 9uality/ o# a person or t-in%. *n interestin% Gest at t-e expense&o# an En%lis- states.an 3-o overused t-e device o# dou5le ne%ation 3as pu5lis-ed in t-e Spectator8 May 2!8 19 @. >ere it is; L*ny3ay8 as t-e pre=?-itsun do%=days= 5arRed t-e.selves into silence8 a %ood deal o# pleasure could 5e o5tained 5y a connoisseur 3-o Rne3 3-ere to seeR it. ,n Monday8 #or instance8 #ro. Mr. Sel3yn $loyd. >is tricR o# seiSin% upon a p-rase t-at -as strucR -i. (erroneously8 as a rule) as a -appy one8 and do%%edly sticRin% to it t-erea#ter is one typical o# a speaRer 3-o lacRs all con#idence. ,n Monday it 3as &not unpro.isin%&C t-ree ti.es -e declared t-at various aspects o# t-e Su..it preparations 3ere &not unpro.isin%&8 and I 3as .oved in t-e end to conclude t-at Mr. $loyd is a not unpoor "orei%n Secretary8 and t-at i# -e s-ould not uns-ortly leave t-at o##ice t-e not un5etter it 3ould 5e #or all o# us8 not un-i. included.L $itotes is used in di##erent styles o# speec-8 excludin% t-ose 3-ic- .ay 5e called t-e .atter=o#=#act styles8 liRe o##icial style and scienti#ic prose. In poetry it is so.eti.es used to su%%est t-at lan%ua%e #ails to ade9uately convey t-e poet&s #eelin%s and t-ere#ore -e uses ne%ations to express t-e inexpressi5le. S-aRespeare&s Sonnet No. 1!7 is to so.e extent illustrative in t-is respect. >ere all t-e -acRneyed p-rases used 5y t-e poet to depict -is 5eloved are ne%ated 3it- t-e purpose o# s-o3in% t-e superiority o# t-e eart-ly 9ualities o# LMy .istress.L :-e #irst line o# t-is sonnet &My .istress& eyes are not-in% liRe t-e sun& is a clear=cut litotes alt-ou%- t-e o5Gect to 3-ic- t-e eyes are co.pared is %enerally perceived as -avin% only positive 9ualities.

PART VI FUNCTIONAL STYLES OF T#E ENGLIS# LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTORY REMAR+S ?e -ave already .entioned t-e pro5le. o# 3-at is Rno3n as I ` n c=tional styles ("S) o# lan%ua%e (see p. !2c! )8 5ut only to s-o3 t-at "Ss s-ould 5e distin%uis-ed #ro.

varieties o# lan%ua%e. :-e .ain di##erence8 5e it re.e.5ered8 is t-at t-e 3ritten and oral varieties o# lan%ua%e are .erely #or.s o# co..unication 3-ic- depend on t-e situation in 3-ic- t-e co..unication is .aintained8 i.e. on t-e presence or a5sence o# an interlocutor8 3-ereas "Ss are patterns o# t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e calculated to secure t-e desired purport o# t-e co..unication. Eac- #unctional style o# t-e literary&lan%ua%e .aRes use o# lan%ua%e .eans t-e interrelation o# 3-ic- is peculiar to t-e %iven "S. It is t-e coordination o# lan%ua%e .edia and SDs 3-ic- s-apes t-e distinctive #eatures o# eac- style8 and not t-e separate lan%ua%e .edia or t-e SDs t-e.selves. Eac- "S8 -o3ever8 can 5e reco%niSed 5y one or .ore leadin%8 especially conspicuous= #eatures. "or instance8 t-e use o# special ter.inolo%y is a lexical c-aracteristic o# t-e "S o# scienti#ic prose8 and one 5y 3-ic- it can easily 5e reco%niSed. :-e address LDear sirsL 3ill 5e a si%nal to re#er t-e .essa%e to t-e "S o# o##icial docu.ents. >o3ever8 since any "S presents a syste. in 3-ic- various #eatures are inter3oven in a particular .anner8 one %roup o# lan%ua%e .eans8 a leadin% #eature t-ou%- it .ay 5e8 3ill not su##ice to deter.ine t-e "S. No3 3e are in a position to %ive a .ore exact de#inition o# a #unctional style t-an t-e one %iven on p. !2c!!. *n "S is a patterned variety o# literary text c-aracteriSed 5y t-e %reater or lesser typi#ication o# its constituents8 supra=p-rasal units (S2M)8 in 3-ic- t-e c-oice and arran%e.ent o# interdependent and inter3oven lan%ua%e .edia are calculated to secure t-e purport o# t-e co..unication. Eac- "S is a relatively sta5le syste. at t-e %iven sta%e in t-e develop.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 5ut it c-an%es8 and so.eti.es considera5ly8 #ro. one period to anot-er. :-ere#ore #unctional style o# lan%ua%e is a -istorical cate%ory. :-ere are .any instances to prove t-is. :-us8 t-e "S o# e.otive prose actually 5e%an to #unction as an independent style a#ter t-e second -al# o# t-e 11t- centuryC t-e ne3spaper style 5udded o## #ro. t-e pu5licistic styleC t-e oratorical style -as under%one considera5le #unda.ental c-an%es8 and so 3it- ot-er "Ss8 :-e develop.ent o# eac- style is predeter.ined 5y t-e c-an%es in t-e nor.s o# standard En%lis-. It is also %reatly in#luenced 5y c-an%in% social conditions8 t-e pro%ress o# science and t-e develop.ent o# cultural li#e in t-e country. "or instance8 t-e e.otive ele.ents o# lan%ua%e 3ere a5undantly used in scienti#ic prose in t-e 1@t- century. :-is is explained 5y t-e #act t-at scientists in .any #ields used t-e e.otional lan%ua%e instead o# one .ore lo%ically precise and convincin%8 5ecause t-ey lacRed t-e scienti#ic data o5taina5le only 5y deep8 prolon%ed researc-. ?it- t-e develop.ent o# science and t-e accu.ulation o# scienti#ic data8 e.otive ele.ents %ave 3ay to con= vincin% ar%u.ents and Lstu55ornL #acts. :-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e -as evolved a nu.5er o# "Ss easily distin%uis-a5le one #ro. anot-er. :-ey are not -o.o%eneous and #all into several variants all -avin% so.e central point o# rese.5lance8 or 5etter to say8 all inte%rated 5y t-e invariantc

i.e. t-e a5stract ideal syste.. ?e s-all no3 consider eac- o# t-e "Ss in its 8.ost c-aracteristic #eatures. A. T(E BELLES-LETTRES STYLE ?e -ave already pointed out t-at t-e 5elles=lettres style is a %eneric ter. #or t-ree su5styles in 3-ic- t-e .ain principles and t-e .ost %eneral properties o# t-e style are .aterialiSed. :-ese t-ree su5=styles are; & 1. :-e lan%ua%e o# poetry8 or si.ply verse. 2. E.otive p m V s e8 or t-e lan%ua%e o# #iction. !. &-e lan%ua%e o# t-e dr a .a. Eac- o# t-ese su5styles -as certain co..on #eatures8 typical o# t-e %eneral 5elles= lettres style8 3-ic- .aRe up t-e #oundation o# t-e style8 5y 3-ic- t-e particular style is .ade reco%niSa5le and can t-ere#ore 5e sin%ted out. Eac- o# t-e. also enGoys so.e individuality. :-is is revealed in de#inite #eatures typical only o# one or anot-er su5style. :-is correlation o# t-e %eneral and t-e particular in eac- variant o# t-e 5elles=lettres styie -ad .ani#ested itsel# di##erently at di##erent sta%es in its -istorical develop.ent. :-e co..on #eatures o# t-e8su5styles .ay 5e su..ed up as #ollo3s. "irst o# all co.es t-e(co..on #unction 3-ic- .ay 5roadly 5e called Laest-etico=co%nitiveL. :-is is a dou5le #unction 3-ic- ai.s at t-e co%nitive process8 3-ic- secures t-e %radual En#oldin% o# t-e idea to t-e reader and at t-e sa.e ti.e calls #ort- a #eelin% o# pleasure8 a pleasure 3-ic- is derived #ro. t-e #or. in 3-ic- t-e content is 3rou%-t. :-e psyc-olo%ical ele.ent8 pleasure8 is not irrelevant 3-en evaluatin% t-e e##ect o# t-e co..unication. x :-is pleasure is caused not only 5y ad.iration o# t-e selected lan%ua%e .eans and t-eir peculiar arran%e.ent 5ut also (and t-is is per-aps t-e .ain cause) 5y t-e #act t-at t-e reader is led to #or. -is o3n conclusions as to t-e purport o# t-e aut-or. Not-in% %ives .ore pleasure and satis#action t-an realiSin% t-at one -as t-e a5ility to penetrate into t-e -idden tissue o# events8 p-eno.ena and -u.an activity8 and to perceive t-e relation 5et3een various see.in%ly unconnected #acts 5rou%-t to%et-er 5y t-e creative .ind o# t-e 3riter. Since t-e 5elles=lettres style -as a co%nitive #unction as 3ell as an aest-etic one8 it #ollo3s t-at it -as so.et-in% in co..on 3it- scienti#ic style8 3-ic- 3ill 5e discussed in detail later8 5ut 3-ic- is -ere .entioned #or t-e saRe o# co.parison. :-e purpose o# science) as a 5ranc- o# -u.an activity is to disclose 5y researc- t-e inner su5stance o# t-in%s and p-eno.ena o# o5Gective reality and #ind out t-e la3s re%ulatin% t-e.8 t-us ena5lin% .an to predict8 control and direct t-eir #urt-er develop.ent in order to i.prove t-e .aterial and social li#e o# .anRind. :-e style o# scienti#ic prose is t-ere#ore .ainly c-aracteriSed 5y an arran%e.ent o# lan%ua%e .eans 3-ic- 3ill 5rin% proo#s to clinc- a t-eory. :-ere#ore 3e say t-at t-e .ain #unction o# scienti#ic prose is proo#. :-e selection o# lan%ua%e .eans .ust t-ere#ore .eet t-is principal re9uire.ent.

:-e purpose o# t-e 5elles=lettres style is not to prove 5ut only to su%%est a possi5le interpretation o# t-e p-eno.ena o# li#e 5y #orcin% t-e reader to see t-e vie3point o# t-e 3riter. :-is is t-e co%nitive #unction o# t-e 5elles=lettres style. "ro. all t-is it #ollo3s8 t-ere#ore8 t-at t-e 5elles=lettres style .ust select a syste. o# lan%ua%e .eans 3-ic- 3ill secure t-e e##ect sou%-t. In s-o3in% t-e di##erence in t-e .anner o# t-inRin% o# t-e .an=o# letters and t-e .an= o#=science8 N. *. Do5rolu5ov 3rites; L:-e .an=o#=letters... t-inRs concretely8 never losin% si%-t o# particular p-eno.ena and i.a%esC t-e ot-er (t-e .an=o#=science) strives to %eneraliSe8 to .er%e all particulars in one %eneral #or.ula.L / :-e 5elles=lettres style rests on certain indispensa5le lin%uistic #eatures 3-ic- are; 1. Genuine8 not trite8 i.a%ery8 ac-ieved 5y purely lin%uistic devices. 2. :-e use o# 3ords in contextual and very o#ten in .ore t-an one dictionary .eanin%8 or at least %reatly in#luenced 5y t-e lexical environ.ent. !. * voca5ulary 3-ic- 3ill re#lect to a %reater or lesser de%ree t-e aut-or&s personal evaluation o# t-in%s or p-eno.ena. '. * peculiar individual selection o# voca5ulary and syntax8 a Rind o# lexical and syntactical idiosyncrasy. . :-e introduction o# t-e typical #eatures o# collo9uial lan%ua%e to a #ull de%ree (in plays) or a lesser one (in e.otive prose) or a sli%-t de%ree8 i# any (in poe.s). :-e 5elles=lettres style is individual in essence. :-is is one o# its .ost distinctive properties. Individuality in selectin% lan%ua%e .eans (includin% stylistic devices)8 extre.ely apparent in poetic style8 5eco.es %radually less in8 let us say8 pu5licistic style8 is -ardly noticea5le in t-e style o# scienti#ic prose and is entirely lacRin% in ne3spapers and in o##icial style. :-e relation 5et3een t-e %eneral and t-e particular assu.es di##erent #or.s in di##erent styles and in t-eir variants. :-is relation is di##erently .aterialiSed even 3it-in one and t-e sa.e style. :-is is due to t-e stron% i.print o# personality on&any 3orR o# poetic style. :-ere .ay 5e a %reater or lesser volu.e o# i.a%ery (5ut not an a5sence o# i.a%ery)C a %reater or lesser nu.5er o# 3ords 3it- contextual .eanin% (5ut not all 3ords 3it-out contextual .eanin%)C a %reater or lesser nu.5er o# collo9uial ele.ents (5ut not a co.plete a5sence o# collo9uial ele.ents).
9. LANGUAGE OF POETRY

:-e #irst su5style 3e s-all consider is v e r s e. Its #irst di##erentiatin% property is its orderly #or.8 3-ic- is 5ased .ainly on t-e r-yt-.ic and p-onetic arran%e.ent o# t-e utterances. :-e r-yt-.ic aspect calls #ort- syntactical and se.antic peculiarities 3-ic- also #all into a .ore or less strict orderly arran%e.ent. +ot- t-e syntactical and se.antic aspects I o# t-e poetic su5style .ay 5e de#ined as co.pact8 #or t-ey are -eld in Hi c-ecR 5y r-yt-.ic patterns. +ot- syntax and se.antics co.ply 3it- #i t-e restrictions i.posed 5y t-e r-yt-.ic pattern8 and t-e result is 5revity o# expression8 epi%ra.=liRe utterances8 and #res-8 unexpected i.a%ery. Syntactically t-is 5revity is

s-o3n in elliptical and #ra%.entary sentences8 in detac-ed constructions8 in inversion8 asyndeton and ot-er syntactical peculiarities. B-yt-. and r-y.e are i..ediately distin%uis-a5le properties o# t-e poetic su5style provided t-ey are 3rou%-t into co.positional patterns. :-ey can 5e called t-e external di##erentiatin% #eatures o# t-e su5style8 typical only o# t-is one variety o# t-e 5elles=lettres style. :-e various co.positional #or.s o# r-y.e and r-yt-. are %enerally studied under t-e ter.s versi#ication or prosody. $et us exa.ine t-e external properties or #eatures o# t-e poetic su5=style in detail. /= JJJ a) Compositional ,atterns of Ihythmical -rrangement
Metre and Line

It is custo.ary to 5e%in t-e exposition o# t-e t-eory o# En%lis- versi#ication 3it- t-e state.ent t-at L...t-ere is no esta5lis-ed principle o# En%lis- versi#icationI&Eut t-is state.ent .ay apply to al.ost any 5ranc- o# lin%uistic science. Science in %eneral can live and develop only provided t-at t-ere are constant disputes on t-e .ost crucial issues o# t-e %iverC science. En%lis- versi#ication is no exception. ?e -ave already discussed so.e o# t-e .ost %eneral points o# r-yt-.. :-is 3as a necessary introduction to En%lis- versi#ication8 inas.uc- as En%lis- verse is .ostly 5ased on r-yt-.ical arran%e.ent and r-y.e. +ot- r-yt-. and r-y.e are o5Gective 9ualities o# lan%ua%e and exist outside verse. x +ut in verse 1 :-is is t-e reason t-at 5ot- r-yt-. and r-y.e -ave 5een treated in 2art III outside t-e0 c-apter on versi#ication. 5ot- -ave assu.ed t-eir co.positional patterns and8 per-aps8 due to t-is8 t-ey are co..only associated 3it- verse. :-e .ost o5serva5le and 3idely reco%niSed co.positional patterns o# r-yt-. .aRin% up classical verse are 5ased8 on; 1) alternation o# stressed and unstressed sylla5les8 x 2) e9uilinearity8 t-at is8 an e9ual nu.5er o# sylla5les in t-e lines8 !) a natural pause at t-e end o# t-e line8 t-e line 5ein% a .ore or less co.plete se.antic unit8 ') identity o# stanSa pattern8 ) esta5lis-ed patterns o# r-y.in%. $ess o5serva5le8 alt-ou%- very apparent in .odern versi#ication8 are all Rinds o# deviations #ro. t-ese rules8 so.e o# t-e. %oin% so #ar t-at classical poetry ceases to 5e strictly classical and 5eco.es 3-at is called #ree verse8 3-ic- in extre.e cases 5orders on prose. En%lis- verse8 liRe all verse8 e.anated #ro. son%. (erse assu.es an independent existence only 3-en it tears itsel# a3ay #ro. son%. :-en only does it ac9uire t-e status o# a %enuine poetic syste.8 and r-yt-.8 5ein% t-e su5stitute #or .usic8 assu.es a ne3 si%ni#icance. :-e unit o# .easure o# poetic r-yt-. in En%lis- versi#ication is

not so .uc- o# a 9uantitative as o# a 9ualitative c-aracter. :-e unit o# .easure in .usical r-yt-. is t-e ti.e allotted to its reproduction8 3-ereas t-e unit o# .easure in En%lis- verse r-yt-. is t-e 9uality o# t-e alternatin% ele.ent (stressed or8 unstressed). :-ere#ore En%lis- versi#ication8 liRe Bussian8 is called 9ualitative8 in contradistinction to t-e old GreeR verse 3-ic-8 5ein% sun%8 3as essentially 9uantitative. In classic En%lis- verse8 9uanti=8ty is taRen into consideration only 3-en it is a .atter o# t-e nu.5er o# #eet in a line. >ence classic En%lis- verse is called syl I a 5o=tonic. :3o para.eters are taRen into account in de#inin% t-e .easure; t-e nu.5er o# sylla5les (sylla5o) and t-e distri5ution o# stresses (tonic). :-e nature o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e 3it- its speci#ic p-onetic la3s8 -o3ever8 is inco.pati5le 3it- t-e de.and #or strict re%ularity in t-e alternation o# si.ilar units8 and -ence t-ere are a nu.5er o# accepted deviations #ro. esta5lis-ed .etrical sc-e.es 3-ic- 3e s-all discuss in detail a#ter pointin% out t-e .ost reco%niSa5le En%lis- .etrical pa #t e r n=s. :-ere are #ive o# t-e.; 1. Ia.5ic .etre8 in 3-ic- t-e unstressed sylla5le is #ollo3ed 5y a stressed one. It is %rap-ically represented t-us; (3=). 2. :roc-aic .etre8 3-ere t-e order is reversed8 i.e.. a stressed sylla5le is #ollo3ed 5y one unstressed (=0). !. Dactylic .e t r econe stressed sylla5le is #ollo3ed 5y t3o unstressed (=3). '. *.p-i5rac- i Y .etrecone stressed sylla5le is #ra.ed 5y t3o unstressed 0b3. 1 Many lin%uists -old t-at verse r-yt-. is 5ased on alternation 5et3een stron%er and 3eaRer stresses. :-ey .aintain t-at #our de%rees o# stresses are easily reco%niSa5le. +ut #or t-e saRe o# a5stractioncan indispensa5le process in scienti#ic investi%ation c t-e opposition o# stressedcunstressed sylla5les is t-e only aut-entic 3ay o# presentin% tne pro5le. o# verse r-yt-.. . *napaestic .e tr eci3o unstressed sylla5les are #ollo3ed 5y one stressed (3=). :-ese arran%e.ents o# 9ualitatively di##erent sylla5les are t-e units o# t-e .etre8 t-e repetition o# 3-ic- .aRes verse. ,ne unit is called a #oot. :-e nu.5er o# #eet in a line varies8 5ut it -as its li.itC it rarely exceeds ei%-t. I# t-e line consists o# only one #oot it is called a .ono.eter* a line consistin% o# t3o #eet is a di.eterC t-reect r i g i t e I/C #our=tetra.eter< #ivecp entd.eter< sixc- e x a . e t e r< sevenci septa.eter< ei%-tcV Y t a . e t e r. In de#inin% t-e .easure8 t-atK is t-e Rind o# ideal .etrical sc-e.e o# a verse8 it is necessary to point out 5ot- t-e type o# .etre and t-e len%t- o# t-e line. :-us8 a line t-at consists o# #our ia.5ic #eet is called ia.5ic tetra.eter8 correspondin%ly a line consistin% o# ei%-t troc-aic #eet 3ill 5e called troc-aic octa.eter8 and so on. En%lis- verse is predo.inantly ia.5ic. :-is is so.eti.es explained 5y t-e ia.5ic tendency o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e in %eneral. Most o# t-e En%lis- 3ords -ave a troc-aic tendency8 t-at is t-e stress #alls on t-e #irst sylla5le o# t3o=sylla5ic 3ords. +ut in actual speec- t-ese 3ords are preceded 5y non=stressed articles8 prepositions8 conGunctions or 5y unstressed sylla5les o# precedin% 3ords t-us i.partin% an ia.5ic c-aracter to En%lis- speec-. *s a result ia.5ic .etre is .ore co..on in En%lis-

verse t-an any ot-er .etre. >ere are a #e3 exa.ples illustratin% various .etrical arran%e.ents o# En%lis- verse. 8 J 1. Ia.5ic penta.eter ,- let .e true in love 5ut truly 3rite 2. :roc-aic tetra.eter J/.=8 ?ould you asR=.e 3-ence t-ese stories !. Dactylic di.eter 4annon to ri%-t o# t-e. 4annon to& le#t o# t-e. '. *.p-i5rac-ic tetra.eter ,8 3-ere are you %oin% to all you +i% Stea.ers . *napaestic tetra.eter Do you asR 3-at t-e 5irds sayz :-e sparro38 t-e dove I# 3e .aRe a care#ul study o# al.ost any poe.8 3e 3ill #.d 3-at 1 are called irre%ularities or .odi#ications o# its nor.al .etrical pattern. :-ese .odi#ications %enerally -ave so.e special si%ni#icance8 usually connected 3it- t-e sense8 t-ou%- in so.e cases t-ey .ay 5e due to t-e nature o# t-e lan%ua%e .aterial itsel#. :-is is particularly t-e case 3it- t-e #irst .odi#ication 3-en t-e stress is li#ted #ro. a sylla5le on 3-ic- t-e lan%ua%e 3ill not allo3 stress8 and 3e -ave 3-at is called a pyrr-ic#oot instead o# an ia.5ic or a troc-aic #oot8 #or exa.ple; So8 t-at no3 to still t-e 5eatin% o# .y -eart I stood repeatin% (xVi) +ut .aRes surrender to so.e t-ou%-tless 5oy (ueats) In 5ot- exa.ples t-e stress is li#ted #ro. prepositions on 3-ic- t-e stress seldo. #alls8 t-ere#ore pyrr-ics are very co..on and 9uite natural .odi#ications in En%lisverse. :-e second .odi#ication o# t-e r-yt-. is t-e inverted order o# stressed and unstressed sylla5les in one o# t-e #eet o# t-e ia.5ic or troc-aic pattern. "or exa.ple8 in t-e sonnet 5y Boy 4a.p5ell L:-e Ser#L 3-ic-8&liRe all sonnets8 is 3ritten in ia.5ic penta.eter8 t-ere creeps in a #oot 3Giere t-e order8 unstressedcstressed8 is inverted; >is naRed sRin clot-ed in t-e torrid .ist :-at pu##s in s.oRe around t-e patient -ooves >ere t-e t-ird #oot o# t-e #irst line violates t-e r-yt-.ic pattern. Suc- .odi#ications are called r-yt-.ic inversions and are used to add e.p-asis. :-e t-ird .odi#ication is t-e insertion o# a #oot o# t3o stressed sylla5les8 called a spondee. It is used instead o# an ia.5us or a troc-ee. In S-aRespeare&s ia.5ic penta.eter t-ese t3o .odi#ications are #re9uently to 5e #ound8 #or exa.ple; :-e .orn in russet .antle clad ?alRs o&er t-e de3 o# yon -i%- eastern -ill >ere t-e #irst #oot o# t-e second line is r-yt-.ic inversion8 and t-e #ourt- is a spondee. B-yt-.ic inversion and t-e use o# t-e spondee .ay 5e considered deli5erate devices

to rein#orce t-e se.antic si%ni#icance o# t-e 3ord=co.5inations. >ere are ot-er exa.ples; Boll on8 t-ou deep and darR 5lue ocean8 roll. :en t-ousand #leets s3eep over t-ee in vain. :-e spondee as8a r-yt-.ic .odi#ication8 unliRe t-e pyrr-ic8 is al3ays used to %ive added e.p-asis. :-is .ay 5e explained 5y t-e #act t-at t3o successive sylla5les 5otunder -eavy stress produce a Rind o# clas- as a result o# 3-ic- t-e Guncture 5et3een t-e sylla5les 5eco.es 3ider& t-us .aRin% eac- o# t-e. conspicuous. * pyrr-ic s.oot-s and 9uicRens t-e pace o# t-e r-yt-.C a spondee slo3s it do3n and .aRes it GerRy. 2yrr-ics .ay appear in al.ost any #oot in a line8 t-ou%- t-ey are rarely #ound in t-e last #oot. :-is is natural as t-e last #oot %enerally -as a r-y.in% 3ord and r-y.in% 3ords are al3ays stressed. Spondees %enerally appear in t-e #irst or t-e last #oot. :-ese t-ree .odi#ications o# t-e r-yt-. are t-e result o# t-e clas- 5et3een t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e .etrical sc-e.e and t-e natural tendency o# t-e lan%ua%e .aterial to con#or. to its o3n p-onetic la3s. :-e .ore verse seeRs to re#lect t-e lively nor.s o# collo9uial En%lis-8 t-e .ore #re9uently are .odi#ications suc- as t-ose descri5ed8to 5e #ound. :-e #ourt- .odi#ication -as to do 3it- t-e nu.5er o# sylla5les in t-e line. :-ere .ay 5e eit-er a sylla5le .issin% or t-ere .ay 5e an extra sylla5le. :-us8 t-e last sylla5le o# a troc-aic octa.eter is o#ten .issin%8 as in t-is line #ro. 2oe&s L:-e BavenL; :-rilled .e8 #illed .e 3it- #antastic terrors never #elt 5e#ore :-is is called a-ypo.etric line. ,t-er lines in t-e poe. #iave t-e #ull sixteen sylla5les. In ia.5ic .etre t-ere .ay 5e an extra sylla5le at t-e end o# t-e line. In t-e line #ro. t-e S-aRespeare sonnet; L:-en in t-ese t-ou%-ts .ysel# al.ost despisin%L t-ere are eleven sylla5les8 3-ereas t-ere s-ould -ave 5een ten8 t-e line 5ein% ia.5ic penta.eter8 as are all t-e lines o# a sonnet. * line 3it- an extra sylla5le is called - y0p e r . e t r i c. Suc- departures #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed .easure also 5reaR to so.e extent t-e r-yt-.ical structure o# t-e verse8 and are t-ere#ore to 5e considered .odi#ications o# t-e r-yt-.. :-e #i#t- departure #ro. t-e nor.s o# classic verse is e n G a . 5 =.eat8 or i-e run=on line. :-is ter. is used to denote t-e trans#er o# a part o# a synta%rtiGro. one line to t-e #ollo3in% one8 as in t-e #ollo3in% lines #ro. +yron&s L4-ilde >arold&s 2il%ri.a%eL; 1. "air is proud SevilleC let -er country 5oast 2. >er stren%t-8 -er 3ealt-8 -er site o# ancient daysC 1. ?-ile 5oyis- 5lood is .antlin%8 3-o can &scape 7. :-e #ascination o# t-e .a%ic %aSez It 3ill 5e o5served t-at -ere a%ain is a violation o# t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e classical verse accordin% to 3-ic- t-e line .ust 5e a .ore or less co.plete unit in itsel#. >ere

3e -ave t-e over#lo3in% o# t-e sense to t-e next line due to t-e 5reaR o# t-e synta%. in t-e #irst and sixt- lines=c close predicate=o5Gect %roups. :-e lines see. to 5e torn into t3o lalves8 t-e second -al# #lo3in% structurally into t-e #irst -al# o# t-e next Qline. :-e #irst i.pression is t-at t-is is so.e Rind o# prose8 and not verse8 t-is i.pression is i..ediately contradicted 5y t-e #eelin% t-at t-ere is a de#inite .etrical sc-e.e and pattern o# r-y.in%. :-e r-yt-.ic pattern o# t-e verse leads us to anticipate a certain s.antic structureC 5ut 3-en t-e device o# enGa.5.ent is used8 3-at anticipate is 5rou%-t into con#lict 3it- 3-at 3e actually #ind8 t-at Qis8 3-at is actually .aterialiSed. :-is is still .ore acutely #elt in t-e case o# s t a n S a e n G a . 5 =<tn e n t. >ere t-e sense o# a lar%er r-yt-.ic unit8 t-e stanSa8 3-ic- is Q%enerally sel#=contained and co.plete8 is .ade to #lo3 over to t-e next QstanSa. >ere is an exa.ple #ro. +yron&s L4-ilde >aroldL8 4anto 18 stanSas I$I and $II. $I @. :-e -olster&d steed 5eneat- t-e s-ed o# t-atc-8 9. :-e 5all=piled pyra.id8 t-e ever=5laSin% .atc-8 $II 1. 2ortend t-e deeds to co.e;c5ut -e 3-ose nod 2. >as tu.5led #ee5ler despots #ro. t-eir s3ay. :-e essence o# enGa.5.ent is t-e violation o# t-e concordance 5et3een t-e r-yt-.ical and t-e syntactical unity in a line o# verse. *t t-e end o# eac- r-yt-.ical line in classical verse t-ere .ust 5e a pause o# an apprecia5le siSe=5et3een t-e lines 3-ic- ensures t-e relative independence o# eac-. :-e Guncture 5et3een t-e lines is 3ide. EnGa.5.ent t-ro3s a part o# t-e synta%. over to t-e second line8 t-us causin% t-e pause to %ro3 s.aller and t-e Guncture closer. :-is leads to a 5reaR in t-e r-yt-= .ico=syntactical unity o# t-e linesC t-ey lose t-eir relative independence. StanSa enGa.5.ent is t-e sa.e in nature8 5ut it a##ects lar%er r-yt-=.ico=syntactical units8 t-e stanSas. >ere 3e seldo. 3itness t-e 5reaR o# a synta%.8 5ut t-e #inal part o# t-e utterance is t-ro3n over to t-e next stanSa8 t-us unitin% t-e t3o stanSas8 5reaRin% =t-e sel#=su##iciency o# eac- and causin% t-e Guncture 5et3een t-e stanSas to 5eco.e closer. It is i.portant to re.ind t-e reader t-at .odi#ications in En%lis- .etre8 no .atter -o3 #re9uent8 re.ain .odi#ications8 #or t-e %iven .etrical sc-e.e is not a##ected to any apprecia5le extent. *s a .atter o# #act t-ese irre%ularities .ay 5e said to -ave 5eco.e re%ular. :-ey add .uc- variety and c-ar. to t-e verse. Indeed8 i# t-e .etre is per#ectly re%ular 3it-out any o# t-e #ive .odi#ications descri5ed a5ove8 t-e verse .ay sound .ec-anical and li#eless8 arti#icial and .onotonous.
The Stanza

?e -ave de#ined r-yt-. as .ore or less re%ular alternations o# si.ilar units. ,# t-e

units o# verse r-yt-. t-e #ollo3in% -ave 5een na.ed; t-e sylla5le8 t-e #oot8 t-e line and #inally t-e stanSa. :-e stanSa is t-e lar%est unit in verse. It is co.posed o# a nu.5er o# lines -avin% a de#inite .easure and r-y.in% syste. 3-ic- is repeated t-rou%-out t-e poe.. :-e stanSa is %enerally 5uilt up on de#inite principles 3it- re%ard to t-e nu.5er o# lines8 t-e c-aracter o# t-e .etre and t-e r-y.in% pattern. :-ere are .any 3idely reco%niSed stanSa patterns in En%lis- poetry8 5ut 3e s-all na.e only t-e #ollo3in%. 1) :-e -eroic couple t c a stanSa t-at consists o# t3o ia.5ic penta.eters 3it- t-e r-y.in% pattern aa. Specialists in versi#ication divide t-e -istory o# t-e develop.ent o# t-is stanSa into t3o periods; t-e #irst is t-e period o# 4-aucer&s L4anter5ury :alesL and t-e second t-e period o# Marlo3e8 4-ap.an and ot-er EliSa5et-an poets8 :-e #irst period is c-aracteriSed 5y t-e .arRed #lexi5ility o# t-e verse8 t-e relative #reedo. o# its r-yt-.ic arran%e.ent in 3-ic- t-ere are all Rinds o# .odi#ications. :-e second period is c-aracteriSed 5y ri%id de.ands #or t-e purity o# its r-yt-.ical structure. :-e -eroic couplet8 5e%innin% 3it- t-e 11t- century and particularly in t-e poetry o# Spencer8 3as enc-ained 5y strict rules o# versi#ication8 and lost its #lexi5ility and #reedo. o# arran%e.ent. :-e -eroic couplet 3as later .ostly used in elevated #or.s o# poetry8 in epics and odes. *lexander 2ope used t-e -eroic couplet in -is L:-e Bape o# t-e $ocRL 3it- a satirical purpose8 t-at o# parodyin% t-e epic. >ere are t3o couplets #ro. t-is poe.; L:-en #las-ed0 t-e livin% li%-tnin% #ro. -er eyes8 *nd screa.s ol -orror rent t-e a##ri%-ted sRies. Not louder s-rieRs to pityin% -eaven are cast8 ?-en -us5ands or 3-en lap do%s 5reat-e t-eir 2) :-e next .odel o# stanSa 3-ic- once enGoyed popularity 3as t-e Spenceria=n stanSa8 na.ed a#ter Ed.und Spencer8 t-e 11t- century poet 3-o #irst used t-is type o# stanSa in -is L"aerie Oueene.L It consists o# nine li#tes8 t-e #irst ei%-t o# 3-ic- are ia.5ic penta.eters and t-e nint- is one #oot lon%er8 t-at is8 an ia.5ic -exa.eter. :-e r-y.in% sc-e.e is a5a55c5cc. +yron&s L4-ilde >aroldL is 3ritten in t-is stanSa; & . 1. L*3aRe8 ye sons o# SpainK *3aReK *dvanceK (a) 2. $oK 4-ivalry8 your ancient %oddess8 cries8 (5) !. +ut 3ields not8 as o# old8 -er t-irsty lance8 (a) '. Nor s-aRes -er cri.son plu.a%e in t-e sRies; (5) . No3 on t-e s.oRe o# 5laSin% 5olts s-e #lies8 (5) 1. *nd speaRs in t-under t-rou%- yon en%ine&s roar; (c) 7. In every peal s-e calls c L*3aReK *riseKL (5) @. Say8 is -er voice .ore #ee5le t-an o# .yore8 (c) 9. ?-en -er 3ar=son% 3as -eard on *ndalusia&s s-orez (c) !) :-e stanSa na.ed&ottava ri.a -as also 5een popular in En%lis- poetry. It is co.posed o# ei%-t ia.5ic penta.eters8 t-e r-y.in% sc-e.e 5ein% a5a5a5cc. :-is type o# stanSa 3as 5orro3ed #ro. Italian poetry and 3as 3idely used 5y 2-ilip

Sidney and ot-er poets o# t-e 11t- century. :-en it #ell into disuse 5ut 3as revived at t-e end o# t-e 1@t- century. +yron used it in -is poe. L+eppoL and in LDon Auan.L >ere it is; 1. L?it- all its sin#ul doin%s8 I .ust say8 (a) 2. :-at Italy&s a pleasant place to .e8 (5) !. ?-o love to see t-e Sun s-ine every day8 (a) '. *nd vines (not nail&d to 3alls) #ro. tree to tree (5) & . "estoon&d .uc- liRe t-e 5acR scene o# a play (a) 1. ,r .elodra.e8 3-ic- people #locR to see8 (5) 8 7. ?-en t-e #irst act is ended 5y a dance (c) @. In vineyards copied #ro. t-e Sout- o# "rance.L (c) ') * looser #or. o# stanSa is t-e 5allad stanSa. :-is is %enerally an alternation o# ia.5ic tetra.eters 3it- ia.5ic di.eters (or tri.eters)8 and t-e r-y.in% sc-e.e is a5c5< t-at is8 t-e tetra.eters are not r-y.edc t-e tri.eters are. :rue8 t-ere are variants o# t-e 5allad stanSa8 particularly in t-e len%t- o# t-e stanSa. :-e 5allad8 3-ic- is a very old8 per-aps t-e oldest #or. %# En%lis- verse8 is a s-ort story in r-y.e8 so.eti.es 3it- dialo%ue and direct speec-. In t-e poe. o# +eo3ul# t-ere are constant su%%estions t-at t-e poe. 3as .ade up #ro. a collection o# .ucearlier 5allads. Modern 5allads in #or. are i.itations o# t-e old En%lis- 5allad. >ere is a sa.ple o# t-e 5allad stanSa; L:-ey tooR a plou%- and plou%-&d -i. do3n (a) 2ut clods upon -is -eadC (5) *nd t-ey -ad s3orn a sole.n oat- (c) Ao-n +arleycorn 3as dead.L (5) (Bo5ert +urns) In so.e o# t-e variants o# t-e 5allad stanSa t-e r-y.in% sc-e.e is a5a58 t-at is t-e stanSa 5eco.es a typical 9uatrain. ) ,ne o# t-e .ost popular stanSas8 3-ic- 5ears t-e na.e o# stanSa x only conventionally8 is t-e s V n n e t. :-is is not a part o# a lar%er unit8 it is a co.plete independent 3orR o# a de#inite literary %enre. >o3ever8 5y tradition and also due to its strict structural desi%n t-is literary %enre is called a stanSa. :-e En%lis- sonnet is co.posed o# #ourteen ia.5ic penta.eters 3it- t-e #ollo3in% r-y.in% sc-e.e; a5a5cdcde#e#%%8 t-at is8 t-ree 9uatrains 3it- cross r-y.es and a couplet at t-e end. :-e En%lis- sonnet 3as 5orro3ed #ro. Italian poetry8 5ut on En%lis- soil it under3ent structural and so.eti.es certain se.antic c-an%es. :-e Italian sonnet 3as co.posed o# t3o 9uatrains 3it- a #ra.in% r-y.e a55a. :-ese t3o 9uatrains #or.ed t-e octave. It 3as #ollo3ed 5y asestette8 i.e. six lines divided into t3o tercets8 i.e. t-ree units 3it- cde r-y.in% in eac-8 or variants8 na.ely8 cdcdcd or cdedce and ot-ers. :-e se.antic aspect o# t-e Italian sonnet 3as also strictly re%ulariSed. :-e #irst 9uatrain o# t-e octave 3as to lay t-e .ain idea 5e#ore t-e readerC t-e second 9uatrain 3as to expand t-e idea o# t-e #irst 9uatrain 5y %ivin% details or illustrations or proo#s. So t-e octave -ad not only a structural 5ut also a se.antic pattern; t-e ei%-t lines

3ere to express one idea8 a t-esis. :-e sa.e applies to t-e sestette. :-e #irst t-ree lines 3ere to %ive an idea opposite to t-e one expressed in t-e octave8 a Rind o# antit-esis8 and t-e last t-ree lines to 5e a synt-esis o# t-e ideas expressed in t-e octave and t-e #irst tercet. :-is synt-esis 3as o#ten expressed in t-e last t3o lines o# t-e sonnet and t-ese t3o lines t-ere#ore 3ere called epi%ra..atic lines. :-e En%lis-8 o#ten called t-e S-aRespearean sonnet -as retained .any o# t-e #eatures o# its Italian parent. :-e division into octave and sestette is o5served in .any sonnets8 alt-ou%- t-.e sestette is not al3ays divided into t3o tercets. :-e r-y.in% sc-e.e is si.pli#ied and is no3 expressed 5y t-e #or.ula a5a5cdcde#e#%% %iven a5ove. :-e .ost clearly o5serva5le c-aracteristic #eature o# t-e sonnet on t-e content plane is t-e epi%ra.=liRe last line (or last t3o lines). Sonnets 3ere very popular in En%land durin% t-e sixteent- century. ?yatt8 Surrey8 Sidney and .any ot-er En%lis- poets o# t-is period indul%ed in 3ritin% sonnets8 and it is si%ni#icant t-at durin% t-is period an enor.ous nu.5er 3ere 3ritten. ?yatt ad-ered strictly to t-e Italian .odel. Surrey .odi#ied it and it 3as t-is .odi#ication t-at S-aRespeare used. :-e S-aRespearean sonnets8 3-ic- are Rno3n all over t-e 3orld8 are a .asterpiece o# sonnet co.position. *ll 1 ' sonnets express t-e #eelin%s o# t-e poet to3ards -is 5eloved8 -is #riend and -is patron. Even t-ose sonn0s8 t-e .air:idea o#03-ic- is 5y no .eans li.ited to t-e lyrical layin% out o# t-e #eelin%s ,# t-e poet (as Sonnets Nos. 118 21 and ot-ers)8 still pay tri5ute to t-e conventional #or. o# t-e sonnet 5y .entionin% t-e o5Gect o# t-e poet&s #eelin%s.1 :-e types o# En%lis- stanSas enu.erated in no 3ay ex-aust t-e variety o# t-is .acro= unit in t-e r-yt-.ical arran%e.ent o# t-e utterance. :-e nu.5er o# types o# stanSas is practically unli.ited. ?e -ave c-osen only t-ose 3-ic- -ave 3ortL3vide reco%nition and are taRen up 5y .any poets as a convenient .ould into 3-ic- ne3 content .ay 5e poured. +ut t-ere are .any interestin% .odels 3-ic- still re.ain uni9ue and t-ere#ore cannot yet 5e syste.atiSed. *n interestin% survey o# stanSa .odels in t-e En%lis- poetry o# t-e ei%-teent- and nineteent- centuries -as 5een .ade 5y w. (oro5yov in -is t-esis on LSo.e StanSa 2eculiarities in 1@t- and 19t- 4entury En%lis- (erse.L
Free Verse and Accented Verse

(erse re.ains classical i# it retains its .etrical sc-e.e. :-ere are8 -o3ever8 types o# verse 3-ic- are not classical. :-e one .ost popular is 3-at is called Lvers li5reL 3-ic- is t-e "renc- ter. #or #ree verse. "ree verse departs considera5ly #ro. t-e strict re9uire.ents o# classical verse8 5ut its departures are le%aliSed. "ree verse is reco%niSed 5y lacR o# strictness in its r-yt-.ical desi%n. :-e ter. &#ree verse& is used rat-er loosely 5y di##erent 3ritersC so .uc- so t-at 3-at is Rno3n as accented or stressed verse is also so.eti.es included. >ere 3e s-all use t-e ter. &#ree verse& to re#er only to t-ose varieties o# verse 3-ic-

are c-aracteriSed 5y; 1) a co.5ination o# various .etrical #eet in t-e lineC 2) a5sence o# e9uilinearity and !) stanSas o# varyin% len%t-. B-y.e8 -o3ever8 is %enerally retained. >ence t-e ter. &#ree verse& is li.ited in t-is 3orR to verse in 3-ic- t-ere is a .ore or less re%ular co.5ination o# di##erent .etrical #eet8 di##erent len%t-s o# line and di##erent len%t-s o# stanSa. * %ood illustration o# #ree verse in our sense o# t-e ter. is S-elley&s poe. L:-e 4loud.L LI 5rin% #res- s-o3ers #or t-e t-irstin% #lo3ers8 "ro. t-e seas and t-e strea.sC I 5ear li%-t s-ade #or t-e leaves 3-en laid JIn t-eir noonday drea.s. "ro. .y 3in%s are s-aRen t-e de3s t-at 3aRen :-e s3eet 5uds every one8 ?-en rocRed to rest on t-eir .ot-er&s 5reast8 *s s-e dances a5out t-e sun. I 3ield t-e #lail o# t-e las-in% -ail8 *nd 3-iten t-e %reen plains under8 *nd t-en a%ain I dissolve it in rain8 *nd lau%- as I pass in t-under.L >ere t-e odd lines are tetra.eters in 3-ic- t-ere are co.5inations o# ia.5ic and anapaestic .etres. :-e even lines are eit-er di.eters or tri.eters o# ia.5ic and anapaestic .etre. So t-e .etre is not -o.o%eneous 3it-in t-e linesC t-e lines are o# di##erent len%t-s and t-e stanSas -ave di##erent nu.5ers o# lines; t-e #irst one -as t3elve lines8 t-e second ei%-teen8 t-e t-ird #ourteen. :-e re.ainin% stanSas also vary in len%t-. :-e nu.5er o# sylla5les in eac- line also varies. :-e #irst line -as nine sylla5les8 t-e secondcsix8 t-e t-irdcnine8 t-e #ourt-c#ive8 t-e #i#t-c eleven8 t-e sixt-csix8 t-e sevent-cnine8 t-e ei%-tucseven8 t-e nint-c nine8 t-e tent-cei%-t8 t-e elevent-cten8 t-e t3el#t-cei%-t. wet in t-is irre%ularity t-ere is a certain re%ularity. "irst o# all t-ere is a re%ular alternation o# lon% and s-ort linesC t-ere is a de#inite co.5ination o# only t3o #eet; ia.5ic and anapaesticC t-ere is a de#inite r-y.=' in% sc-e.e; t-e lon% lines -ave internal r-y.e8 t-e s-ort ones r-y.e 3it- eac- ot-er. :-ese re%ularities are .aintained t-rou%-out t-e poe.. *nd t-at is 3-y 3e say t-at in spite o# an apprecia5le departure #ro. classical principles it re.ains to a lar%e extent sylla5o= tonic verse. :-e re%ularities 3e -ave pointed out prevent us #ro. na.in% t-e instances o# departure #ro. t-e classic .odel &.odi#ications& since t-ey -ave a de#inite structural pattern. 4lassic .odi#ications o# t-e r-yt-. are accidental8 not re%ular. "ree verse is not8 o# course8 con#ined to t-e pattern Gust descri5ed. :-ere .ay not 5e any t3o poe.s 3ritten in #ree verse 3-ic- 3ill -ave t-e sa.e structural pattern. :-is underlyin% #reedo. .aRes verse less ri%id and .ore collo9uial=liRe. :-e departure #ro. .etrical rules is so.eti.es considered a si%n o# pro%ressiveness in verse8 3-ic- is dou5t#ul. 4lassical En%lis- verse8 #ree verse and t-e accented verse 3-ic- 3e are a5out to discuss8 all enGoy e9ual ri%-ts #ro. t-e aest-etic point o# vie3 and none o# t-ese types o# verse -as any ascendancy over t-e ot-ers. *ccented v e r se is a type o# verse in 3-ic- only t-e nu.5er o# stresses in t-e line is taRen into consideration. :-e nu.5er

o# Lsylla5les is not a constituentC it is irrelevant and t-ere#ore disre%arded. *ccented verse is not sylla5o=tonic 5ut only tonic. In its extre.e #or. t-e lines -ave no pattern o# re%ular .etrical #eet nor #ixed len%t-8 t-ere is no notion o# stanSa8 and t-ere are no r-y.es. $iRe #ree verse8 accented verse -as very .any variants8 so.e approac-in% #ree verse and so.e departin% so #ar #ro. any reco%niSed r-yt-.ical pattern t-at 3e can -ardly o5serve t-e essential #eatures o# t-is .ode o# co..unication. "or t-e saRe o# illustration 3e s-all 9uote t3o poe.s representin% t-e t3o extre.es o# accented verse. 1. L?it- #in%ers 3eary and 3ornC ?it- eyelids -eavy and red8 * 3o.an sat in un3o.anly ra%s8 2lyin% -er needle and t-read8c Stitc-K Stitc-K Stitc-K In poverty8 -un%er and dirtC H/ *nd stil53it- a0=voice o# dolorous pitc- /S-e san% t-e LSon% o# t-e S-irt.L ?orRK ?orRK ?orRK ?-ile t-e cocR is cro3in% aloo#K *nd 3orRc3orRc3orRc :ill t-e stars=s-ine t-rou%- t-e roo#K It&s ,K to 5e a slave *lon% 3it- t-e 5ar5arous :urR8 ?-ere 3o.an -as never a soul to save8 I# t-is is 4-ristian 3orRK ?orRc3orRc3orRcK :ill t-e 5rain 5e%ins to s3i.K ?orRc3orRc3orRc :ill t-e eyes are -eavy and di.K Sea.8 and %usset8 and 5and8 +and8 and %usset8 and sea.8c :ill over t-e 5uttons I #all asleep8 *nd se3 t-e. on in a drea..L (:-o.as >ood) Even a super#luous analysis o# t-e r-yt-.ical structure o# t-is poe. clearly s-o3s t-at t-e r-yt-. is .ostly #ounded on stress. In t-e #irst line t-ere are seven sylla5les and t-ree stressesC t-e second -as t-e sa.eC 5ut t-e t-ird -as ten sylla5les and #our stressesC t-e #ourt-cseven and t-reeC t-e #i#t-ct-ree and t-reeC and so on. +ut still 3e can #ind a re%ularity in t-e poe.C #or .ost o# t-e lines -ave t-ree stresses. *t .ore or less re%ular intervals t-ere appear lon%er lines 3it- #our stresses. Since t-e unstressed sylla5les are not taRen into consideration8 and t-ere#ore t-ere are no secondary or tertiary stresses (as in classic verse)8 t-e stresses in accented verse are very -eavy. :-e stanSas in t-is poe. are all 5uilt on t-e sa.e pattern; ei%-t lines8 eaccontainin% t3o #our=stressed lines. :-e lines are r-y.ed alternately. *ll t-is .aRes t-is verse -al# accented8 -al# #ree. In ot-er 3ords8 t-is is 5orderline verse8 t-e 5ias 5ein% in t-e direction o# accented verse. :-is is not t-e case 3it- t-e #ollo3in% poe. 5y ?alt ?-it.an; L4rossin% +rooRlyn "erry.L 2. LNo3 I a. curious 3-at can ever 5e .ore stately and ad.ira5le to .e t-an .y .ast=-e..&d Man-attan8 My river and sunset8 and .y scallop=ed%&d 3aves o# #lood= tide8 :-e sea=%ulls oscillatin% t-eir 5odies8 t-e -ay=5oat in t-e t3ili%-t8 and t-e 5elated li%-terC 4urious 3-at Gods can exceed t-ese t-at clasp .e 5y t-e -and8 and 3it- voices I love

call .e pro.ptly and loudly 5y .y -i%-est na.e as I approac-CL :-is type o# poetry can -ardly 5e called verse #ro. a purely structural point o# vie3C it is t-at Rind o# tonic verse 3-ic-8 5y ne%lectin% al.ost all t-e la3s o# verse 5uildin%8 -as %radually run into prose. +ut so.e-o3 t-ere is still so.et-in% le#t o# t-e structural aspect o# verse8 and t-is is t-e siri%lin%=out o# eac- .eanin%#ul 3ord .aRin% it conspicuous and sel#=deter.inative 5y t-e pauses and 5y t-e c-aracter o# t-e Gunctures 3-ic- precede and #ollo3 eac- o# t-ese 3ords. +esides t-is8 3-at .aRes 8t-is text poetry is also t-e selection o# 3ords8 t-e peculiar syntactical patterns8 and t-e i.a%ery. (erse cannot do a3ay 3it- its #or.al aspects and re.ain verse. :-ere#ore t-e extre.e type o# accented verse Gust %iven ceases to 5e verse as suc-. I# -as 5eco.e 3-at is so.eti.es called poetic prose. *ccented verse is not-in% 5ut an orderly sin%lin%=out o# certain 3ords and synta%.s in t-e utterance 5y .eans o# intonation. :-is sin%lin%=out 5eco.es a constituent o# t-is type o# verse8 provided t-at t-e distance 5et3een.eac- o# t-e co.ponent parts presents a .ore or less constant unit. (iolation o# t-is principle 3ould lead to t-e co.plete destruction o# t-e verse as suc-. *ccented verse (tonic verse) -as a lon% #olRlore tradition. ,ld En%lis- verse 3as tonic 5ut not sylla5o=tonic. :-e latter appeared in En%lis- poetry as a 5orro3in% #ro. GreeR and $atin poetry8 3-ere t-e alternation 3as not 5et3een stressed and unstressed 5ut 5et3een lon% and s-ort sylla5les. In t-e process o# 5ein% adapted to t-e peculiarities o# t-e p-onetic and .orp-olo%ical syste. o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 sylla5o=tonic verse -as under%one considera5le c-an%es8 and accented verse .ay t-ere= #ore conventionally 5e re%arded as a sta%e in t-e trans#or.ational process o# adaptin% t-e sylla5o=tonic syste. to t-e or%anic nor.s o# .odern collo9uial En%lis-. :-is is Gusti#ied 5y t-e #act t-at present=day accented verse is not a .ere revival o# t-e ,ld En%lis- poetical syste. 5ut a ne3ly arran%ed #or. and type o# En%lis- verse. Naturally8 -o3ever8 #olRlore traditions -ave in#luenced .odern accented verse in a nu.5er o# 3ays. b) 8exical and Syntactical Features of Berse :-e p-onetic #eatures o# t-e lan%ua%e o# poetry constitute 3-at 3e -ave called its external aspect. :-ese #eatures i..ediately striRe t-e ear and t-e eye and t-ere#ore are easily discerni5leC 5ut t-e c-aracteristics o# t-is su5style are 5y no .eans con#ined to t-ese external #eatures. $exical and syntactical peculiarities8 to%et-er 3it- t-ose Gust analysed8 3ill present t-e su5style as a stylistic entity. *.on% t-e lexical peculiarities o# verse t-e #irst to 5e .entioned is i.a%ery8 3-ic5ein% t-e %eneric #eature o# t-e 5elles=lettres style assu.es in poetry a co.pressed #or.; it is ric- in associative po3er8 #re9uent in occurrence and varied in .et-ods and devices o# .aterialiSation. L*n i.a%e8L 3rites *. E. Der5ys-ire8 Lis a8use o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- relates or su5stitutes

a %iven 3ord or expression to or #or an analo%ue in so.e %ra..atical 3ay8 and 3-icin so doin% endo3s t-at 3ord or expression 3it- di##erent lexical in#or.ation #ro. t-at 3-ic- it -as in its set. *n i.a%e8 in t-is sense8 is .erely a lin%uistic device #or providin% contextual in#or.ation.L1 In spite o# its 5ein% rat-er co.plicated8 t-ere is a %rain o# trut- in t-is de#inition o# an i.a%e8 #or an i.a%e does %ive additional (contextual) in#or.ation. :-is in#or.ation is 5ased on associations aroused 5y a peculiar use o# a 3ord or expression. *n interestin% insi%-t into t-e essence o# i.a%ery is %iven 5y F;C2aperny; L2oetical i.a%e8L -e 3rites8 Lis not a #roSen picture8 5ut .ove.entC8not a static reproduction 5ut t-e developin% idea o# an artist.L2 >e calls t-e i.a%e a Ldou5le unit&8L t-us pointin% to t-e t3o#old application o# t-e 3ord8 3ord=co.5ination or even 3-ole sentence. ?e -ere de#ine i.a%ery as a use o# lan%ua%e .edia 3-ic- 3ill create a sensory perception o# an a5stract notion 5y arousin% certain associations (so.eti.es very re.ote) 5et3een t-e %eneral and t-e particular8 t-e a5stract and t-e concrete8 t-e conventional and t-e #actual. It is -ardly possi5le to under=esti.ate t-e si%ni#icance o# i.a%ery in t-e 5elles=lettres style o# lan%ua%e. I.a%ery .ay 5e re%arded as t-e antipode to precision8 alt-ou%-&so.e stylicists -old t-e vie3 t-at i.a%ery -as its o3n Rind o# precision. L:-e essence o# an i.a%e8L 3rites $. (. S-c-er5a8 L...is in t-e .ulti#ariousness o# t-e associations it provoRes.L s :-e i.a%e8 as a purely lin%uistic notion8 is so.et-in% t-at .ust 5e decoded 5y t-e reader. So are t-e su5tle inner relations 5et3een t-e parts o# t-e utterance and 5et3een t-e utterances t-e.selves. :-ese relations are not so easily discerni5le as t-ey are in lo%ically arran%ed utterances. Instances o# detac-ed construction8 asyndeton8 etc. .ust also 5e interpreted. *n i.a%e can 5e decoded t-rou%- a #ine analysis o# t-e .eanin%s o# t-e %iven 3ord or 3ord=co.5ination. In decodin% a %iven i.a%e8 t-e dictionary .eanin%s8 t-e contextual .eanin%s8 t-e e.otional colourin% and8 last 5ut not least8 t-e associations 3-ic- are a3aRened 5y t-e i.a%e s-ould all 5e called into play. :-e easier t-e i.a%es are decoded8 t-e .ore intelli%i5le t-e poetic utterance 5eco.es to t-e reader. I# t-e i.a%e is di##icult to decode8 t-en it #ollo3s t-at eit-er t-e idea is not 9uite clear to t-e poet -i.sel# or t-e ac9uired experience o# t-e reader is not su##icient to %rasp t-e va%ue or re.ote associations -idden in t-e %iven i.a%e. I.a%es #ro. a lin%uistic point o# vie3 are .ostly 5uilt on .etap-or8 .etony.y and si.ile. :-ese are direct se.antic 3ays o# coinin% i.a%es. I.a%es .ay5e divided into t-ree cate%ories; t3o concrete (visual8 aural)8 and one a5stract (relational). (isual i.a%es are t-e easiest o# perception8 inas.uc- as t-ey are readily cau%-t 5y 3-at is called t-e .ental eye. In ot-er 3ords8 visual i.a%es=are s-aped t-rou%concrete pictures o# o5Gects8 t-e i.pression o# 3-ic- is present in our .ind. :-us in; L... and t-en .y state8 $iRe to t-e larR at 5reaR o# day arisin%

"ro. sullen eart-...L (S-aRespeare) t-e si.ile -as called up a visual i.a%e8 t-at o# a larR risin%. ,no.atopoeia 3ill 5uild an _ ` r a I i g a % e in our .ind8 t-at is8 it 3ill .aRe us -ear t-e actual sounds o# nature or t-in%s (see8 #or exa.ple; L>o3 t-e ?ater 4o.es Do3n at $adoreL). *relational i.a%ed one t-at s-o3s t-e relation 5et3een o5Gects t-rou%- anot-er Rind o# relation8 and t-e t3o Rinds o# relation 3ill secure a .ore exact realiSation o# t-e inner connections 5et3een t-in%s or p-eno.ena. :-us in; LMen o# En%land8 >eirs o# Glory8 >eroes o# un3ritten story. Nurslin%s o# one .i%-ty .ot-er8 >opes o# -er8 and one anot-er.L (!-elley) suc- notions as '-eirs o# %lory&8 &-eroes o# un3ritten story&8 &nurslin%s o# ... .ot-er&8 &-opes o# -er...& all create relational i.a%es8 inas.uc- as t-ey ai. at s-o3in% t-e relations 5et 3een t-e constituents o# t-e .etap-ors 5ut not t-e actual (visual) i.a%es o#8 in t-is case8 &-eir&8 &-ero&8 &nurslin%&8 &-ope&. * striRin% instance o# 5uildin% up an i.a%e 5y .eans ot-er t-an .etap-or8 .etony.y and si.ile is to 5e seen in t-e #ollo3in% passa%e o# e.otive prose #ro. L:-e Man o# 2roperty.L Gals3ort-y -as created in t-is particular case an at.osp-ere o# extre.e tension at a dinner ta5le. :-is is only part o# t-e passa%e; LDinner 5e%an in silenceC t-e 3o.en #acin% one anot-er8 and t-e .en. In silence t-e soup 3as #inis-edcexcellent8 i# a little t-icRC and #is- 3as 5rou%-t. In silence it 3as -anded. +osinney ventured; LIt&s t-e #irst sprin% day.L Irene ec-oed so#tly; Lwesct-e #irst sprin% day.L LSprin%KL said Aune; L:-ere isn&t a 5reat- o# airKL No one replied. :-e #is- 3as taRen a3ay8 a #ine #res- sole #ro. Dover. *nd +ilson 5rou%-t c-a.pa%ne8 a 5ottle s3at-ed around t-e necR 3it- 3-ite. Soa.es said; Lwou&ll #ind it dry.L 4utlets 3ere -anded8 eac- pinR=#rilled a5out t-e le%s. :-ey 3ere re#used 5y Aune8 and silence #ellL :-e #irst t-in% t-at striRes t-e close o5server is t-e insistent repetition o# 3ords8 constructions8 p-rases. :-e 3ord &silence& is repeated #our ti.es in a s-ort stretc- o# text. :-e idea o# silence is conveyed 5y .eans o# synony.ous. expressions; &:-ere 3as a len%t-y pause&8 &no one replied& (&ans3ered&)8 &$on% silence #ollo3edK& :-en t-e passive constructions (&#is- 3as 5rou%-t&8 &it 3as -anded&8 &t-e #is- 3as taRen a3ay&8 &cutlets 3ere -anded&8 &:-ey 3ere re#used&8 &t-ey 3ere 5orne a3ay&8 &c-icRen 3as re.oved&8 =&su%ar 3as -anded -er&8 &t-e c-arlotte 3as re.oved&8 &olives... caviare 3ere placed&8 &t-e olives 3ere re.oved&8 &a silver tray 3as 5rou%-t&8 and so on) to%et-er 3itparallel construction and asyndeton depict t-e slo3 pro%ress o# t-e dinner8 t-us revealin% t-e strained at.osp-ere o# 3-ic- all t-ose present 3ere a3are. :-is exa.ple illustrates t-e .eans 5y 3-ic- an i.a%e can 5e created 5y syntactical

.edia and repetition. *ctually 3e do not #ind any trans#erred .eanin%s in t-e 3ords used -ere8 i.e. all t-e 3ords are used in t-eir literal .eanin%s. *nd yet=so .stron% is t-e po3er o# syntactical arran%e.ent and repetition t-at t-e reader cannot #ail to experience -i.sel# t-e tension surroundin% t-e dinner ta5le. In t-is connection it is 3ort- .entionin% one o# t-e 3ays o# 5uildin% up i.a%es 3-ic*rc-i5ald *. >ill8 an *.erican sc-olar o# lin%uistics8 -as called an i Y V W. :-e icon 's a direct representation8 not necessarily a picture8 o# a t-in% or an event. LIcons8L -e 3rites8 L-ave not %enerally 5een included a.on% t-e enu.erations o# #i%ures o# speec-8 and in discussions o# i.a%ery8 -ave usually 5een called si.ply descriptions.L x :-e excerpt #ro. L:-e Man o# 2ropertyL .ay serve as a %ood exa.ple o# an icon. :-is device .i%-t Gustly 5e included in t-e syste. o# stylistic devices and 5e %iven its due as one o# t-e .ost #re9uent 3ays o# i.a%e=5uildin%. >o3ever8 an icon .ust al3ays rest on so.e speci#ic8 concretiSin% use o# 3ords8 and t-eir #or.s (e.%. tenses o# ver5s)8 andIor t-e arran%e=.ent o# sentences8 3-ic- secure t-e desired i.a%e. :-ese lan%ua%e unit 5e liRened to t-e colours in a paintin% 3-ic- only in an ade9uate arran%e.ent 3ill reproduce t-e i.a%e. L*n i.a%e8L 3rites *. E. Der5ys-ire8 evidently -avin% in .ind t-e process o# iconiSin%8 Lis .erely a 3ay o# usin% 3ords in certain synta%.atic relations-ips.L1 It 3as necessary to d3ell so len%t-ily on t-e pro5le. o# icons 5ecause8 to -aSard a %uess8 icons see. to 5e a po3er#ul .eans o# creatin% i.a%es in t-e 5elles=lettres style. :-e si.plicity and ease in decodin% t-e icon out3ei%-s t-e e##ect o# ot-er i.a%e=5uildin% .edia8 t-e latter 5ein% .ore co.plicated 5ecause o# t-eir .ulti= di.ensional nature. :-ese properties o# icons .aRe it advisa5le to sin%le t-e device out as one a.on% ot-er .eans o# i.a%e=5uildin%. Icons .ay Gustly 5e pro.oted to canons in t-e 5elles=lettres style. & *not-er #eature o# t-e poetical su5style is its volu.e o# e.otional colourin%. >ere a%ain t-e pro5le. o# 9uantity co.es up. :-e e.otional ele.ent is c-aracteristic o# t-e 5elles=lettres style in %eneral. +ut poetry -as it in #ull .easure. :-is is8 to so.e extent8 due to t-e r-yt-.ic #oundation o# verse8 5ut .ore particularly to t-e %reat nu.5er o# e.otionally coloured 3ords. :rue8 t-e de%ree o# e.otiveness in 3orRs o# 5elles=lettres depends also on t-e idiosyncrasy o# t-e 3riter8 on t-e content8 and on t-e purport. +ut e.otiveness re.ains an essential property o# t-e style in %eneral and it 5eco.es .ore co.pressed and su5stantial in t-e poetic su5style. :-is #eature o# t-e poetic su5style -as 3on #or.al expression in poetic 3ords 3-ic- -ave 5eenGe%arded as conventional sy.5ols o# poetic lan%ua%e. In t-e -istory o# poetic lan%ua%e& t-ere are several i.portant sta%es o# develop.ent. *t every sta%e t-e r-yt-.ic and p-onetic arran%e.ent8 3-ic- is t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eature o# t-e su5style8 re.ains its essence. *s re%ards t-e voca5ulary8 it can 5e descri5ed as noticea5ly literary. :-e collo9uial ele.ents8 t-ou%- t-ey -ave el5o3ed t-eir 3ay into poetry at so.e sta%es in its develop.ent8 still re.ain

essentially uni.portant and8 at certain periods8 3ere 9uite alien to t-e style. +ut even co..on literary 3ords 5eco.e conspicuous 5ecause o# t-e ne3 si%ni#icance t-ey ac9uire in a line o# poetry. L?ords co.pletely colourless in a purely intellectual settin%8L 3rites S. Mll.ann8 L.ay suddenly disclose unexpected resources o# expressiveness in e.otive or poetic discourse. 2oets .ay reGuvenate and revitiliSe #aded i.a%es 5y tracin% t-e. 5acR to t-eir ety.olo%ical roots. ?-en /:. S. Eliot says &a t-ousand visions and revisions&8 &revision& is suddenly illu.inated and 5eco.es transparent.L 2 2oetry -as lon% 5een re%arded as Lt-e do.ain o# t-e #e3L and t-e c-oice o# voca5ulary -as al3ays 5een in accord 3it- t-is principle. :-e 3ords8 t-eir #or.s8 and also certain syntactical patterns 3ere usually c-osen to .eet t-e re#ined tastes o# ad.irers o# poetry. In t-e c-apter on poetic 3ords8 3e -ave pointed out t-e c-aracter o# t-ese 3ords and t-e role t-ey -ave played in preservin% t-e so=called LpurityL o# poetic lan%ua%e. :-e stru%%le a%ainst t-e conventionalities o# t-e poetic lan%ua%e #ound its expression in t-e #a.ous L2re#ace to $yrical +alladsL 3ritten 5y ?ords3ort- and 4olerid%e 3-ic- undou5tedly 5ore so.e #ruit#ul results in li5eraliSin% poetic lan%ua%e. :-ey tried to institute a re#or. in poetic diction 3-ic3ould e.ploy La selection o# lan%ua%e really used 5y .enL as t-ey put it in t-eir 2re#ace. >o3ever8 t-eir protest a%ainst poetical 3ords and p-rases 3as doo.ed to #ailure. :-e transition #ro. re#ined poetical lan%ua%e8 select and polis-ed8 to a lan%ua%e o# collo9uial plainness 3it- even ludicrous i.a%es and associations 3as too violent to 5e success#ul. S-elley and +yron sa3 t-e reactionary retro%rade aspect o# t-e Lre#or.L and criticiSed t-e poetic lan%ua%e o# t-e0 $aRe poets8 re%ardin% .any o# t-e 3ords t-ey used as ne3 Lpoeti=cis.s.L >o3ever8 t-e protest raised 5y ?ords3ort- and 4olerid%e re#lected t-e %ro3in% dissatis#action 3it- t-e conventionalities o# poetic diction. So.e o# t-e .orp-olo%ical cate%ories o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e8 as8 #or instance8 t-e 2resent 4ontinuous tense8 t-e use o# nouns as adGectives and ot-er Rinds o# conversion -ad lon% 5een 5anned #ro. poetical lan%ua%e. :-e Ouarterly Bevie38 a literary Gournal o# t-e 19t- century8 5la.ed ueats #or usin% ne3 3ords coined 5y .eans o# conversion. *#ter t-e .ani#esto o# ?ords3ort- and 4olerid%e t-e Lde.ocratiSationL o# poetic lan%ua%e 3as accelerated8 -o3ever. In +yron&s L+eppoL and LDon AuanL 3e already #ind a %reat nu.5er o# collo9uial expressions and even slan% and cant. +ut 3-enever +yron uses non=poetic 3ords or expressions8 -e s-o3s t-at -e is 3ell a3are o# t-eir stylistic value. >e does t-is eit-er 5y #oot=notes or 5y .aRin% a co..ent in t-e text itsel#8 as8 #or exa.ple8 suc- p-rases as; L>e 3as &#ree to con#ess&c(3-ence co.es t-is p-rasez Is&t En%lis-z Noc&tis only parlia.entary)L or; L . . . {88 ...... .to use a p-rase +y 3-ic- suc-=t-in%s tire settled no3adays.L

+ut poetical lan%ua%e re.ains and 3ill al3ays re.ain a speci#ic .ode o# co..unication di##erin% #ro. prose. :-is speci#ic .ode o# co..unication uses speci#ic .eans. :-e poetic 3ords and p-rases8 peculiar syntactical arran%e.ent8 orderly p-onetic and r-yt-.ical patterns -ave lon% 5een t-e si%nals8 o# poetic lan%ua%e. +ut t-e .ost i.portant o# all is t-e po3er o# t-e 3o#ds0used in poetry to express .ore t-an t-ey usually si%ni#y in ordinary lan%ua%e. *. *. 2ote5nya expresses t-is8 idea in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords; L?-at is called &co..on& lan%ua%e can at 5est 5e only a tec-nical lan%ua%e8 5ecause it presupposes a ready=.ade t-ou%-t8 5ut does not serve as a0.eans o# s-apin% t-e t-ou%-t. It (t-e co..on) is essentially a prose lan%ua%e.L m :-e se9uence o# 3ords in an utterance is -ardly8 i# at all8 predicta5le In poetry. Se.antic entropy is8 t-ere#ore8 an in-erent property o# poetic lan%ua%e. +ut so.eti.es t-is entropy %ro3s so lar%e t-at it stuns and stupe#ies t-e reader8 preventin% -i. #ro. decodin% t-e .essa%e8 or it .aRes -i. exert -is .ental po3ers to t-e ut.ost in order to discover t-e si%ni#icance %iven 5y t-e poet to ordinary 3ords. :-is is t-e case 3it- so.e o# t-e .odern En%lis- and *.erican poetry. Si%ni#icant in t-is respect is t-e con#ession o# uennet- *llot8 co.piler o# L:-e 2en%uin +ooR o# 4onte.porary (erse8L 3-o in -is introductory note on ?illia. E.pson&s poetry 3rites; LI -ave c-osen poe.s I understand8 or t-inR I understand8 and t-ere#ore can ad.ire... :-ere are so.e poe.s I cannot understand at all.L l 2oetry o# t-is Rind 3ill al3ays re.ain Lt-e do.ain o# t-e #e3.L Instead o# poetic precision 3e #ind a deli5erate plun%e into se.antic entropy 3-ic- renders t-e .essa%e inco.pre-ensi5le. :-e increase o# entropy in poetic lan%ua%e is .ainly ac-ieved 5y 9ueer 3ord co.5inations8 #ra%.entary 0syntaxcal.ost 3it-out lo%ical connections. ?e -ave already pointed out t-at in t-e -istory o# t-e develop.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 a pro.inent role 3as played 5y .en=o#=letters. :-ere 3as a constant stru%%le 5et3een t-ose 3-o 3ere dissatis#ied 3it- t-e esta5lis-ed la3s 3-icre%ulated t-e #unctionin% o# literary En%lis- and t-ose 3-o tried to restrain its pro%ressive .arc-. :-e sa.e stru%%le is evident in t-e develop.ent o# poetic lan%ua%e. In ascertainin% t-e nor.s o# 19t- century poetic lan%ua%e8 a .ost si%ni#icant part 3as played 5y +yron and0S-elley. +yron .ocRed at t-e e##orts o# ?ords3ort- and t-e ot-er $aRe poets to re#or. poetical lan%ua%e. In -is critical re.arRs in t-e pole.ic poe. LEn%lis- +ards and Scotc- Bevie3ersL and in -is ot-er 3orRs8 -e s-o3ed t-at t-e true pro%ress o# poetic lan%ua%e lies not in t-e denial o# t-e previous stylistic nor.s8 5ut in t-e creative res-apin% and recastin% o# t-e values o# t-e past8 t-eir adaptation to t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e present and a -ealt-y continuity o# lon%=esta5lis-ed tradition. $an%ua%e 5y its very nature 3ill not tolerate sudden unexpected and 9uicR c-an%es. It is evolutionary in essence. 2oetry8 liRe3ise8 3illrevolt a%ainst #orci5le i.positions o# stran%e #or.s and 3ill eit-er reGect t-e. or .ould t-e. in t-e #urnace o# re%o%niSed traditional patterns. S-elley in -is pre#ace to L:-e&4-enc-iL 3rites;

LI -ave 3ritten .ore carelesslyC t-at is8 3it-out an over=#astidious and learned c-oice o# 3ords. In t-is respect I entirely a%ree 3it- t-ose .odern critics 3-o assert t-at in order to .ove .en to true sy.pat-y 3e .ust use t-e #a.iliar lan%ua%e o# .en8 and t-at our %reat ancestors t-e ancient En%lis- poets are t-e 3riters8 a study o# 3-o. .i%-t incite us to do t-at #o" our o3n= a%e 3-ic- t-ey -ave done #or t-eirs. +ut it .ust 5e t-e real lan%ua%e o# .en in %eneral and not t-at o# any particular class to 3-ose society t-e 3riter -appens to 5elon%.L In S-elley&s 3orRs 3e #ind t-e .aterialiSation o# t-ese principles. Bevolutionary content and t-e pro%ress o# science laid ne3 de.ands on poetic diction and8 as a result8 scienti#ic and political ter.s and i.= a%ery 5ased on ne3 scienti#ic data8 to%et-er 3it- lively collo9uial 3ords poured into poetic lan%ua%e. Syntax also under3ent noticea5le c-an%es& 5ut -ardly ever to t-e extent o# .aRin% t-e utterance unintelli%i5le/ :-e li5eraliSation o# poetic lan%ua%e re#lects t-e %eneral stru%%le #or a #reer develop.ent o# t-e literary lan%ua%e8 in contrast to t-e ri%orous restrictions i.posed on it 5y t-e lan%ua%e la3%ivers o# t-e 1@t- century In poetry 3ords 5eco.e .ore conspicuous8 as i# t-ey 3ere attired in so.e .ysterious .anner8 and .ean .ore t-an t-ey .ean in ordinary neutral co..unications. ?ords=in poetic lan%ua%e live a lon%er li#e t-an ordinary 3ords. :-ey are intended to last. :-is is8 o# course ac-ieved .ainly 5y t-e connections t-e 3ords -ave 3it- one anot-er and0 to so.e extent8 5y t-e r-yt-.ical desi%n 3-ic.aRes t-e 3ords stand out in a .ore isolated .anner so t-at t-ey see. to possess a %reater de%ree o# independence and si%ni#icance.
2. EMOTIVE PROSE

:-e su5style o# e.otive prose -as t-e sa.e co..on #eatures as -ave 5een pointed out #or t-e 5elles=lettres style in %eneralC 5ut all t-ese #eatures are correlated di##erently in e.otive prose. :-e i.a%ery is not so ric- as it is in poetryC t-e percenta%e o# 3ords 3it- contextual .eanin% is not so -i%- as in poetryC t-e idiosyncrasy o# t-e aut-or is not so clearly discerni5le. *part #ro. .etre and r-y#ne8 3-at .ost o# all distin%uis-es e.otive prose #ro. t-e poetic style is t-e co.5ination o# t-e literary variant or t-e lan%ua%e8 5ot- in 3ords and syntax8 3it- t-e collo9uial8 variant. It 3ould per-aps 5e .ore exact to de#ine t-is as a co.5ination o# t-e spoRen and 3ritten varieties o# t-e lan%ua%e8 inas.uc- as t-ere are al3ays t3o #or.s o# co..unication presentc.onolo%ue (t-e 3riter&s speec-) and dialo%ue (t-e speec- o# t-e c-aracters). :-e lan%ua%e o# t-e 3riter con#or.s or is expected to con#or. to t-e literary nor.s o# t-e %iven period in bt-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e. :-e lan%ua%eLo# t-e -ero o# a novel8 or o# a story 3ill in t-e .ain 5e c-osen in order to c-aracteriSe t-e .an -i.sel#. :rue8 t-is lan%ua%e is also su5Gected to so.e Rind o# res-apin%. :-is is an indispensa5le re9uire.ent o# any literary 3orR. :-ose 3riters 3-o ne%lect t-is re9uire.ent .ay unduly conta.inate t-e literary lan%ua%e 5y #lood= in% t-e speec- o# t-eir c-aracters 3it- non=literary ele.ents8 t-us overdoin% t-e

ot-er3ise very advanta%eous device o# depictin% a -ero t-rou%- -is speec-. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e collo9uial lan%ua%e in t-e 5elles=lettres style is not a pure and si.ple reproduction o# 3-at .i%-t 5e t-e natural speec- o# livin% people. It -as under%one&c-an%es introduced 5y t-e 3riter. :-e collo9uial speec- -as 5een .ade Lliterature=liRe.L :-is .eans t-at only t-e .ost striRin% ele.ents o# 3-at .i%-t -ave 5een a conversation in li#e are .ade use o#8 and even t-ese -ave under%one so.e Rind o# trans#or.ation. E.otive prose allo3s t-e use o# ele.ents #ro. ot-er styles as 3ell. :-us 3e #ind ele.ents o# t-e ne3spaper style (see8 #or exa.ple8 Sinclair $e3is&s LIt 4an&t >appen >ereL)C t-e o##icial style (see8 #or exa.ple8 t-e 5usiness letters exc-an%ed 5et3een t3o c-aracters in Gals3ort-y&s novel L:-e Man o# 2ropertyL)C t-e style o# scienti#ic prose (see excerpts #ro. 4ronin&s L:-e 4itadelL 3-ere .edical lan%ua%e is used). +ut all t-ese styles under t-e in#luence o# e.otive prose under%o IRind o# trans#or.ation. * style o# lan%ua%e t-at is .ade use o# in prose I diluted 5y t-e %eneral #eatures o# t-e 5elles=lettres style 3-ic- su5Gects I to its o3n purposes. 2assa%es 3ritten in ot-er styles .ay 5e vie3ed only interpolations and not as constituents o# t-e style. gVi prose as a separate #or. o# i.a%inative literature8 at is #iction8 ca.e into 5ein% rat-er late in t-e -istory o# t-e En%lis- im_ma lan%ua%e. It is 3ell Rno3n t-at in early *n%lo=Saxon literature :-ere 3as no e.otive prose. *n%lo=Saxon literature 3as .ainly poetry8 son%s o# a reli%ious8 .ilitary and #estive c-aracter. .:-e #irst e.otive prose 3-ic- appeared 3as translations #ro. $atin o# stories #ro. t-e +i5le and t-e $ives o# t-e Saints. Middle En%lis- prose literature 3as also educational8 represented .ostly 5y translations o# reli%ious 3orRs #ro. $atin. In t-e llt- and 12t- centuries as a result o# t-e Nor.an con9uest8 *n%lo=Saxon literature #ell into a decline. *l.ost all t-at 3as vIritten 3as in "renc- or in $atin.. In t-e 12t- and 1!t- centuries8 -o3ever8 t-ere appeared t-e L:ales o# uin% *rt-ur and -is Bound :a5leL8 so.e o# 3-ic- 3ere 3ritten in verse and ot-ers in prose. :-ey 3ere i.itations o# "renc- .odels. In t-e 1'tcentury t-ere 3as an event 3-ic- played an i.portant role not only in t-e develop.ent o# %eneral standard En%lis-8 5ut in t-e develop.ent o# t-e peculiarities o# e.otive prose. :-is 3as t-e translation o# t-e +i5le .ade 5y ?ycli# and -is disciples. E.otive prose actually 5e%an to assu.e a li#e o# its o3n in t-e second -al# o# t-e 1 tcentury 3-en ro.ances and c-ronicles descri5in% t-e li#e and adventures o# se.i= le%endary Rin%s and Rni%-ts 5e%an to appear. ,ne o# t-e .ost nota5le o# t-ese ro.ances 3as Malory (&Morte Dart-urL8 printed 5y4axton in 1'71. It 3inds up a lon% series o# poe.s and tales o# c-ivalry 5e%un in t-e 12t- century. It 3as retold in prose #ro. t-e "renc-. L:-e Deat- o# *rt-urL is a 3orR o#. %reat -istorical8 literary and stylistic interest. *tte.pts 3ere .ade to introduce dialo%ue into t-e texture o# t-e aut-or&s narrative 5e#ore t-is8 5ut -ere dialo%ue 5eco.es an or%anic part o# t-e 3orR. Dialo%ue 3it-in t-e aut-or&s narrative is a stylistic constituent o# t-e su5style o#

e.otive prose. :rue8 Malory&s dia5%ues 3ere #ar #ro. even rese.5lin% t-e natural #eatures o# livin% collo9uial speec-. :-e speec- o# t-e -eroes lacRs elliptical senten= ces8 5reaRs in t-e narrative and ot-er typical #eatures oG t-e spoRen variety o# En%lis-. E.otional colourin% is s-o3n not in t-e syntactical desi%n o# t-e sentences 5ut in t-e aut-or&s re.arRs and descriptions. +ut nevert-eless LMorte Dart-urL .ust 5e counted as a -istorical land.arR in esta5lis-in% t-e principles o# e.otive prose. :-e introduction o# dialo%ue .eans t-at t-e road to t-e .ore or less #ree use o# collo9uial lan%ua%e 3as already .arRed out. "urt-er on8 collo9uial ele.ents 5e%an to in#iltrate into poetic diction as 3ell. ?it- t-e co.in% o# t-e s i x te e n t - century8 3-ic- incidentally -eralded a %reat advance in all sp-eres o# En%lis- social li#e8 En%lis- e.otive prose pro%ressed rapidly. Nu.erous translations #ro. $atin and GreeR played a %reat role in -elpin% to 3orR out stylistic nor.s #or t-e e.otive prose o# t-at period. :ranslations #ro. .odern lan%ua%es8 o# Italian and "renc- ro.ances in particular8 also 5e%an to in#luence t-e stylistic nor.s o# e.otive prose. :-e necessity to #ind ade9uate lan%ua%e .eans to convey t-e ideas and t-e stylistic peculiarities o# t-e text in t-e source=lan%ua%e .ade t-e translators extend t-e scope o# lan%ua%e resources already used in literature8 t-us enlar%in% t-e potentialities o# stylistic' devices and lan%ua%e .edia. Sixteent- century pro#essional literary .en liRe 2-ilip Sidney8 Ao-i $yly8 Bo5ert Greene and ot-ers Rno3n as t-e LMniversity ?its8L alon% side t-eir interests in poetry and t-e dra.atic art8 did not ne%lect e.otive prose. * special stylistic trend arose na.ed a#ter a literary 3orR 5y $yly entitled LEup-ues8 t-e *nato.y o# ?it.L :-e 3-ole 5ooR is 3ritten in a -i%-=#lo3n8 over=re#ined .anner. :-ere is a #ine su5tlety o# expression co.5ined 3it- an unrestrained use o# perip-rasis. ,ne can #ind allusions8 parallel constructions8 antit-esis8 si.iles and .any ot-er stylistic devices in suca5undance t-at t-ey pile up on one anot-er or #or. lon% .onotonous c-ains8 t-e linRs o# 3-ic- are instances o# a %iven stylistic device. Inas.uc- as t-is literary 3orR -as -ad rat-er a nota5le e##ect on t-e su5se9uent develop.ent o# e.otive prose ($yly is called t-e pioneer o# t-e En%lis- novel)8 it 3ill not co.e a.iss to %ive a sa.ple o# t-e prose o# LEup-uesL; L:-e .erc-ant t-at travailet- #or %ain8 t-e -us5and.an t-at toilet- #or increase8 t-e la3yer t-at pleadet- #or %old8 t-e cra#ts.an t-at seeRet- to live 5y -is la5our8 all t-ese8 .a#ter t-ey -ave #atted t-e.selves 3it- su##icient8 eit-er taRe t-eir ease or less pain t-an t-ey 3ere accusto.ed. >ippo.enes ceased to run 3-en -e -ad %otten t-e %oal8 >ercules to la5our 3-en -e -ad o5tained t-e victory8Mercury to pipe 3-en -e -ad cast *r%us in a slu.5er. Every action -at- -is endC and t-en 3e leave to s3eat 3-en 3e -ave #ound t-e s3eet. :-e ant8 t-ou%- s-e toil in su..er8 yet in 3inter s-e leavet- to travail. :-e 5ee8 t-ou%- s-e deli%-t to sucR t-e #air #lo3er8 yet is s-e at last cloyed 3it- -oney. :-e spider t-at 3eavet- t-e #inest t-read ceaset- at t-e last8 3-en s-e -at- #inis-ed -er 3e5. +ut in t-e action and t-e study o# t-e .ind8 %entle.en8 it is #ar ot-er3ise8 #or -e t-at

tastet- t-e s3eet o# -is learnin% en=8 duret- all t-e sour o# la5our. >e t-at seeRet- t-e dept- o# Rno3led%e is as it 3ere in a la5yrint-.8.L :-is passa%e s-o3s t-e prolixity o# 3-at ca.e to 5e called t-e e ub p-uistic style1 3it- its illustrations 5uilt on se.antic parallelis. and t-e .uc-=#avoured device o# .yt-olo%ical allusionsC 3it- its care#ully c-osen voca5ulary8 its re#ine.ent artd %race. 1 :-e 3ord &style& is used -ere not in t-e ter.inolo%ical sense e.ployed in t-is 5ooR8 5ut in a .ore %eneral8 looser application. $yly&s ai. 3as to 3rite in a style t-at 3as distinct #ro. collo9uial speec- and yet not poetry. >e actually says t-at En%lis-.en 3is-ed Lto -ear a #iner speec- t-an t-e lan%ua%e 3ill allo3.L Eup-uis. 3as orientated upon t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e court and t-e no5ility and .arred all Rinds o# lively collo9uial 3ords and expressions. In %eneral III &is c-aracteriSed 5y arti#iciality o# .anner. Eup-uis. 5red a liRin% #or excessive e.5ellis-.ent8 and t-is in Is turn8 called #ortan unrestrained use o# r-etorical devices un.o=#vated 5y t-e content and unGusti#ied 5y t-e purport o# t-e co..unica=ton. +ut not all 11t- century e.otive prose 3as o# t-is c-aracter. ?alter Balei%-&s 3ritin% 3as .uc- si.pler8 5ot- in voca5ulary and syntaxC it 3as less e.5ellis-ed and o#ten collo9uial. Bo%er *sc-a.8 t-ou%- an excellent classical sc-olar8 c-ose to 3rite LEn%lis- .atter in t-e En%lis- speec- #or En%lis- .en.L >e 3rites in a plain8 strai%-t#or3ard8 clear =.anner 3it- no atte.pt at ele%ance. 2-ilip Sidney 3rote prose t-at could 5e as clear as *sc-a.&s. Even 3-en -is sentences are lon%8 t-ey do not lose t-eir clarity. In contrast to *sc-a. -e did npt scorn orna.ent8 5ut8 unliRe $yly8 -e used it in .oderation. :-e prose o# Bic-ard >ooRer8 3-o 3rote on contraversial reli%ious t-e.es8 is restrained and -as po3er I and 5alance. >ooRer also -ad considera5le in#luence on t-e develop.ent I o# En%lis- e.otive prose. I Eup-uis.8 -o3ever8 -ad .erits in its ti.e. It .ade .sn=oMetters I looR #or #iner8 .ore ele%ant #or.s o# expression and t-is searc- inevita5ly .ade t-e. .ore #or.= conscious c t-ey learned to polis- t-eir lan%ua%e and8 to so.e extent8 developed a #eelin% #or prose r-yt-.. +ut at later periods eup-uis. 5eca.e reactionary8 inas.ucas it 5arred all Rinds o# lively collo9uial 3ords and expressions and -indered t-e process o# li5eratin% t-e 5elles=lettres style #ro. ri%id poetical restrictions. :-e Lde.ocratiSationL o# t-e .eans o# expression 3as inco.pati5le 3it- t-e aristocratic arti#iciality and prettiness o# eup-uis.. * %reat in#luence on t-e #urt-er develop.ent o# t-e c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-e 5elles=lettres style 3as exercised 5y S-aRespeare. *lt-ou%- -e never 3rote prose8 except #or a #e3 insertions in so.e o# -is plays8 -e declared -is poetical credo and -is attitude to3ards all Rinds o# e.5ellis-.ents in lan%ua%e in so.e o# -is 3orRs.1 *lso in -id L$ove&s $a5our $ostL S-aRespeare conde.ns t-e e.5ellis-in% tendencies o# so.e o# t-e poets. >ere is a 3ell=Rno3n 9uotation 3-ic- -as lon% 5een used to c-ar= acteriSe t-e po.pous8 s-o3y .anner o# expression. L:a##eta p-rases8 silRen ter.s precise8 / :-ree=pil&d& -yper5oles8 spruce a##ectation; "i%ures pedant icalC t-ese su..er #lies >ave 5lo3n .e #ull o# .a%%ot ostentation; I

do #ors3ear t-e....L ,n t-e 3-ole t-e e.otive prose o# t-e 11t- century -ad not yet s-aped itsel# as a separate style. (erse and dra.a predo.inate a.on% 3orRs o# 5elles=lettres. :-e s.all a.ount o# prose 3ritten8 in particular e.otive prose8 can 5e ascri5ed to t-e %eneral stron% tendency to re%ard t-e spoRen variety o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e as in#erior and t-ere#ore un3ort-y to 5e represented in 5elles= lettres. *nd 3it-out speec- o# c-aracters t-ere can 5e no true e.otive prose. :-is per-aps explains t-e #act t-at .ost o# t-e prose 3orRs o# t-e period 3ere -istories8 5io%rap-ies8 accounts o# travels8 essays on di##erent p-ilosop-ical and aest-etic pro5le.s. :-ere 3ere8 o# course8 exceptions liRe Bo5ert Greene&s L$i#e and Deat- o# Ned +ro3neL and :-o.as N as-&s L:-e Mn#ortunate :raveller8 or :-e $i#e o# AacR ?ilton8L t#ie #or.er 5ein% a story o# cri.e and t-e latter an adventure story. :-ese are precursors o# t-e .odern novel. :-e seventeen i - century sa3 a considera5le develop.ent in e.otive prose. It 3as an epoc- o# %reat political and reli%ious stri#e8 and .uc- t-at 3as 3ritten -ad a pu5licistic ai.. :-e decline in dra.a due to t-e closin% o# t-e t-eatres 5y t-e 2uritans in 11'@ .ay also -ave -ad its e##ect in sti.ulatin% t-e develop.ent o# e.otive prose. :-e t3o contrary tendencies in t-e use o# lan%ua%e .eans8 so striRin% in t-e 11tcentury8 assu.e ne3 #or.s in t-e 17t-. :-ere 3as #irst o# all t-e continuation o# t-e classical tradition8 and secondly t-ere 3as t-e less sc-olarly8 5ut .ore En%lis- prose t-at -ad 5een e.ployed 5y t-e #orty=seven translators o# t-e L*ut-oriSed (ersionL o# t-e +i5le. *s is Rno3n8 durin% t-e 11t- century t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e -ad received lar%e additions #ro. classical GreeR and $atin and also #ro. .odern "rencand Italian. So.e 3riters considered it %ood style to introduce not only lexical 5ut also syntactical innovations; sentences 3ere o#ten 5uilt accordin% to&classical patterns. +urton8 +ro3ne and ot-ers constructed lon% passa%es #ollo3in% $atin .odels. ,ne o# t-e 17t- . century 3riters states; LMany t-inR '-at t-ey can never speaR ele%antly8 nor 3rite si%ni#icantly8 except/ t-ey do it in a lan%ua%e o# t-eir o3n devisin%C as i# t-ey 3ere as-a.ed o# t-eir .ot-er ton%ue8 and t-ou%-t it not su##iciently curious to express t-eir #ancies. +y .eans 3-ereo#8 .ore "renc- and $atin 3ords -ave %ained %round upon us since = t-e .iddle o# Oueen Elisa5et-&s rei%n t-an 3ere ad.itted 5y our ancestors...L1 { :-e t3o tendencies& 3ere co.5ined in t-e prose 3orRs o# Milton 3-o8 5ein% a 2uritan8 reco%niSed t-e +i5le as t-e -i%-est aut-ority in all .atters8 5ut 3-o -ad a deep Rno3led%e o# t-e ancient classics as 3ell. = :-e in#luence o# t-e +i5le on En%lis- e.otive prose is particularly striRin% in t-e 3orRs o# Ao-n +unyan. L:-e 2il%ri.&s 2ro%ressL represents a ne3 trend in t-e develop.ent o# e.otive prose. >ere is an excerpt #ro. t-e 3orR; LNo3 Giant Despair -ad a 3i#e8 and -er na.e 3as Di##idenceC so 3-en -e 3as %one to 5ed8 -e told -is 3i#e 3-at -e -ad done8 to 3it8 t-at -e -ad taRen a couple o# prisoners and cast t-e. into -is dun%eon8 #or trespassin% on -is %rounds. :-en -e asRed -er also 3-at -e -ad 5est to do #urt-er to

t-e.. So s-e asRed 3-at t-ey 3ere8 3-ence t-ey ca.e8 and 3-it-er t-ey 3ere 5ound8 and -e told -er. :-en s-e counselled -i.8 t-at 3-en -e arose in t-e .ornin% -e s-ould 5eat t-e. 3it-out .ercy. ...:-e next ni%-t s-e talRed 3it- -er -us5and a5out t-e. #urt-er8 and understandin% t-at t-ey 3ere yet alive8 did advise -i. to counsel t-e. to .aRe a3ay 3it- t-e.selves. So 3-en .ornin% 3as co.e8 -e %oes to t-e. in a surly .anner8 as 5e#ore8 and perceivin% t-e. to 5e very sore 3it- t-e stripes t-at -e -ad %iven t-e. t-e day 5e#ore8 -e told t-e. t-at since t-ey 3ere never liRe to co.e out o# t-at place8 t-eir only 3ay 3ould 5e #ort-3it- to .aRe an end o# t-e.selves8 eit-er 3it- Rni#e8 -alter8 or poison; #or 3-y8 said -e8 s-ould you c-oose li#e8 seein% it is attended 3it- so .uc- 5itternessz +ut t-ey desired -i. to let t-e. %o. ... :-en did t-e prisoners consult 5et3een t-e.selves8 3-et-er it 3as 5est to taRe -is counsel or noC and t-us t-ey 5e%an to discourse; c 4-r. +rot-er8 said 4-ristian8 3-at s-all 3e doz :-e li#e t-at 3e no3 live is .isera5le. "or .y part8 I Rno3 not 3-et-er it is 5est to live t-us8 or die out o# -and. My soul c-ooset- stran%lin% rat-er t-an li#e8 and t-e %rave is .ore easy #or .e t-an t-is dun%eonK S-all 3e 5e ruled 5y t-e %iantz >ope. Indeed our present condition is dread#ul8 ... ?ell8 to3ards t-e evenin% t-e %iant %oes do3n into t-e dun%eon a%ain8 to s&ee i# -is prisoners -ad taRen -is counselC 8..L In t-is excerpt t-e .ain peculiarities o# t-e style o# e.otive prose o# t-e puritan trend stand out clearly. Si.plicity in c-oice o# 3ords and in syntax is t-e predo.inant #eature o# t-e lan%ua%e o# t-is type o# e.otive prose. :-e speec- o# t-e c-aracters is .ainly s-aped in t-e #or. o# indirect discourseI?-en direct speec- appears8 it is arran%ed as in a play8 t-at is8 t-e speaRer is indicated 5y %ivin% -is #ull na.e or its contracted #or. at t-e 5e%innin% o# a line. :-e na.e is {not syntactically connected 3it- t-e c-aracter&s utterance. It is interestin% to note in passin% t-at t-e yet unesta5lis-ed nor.s o# e.otive prose are re#lected in a co.5ination o# t-e syntactical arran%e.ent o# a play and t-at o# e.otive prose8 as8 #or exa.ple8 in t-is passa%e 3-ere t-e na.e o# t-e speaRer precedes t-e utterance as in plays8 and t-e sa.e na.e is .entioned 3it-in t-e direct speec- as i# it 3ere introduced 5y t-e 3riter. So t-ere is a Rind o# .ixture o# t3o su5styles8 e.otive prose and dra.a. >o3ever8 3-en incursions o# direct speec- are s-ort8 t-ey are %iven 3it-in t-e aut-or&s narrative8 #or exa.ple8 L...t-eir only 3ay 3ould 5e #ort-3it- to .aRe an end o# t-e.selves8 eit-er 3it- Rni#e8 -alter8 or poison; #or 3-y8 said -e8 s-ould you c-oose li#e8 seein% it is attended 3it- so .uc- 5itternessz +ut t-ey desired -i. to let t-e. %o . *not-er peculiarity o# t-e prose o# t-is period is a rat-er poorly developed syste. o# connectives8 :-e connectives and8 so t-at8=t-en are used a5undantly and o#ten in a 3ay t-at does not co.ply 3it- t-eir %enerally accepted #unctions. +unyan&s 3orRs -ave played a considera5le role in esta5lis-in% t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eatures o# e.otive prose.

I.a%ery8 so c-aracteristic o# t-e 5elles=lettres lan%ua%e style in %eneral8 5e%ins to colour e.otive prose di##erently #ro. t-e 3ay it is used in poetry and plays o# t-e non=puritan trend. :-e i.a%ery in t-e L2il%ri.&s 2ro%ressL is 5ased on alle%ory. *lle%ory is aRin to .etap-or8 5ut it di##ers #ro. t-e latter 5y -avin% a de#inite sy.5olic .eanin%. *lle%ory in its .ost co..on #or. is a variety o# antono.asia. ?ords denotin% a5stract notions are used as proper na.es. So8 in t-e passa%e 9uoted a5ove t-e na.e o# t-e %iant is &Despair&8 -is 3i#e&s na.e c &Di##idence&8 t-e na.e o# t-e 4astle is &Dou5tin% 4astle&8 t-e na.es o# t-e pil%ri.s are &4-ristian& and &>ope#ul.& :-is type o# i.a%ery -as considera5le tenacity in e.otive prose and particularly in plays. J :-e puritan in#luence on t-e lan%ua%e o# e.otive prose at t-is ti.e displays 3-at .ay 5e called an anti=renaissance spirit. :-is is s-o3n in t-e =dispara%e.ent o# .yt-olo%ical i.a%ery and any e.5ellis-.ent o# lan%ua%e 3-atever. +unyan&s a5stract 3ay o# treatin% ordinary everyday=li#e events and con#licts led to an a5stract .anner in depictin% -is c-aracters. :-ey are8 as a rule8 devoid o# individuality. :-ere is no typi#ication o# a c-aracter&s speec-8 and t-ere#ore t-ere is practically no di##erence 5et3een t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e aut-or and t-at o# t-e -eroes. * tendency to si.pli#y t-e literary lan%ua%e8 resultin% #ro. t-e dero%atory attitude o# t-e puritans to classical learnin%8 is apparent in seventeent- century e.otive prose8 at least a.on% so.e 3riters. >o3ever8 t-e lan%ua%e o# e.otive prose at t-is period8 as at precedin% and su5se9uent periods8 did not pro%ress alon% one line. :-e clas=. sical tradition and t-e over=use o# e.5ellis-.ents 3ere also alive8 and can 5e seen at any period iH t-e develop.ent o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e8 and t## e.otive prose 0particular8 in a %reater or lesser de%ree ri%-t until t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e 27t- century. :-e stru%%le 5et3een t-e t3o opposin% tendencies in renderin% ideas in t-e style o# e.otive prose re#lects t-e political and reli%ious stri#e 5et3een t-e 2uritans and t-e 4avaliers8 t-e na.e %iven to t-ose 3-o 3ere on t-e side o# 4-arles I a%ainst t-e 2uritan 2arty durin% t-e 4ivil ?ar o# 11'2c11 2. l *.on% representatives o# Lt-e L4avalierL trend in literature 3e s-all .ention Aere.y :aylor8 3-ose 3orRs8 .ainly ser.ons8 are illustrative o# t-is orna.ental .anner. L... -e stron%ly rese.5les Spenser in -is proli#ic #ancy and diction8 in a certain .usical arran%e.ent and s3eetness o# ex=. pression8 in prolon%ed description8 and in delicious .usin%s and reveries8 su%%ested 5y so.e #avourite i.a%e or .etap-or8 on 3-ic- -e d3ells 3it- t-e #ondness and ent-usias. o# a youn% poet. In t-ese passa%es -e is also apt to run into excessC epit-et is -eaped upon epit-et8 and #i%ure upon #i%ureC all t-e 9uaint conceits o# -is #ancy8 and t-e curious stores o# -is learnin% are dra%%ed in8 till 5otprecision and propriety are so.eti.es lost.L l :-ere 3as also a t-ird trend in e.otive prose 3-ic- 5e%an to develop in t-e 17tcentury and 3-ic- 5eca.e .ore apparent in su5se9uent periods. Bepresentative o# t-is trend are :-o.as Sprat and in particular Ao-n Dryden. :-is trend is responsi5le

#or t-e introduction into 3ritin% o# co..on 3ords and p-rases Rno3n as collo9uialis.s. :rue8 in 17t- century e.otive prose t-ese ele.ents 3ere yet #e3. +ut t-is t-ird trend8 as it 3ere8 5roRe t-e ice and a tricRle o# collo9uial 3ords 5e%an to #lo3 into e.otive prose. :-o.as Sprat raised -is voice a%ainst luxury and redundance o# speec-. >e 5e-eld L3it- indi%nation -o3 .any .ists and uncertainties t-ese specious tropes and #i%ures -ave 5rou%-t on our Rno3led%e.L >e 3as all #or a Lclose8 naRed8 natural 3ay o# speaRin%8 positive expressions8 clear senses8 a native easinessL. >e pre#erred Lt-e lan%ua%e o# artisans8 country.en and .erc-ants 5e#ore t-at o# 3its8 and sc-olars.L2 :-e .odels o# prose 3ritin% at Dryden&s disposal 3ere t-e collo9uial .anner Lo# +unyan and si.ilar 3riters8 on t-e one -and8 and8 on t-e ot-er8 t-e ela5orate .anner o# $yly8 Sidney8 +ro3ne8= Aere.y :aylor and ot-ers. Dryden retained t-e si.ple diction8 and disciplined t-e loose everyday expressions o# t-e #or.er8 -e cut o## t-e a3R3ard $atinis.s and lon%=3inded ele%ance o# t-e latter. :-e #eatures o# Dryden&s prose are clarity8 si.plicity o# sentence structure8 lacR o# orna.ent8 #luency and r-yt-.. :-e in#luence o# Dryden on 5ot- e.otive prose and pu5=licistic prose8 3-ic5e%an to develop rapidly in/t-e 1@t- century8 3as #elt t-rou%-out t-e century. Dryden -as 5een called t-e #at-er o# En%lis- literary criticis.. *#ter t-e Bestoration o# t-e Monarc-y in 1117 a ne3 trend arose in literature 3-ic3as also re#lected in prose. :-e critical spirit 3as .ore and .ore taRin% t-e place o# t-e i.a%inative. E.otive prose 3as 5eco.in% a 3eapon o# satire and not si.ply a .eans o# descri5in% and interpretin% t-e li#e o# t-e day. :-is trend8 .aterialiSed .ainly in essays8 3as outstandin% in t-e prose 3orRs o# Dryden (-is LEssay on Dra.atic 2oesyL in particular) and continued into t-e 1@t- century8 3-ere it 5eca.e conspicuous. Ei%-teent- century e.otive prose 3-en co.pared to t-at o# t-e seventeent- is8 in its .ost essential8 leadin% #eatures8 c-aracteriSed 5y t-e predo.inance o# t-e t-ird trend. :-is t-ird trend8 3-ic- .ay Gustly 5e called realistic8 is not t-e #urt-er develop.ent o# t-e puritan tendencies descri5ed a5ove8 alt-ou%-8 dou5tless8 t-ese tendencies 5ore so.e relevance to its typical #eatures. :-e .otto o# t-is trend .ay 5e expressed 5y t-e p-rase Lcall a spade a spade.L +y t-is p-rase t-e ad-erents o# t-e realistic trend in literature8 and in e.otive prose in particular8 expressed t-e idea t-at all t-in%s s-ould 5e called 5y t-eir ri%-t na.es8 t-at t-e 3riters s-ould use plain8 5lunt 3ot/ds. :-is 3as a Rind o# protest a%ainst t-e co.plicated and ela5orate perip-rases 5y 3-ic- t-e .ost co..on concepts 3ere o#ten descri5ed. :-e -istory o# En%lis- literature %ives t-eir due to suc- pro.inent .en=o#=letters as De#oe8 S3i#t and "ieldin% 3-o 3ere ardent apolo%ists o# t-is direction in prose 3ritin%8 and 3-o created #ascinatin% novels8 .ost o# 3-ic- 0re still recRoned a.on% t-e .asterpieces o# En%lis- literature. :-e ai. o# t-is ne3 sc-ool o# 3riters 3as to .aRe t-e lan%ua%e clear8 precise8 3ell=5alanced8 and .oderate. :-ey developed a .anner o# 3ritin% 3-ic- 5y its stren%t-8 si.plicity and directness 3as ad.ira5ly

adapted to ordinary every=day needs. +ut still t-e %eneral p-ilosop-ical and aest-etic vie3s do.inatin% at t-is period %reatly in#luenced t-e .anner o# 3ritin%. :-e 3riters o# t-e 1@t- century did .uc- to esta5lis- e.otive prose as an independent #or. o# literary art. :-ey considered t-at8 5ein% educated representatives o# t-eir society8 it 3as t-eir dity to sa#e%uard t-e purity o# t-e En%lis- lan%ua%e. >o3ever8 t#ie principles t-ey #ollo3ed 3ere o5scure and even contradictory. ,n t-e one -and8 so.e o# t-e.8 liRe Ao-nson8 3ere a%ainst t-e introduction into literary En%lis- o# any collo9ual ele.ents8 re%ardin% t-e latter as 5ein% in#erior to t-e polis-ed lan%ua%e o# educated people. ,n t-e ot-er -and8 .any ot-ers #elt an ur%ent necessity to 5rid%e t-e %ap 5et3een literary and collo9uial .odes o# expression in order to ac-ieve a %reater vividness and #lexi5ility o# utterance. :-ere#ore8 t-ou%- usin% t-e %eneral lan%ua%e o# t-is period8 at t-e sa.e ti.e t-ey sou%-t to su5Gect it to conventional stylistic nor.s. / :-ese stylistic nor.s 3ere very ri%id. So .uc- so8 t-at t-e individual peculiarities o# t-e aut-ors 3ere #re9uently over=3ei%-ed 5y t-e %eneral re9uire.ent o# t-e stylistic nor.s. :-ese nor.s are revealed in t-e levellin%=o## o# t-e di##erences 5et3een t-e literary lan%ua%e and t-e spoRen lan%ua%e o# t-e ti.e. :-e aut-or&s speec- and t-at o# t-e -eroes rese.5le eac- ot-er8 so t-ere is no speec- c-aracteriSationC 1Pi c-aracters speaR aliRe and al.ost in t-e sa.e 3ay as t-e aut-or -i.sel# does. *not-er stylistic #eature o# t-e e.otive prose o# t-e 1@t- century is a peculiar .anner o# conveyin% t-e i.pression t-at t-e event narrated actually occurred8 t-at t-e narrative possessed aut-enticity. :-is .anner o# 3ritin% i.parts.so.e o# t-e #eatures o# o##icial docu.ents to e.otive prose. So.e o# t-e 3orRs o# e.otive prose t-ere#ore8 3it- t-eir 3ealt- o# detail and 3-at see.s to 5e %enuine #act8=rese.5le c-ronicles. ?-en t-e narrative is 3ritten in t-e #irst person sin%ular8 as it very o#ten is8 it reads al.ost liRe a diary. :-e narrative itsel# is %enerally i.passionate8 devoid o# any e.otional ele.ents8 3it- strict o5servance o# syntactical rules %overnin% t-e structure o# t-e sentences. In suc- 3orRs t-ere are very #e3 epit-ets8 t-ere is al.ost no i.a%ery. Suc- are .ost o# t-e novels 5y De#oe8 S3i#t8 "ieldin% and ot-ers8 Illustrative in t-is respect are t-e 3orRs o# De#oe. >e really deserves t-e title o# t-e ori%inator o# t-e Laut-enticatedL .anner in e.otive prose. >is novel LBo5inson 4rusoeL is 3ritten in a lan%ua%e 3-ic- 5y its lexical and syntactical peculiarities -as very .uc- in co..on 3it- t-e style o# an o##icial report. Aosep- *ddison and Bic-ard Steele8 3-ose essays 3ere 3ritten #or t-e Gournals L:-e :atlerL and L:-e SpectatorL also #ollo3ed t-e %eneral stylistic principles o# t-is period. :-e .ost striRin% #eature8 o# course8 is t-e inade9uate representation o# direct speec-. :-e .ost lively conversations (dialo%ues) are %enerally rendered in indirect speec- and only #ra%.ents o# lively direct intercourse can 5e #ound in lon% passa%es o# t-e narrative. :-ese are .ostly excla.atory sentences8 liRe LSir 4lou=desley S-ovelK * very %allant .anKL or LDr. +us5yK * %reat .anK >e 3-ipped .y %rand#at-erC a very %reat .anKL

:-e 1@t- century is Gustly re%arded as t-e century 3-ic- #or.ed; e.otive prose as a sel#=su##icient 5ranc- o# t-e 5elles=lettres style. +ut still8 t-e .anner in 3-ic- e.otive prose used lan%ua%e .eans and stylistic devices in so.e cases still rese.5led t-e .anner o# poetic style. *t t-is ti.e also it 3as di##icult to tell a piece o# e.otive prose #ro. an essay or even #ro. scienti#ic prose. :-is 3as .ainly due to t-e #act t-at t-e .ost essential and c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-ese styles 3ere not yet #ully s-aped. It 3as only 5y t-e end o# t-e 1@t- century t-at t-e .ost typical #eatures o# t-e e.otive prose style 5eca.e really pro.inent. $aurence Sterne 3it- -is L:ristra. S-andyL contri5uted %reatly to t-is process. Sterne t-ou%-t t-at t-e .ain tasR o# e.otive prose 3asL... to depict t-e inner 3orld o# .an8 -is ever=c-an%in% .oods. :-ere#ore at t-e #oundation o# -is novel lies t-e e.otional and not t-e lo%ical principle.L1 ?it- Sterne8 e.otive prose 5e%an to use a nu.5er o# stylistic devices 3-icpractically deter.ined .anyL o# its c-aracteristic #eatures. In L:ristra. S-andyL t-ere appear rudi.entary #or.s o# represented speec-C t-e speec- o# t-e c-aracters approac-es t-e nor.s o# lively collo9uial lan%ua%eC t-e narrative itsel# 5e%ins to re#lect t-e individuality o# t-e aut-or8 not only in -is 3orld outlooR 5ut8 3-ic- is very i.portant #or lin%uistic analysis8 in -is .anner o# usin% t-e lan%ua%e .eans o# -is ti.e. >e atte.pts to %ive speec- c-aracteristics to -is c-aracters8 uses t-e di##erent stylistic strata o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary 3idely 5ot- in t-e individual speec- o# -is c-aracters and in t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e aut-or -i.sel#. :-e role o# Sterne in t-e s-apin% o# t-e typical #eatures o# e.otive prose o# t-e #ollo3in% centuries is under=esti.ated. >e 3as t-e #irst to .aRe an atte.pt to overco.e t-e traditional #or. o# t-e t-en #as-iona5le narrative in depictin% c-aracters8 events8 social li#e and -u.an con#licts. It 3as necessary to enliven t-e dialo%ue and it 3as $aurence Sterne 3-o 3as a5le to do so. :-e %reat realistic 3riters o# t-e nineteent- and t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e t3entiet- centuries to so.e extent #ollo3ed in -is #ootsteps. Nineteent- century e.otive prose can already 5e re%arded as a su5style o# t-e 5elles= lettres lan%ua%e style co.plete in its .ost #unda.ental properties as t-ey are descri5ed at t-e 5e%innin% o# t-is c-apter. :-e %eneral tendency in En%lis- literature to depict t-e li#e o# all strata o# En%lissociety called #ort- c-an%es in re%ard to t-e lan%ua%e used #or t-is purpose. Standard En%lis- 5e%ins to actively a5sor5 ele.ents o# t-e En%lis- voca5ulary 3-ic- 3ere 5anned in earlier periods #ro. t-e lan%ua%e o# e.otive prose8 t-at is8 Gar%onis.s8 pro#essional 3ords8 slan%8 dialectal 3ords and even vul%aris.s8 t-ou%- t-e latter 3ere used sparin%ly and eup-e.isticallycda.n 3as printed dc8 5loody8 5cand t-e liRe. l Illiterate speec- #inds its expression in e.otive prose t-rou%- t-e distortion o# t-e spellin% o# 3ords8 and t-e use o# cocRney and dialectal 3ordsC t-ere appears a clear di##erence 5et3een t-e speec- o# t-e 3riter and t-at=o# -is c-aracters. * ne3 #eature 5e%ins to esta5lis- itsel# as a property o# e.otive prose alone8 na.ely8 3-at .ay 5e called .ultiplicity o# stytes. $an%ua%e .eans typical o# ot-er styles o# t-e literary lan%ua%e are dra3n into t-e syste. o# expressive .eans and stylistic devices o# t-is

particular su5style. It -as already 5een pointed out t-at t-ese insertions do not re.ain in t-eir typical #or.8 t-ey are recast to co.ply 3rit- t-e essential principles o# e.otive prose. >ere is an exa.ple o# a ne3spaper 5rie# #ound in :-acReray&s L(anity "airL; LGovernors-ip o# 4oventry Island.c>. M. S. wello3GacR8 4o..ander Aaunders8 -as 5rou%-t letters and papers #ro. 4oventry Island. >. E. Sir :-o.as $iversee%e -ad #allen a victi. to t-e prevailin% #ever at S3a.pton. >is loss is deeply #elt in t-e #lour= is-in% colony. ?e -ear t-at t-e %overnors-ip -as 5een o##ered to 4olonel Ba3don 4ra3ley8 U. E.8 a distin%uis-ed ?aterloo o##icer. ?e need not only .en o# acRno3led%ed 5ravery8 5ut .en o# ad.inistrative tale#its to superintend t-e a##airs o# our coloniesC and 3e -ave no dou5t t-at t-e %entle.an selected 5y t-e 4olonial ,##ice to #ill t-e la.ented vacancy 3-ic- -as occurred at 4oventry Island is ad.ira5ly calculated #or t-e post 3-ic- -e is a5out to occupyL. +y t-e end o# t-e nineteent- century and particularly at t-e 5e%innin% o# t-e t3entiet-8 certain stylistic devices -ad 5een re#ined and continue to 5e #urt-er developed and per#ected. *.on% t-ese .ust 5e .entioned represented speec-8 5ot- uttered and unuttered (inner)8 and also various 3ays o# usin% detac-ed construction8 3-ic- is particularly #avoured 5y present=day .en=o#=letters. Syntax8 too8 -as under%one .odi#ications in t-e e.otive prose o# t-e last century and a -al#. 2resent=day e.otive prose is to a lar%e extent c-aracteriSed 5y t-e 5reaRin%=up o# traditional syntactical desi%ns o# t-e precedin% periods. Not only detac-ed construction8 5ut also #ra%.entation o# syntactical .odels8 peculiar8 unexpected 3ays o# co.5inin% sentences8 especially t-e %ap=sentence linR and ot-er .odern syntactical patterns8 are #reely introduced into present=day e.otive prose. Its advance is so rapid t-at it is only possi5le to vie3 it in t-e %ross. Many interestin% investi%ations -ave 5een .ade o# t-e c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-e lan%ua%e o# di##erent 3riters 3-ere 3#iat is typical and 3-at is=idiosyncratic are su5Gected to analysis. +ut so #ar no deductions -ave 5een .ade as to t-e %eneral trends o# e.otive prose o# t-e nineteent- century8 to say not-in% o# t-e t3entiet-. :-is 3orR a3aits investi%ators 3-o .ay 5e a5le to dra3 up so.e %eneral principles distin%uis-in% .odern e.otive prose #ro. t-e e.otive prose o# t-e precedin% periods.
3. LANGUAGE OF T#E DRAMA

:-e t-ird su5division o# t-e 5elles=lettres style is t-e lan%ua%e o# plays. :-e #irst t-in% to 5e said a5out t-e para.eters o# t-is variety o# 5elles=lettres is t-at8 unliRe poetry8 3-ic-8 except #or 5allads8 in essence excludes direct speec- and t-ere#ore dialo%ue8 and unliRe e.otive prose8 3-ic- is a co.5ination o# .onolo%ue (t-e aut-or&s speec-) and dialo%ue (t-e speec- o# t-e c-aracters)8 t-e lan%ua%e o# plays is entirely dialo%ue. :-e aut-or&s speec- is al.ost entirely excluded ex=8cept #or t-e play3ri%-t&s re.arRs and sta%e directions8 si%ni#icant t-ou%- t-ey .ay 5e. +ut t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e c-aracters is in no 3ay t-e exact reproduction o# t-e nor.s o#

collo9uial lan%ua%e8 alt-ou%- t-e play3ri%-t seeRs to reproduce actual conversation as #ar as t-e nor.s o# t-e 3ritten lan%ua%e 3ill allo3. *ny variety o# t-e 5elles=lettres style 3ill use t-e nor.s o# t-e literary lan%ua%e o# t-e %iven period. :rue8 in every variety t-ere 3ill 5e #ound8 as 3e -ave already s-o3n8 departures #ro. t-e esta5lis-ed literary nor.s. +ut in %enuinely artistic 3orR t-ese departures 3ill never %o 5eyond t-e 5oundaries o# t-e per.issi5le #luctuations o# t-e nor.s8 lest t-e aest-etic aspect o# t-e 3orR s-ould 5e lost. It #ollo3s t-en t-at0t-e lan%ua%e o# plays is al3ays styliSed8 t-at is8 it strives to retain t-e .odus o# literary En%lis-8 unless t-e play3ri%-t -as a particular ai. 3-icre9uires t-e use o# non=literary #or.s and expressions. >o3ever8 even in t-is case a %ood play3ri%-t 3ill use suc- #or.s sparin%ly. :-us in +ernard S-a3&s play L"anny&s "irst 2lay8L Dora8 a street=%irl8 3-ose lan%ua%e reveals -er up5rin%in%8 -er lacR o# education8 -er 3ay o# livin%8 -er tastes and aspirations8 nevert-eless uses co.paratively #e3 non=literary 3ords. * 5unR8 a s9ui##er are exa.plesK Even t-ese are explained 3it- t-e -elp o# so.e literary device. :-is is due to t-e styliSation o# t-e lan%ua%e. :-e styliSation o# co>o9uial lan%ua%e is one o# t-e #eatures o# plays &3-ic- at di##erent sta%es in t-e -istory o# En%lis- dra.a -as .ani#ested itsel# in di##erent 3ays revealin%8 on t-e one -and8 t-e %eneral trends o# t-e literary lan%ua%e and8 on t-e ot-er -and8 t-e personal idiosyncrasies o# t-e 3riter. In t-e 11t- century t-e styliSation o# collo9uial lan%ua%e 3as scarcely .aintained due to several #acts; plays 3ere 3ritten in -aste #or t-e co.panies o# actors ea%erly 3aitin% #or t-e.8 and t-ey 3ere 3ritten #or a 3ide audience8 .ostly t-e co..on people. *s is Rno3n8 plays 3ere sta%ed in pu5lic s9uares on a raised plat#or. al.ost 3it-out sta%e properties. :-e collo9uial lan%ua%e o# t-e 11t- century8 t-ere#ore8 enGoyed an al.ost unrestrained #reedo. and t-is partly #ound its expression in t-e lively dialo%ue o# plays. :-e %eneral trends in t-e developin% literary lan%ua%e 3ere also re#lected in t-e 3ide use o# 5i5lical and .yt-olo%ical allusions8 evocative o# Benaissance traditions8 as 3ell as in t-e a5undant use o# co.pound epit-ets8 3-ic- can also 5e ascri5ed to t-e in#luence o# t-e %reat GreeR and $atin epics. Generally speaRin%8 t-e in#luence o# Benaissance traditions can also 5e seen in a #airly ric- inGection o# oat-s8 curses8 s3ear=3ords and ot-er vul%aris.s into t-e lan%ua%e texture o# t-e En%lis- dra.a o# t-is period. In order to c-ecR t-e unli.ited use o# oat-s and curses in plays8 an act o# 2arlia.ent 3as passed in 117! 3-ic#or5ade t-e pro#ane and Gestin% use o# t-e na.es o# God8 4-rist8 t-e >oly G-ost and t-e :rinity in any. sta%e play or per#or.ance. x :-e 11t- century plays are .ostly 3ritten in ia.5ic penta.eter8 r-y.ed or unr-y.ed. :-e plays o# t-is period t-ere#ore 3ere Gustly called dra.atic poetry. :-e sta%ed per#or.ance8 t-e dialo%ue c-aracter o# t-e discourse and t-e t-en o5vious tendency to Reep close to t-e nor.s o# collo9uial lan%ua%e a##ected t-e verse and resulted in 5reaRin% t-e re%ular r-yt-. o# t-e .etre.

:-is 5reaRin% o# t-e re%ularity and strictness o# t-e r-yt-.ical desi%n 5eca.e one o# t-e c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-e lan%ua%e o# dra.atic poetry8 and t-e lan%ua%e o# plays o# t-e earlier 3riters8 3-o e.ployed a strict r-yt-.ic pattern 3it-out run=on lines (enGa.5.ent) or ot-er r-yt-.ical .odi#ications8 Is considered tedious and .onotonous. :-us one o# t-e .ost nota5le plays o# t-is period L:-e $ove o# uin% David and "air +et-sa5eL 5y Geor%e 2eele8 in spite o# its s.oot- .usical versi= #ication8 is re%arded as lacRin% variety. :rue8 L...t-e art o# varyin% t-e pauses and .odulatin% t-e verse 3it-out t-e aid o# r-y.e -ad not yet 5een %enerally adopted.L2 +ut t-e %reat play3ri%-ts o# t-is period8 #orced 5y t-e situation in 3-ic- t-e co..unicative process taRes place c on a sta%e #acin% an audiencec8 realiSed t-e necessity o# .odulatin% t-e r-yt-.ical pattern o# 5lanR verse. Marlo3e8 Gr.eene8 Nas-8 S-aRespeare and +en Aonson .odulated t-eir verse to a %reater or lesser de%ree. Marlo3e8 #or instance8 #ound 5lanR verse consistin% o# lines eac- endin% 3it- a stressed .onosylla5le and eac- line standin% 5y itsel# rat-er .onotonous. >e .odi#ied t-e pauses8 c-an%ed t-e stresses and .ade t-e .etre suit t-e sense instead o# .aRin% t-e sense #it t-e .etre as -is predecessors -ad done. >e even 3ent #urt-er and introduced passa%es o# prose into t-e texture o# -is plays8 t-us ai.in% at an elevation o# t-e utterance. >is L$i#e and Deat- o# Dr. "austusL a5ounds in passa%es 3-ic- can -ardly 5e classed as verse. 4o.pare8 #or exa.ple8 t-e #ollo3in% t3o passa%es #ro. t-is play; I "*MS:; ,-8 i# .y soul .ust su##er #or .y sin8 C I.pose so.e end to .y incessant pain. K&.. $et "austus live in -ell a t-ousand years8 * -undred t-ousand8 and at t-e last 5e saved; No end is li.ited to da.ned souls. "*MS:; +ut "austus&s o##ence can ne&er 5e pardoned. :-e serpent t-at te.pted Eve .ay 5e saved8 5ut not "austus. ,-8 %entle.en8 -ear .e 3it- patience8 and tre.5le not at .y speec-es. :-ou%- .y -eart pant and 9uiver to re.e.5er t-at I -ave 5een a student -ere t-ese t-irty years8 ,-8 3ould I -ad ne&er seen ?irte.5er%8 never read 5ooRK *nd 3-at 3onders -ave I done8 all Ger.any can 3itness8 yes8 all t-e 3orld; #or 3-ic- "austus -at- lost 5ot- Ger.any and t-e 3orldC ... It is unnecessary to point out t-e r-yt-.ical di##erence 5et3een t-ese t3o passa%es. :-e ia.5ic penta.eter o# t-e #irst and t-e ar-yt-.i=cal prose o# t-e second are 9uite apparent. S-aRespeare also used prose as a stylistic device. :-e prose passa%es in S-aRespeare&s plays are 3ell Rno3n to any student o# EliSa5et-an dra.a. S-aRespeare used prose in passa%es o# repartee 5et3een .inor c-aracters8 particularly in -is co.ediesC in L:-e :a.in% o# t-e S-re3L and L:3el#t- Ni%-tL8 #or instance8 and also in t-e -istorical plays L>enry I(L (2art I8 2art I) and L>enry (.L In so.e places t-ere are prose .onolo%ues 5earin% t-e c-aracteristic #eatures o# r-yt-.ical prose 3it- its parallel constructions8 repetitions8 etc. *s an exa.ple 3e .ay taRe "alsta##&s .onolo%ue addressed to t-e youn% 2rince >enry in L>en= I ry I(L (2art I8 *ct II8 Sc. '). ,n t-e ot-er -and8 prose conversation 5et3een tra%ic c-aracters retains .uc- o# t-e

sylla5ic 9uality o# 5lanR verse8 e.%. t-e conversation 5et3een 2olonius and >a.let (L>a.let.L *ct II8 Sc. 2). * popular #or. o# entertain.ent at t-e courts o# EliSa5et- and t-e Stuarts 3as t-e .as9ue. :-e ori%in o# t-e court .as9ue .ust -ave 5een t-~ per#or.ances presented at court on cele5rated occasions8 as a coronation8 a peer&s=.arria%e8 t-e 5irt- o# a prince and si.ilar events. :-ese per#or.ances 3ere s-ort sRetc-es 3it- allusions to GreeR and 8 $atin .yt-olo%y8 alle%oric in nature8 #re9uently acco.panied 5y son% and .usic and per#or.ed 5y t-e no5ility. :-ese .as9ues are 5elieved to 5e t-e earliest #or.s o# 3-at is no3 Rno3n as LspoRen dra.a.L :-e re#erence to t-e events o# t-e day and alle%oric representation o# t-e .e.5ers o# t-e no5ility called #ort- t-e use o# 3ords and p-rases alien to poetic diction8 and passa%es o# prose 5e%an to #lood into t-e text o# t-e plays. +ut t-e dra.a o# t-e seventeent- century still -olds #ast to poetic 2@! diction and up to t-e decline o# t-e t-eatre8 3-ic- 3as caused 5y t-e 2uritan Govern.ent *ct o# 11'28 a spoRen dra.a as 3e Rno3 it to=day -ad not seen t-e sta%e. :-e revival o# dra.a 5e%an only in t-e second -al# o# t-e 1@t- century. +ut t-e ulti.ate s-apin% o# t-e play as an independent #or. o# literary 3orR 3it- its o3n la3s o# #unctionin%8 3it- its o3n c-aracteristic lan%ua%e #eatures 3as actually co.pleted only at t-e end o# t-e 19t- century. :-e natural conventionality o# any literary 3orR is .ost o5vious in plays. 2eople are .ade to talR to eac- ot-er in #ront o# an audience8 and yet as i# t-ere 3ere no audience. Dialo%ue8 3-ic-8 as -as 5een pointed out8 is 5y its very nature ep-e.eral8 spontaneous8 #leetin%8 is .ade lastin%. It is intended to 5e reproduced .any ti.es 5y di##erent actors 3it- di##erent interpretations. :-e dialo%ue loses its collo9uial essence and re.ains si.ply conversation in #or.. :-e individualiSation o# eac- c-aracter&s speec- t-en 5eco.es o# para.ount i.portance 5ecause it is t-e idiosyncrasy o# expression 3-ic- to so.e extent reveals t-e inner8 psyc-olo%ical and intellectual traits o# t-e c-aracters. :-e play3ri%-t seeRs to approxi.ate a natural #or. o# dialo%ue8 a #or. as close to natural livin% dialo%ue as t-e literary nor.s 3ill allo3. +ut at t-e sa.e ti.e -e is 5ound 5y t-e aest-etico=co%nitive #unction o# t-e 5elles=lettres style and -as to .ould t-e conversation to suit t-e %eneral ai.s o# t-is style. :-us t-e lan%ua%e o# plays is a styliSed type o# t-e spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e. ?-at t-en is t-is process o# styliSation t-at t-e lan%ua%e o# plays under%oesz In 3-at lan%ua%e peculiarities is t-e styliSation revealedz :-e analysis o# t-e lan%ua%e texture o# plays -as s-o3n t-at t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eature -ere is8 to use t-e ter. o# t-e t-eory o# in#or.ation8 redundancy o# in#or.ation caused 5y t-e necessity to a.pli#y t-e utterance. :-is is done #or t-e saRe o# t-e audience. It -as already 5een pointed out t-at t-e spoRen lan%ua%e tends to curtail utterances8 so.eti.e0 si.pli#y in% t-e syntax to #ra%.ents o# sentences 3it-=

out even s-o3in% t-e c-aracter o# t-eir interrelation. J In plays t-e curtail.ent o# utterances is not so extensive&as it is in natural dialo%ue. +esides8 in lively conversation8 even 3-en a prolon%ed utterance8 a .onolo%ue8 taRes place8 it is interspersed 3it- t-e interlocutor&s Lsi%nals o# attentionL8 as t-ey .ay 5e called8 #or exa.ple; yes8 yea-8 o-8 :-at&s ri%-t88so8 I seeC%ood8 yes I Rno38 o-=o-8#ine8 ,-8 .y %oodness8 o- dear8 3ell8 3ell03%ll8 ?ell8 I neverK8 and t-e liRe. In plays t-ese Lsi%nals o# attentionL are irrelevant and t-ere#ore done a3ay 3it-. :-e .onolo%ue in plays is never interrupted 5y any suc- excla.atory 3ords on t-e part.o# t-e person to 3-o. t-e speec- is addressed. "urt-er8 in plays t-e c-aracters& utterances are %enerally .uc- lon%er t-an in ordinary conversation. >ere is a s-ort exa.ple o# a dialo%ue 5et3een t3o c-aracters #ro. +ernard S-a3&s play L>eart5reaR >ouseL; 4*2:*IN S>,:,(EB; Nurse8 3-o is t-is .is%uided and un#ortunate youn% ladyz NMBSE; S-e says Miss >essy invited -er8 sir. 4*2:*IN S>,:,(EB; *nd -ad s-e no #riend8 no parents to 3arn -er a%ainst .y dau%-ter&s invitationsz :-is is a pretty sort o# -ouse8 5y -eavensK * youn% and attractive lady is invited -ere. >er lu%%a%e is le#t on t-ese steps8 #or -oursC and s-e -ersel# is deposited in t-e poop and a5andoned8 tired and starvin%...L :-is passa%e is typical in .any 3ays. "irst o# all8 t-e .atter=o#=#act dialo%ue 5et3een t-e captain and t-e nurse %radually #lo3s into a .onolo%ue in 3-ic- ele.ents o# t-e spoRen lan%ua%e and o# e.otive prose are .er%ed. :-e .onolo%ue 5e%ins 3it- t-e conGunction &and& 3-ic- serves to linR t-e precedin% 9uestion to t-e .onolo%ue. :-e 9uestion a#ter &and& is .ore o# a L9uestion=in=t-e=narrativeL t-an a real 9uestion; t-e captain does not expect an ans3er and proceeds 3it- -is .onolo%ue. :-en a#ter an excla.atory &:-is is a pretty sort o# -ouse8 5y -eavensK&8 3-ic- is actual8 co..on collo9uial8 t-ere a%ain co.es an utterance intended to in#or. t-e audience o# t-e 4aptain&s attitude to3ards t-e >ouse and t-e -ouse-old. MarR also t-e pro#essionalis. &poop& used to c-aracteriSe t-e lan%ua%e o# S-otover8 a retired s-ip&s captain. In #act8 t-ere is no dialo%ue8 or8 as 2ro#. AaRu5insRy -as it8 a L#alse dialo%ueL8 or L.onolo%ical dialo%ueL8 t-e nurse&s re.arR 5ein% a Rind o# linRin% sentence 5et3een t-e t3o parts o# t-e captain&s .onolo%ue. :-ese linRin% re.arRs serve to enliven t-e .onolo%ue8 t-us .aRin% it easier to %rasp t-e .eanin% o# t-e utterance. :-e .onolo%ical c-aracter o# t-e dialo%ue in plays 5eco.es apparent also 5y t-e #act t-at t3o or .ore 9uestions .ay 5e asRed one a#ter anot-er8 as in t-e #ollo3in% excerpts; 1. L$*Dw +BI:,M*B:; Do you suppose t-is 3icRed and i..oral tradition can 5e Rept up #or everz Do you pretend t-at Step-en could not carry on t-e #oundry Gust as 3ell as all t-e ot-er sons o# 5i% 5usiness -ouseszL 2. L+*B+*B*; Dolly; 3ere you really in earnest a5out itz ?ould you -ave Goined i# you -ad never seen .ezL (S-a3) Needless to say8 in ordinary conversation 3e never use a succession o# 9uestions. Generally only one8 per-aps t3o8 9uestions are asRed at a ti.e8 and i# .ore are asRed

ct-en 3e already -ave a Rind o# e.otional narrativeC not a dialo%ue in t-e exact .eanin% o# t-e 3ord. In ordinary conversation 3e %enerally #ind Lse9uence sentencesL connected 5y Lse9uence si%nalsL. l :-ese si%nals -elp0to esta5lis- t-e lo%ical re#erence to 3-at 3as said 5e#ore8 t-us linRin% all se9uential series o# sentences into one 3-ole. :-ese se9uence si%nals are .ostly pronouns8 adver5s8 conGunctions8 as in; L:-e 5oy -as Gust 5rou%-t t-e evenin% paper. It is at t-e door8L or; LMp to 19' $. 3as 3it- Ao-nson. Since -e -as 3orRed 3it- us.L It .ust 5e re.arRed in passin% t-at al.ost any lively dialo%ue 3ill -old a se9uence o# sentences #or only a s-ort span8 t-e nature o# lively :-ese also are ter.s su%%ested 5y 4-arles "ries. dialo%ue allo3in% di%ressions #ro. t-e startin% point. >o3 o#ten do 3e -ear t-e p-rase; L?-at 3as I %oin% to sayzL or L?-at 3as I drivin% atzL L>o3 did 3e co.e to talR a5out t-iszLcto ascertain t-e initial topic o# conversation 3-ic- -as 5een #or%otten. :-is is not t-e case in plays. :-e se9uence o# sentences re#lectin% t-e se9uence o# t-ou%-t8 5ein% directed 5y t-e purport o# t-e 3riter8 3ill not allo3 any di%ressions #ro. t-e course taRen8 unless t-is 3as t-e deli5erate intention o# t-e play3ri%-t. :-ere#ore8 unliRe .t-e real8 natural spoRen variety o# lan%ua%e8 t-e lan%ua%e o# plays is already purpose#ul. :-e se9uence si%nals8 3-ic- are not so apparent in lively conversation8 5eco.e conspicuous in t-e lan%ua%e o# plays. >ere is an illustrative exa.ple o# a span o# t-ou%-t expressed in a nu.5er o# sentences all linRed 5y t-e pronoun -e and all re#errin% to t-e #irst 3ord o# t-e utterance &Dunn& 3-ic-8 in its turn8 -ooRs t-e utterance to t-e precedin% sentence; L:>E 4*2:*IN; DunnK. I -ad a 5oats3ain 3-ose na.e 3as Dunn8 >e 3as ori%inally a pirate in 4-ina8 >e set up as a s-ip&s c-andler 3it- stores 3-ic- I -ave every reason to 5elieve -e stole #ro. .e. No dou5t -e 5eca.e ric-. *re you -is dau%-terzL :-e de%ree to 3-ic- t-e nor.s o# ordinary collo9uial lan%ua%e are converted into t-ose o# t-e lan%ua%e o# plays8 t-at is8 t-e de%ree to 3-ic- Lt-e spoRen lan%ua%e is .ade literaryL varies at di##erent periods in t-e develop.ent o# dra.a and depends also on t-e idiosyncrasies o# t-e play3ri%-t -i.sel#. >ere are t3o illustrations8 one taRen #ro. ,liver Golds.it-&s play L:-e Good=Natured ManL8 an 1@t- century play8 and t-e ot-er #ro. >. 2inter&s play L:-e +irt-day 2artyL8 a play o# our ti.e. LMB. 4B,*uEB;.. +ut can anyt-in% 5e .ore a5surd8 t-an to dou5le/our distresses 5y our appre-ensions8 and put it in t-e po3er o# every lo3 #ello3 t-at can scra3l ten 3ords o# 3retc-ed spellin%8 to tor.ent uszL 4o.pare t-is utterance 3it- t-e #ollo3in%; LG,$D+EBG; ?-at&s your na.e no3z / S:*N$Ew; Aoe Soarp. G,$D+EBG; Is t-e nu.5er @'1 possi5le or necessaryz S:*N$Ew; Neit-er. G,$D+EBG; ?ron%K Is t-e nu.5er @'1 possi5le or necessaryz S:*N$Ew; +ot-.L = *l.ost t-e 3-ole play is co.posed o# suc- s-ort 9uestions and ans3ers tendin% to

reproduce an actual co..unicative process 3-ere t-e sense is.va%ue to t-e outsider. 4onsidera5le e##ort on t-e part o#= t-e audience is so.eti.es necessary in order to #ollo3 t-e trend o# t-e conversation and decode t-e play3ri%-t&s purport. & It .ay 5e re.arRed in passin% t-at t-ere is an analo%ous tendency in .odern e.otive prose 3-ere dialo%ue occupies considera5le space. In so.e o# t-e novels it taRes up t-ree or #our pa%es runnin%8 t-us rese.5lin% a play. In su..in% up8 it 3ill not co.e a.iss to state t-at any presentation o# a play is an aest-etic procedure and t-e lan%ua%e o# plays is o# t-e type 3-ic- is .eant to 5e reproduced. :-ere#ore8 even 3-en t-e lan%ua%e o# a play approxi.ates t-at o# a real dialo%ue8 it 3ill none t-e less 5e LstyliSedL. :-e 3ays and .eans t-is styliSation is carried out are di##icult to o5serve 3it-out care#ul consideration. +ut t-ey are t-ere8 and speci#ication o# t-ese .eans 3ill 5e a valua5le contri5ution to lin%uistic science. B. PUBLICISTS STYLE :-e pu5licist i/c s ta I e o# lan%ua%e 5eca.e discerni5le as a separate style in t-e .iddle o# t-e 1@t- century. It also #alls into t-ree varieties8 eac- -avin% its o3n distinctive #eatures. MnliRe ot-er styles8 t-e pu5licistic style -as a spoRen variety8 na.ely8 t-e V r a tor i Y a I su5=style. :-e develop.ent o# radio and television -as 5rou%-t into 5ein% anot-er ne3 spoRen variety8 na.ely8 t-e radio and :( Y V g g i n=t a r y. :-e ot-er t3o su5styles are t-e essay (.oral8 p-ilosop-ical8 literary) and Gournalistic articles (political8 social8 econo.ic) in ne3spapers8 Gournals and .a%aSines. +ooR revie3s in Gournals8 ne3spapers and .a%aSines and also pa.p-lets are %enerally included a.on% essays. :-e %eneral ai. o# pu5licistic style8 3-ic- .aRes it stand out as a separate style8 is to exert a constant and deep in#luence on pu5lic opinion8 to convince t-e reader or t-e listener t-at t-e interpretation %iven 5y t-e 3riter or t-e speaRer is t-e only correct one and to cause -i. to accept t-e point o# vie3 expressed in t-e speec-8 essay or article not .erely t-rou%- lo%ical ar%u.entation 5ut t-rou%- e.otional appeal as 3ell. :-is 5rain=3as-in% #unction is .ost e##ective in oratory8 #or -ere t-e .ost po3er#ul instru.ent o# persuasion8 t-e -u.an voice8 is 5rou%-t into play. Due to its c-aracteristic co.5ination o# lo%ical ar%u.entation and e.otional appeal8 pu5licistic style -as #eatures in co..on 3it- t-e style o# scienti#ic prose8 on t-e one -and8 and t-at o# e.otive prose8 on.t-e ot-er. Its co-erent and lo%ical syntactical structure8 3it- an expanded syste. o# connectives and its care#ul para%rap-in%8 .aRes it si.ilar to scienti#ic prose. Its e.otional appeal is %enerally ac-ieved 5y t-e use o# 3ords 3it- e.otive .eanin%8 t-e use o# i.a%ery and ot-er stylistic devices as in e.otive proseC 5ut t-e stylistic devices used in pu5licistic style are not #res- or %enuine.= :-e individual ele.ent essential to t-e 5elles=lettres style is8 as a rule8 little in evidence -ere. :-is is in Reepin% 3it- t-e %eneral c-aracter o# t-e style. :-e .anner o# presentin% ideas8 -o3ever8 5rin%s t-is style closer to t-at o# 5elles= lettres8 in t-is case to e.otive prose8 as it is to a certain extent individual. Naturally8 o# course8 essays and speec-es -ave %reater individuality t-an ne3spaper or .a%aSine

articles 3-ere t-e individual ele.ent is %enerally toned do3n and li.ited 5y t-e re9uire.ents o# t-e style8 "urt-er8 pu5licistic style is c-aracteriSed 5y 5revity o# expression. In so.e varieties o# t-is style it 5eco.es a leadin% #eature8 an i.portant lin%uistic .eans. In essays 5revity so.eti.es 5eco.es epi%ra..atic.
9. ORATORY AND SPEEC#ES

:-e oratorical s ty I e o# lan%ua%e is t-e oral su5division o# t-e pu5licistic style. It -as already 5een pointed out t-at persuasion is t-e .ost o5vious purpose o# oratory. L,ratorical speec-L8 3rites *. 2ote5nya8 LseeRs not only to secure t-e understandin% and di%estin% o# t-e idea8 5ut also serves / si.ultaneously as a sprin% settin% o## a .ood (3-ic- is t-e ai.) t-at .ay lead to action.L l Direct contact 3it- t-e listeners per.its a co.5ination o# t-e syntactical8 lexical and p-onetic peculiarities o# 5ot- t-e 3ritten and spoRen varieties o# lan%ua%e. In its leadin% #eatures8 -o3ever8 oratorical style 5elon%s to t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e8 t-ou%- it is .odi#ied 5y t-e oral #or. o# t-e utterance and t-e use o# %estures. 4ertain typical #eatures o# t-e spoRen variety o# speec- present in t-is style are; direct address to t-e audience (ladies and %entle.en8 -onoura5le .e.5er(s)8 t-e use o# t-e 2nd person pronoun you8 etc.)8 so.eti.es contractions (I&II8 3on&t8 -aven&t8 isn&t and8ot-ers) and t-e use o# collo9uial 3ords. :-is style is evident in speec-es on political and social pro5le.s o# t-e day8 in orations and addresses on sole.n occasions8 as pu5lic 3eddin%s8 #unerals and Gu5ilees8 in ser.ons and de5ates and also in t-e speec-es&o# counsel and Gud%es in courts o# la3. 2olitical speec-es #all into t3o cate%ories; parlia.entary de5ates8 and speec-es at rallies8 con%resses8 .eetin%s and election ca.pai%ns. Ser.ons deal .ostly 3it- reli%ious su5Gects8 et-ics and .oralityC so.eti.es no3adays t-ey taRe up social and political pro5le.s as 3ell. ,rations on sole.n pu5lic occasions are typical speci.ens o# t-is style and not a #e3 o# t-eir 3ord se9uences and p-rases are ready=.ade p-rases or clic-es. :-e sp-ere o# application o# oratory is con#ined to an appeal to an audience and t-ere#ore crucial issues in suc- sp-eres as science8 art8 literature8 or 5usiness relations are not touc-ed upon except per-aps 5y allusion. .I# suc- XmVg\ are dealt 3it- in oratorical style t-e e##ect is -u.orous. :-e #ollo3in% extract #ro. L2ost-u.ous 2apers o# t-e 2icR3icR 4lu5L 5y 4-arles DicRens is 0 parody o# an oration. c L+ut I trust8 SirL8 said 2ott8 Lt-at I -ave never a5used t-e enor.ous po3er I 3ield. I trust8 Sir8 t-at I -ave never pointed t-e no5le instru.ent 3-ic- is placed in .y -ands8 a%ainst t-e sacred 5oso. o# private li#e8 o# t-e tender 5reast o# individual reputationCc I trust8 Sir8 t-at I -ave devoted .y ener%ies tocto endeavoursc-u.5le t-ey .ay 5e8 -u.5le I Rno3 t-ey arecto instil t-ose principles o#c3-ic-carec.L c >ere t-e editor o# t-e Eatons3ill GaSette appearin% to ra.5le8 Mr. 2icR3icR ca.e to -is relie#8 and said c L4ertainly.Lc

:-e stylistic devices e.ployed in oratorical style are deter.ined 5y t-e conditions o# co..unication. I# t-e desire o# t-e speaRer is to rouse t-e audience and to Reep it in suspense8 -e 3ill use various traditional stylistic devices. +ut undue pro.inence %iven to8t-e #or. .ay lead to an exa%%erated use o# t-ese devices8 to e.5ellis-.ent. :radition is very po3er#ul in oratorical style and t-e 11t- century r-etorical principles laid do3n 5y :-o.as ?ilson in -is L*rte o# B-e=tori9ueL are so.eti.es still used in .odern oratory8 t-ou%-8 on t-e 3-ole8 .odern oratory tends to lo3er its Rey .ore and .ore8 con#inin% itsel# to a 9uiet 5usiness=liRe exposition o# ideas. Stylistic devices are closely inter3oven and .utually co.ple.entary t-us 5uildin% up an intricate pattern. "or exa.ple8 antit-esis is #ra.ed 5y parallel constructions8 3-ic-8 in t-eir turn8 are acco.panied 5y repetition8 3-ile cli.ax can 5e #or.ed 5y repetitions o# di##erent Rinds. *s t-e audience rely only on .e.ory8 t-e speaRer o#ten resorts to repetitions to ena5le -is listeners to #ollo3 -i. and retain t-e .ain points o# -is speec-. Bepetition is also resorted to in order to convince t-e audience8 to add 3ei%-t to t-e speaRer&s opinion. :-e #ollo3in% extract #ro. t-e speec- o# t-e *.erican 4on#ederate %eneral8 *. 2. >ill8 on t-e endin% o# t-e 4ivil ?ar in t-e M.S.*. is an exa.ple o# anap-oric repetition; LIt is -i%- ti.e t-is people -ad recovered #ro. t-e passions o# 3ar. It is -i%- ti.e t-at counsel 3ere taRen #ro. states.en) not de.a%o%ues&... It is -i%- ti.e t-e people o# t-e Nort- and t-e Sout- understood eac- ot-er and adopted .eans to inspire con#idence in eac- ot-er.L "urt-er8 anadiplosis is used; L:-e Sout- 3ill not secede a%ain. :-at 3as -er %reat #ollyc #olly a%ainst -er o3n interest8 not 3ron% a%ainst you. * .ere repetition o# t-e sa.e idea and in t-e sa.e lin%uistic #or. .ay 5ore= t-e audience and destroy t-e speaRer=audience contact8 t-ere#ore synony.ic p-rase repetition is used instead8 t-us #ill&in% up t-e speec- 3it- details and e.5ellis-in% it8 as in t-is excerpt #ro. a speec- on Bo5ert +urns; L"or +urns exalted our race8 -e -allo3ed Scotland and t-e Scottis- ton%ue. +e#ore -is ti.e 3e -ad #vr a lon% period 5een scarcely reco%niSed&8 3e -ad 5een #allin% out o# t-e recollection o# t-e 3orld. "ro. t-e ti.e o# t-e Mnion o# t-e 4ro3ns8 and still .ore #ro. t-e le%islative union8 Scotland -ad lapsed into o5scurity. Except #or an occasional riot or a Aaco5ite risin%8 -er existence 3as al.ost #or%otten.L >ere synony.ic p-rase repetition (&5een scarcely reco%niSed&8 &#allin% out o# t-e recollection o# t-e 3orld&8 &-ad lapsed into o5scurity18 &-er existence 3as al.ost #or%otten&) is coupled 3it- cli.ax. Bepetition can 5e re%arded as t-e .ost typical stylistic device o# En%lis- oratorical style. *l.ost any piece o# oratory 3ill -ave parallel constructions8 antit-esis8 suspense8 cli.ax8 r-etorical 9uestions and 9uestions=in=t-e=narrative. It 3ill 5e no exa%%eration to say t-at al.ost all t-e typical syntactical stylistic devices can 5e

#ound in En%lis- oratory. Ouestions are .ost #re9uent 5ecause t-ey pro.ote closer contact 3it- t-e audience. :-e c-an%e o# intonation 5reaRs t-e .onotony o# t-e intonation pattern and revives t-e attention o# t-e listeners. :-e desire o# t-e speaRer to convince and to rouse -is audience results in t-e use o# si.ile and .etap-or8 5ut t-ese are %enerally traditional ones8 as #res- and %enuine stylistic devices .ay divert t-e attention o# t-e listeners a3ay #ro. t-e .ain point o# t-e speec-. +esides8 unexpected and ori%inal i.a%es are .ore di##icult to %rasp and t-e process taRes ti.e. I# a %enuine .etap-or is used 5y an orator8 it is usually a sustained one8 as a series o# related i.a%es is easier to %rasp and #acilitates t-e conception o# #acts identi#ied one 3it- anot-er. *llusions in oratorical style depend on t-e content o# t-e speec- and t-e level o# t-e audience. Special o5li%atory #or.s open up and end an oration8 e.%. My $ordsC Mr. 2residentC Mr. 4-air.anC wour ?ors-ipC $adies and Gentle.en8 etc. *t t-e end o# -is speec- t-e speaRer usually t-anRs t-e audience #or t-eir attention 5y sayin%; :-anR you or :-anR you very .uc-. Expressions o# direct address .ay 5e repeated in t-e course o# t-e speec- and can 5e expressed di##erently; dear #riends8 .y #riends8 MarR youl8 Mindl >ere is a sa.ple o# t-e speec- .ade 5y a .e.5er o# t-e >ouse o# 4o..ons in 2arlia.ent in *pril 19 1 3-en t-e pro5le. o# air pollution 3as discussed. It is an ordinary speec- al.ost devoid o# any si%ns o# elevation so typical 3-en t-e orator tries to convince t-e audience. L:-ere -as 5een a tre.endous c-an%e in t-e Minister&s attitude since t-e +ill 3as #irst 5rou%-t Ao t-e >ouse. ?-en 3e e.5arRed upon t-e 4o..ittee sta%e 3e 3ere 5e%%in% #or 5read and -e %ave us a stone. No38 see.in%ly8 3-en 3e are co.in% to t-e end o# 8 t-e #east -e is puttin% .any s3eats in #ront o# us. :-e Minister -opes t-at 3e s-all accept t-is proposal 3it-out too critical an exa.ination. ?-ile 3elco.in% t-e Minister&s proposals a5out t-e 4lean *ir 4ouncil up to a po#tit8 t-ere s-ould 5e no inter#erence 3it- t-e council&s accounta5ility to 2arlia.ent 5ecause t-e c-air.an o# t-e council 3ill 5e t-e Minister. ?-en t-e -on. Me.5er #or uidder.inster (Mr. Na5arro) introduced a 2rivate +ill8 t-e Minister consulted at %reat len%t- 3it- interested 5odies8 and particularly 3it- local aut-orities. It is 3it-in .y Rno3led%e t-at durin% t-ose consultations su%%estions 3ere .ade to -i. 5y people 3-o -ad practical experience. :-ose su%%estions -ave not 5een accepted and 3oven into t-e +ill. I do not 3ant t-e 4lean *ir 4ouncil to 5eco.e a Rind o# s.oRescreen 5e-ind 3-ic- t-e Minister .aRes a report to -is o3n liRin% and 3-ic- .ay contain vie3s at variance 3it- t-ose o# .e.5ers o# t-e council8 It is essential8 i# t-e council is to 5e e##ective8 t-at it includes people 3-o are interested and 3-o -ave t-e Rno3led%e and 3-o -ave undertaRen t-e scienti#ic researc- involved. It .ust 5e re.e.5ered t-at t-ey 3ill -ave a %reat deal .ore Rno3led%e o# t-e su5Gect t-an 3ill t-e c-air.an o# t-e council. :-ey 3ill8 t-ere#ore8

-ave a totally di##erent point o# vie3 a5out 3-at is -appenin% in t-e country t-an 3ill t-e Minister. ?e s-ould provide t-at 3e -ave t-e unco.pro.isin% opinions o# t-e .e.5ers o# t-e council8 includin% t-ose .e.5ers appointed to it 5ecause o# t-eir Rno3led%e o# t-e pro5le.s o# various localities. *not-er point 3it- 3-ic- I 3ant to deal 3as touc-ed upon 5y t-e -on. Me.5er #or uidder.inster. Durin% t-e 4o..ittee sta%e 3e de5ated at %reat len%t- t-e topic o# researc- into noxious #u.es8 especially sulp-uric oxides. ?e especially pleaded t-at t-e 4lean *ir 4ouncil s-ould -ave co=ordinatin% po3ers so t-at it could co=ordinate t-e activities o# 5odies conductin% researc- into pro5le.s o# oxides and noxious #u.es. Indeed8 3e t-ou%-t t-at t-e Minister&s opinion upon t-at su5Gect 3as t-e sa.e as ours. *s t-e +ill is no3 dra#ted8 certain po3ers are %iven to local aut-orities to contri5ute to3ards t-e cost o# investi%ation and researc- into t-e pollution o# t-e air. ?e Rno3 t-at scienti#ic and tec-nical institutes and t-e #uel tec-nolo%y sections o# so.e universities are conductin% researc- into t-e pro5le. o# sulp-uric pollutionC yet 3e do not see any po3er %iven to t-e 4lean *ir 4ouncil to deal 3it- t-e pro5le. o# sulp-uric oxides8 even t-ou%- sulp-uric pollution is one o# t-e 3orst #or.s o# air pollution. ?ill t-e Minister %ive us an assurance t-at -e 3ill specially direct t-e attention o# t-e 4lean *ir 4ouncil to its duties in co=ordinatin% researc- into t-e pro5= le. o# sulp-uric oxidesz ?ill -e at t-e sa.e ti.e looR a%ain at t-e pro5le. o# 2arlia.entary accounta5ility to .aRe it possi5le #or t-e council to %ive an annual report to t-e >ouse8 irrespective o# t-e opinions o# t-e MinisterzL :-e orna.ental ele.ents in t-is speec- are reduced to t-e .ini.u.. It is a .atter=o#= #act speec- 3-ere no -i%-=#lo3n 3ords or ela5orate stylistic devices are to 5e #ound. It 3ill 5e o# considera5le interest to co.pare t-is speec- to +yron=&s Maiden Speecin t-e >ouse o# $ords in de#ence o# t-e $uddites8 3-ic- can 5e re%arded as a per#ect speci.en o# oratorical style. +yron used -is elo9uence a%ainst t-e +ill providin% capital punis-.ent #or t-e destruction o# .ac-ines. >is purpose 3as to prevent t-e passa%e o# t-e +ill8 to %et an i.partial exa.ination o# t-e #acts. +yron&s speec- is ric- in oratorical devices. *ll t-ese devices are .otivated8 t-ey are or%anically connected 3it- t-e utterance; t-e #or. 5y no .eans do.inates t-e content. In contradistinction8 an exa.ination o# t-e #ollo3in% speec- 3ill s-o3 t-at it is practically devoid 11 .eanin%. :-e speaRer is .erely seeRin% an e##ect. LMr. 4-air.an8 $adies and Gentle.en; It is indeed a %reat and undeserved privile%e to address suc- an audience as I see 5e#ore .e. *t no previous ti.e in t-e -istory o# -u.an civiliSation -ave %reater pro5le.s con#ronted and c-allen%ed t-e in%enuity o# .an&s intellect t-an no3. $et us looR around us. ?-at do 3e see on t-e -oriSonz ?-at #orces are at 3orRz ?-it-er are 3e dri#tin%z Mnder 3-at .ist o# clouds does t-e #uture stand o5scuredz My #riends8 castin% aside t-e rai.ent o# all -u.an speec-8 t-e crucial test #or t-e solution o# all t-ese intricate pro5le.s to 3-ic- I -ave Gust alluded is t-e s-eer and #orce#ul application o# t-ose i..uta5le la3s 3-ic- do3n t-e corridor o# :i.e -ave

al3ays %uided t-e -and o# .an8 %ropin%8 as it 3ere8 #or so.e #aint 5eacon li%-t #or -is -opes and aspirations. ?it-out t-ese %reat vital principles 3e are 5ut puppets respondin% to 3-i. and #ancy8 #ailin% entirely to %rasp t-e -idden .eanin% o# it all. ?e .ust re=address ourselves to t-ese 9uestions 3-ic- press #or ans3er and solution. :-e issues cannot 5e avoided. :-ere t-ey stand. It is.upon you8 and you8 and yet even upon .e8 t-at t-e yoRe o# responsi5ility #alls. ?-at8 t-en8 is our dutyz S-all 3e continue to dri#tz NoK ?it- all t-e e.p-asis o# .y 5ein% I -url 5acR t-e .essa%e NoK Dri#tin% .ust stop. ?e .ust press on3ard and up3ard to3ard t-e ulti.ate %oal to 3-ic- all .ust aspire. +ut I cannot conclude .y re.arRs8 dear #riends8 3it-out touc-in% 5rie#ly upon a su5Gect 3-ic- I Rno3 is steeped in your very consciousness. I re#er to t-at spirit 3-ic%lea.s #ro. t-e eyes o# a ne3=5orn 5a5e8 t-at ani.ates t-e toilin% .asses8 t-at s3ays all t-e -osts o# -u.anity past and present. ?it-out t-is ener%iSin% principle all co..erce8 trade and industry are.-us-ed and 3ill peris- #ro. .t-is eart- as surely as t-e cri.son sunset #ollo3s t-e %olden suns-ine. 0L MarR you8 I do not seeR to unduly alar. or distress t-e .ot-ers8 #at-ers8 sons and dau%-ters %at-ered 5e#ore .e in t-is vast asse.5la%e8 5ut I 3ould indeed 5e recreant to a -i%- resolve 3-ic- I .ade as a yout- i# I did not at t-is ti.e and in t-is place8 and 3it- t-e #ull realiSin% sense o# responsi5ility 3-ic- I assu.e8 pu5licly declare and a##ir. .y dedication and=.y consecration to t-e eternal principles Land receipts o# si.ple8 ordinary8 co..onplace Gustice.L l :-e proper evaluation o# t-is speec- s-ould 5e; L?ords8 3ords8 3ords.L :-e 3-ole speec- is .ade to -ide t-e #act t-at t-e speaRer -as no t-ou%-t. Ouestions re.ain unans3ered8 cli.axes are not .otivated. ?-at is t-e su5Gect t-at &cannot 5e le#t untouc-ed&z :-is is really a .asterpiece o# elo9uent e.ptiness and ver5osity.
2. T#E ESSAY

*s a separate #or. o# En%lis- literature t-e essay dates #ro. t-e close o# t-e 11tcentury. :-e na.e appears to -ave 5eco.e co..on on t-e pu5lication o# Montai%ne&s LEssaysL8 a literary #or. created 5y t-is "renc- 3riter. :-e essay is a literary co.position o# .oderate len%t- on p-ilosop-ical8 social8 aest-etic or literary su5Gects. It never %oes deep into t-e su5Gect8 5ut .erely touc-es upon t-e sur#ace. 2ersonality in t-e treat.ent o# t-e.e and naturalness o# expression are t3o o# t-e .ost o5vious c-aracteristics o# t-e essay. *n e s s _ a is rat-er a series o# personal and 3itty co..ents t-an a #inis-ed ar%u.ent or a conclusive exa.ination o# any .atter. :-is literary %enre -as de#inite lin%uistic traits 3-ic- s-ape it as a variety o# pu5licistic style. >ere is a part o# an essay 5y +en Aonson 3-ic- illustrates t-is style in its .ost typicarl and ori%inal #or. as it 3as at t-e end o# t-e 11t- century; L$an%ua%e .ost s-o3s a .anC speaR8 t-at I .ay see t-ee. It sprin%s out o# t-e .ost retired and in.ost parts o# us8 and is t-e i.a%e o# t-e parent o# it8 t-e .ind. No %lass renders a .an&s #or. or liReness so true8 as -is speec-. Nay8 it is liRened .to a .anC and as 3e consider #eature and co.position in a .an8 so 3ords in lan%ua%eC in t-e

%reatness8 aptness8 sound8 structure8 and -ar.ony o# it. So.e .en are tall and 5i%8 so so.e lan%ua%e is -i%- and %reat..:-en t-e 3ords are c-osen8 t-e sound a.ple8 t-e co.position #ull8 t-e a5solution plenteous8 and poured out8 all %race8 sine3y and stron%. So.e are little and d3ar#sC so o# speec-8 it is -u.5le and lo3C t-e 3ords are poor and #latC t-e .e.5ers are periods t-in and 3eaR8 3it-out Rnittin% or nu.5er. :-e .iddle are o# Gust stature. :-ere t-e lan%ua%e is plain and pleasin%; even 3it-out stoppin%8 round 3it-out s3ellin%C all 3ell turned8 co.posed8 elo9uent8 and accurate. :-e vicious lan%ua%e is vast and %apin%C s3ellin% and irre%ularC 3-en it contends8 -i%-8 #ull o# rocR8 .ountain and pointednessC as it a##ects to 5e lo3 it is a5Gect and creeps8 #ull o# 5o%s and -oles.L :-e essay 3as very popular in t-e 17t- and 1@t- centuries. In t-e 17t- century essays 3ere 3ritten on topics connected 3it- .orals and et-ics8 3-ile t-ose o# t-e 1@tcentury #ocussed attention on political and p-ilosop-ical pro5le.s. :-e 1@t- century 3as t-e %reat a%e o# essay 3ritin%. It 3as t-en t-e principal literary #or.8 and discoursed on t-e i.portant su5Gects o# t-e day8 o#ten=criticiSin% t-e s-ortco.in%s o# t-e/ political and social syste. in En%land. LEncyclopedia +ritannicaL states t-at t-e essay 5eca.e a do.inant #orce in En%lis- literature o# t-e 1@t- century. :-e #ollo3in% state.ent o# an 1@t- century essayist is o# so.e interest as it descri5es t-e c-aracter o# t-e essay; L?e 3riters o# essays or (as t-ey are ter.ed) periodical papersL... :-is state.ent s-o3s t-at periodical papers at t-at ti.e contained only essays. In t-e 19t- century t-e essay as a literary ter. %radually c-an%ed into 3-at 3e no3 call t-e Gournalistic article or #eature article 3-iccovers all Rinds o# su5Gects #ro. politics8 p-ilosop-y or aest-etics to travel8 sport and #as-ions. "eature articles are %enerally pu5lis-ed in ne3spapers8 especially 3eeRlies and Sunday editions. :-ey are o#ten 3ritten 5y one and t-e sa.e 3riter or Gournalist8 3-o -as cultivated -is o3n individual style. :-e .ost c-aracteristic lan%ua%e #eatures o# t-e essay8 -o3ever8 re.ain 1) 5revity o# expression8 reac-in% in %ood 3riters a de%ree o# epi%ra..aticalness8 2) t-e use o# t-e #irst person sin%ular8 3-ic- Gusti#ies a personal approac- to t-e pro5le.s treated8 !) a rat-er expanded use o# connectives8 3-ic- #acilitate t-e process o# %raspin% t-e correlation o# ideas8 ') t-e a5undant use o# e.otive 3ords8 ) t-e use o# si.iles and sustained .etap-ors as one o# t-e .edia #or t-e co%nitive process. It is in t-e interrelation o# t-ese constituents t-at t-e real secret o# t-e essay su5style consists. So.e essays8 dependin% on t-e 3riter&s individuality8 are 3ritten in a -i%-ly e.otional .anner rese.5lin% t-e style o# e.otive prose8 ot-ers rese.5le scienti#ic prose8 and t-e ter.s revie38 g i g V i r or trea tise are .ore applica5le to certain .ore ex-austive studies. l :-e essay on .oral and p-ilosop-ical topics in .odern ti.es -as not 5een so popular8 per-aps 5ecause a deeper scienti#ic analysis and interpretation o# #acts is re9uired. :-e essay in our days is o#ten 5io%rap-icalC persons8 #acts and events are taRen #ro. li#e. :-ese essays di##er #ro. t-ose o# previous centuries c t-eir voca5ulary is

si.pler and so is t-eir lo%ical structure and ar%u.entation. +ut t-ey still retain all t-e leadin% #eatures o# t-e pu5licistic style. In co.parison 3it- oratorical style8 t-e essay ai.s at a .ore lastin%8 -ence8 at a slo3er e##ect. Epi%ra.s8 paradoxes and ap-oris.s are co.paratively rare in oratory8 as t-ey re9uire t-e concentrated attention o# t-e listener. In t-e essay t-ey are co..oner8 #or t-e reader -as opportunity to .aRe a care#ul and detailed study 5ot- o# t-e content o# t-e utterance and its #or.. :-e close rese.5lance in structure05et3een t-e essay and t-e oration -as .ore t-an once 5een e.p-asiSed 5y lin%uists. :-e .ain di##erence 5et3een t-e. is very 3ell su..ariSed 5y >. Bo55ins and B. ,liver in t-eir 3orR LDevelopin% Ideas into Essays and Speec-es.L L...an essay is distin%uis-ed #ro. a speec- pri.arily 5y t-e #act t-at t-e essay seeRs a lastin%8 t-e speec- an i..ediate e##ect. :-e essay .ust -ave aL dept- o#6 .eanin% 3-ic- 3ill repay t-e closest analysis and #re9uent rereadin% ... t-e 5asic re9uire.ent o# a %ood speec- is t-at it carry i..ediately into t-e .ind o# its -earer precisely t-e point 3-ic-= t-e speaRer 3is-es to .aRe.L2 :-ere#ore 3riters say t-atL... t-e speaRer is allo3ed .uc- .ore lee3ay in sentence structure t-an t-e 3riter.L0 In su..in% up t-e c-aracteristics o# t-e essay it 3ill not co.e a.iss to %ive t-e #ollo3in% epi%ra..atic de#inition; L:-e Essay is not a treatise. It is not Euclid8 it is #las-=li%-t. It is not proo#8 it is representation. It is a c-atC t-e Rey=note to t-e essay is its personality.L
3. 3OURNALISTIC ARTICLES

Irrespective o# t-e c-aracter o# t-e .a%aSine and t-e diver%ence o# su5Gect .atterc 3-et-er it is political8 literary8 popular=scienti#ic or satirical8 all t-e already .entioned #eatures o# pu5licistic style are to 5e #ound in any article. :-e c-aracter o# t-e .a%aSine as 3ell as t-e su5Gect c-osen a##ects t-e c-oice and use o# stylistic devices. ?ords o# e.otive .eanin%8 #or exa.ple8 are #e38 i# any8 in popular scienti#ic articles. :-eir exposition is .ore consistent and t-e syste. o# connectives .ore expanded t-an8=say8 in a satirical article. :-e lan%ua%e o# political .a%aSine articles di##ers little #ro. t-at o# ne3spaper articles as descri5ed in t-e c-apter on Ne3spaper Style (see 5elo3). +ut sucele.ents o# pu5licistic style as rare and 5ooRis- 3ords8 neolo%is.s (3-ic- so.eti.es re9uire explanation in t-e text)8 traditional 3ord=co.5inations and parent-esis are .ore #re9uent -ere t-an in ne3spaper articles. In an article dealin% 3it- 3-at 3ere #ort-co.in% presidential elections e in t-e MS*8 3-ic- it is i.possi5le to 9uote -ere 5ecause o# its len%t-8 L 3e #ind suc- 5ooRis- and -i%-#lo3n 3ords as=a.5ivalent8 ex-ilarated8 appalled8 etc. Its ar%u.entation and e.otional appeal is ac-ieved 5y e.p-atic constructions o# di##erent Rinds; &-o3 di. t-e outlooR #or victory 3as&8 &Stevenson is anyt-in% 5ut an irresponsi5le .an&8 &it could 3ell -ave 5een8 t-ou%-&...8 &-e is at once ex-ilarated and appalled&/ >u.orous e##ect is

produced 5y t-e use o# 3ords and p-rases 3-ic- nor.ally are out o# t-e ran%e o# t-is sort o# article; .elanc-oly8 %raciously8 extendin% -is 5est 3is-es8 and 5y perip-rases. $iterary revie3s stand closer to essays 5ot- 5y t-eir content and 5y t-eir lin%uistic #or.. More a5stract 3ords o# lo%ical .eanin% are used in t-e.8 t-ey o#ten resort to e.otional lan%ua%e and less #re9uently to traditional set expressions. C. NE)SPAPER STYLE Ne3spaper style 3as t-e last o# all t-e styles o# 3ritten literary En%lis- to 5e reco%niSed as a speci#ic #or. o# 3ritin% standin% apart #ro. ot-er #or.s. En%lis- ne3spaper 3ritin% dates #ro. t-e 17t- century. *t t-e close o# t-e 11tcentury s-ort ne3s pa.p-lets 5e%an to appear. *ny suc- pu5lication eit-er presented ne3s #ro. only one source or dealt 3it- one speci#ic su5Gect. Note t-e titles o# so.e o# t-e earliest ne3s pa.p-lets; LNe3e ne3es8 containin% a s-ort re-earsal o# StuRely&s and Morice&s Be5ellionL (1 79)8 LNe3es #ro. Spain and >ollandL (1 9!)8 L?onder#ul and stran%e ne3es out o# Su##olRe and Essex8 3-ere it rayned 3-eat 8t-e space o# six or seven .ilesL (1 @!). Ne3s pa.p-lets appeared only #ro. ti.e to ti.e and cannot 5e classed as ne3spapers8 t-ou%- t-ey 3ere un9uestiona5ly t-e i..ediate #orerunners o# t-e +ritis- press. :-e #irst o# any re%ular series o# En%lis- ne3spapers 3as t-e ?eeRly Ne3s 3-ic#irst appeared on May 2!8 1122. It lasted #or so.e t3enty years till in 11'1 it ceased pu5lication. :-e 17t- century sa3 t-e rise o# a nu.5er o# ot-er ne3s s-eets 3-ic-8 3it- varyin% success8 stru%%led on in t-e teet- o# discoura%e.ent and restrictions i.posed 5y t-e 4ro3n. ?it- t-e introduction o# a strict licensin% syste. .any sucs-eets 3ere suppressed8 and t-e Govern.ent8 in its turn8 set 5e#ore t-e pu5lic a paper o# its o3nc:-e $ondon GaSette8 #irst pu5lis-ed on "e5ruary 8 1111. :-e paper 3as a se.i=3eeRly and carried o##icial in#or.ation8 royal decrees8 ne3s #ro. a5road8 and advertise.ents. :-e #irst En%lis- daily ne3spaperct-e Daily 4ourantc 3as 5rou%-t out on Marc118 1772. :-e paper carried ne3s8 lar%ely #orei%n8 and no co..ent8 t-e latter 5ein% a%ainst t-e principles o# t-e pu5lis-er8 as 3as stated in t-e #irst issue o# -is paper. :-us t-e early En%lis- ne3spaper 3as principally a ve-icle o# in#or.ation. 4o..entary as a re%ular #eature #ound its 3ay into t-e ne3spapers later. +ut as #ar 5acR as t-e .iddle o# t-e 1@t- century t-e +ritis- ne3spaper 3as very .uc- liRe 3-at it is today8 carryin% on its pa%es ne3s8 5ot- #orei%n and do.estic8 advertise.ents8 announce.ents and articles containin% co..ents. :-e rise o# t-e *.erican ne3spaper8 3-ic- 3as 5rou%-t onto *.erican soil 5y +ritis- settlers8 dates 5acR to t-e late 17t-8 early 1@t- centuries. It tooR t-e En%lis- ne3spaper .ore t-an a century to esta5lis- a style and a standard o# its o3n. *nd it is only 5y t-e 19t- century t-at ne3spaper En%lis- .ay 5e said to -ave developed into a syste. o# lan%ua%e .edia8 #or.in% a separate #unctional style. :-e speci#ic conditions o#..ne3spaper pu5lication8 t-e restrictions o# ti.e and

space80-ave le#t [W .indeli5le .arR on ne3spaper En%lis-. "or .ore t-an a century 3riters arid lin%uists -ave 5een vi%orously8 attacRin% Lt-e slips-od construction and t-e vul%ar voca5ularyL o# ne3spaper En%lis-. :-e very ter. ne3spaper En%liscarried a s-ade o# dispara%e.ent. wet8 #or all t-e de#ects o# ne3spaper En%lis-8 serious t-ou%- t-ey .ay 5e8 t-is #orr9 o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e cannot 5e reduced c as so.e .purists -ave clai.ed c .erely to careless slovenly 3ritin% or to a distorted literary En%lis-. :-is is one o# t-e #or.s o# t-e En%lis- literary lan%ua%e c-aracteriSedc as any ot-er style c 5y a de#inite co..unicative ainrand its o3n syste. o# lan%ua%e .eans. . J Not all t-e printed .atter #ound in ne3spapers co.es under ne3spaper style. :-e .odern ne3spaper carries .aterial o# an extre.ely diverse c-aracter. ,n t-e pa%es o# a ne3spaper one #inds not only ne3s and co..ent on it8 press reports and articles8 advertise.ents and announce.ents8 5ut also stories and poe.s8 cross3ord puSSles8 c-ess pro5le.s and t-e liRe. Since t-e latter serve t-e purpose o# entertainin% t-e reader8 t-ey cannot 5e considered speci.ens o# ne3spaper style. It is ne3spaper printed .atter t-at per#or.s t-e #unction o# in#or.in% t-e reader and providin% -i. 3it- an evaluation o# t-e in#or.ation pu5lis-ed t-at can 5e re%arded as 5elon%in% to ne3spaper style. :-us8 En%lis- ne3spaper style .ay 5e de#ined as a syste. o# interrelated lexical8 p-raseolo%ical and %ra..atical .eans 3-ic- is perceived 5y t-e co..unity as a separate lin%uistic unity t-at serves t-e purpose o# in#or.in% and instructin% t-e reader. In#or.ation and evaluation co=exist in t-e .odern En%lis- ne3spaper8 and it is only in ter.s o# diac-rony t-at t-e #unction o# in#or.ation can clai. priority. In #act8 all Rinds o# ne3spaper 3ritin% are to a %reater or lesser de%ree 5ot- in#or.ative and evaluative. +ut8 o# course8 it is o5vious t-at in .ost o# t-e 5asic ne3spaper L%enresL one o# t-e t3o #unctions prevailsC t-us8 #or exa.ple8 ne3s o# all Rinds is essentially in#or.ative8 3-ereas t-e editorial is 5asically evaluative. In#or.ation in t-e En%lis- ne3spaper is conveyed8 in t-e #irst place8 t-rou%- t-e= .ediu. o#; 1) 5rie#&ne3s ite.s8 2) press reports (parlia.entary8 o# court proceedin%s8 etc.)8 !) articles purely in#or.ational in c-aracter8 ') advertise.ents and announce.ents. :-e ne3spaper also seeRs to in#luence pu5lic opinion on political and ot-er L.atters. Ele.ents o# appraisal .ay 5e o5served in t-e very selection and 3ay o# presentation o# ne3s8 in t-e use o# speci#ic voca5ulary8 suc- as alle%e and clai.8 castin% so.e dou5t on t-e #acts reported8 and syntactic constructions indicatin% a lacR o# assurance on t-e part o# t-e reporter as to t-e correctness o# t-e #acts reported or -is desire to avoid responsi5ility (#or exa.ple8 &Mr. 3as said to -ave opposed t-e proposal&C &Mr. 3as 9uoted as sayin%...&. :-e -eadlines o# ne3s ite.s8 apart #ro. %ivin% in#or.ation a5out t-e su5Gect=.atter8 also carry a considera5le a.ount o# appraisal

(t-e siSe and arran%e.ent o# t-e -eadline8 t-e use o# e.otionally coloured 3ords and ele.ents o# e.otive syntax)8 t-us indicatin% t-e interpretation o# t-e #acts in t-e ne3s ite. t-at #ollo3s. +ut8 o# course8 t-e principal ve-icle o# interpretation and appraisal is t-e ne3spaper article8 and t-e editorial in particular. Editorials (leadin% articles or leaders) are c-aracteriSed 5y a su5Gective -andlin% o# #acts8 political or ot-er3ise. :-ey -ave .uc- in co..on 3it- classical speci.ens o# pu5licistic 3ritin% and are o#ten looRed upon as suc-. >o3ever8 ne3spaper evaluative 3ritin% un.istaRa5ly 5ears t-e sta.p o# ne3spaper style. :-us8 it see.s natural to re%ard ne3spaper articles8 editorials included8 as co.in% 3it-in t-e syste. o# En%lis- ne3spaper style. +ut it s-ould 5e noted t-at 3-ile editorials and ot-er articles in opinion colu.ns are predo.inantly evaluative8 ne3spaper #eature articles8 as a rule8 carry a considera5le a.ount o# in#or.ation8 and t-e ratio o# t-e in#or.ative and t-e evaluative varies su5stantially #ro. article to article. :o understand t-e lan%ua%e peculiarities o# En%lis- ne3spaper style it 3ill 5e su##icient to analyse t-e #ollo3in% 5asic ne3spaper #eatures; 1) 5rie# ne3s ite.s8 2) advertise.ents and announce.ents8 !) t-e -eadline8 ') t-e editorial.
9. "RIEF NE%S ITEMS

:-e principal #unction o# a 5 r i e # ne3s i te g is to in#or. t-e reader. It states #acts 3it-out %ivin% explicit co..ents8 and 3-atever evaluation t-ere is in ne3s para%rap-s is #or t-e .ost part i.plicit and as a rule une.otional. Ne3s ite.s are essentially .atter=o#=#act8 and stereotyped #or.s o# expression prevail. *s an invariant8 t-e lan%ua%e o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s is stylistically neutral8 3-ic- see.s to 5e in Reepin% 3it- t-e alle%edly neutral and un5iased nature o# ne3spaper reportin%C in practice8 -o3ever8 departures #ro. t-is principle o# stylistic neutrality (especially in t-e so=called L.ass papersL) are 9uite co..on. It %oes 3it-out sayin% t-at t-e 5ulR o# t-e voca5ulary used in ne3spaper 3ritin% is neutral and co..on literary. +ut apart #ro. t-is8 ne3spaper style -as its speci#ic voca5ulary #eatures and is c-aracteriSed 5y an extensive use o#; a) Special political and econo.ic ter.s8 e. %. Socialis.8 constitution8 president8 apart-eid8 5y=election8 General *sse.5ly8 %ross output8 per capita production. 5) Non=ter. political voca5ulary8 e. %. pu5lic8 people8 pro%ressive8 nation=3ide8 unity8 peace8 * c-aracteristic #eature o# political voca5ulary is t-at t-e 5order line 5et3een ter.s and non=ter.s is less distinct t-an in t-e voca5ulary o# ot-er special #ields. :-e se.antic structure o# so.e 3ords co.prises 5ot- ter.s and non=ter.s8 e. %. nation8 crisis8 a%ree.ent8 .e.5er8 representative8 leader. c) Ne3spaper clic-es8 i. e. stereotyped expressions8 co..onplace p-rases #a.iliar to t-e readert e. %. vital issue8 pressin% pro5le.8 in#or.ed sources8 dan%er o# 3ar8 to escalate a 3ar8 3ar -ysteria8 over3-el.in% .aGority8 a.id stor.y appiause. 4lic-es

.ore t-an anyt-in% else re#lect t-e traditional .anner o# expression in ne3spaper 3ritin%. :-ey are co..only looRed upon as a de#ect o# style. Indeed8 so.e clic-es8 especially t-ose 5ased on trite i.a%es (e.%. captains o# industry8 pillars o# society8 5ul3arR o# civiliSation) are po.pous and -acRneyed8 ot-ers8 suc- as 3el#are state8 a##luent society00are #alse and .isleadin%. +ut nevert-eless8 clic-es are indispensa5le in ne3spaper style; t-ey pro.pt t-e necessary associations and prevent a.5i%uity and .isunderstandin%. d) *55reviations. Ne3s ite.s8 press0 reports and -eadlines a5ound in a55reviations o# various Rinds. *.on% t-e. a55reviated ter.sc na.es o# or%aniSations8 pu5lic and state 5odies8 political associations8 industrial and ot-er co.panies8 various o##ices8 etc.cRno3n 5y t-eir initials are very co..on8 e.%. MN, (tInited Nations ,r%aniSation)8 :MG (:rades Mnion 4on%ress)8 N*:, (Nort- *tlantic :reaty ,r%aniSation)8 *"$=4I, (giWY_W "ederation o# $a5our=4on%ress o# Industrial ,r%aniSations)8 EE4 (.European Econo.ic 4o..unity)8 :G?M (:ransport and General ?orRers Mnion)8 ", ("orei%n ,##ice)8 2I+ (2rices and Inco.es +oard)8 e) Neolo%is.s. :-ese are very co..on in ne3spaper voca5ulary. :-e ne3spaper is very 9uicR to react to any ne3 develop.ent in t-e li#e o# society8 in science and tec-nolo%y. >ence8 neolo%is.s .aRe t-eir 3ay into t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e ne3spaper very easily and o#ten even sprin% up on ne3spaper pa%es8 e.%. luniR8 a splas-=do3n (t-e act o# 5rin%in% a spacecra#t to a 3ater sur#ace)8 a teac-=in (a #or. o# ca.pai%nin% t-rou%- -eated political discussion)8 5acRlas- or 3-ite 5acRlas- (a violent reaction o# *.erican racists to t-e Ne%roes& stru%%le #or civil ri%-ts)8 #rontlas- (a vi%orous antiracist .ove.ent)8 stop=%o policies (contradictory8 indecisive and ine##icient policies). :-e a5ove=listed peculiarities o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s are t-e 5asic voca5ulary para.eters o# En%lis- ne3spaper style. :-e voca5ulary o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s is #or t-e .ost part devoid o# e.otional colourin%. So.e papers8 -o3ever8 especially t-ose classed a.on% L.assL or LpopularL papers8 tend to introduce e.otionally coloured lexical units into essentially .atter=o#=#act ne3s stories8 e.%. L>ealt- Minister uennet- Bo5inson .ade t-is s-ocR announce.ent yesterday in t-e 4o..ons.L (Daily Mirror) L:ec-nicians at t-e space 5ase -ere are no3 3orRin% #lat out to prepare Ge*iini 1 #or next Monday&s 5last=o##.L (Daily Mail) LDe#ence Secretary Boy Mason yesterday %ave a rat-er #rosty reception in t-e 4o..ons to t-e latest proposal #or a co..on de#ence policy #or all EE4 countries.L (Mornin% Star) I.portant as voca5ulary is8 it is not so .uc- t-e 3ords and p-rases used in 5rie# ne3s ite.s t-at distin%uis- t-e. #ro. ot-er #or.s o# ne3spaper 3ritin%. :-e voca5ulary %roups listed a5ove are also co..only #ound in -eadlines and ne3spaper articles. :-e 5asic peculiarities o# ne3s ite.s lie in t-eir syntactical structure. *s t-e reporter is o5li%ed to 5e 5rie#8 -e naturally tries to cra. all -is #acts into t-e

space allotted. :-is tendency predeter.ines t-e peculiar co.position o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s and t-e syntactical structure o# t-e sentences. :-e siSe o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s varies #ro. one sentence to several (s-ort) para%rap-s. *nd %enerally8 t-e s-orter t-e ne3s ite.8 t-e .ore co.plex its syntactical structure. :-e #ollo3in% %ra..atical peculiarities o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s are o# para.ount i.portance8 and .ay 5e re%arded as t-eir %ra..atical para.eters. a) 4o.plex sentences 3it- a developed syste. o# clauses8 e. %. LMr. +oyd=4arpenter8 4-ie# Secretary to t-e :reasury and 2ay.aster=General (uin%ston=upon=:-a.es)8 said -e -ad 5een asRed 3-at 3as .eant 5y t-e state.ent in t-e Speec- t-at t-e position o# 3ar pensioners and t-ose receivin% national insurance 5ene#its 3ould 5e Rept under close revie3.L (:-e :i.es) L:-ere are indications t-at +, *4 .ay 3it-dra3 = t-reats o# all=out dis.issals #or pilots 3-o restrict #lyin% -ours8 a spoRes.an #or t-e +ritis- *irline 2ilots& association said yesterday8L (Mornin% Star) 5) (er5al constructions (in#initive8 participial8 %erundial) and ver5al noun constructions8 e.%. LMr. No5usuRe uis-i8 t-e #or.er 2ri.e Minister o# Aapan8 -as sou%-t to set an exa.ple to t-e #action=ridden Governin% $i5eral De.ocratic 2arty 5y announcin% t-e dis5andin% o# -is o3n #action nu.5erin% '7 o# t-e total o# 29 conservative .e.5ers o# t-e $o3er >ouse o# t-e Diet.L (:-e :i.es) c) Syntactical co.plexes8 especially t-e no.inative 3it- t-e in#initive. :-ese constructions are lar%ely used to avoid .entionin% t-e source o# in#or.ation or to s-un responsi5ility #or t-e #acts reported8 e. %. L:-e condition o# $ord Sa.uel8 a%ed 928 3as said last ni%-t to 5e a &little 5etter.&L (:-e Guardian) L* petrol 5o.5 is 5elieved to -ave 5een exploded a%ainst t-e %rave o# 4ecil B-odes in t-e Matopos.L (:-e :i.es) d) *ttri5utive noun %roups are anot-er po3er#ul .eans o# e##ectin% 5revity in ne3s ite.s8 e.%. &-eart s3ap patient& (Mornin% Star)8 &t-e national inco.e and expenditure #i%ures& (:-e :i.es)8 &$a5our 5acR5enc- decision& (Mornin% Star)8 &Mr. ?ilson&s >MS #earless pacRa%e deal& (Mornin% Star). e) Speci#ic 3ord=order. Ne3spaper tradition8 coupled 3it- t-e ri%id rules o# sentence structure in En%lis-8 -as %reatly a##ected t-e 3ord=order o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s. :-e 3ord=order in one=sentence ne3s para%rap-s and in 3-at are called LleadsL (t-e initial sentences in lon%er ne3s ite.s) is .ore or less #ixed. Aournalistic practice -as developed 3-at is called t-e L#ive=3=and=-=pattern ruleL (3-o=3-at=3-y=-o3=3-ere= 3-en)and #or a lon% ti.e strictly ad-ered to it. In ter.s o# %ra..ar t-is #ixed sentence structure .ay 5e expressed in t-e #ollo3in% .anner; Su5Gectc2redicate (,5Gect)c*dver5ial .odi#ier o# reason (.anner)c *dver5ial .odi#ier. o# place= *dver5ial .odi#ier o# ti.e8 e.%. L* nei%-5our&s peep t-rou%- a letter 5ox led to t-e #indin% o# a 3o.an dead #ro. %as and t3o ot-ers se.iconscious in a 5locR o# council #lats in Eccles Ne3 Boad8 Sal#ord8

$anes.8 yesterday.L (:-e Guardian) It -as 5een repeatedly clai.ed 5y t-e aut-ors o# .anuals o# Gournalistic 3ritin% t-at t-e L#ive=3=and=-=pattern ruleL structure 3as t-e only ri%-t pattern o# sentence structure to use in ne3s reports. "acts8 -o3ever8 disprove t-is contention. Statistics s-o3 t-at t-ere are approxi.ately as .any cases in 3-ic- t-e traditional 3ord=order is violated as t-ose in 3-ic- it is o5served. It is no3 o5vious t-at t-e ne3spaper -as developed ne3 sentence patterns not typical o# ot-er styles. :-is o5servation re#ers8 #irstly8 to t-e position o# t-e adver5ial=.odi#ier o# de#inite ti.e. 4o.pare anot-er pattern typical o# 5rie# ne3s sentence structure; LDerec >eat-8 '!8 yesterday le#t "al.out- #or t-e t-ird ti.e in -is atte.pt to cross t-e *tlantic in a 12#t din%-y.L (Mornin% Star) L+ri%-ton council yesterday approved _ ~ 228 77 sc-e.e to -ave parRin% .eters operatin% in t-e centre o# t-e to3n 5y Marc-.L (:-e :i.es) :-is and so.e ot-er unconventional sentence patterns -ave 5eco.e a co..on practice 3it- 5rie# ne3s 3riters. :-ere are so.e ot-er8 t-ou%- less .arRed8 tendencies in ne3s ite. 3ritin% o# .odi#yin% 3ell=esta5lis-ed %ra..atical nor.s. Mention s-ould 5e .ade o# occasional disre%ard #or t-e se9uence o# tenses rule8 e.%. L:-e co..ittee c3-ic- 3as investi%atin% t-e 3orRin% o# t-e 1919 4-ildren and woun% 2ersons *ct c said t-at so.e sc-ool c-ildren in re.and centres are %ettin% only t3o -ours lessons a day.L (Mornin% Star) ?-at is ordinarily looRed upon as a violation o# %ra..ar rules in any ot-er Rind o# 3ritin% appears to 5e a #unctional peculiarity o# ne3spaper style.
2. ADVERTISEMENTS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS

*dvertise.ents .ade t-eir 3ay into t-e +ritis- press at an early sta%e o# its develop.ent8 i.e. in t-e .ic>:t- century. So t-ey are al.ost as old as ne3spapers t-e.selves. :-e principal #unction o# advertise.ents and announce.ents8 liRe t-at o# 5rie# ne3s8 is to in#or. t-e reader. :-ere are t3o 5asic types o# advertise.ents and announce.ents in t-e .odern En%lis- ne3spaper; classi#ied and non=classi#ied. In classi#ied advertise.ents and announce.ents various Rinds o# in#or.ation are arran%ed accordin% to su5Gect=.atter into sections8 eac- 5earin% an appropriate na.e. In :-e :i.es8 #or exa.ple8 t-e reader never #ails to #ind several -undred advertise.ents and announce.ents classi#ied into %roups8 suc- as +IB:>S8 M*BBI*GES8 DE*:>S8 IN MEM,BI=*M8 +MSINESS ,""EBS8 2EBS,N*$8 etc. :-is classi#ied arran%e.ent -as resulted in a nu.5er o# stereotyped patterns re%ularly e.ployed in ne3spaper advertisin%. Note one o# t-e accepted patterns o# classi#ied advertise.ents and announce.ents in :-e :i.es; +IB:>S 4M$>*NE.c,n.Nove.5er 1st8 at St. +art-olo.e3&s >ospital8 to +*B+*B* and A,>N 4M$>*NE c a son.

*ll announce.ents in t-e &+irt-& section are 5uilt on exactly t-e sa.e elliptical pattern. :-is tendency to eli.inate #ro. t-e sentence all ele.ents t-at can 5e done 3it-out is a pronounced one in advertise.ent and announce.ent 3ritin%. :-e elliptic sentence structure -as no stylistic #unctionC it is purely tec-nicalcto econo.iSe space8 expensive in 3-at ne3spaper .en call t-e Ladvertisin% -ole.L :-ou%-8 o# course8 -avin% 5eco.e a co..on practice8 t-is peculiar 5revity o# expression is a stylistic #eature o# advertise.ents and announce.ents 3-ic- .ay taRe a variety o# #or.s8 #or exa.ple; :B*INED NMBSE 3it- c-ild 2 years seeRs post $ondon pre#erred. c ?rite +ox 4. 1 @8 :-e :i.es8 E.G. '.& >ere t-e a5sence o# all articles and so.e punctuation .arRs .aRes t-e state.ent tele%ra.=liRe. Sentences 3-ic- are %ra..atically co.plete also tend to 5e s-ort and co.pact. :-e voca5ulary o# classi#ied advertise.ents and announce.ents is on t-e 3-ole essentially neutral 3it- -ere and t-ere a sprinRlin% o# e.otionally coloured 3ords or p-rases used to attract t-e reader&s attention. Naturally8 it is advertise.ents and announce.ents in t-e 2EBS,N*$ section t-at are so.eti.es c-aracteriSed 5y e.otional colourin%8 #or exa.ple; B,+MS:8 #riendly student8 not entirely unintelli%ent8 seeRs 4-rist.as vacation Go5. No 3i#e8 3ill travel8 3alR8 ride or drive and undertaRe any do.estic8= a%ricultural or industrial activity. ?ill 5idders #or t-is curiously nor.al c-ap please J3rite +ox 4. 28 :-e :i.es8 E.G. '. E.otional colourin% is %enerally .oderate8 t-ou%- editors see. to place no restrictions on it. See t-e #ollo3in% announce.ent in t-e 2EBS,N*$ section o# :-e :i.es; *lleluiaK I&. a .u.. (* Gocular .odi#ication o# t-e c-orus o# t-e 3ell=Rno3n *.erican son% L*lleluia8 I&. a 5u.L. * youn% 3o.an is statin% t-at s-e -as 5eco.e a .ot-er.) *s #or t-e non=classi#ied advertise.ents and announce.ents8 t-e variety o# lan%ua%e #or. and su5Gect=.atter is so %reat t-at -ardly any essential #eatures co..on to all .ay 5e pointed out. :-e reader&s attention is attracted 5y every possi5le .eans; typo%rap-ical8 %rap-ical and stylistic8 5ot- lexical and syntactical. >ere t-ere is no call #or 5revity8 as t-e advertiser .ay 5uy as .uc- space as -e c-ooses. :-e #ollo3in% are t-e initial lines o# a #ull=pa%e advertise.ent o# +arclays +anR carried 5y an issue o# :-e Guardian; ?>*: ?E ?*N: * 5anR&s 5usiness is 3it- ot-er people&s .oney8 so 3e 3ant people 3-ose inte%rity is 5eyond 9uestion. Money is a very personal 5usiness8 so 3e 3ant people 3-o liRe people. +anRin% is 3orR t-at calls #or accuracy8 so 3e 3ant people 3-o can 3orR accurately. ,ur sta## -as to -ave inte%rity8 personality8 accuracy8 ?e 3ant t-e. to -ave i.a%ination too8

3. T#E #EADLINE

:-e -eadline (t-e title %iven to a ne3s ite. or an article) is a dependent #or. o# ne3spaper 3ritin%. It is in #act a part o# a lar%er 3-ole. :-e speci#ic #unctional and lin%uistic traits o# t-e -eadline provide su##icient %round #or isolatin% and analysin% it as a speci#ic L%enreL o# Gournalis.. :-e .ain #unction o# t-e -eadline is to in#or. t-e reader 5rie#ly 3-at t-e text t-at #ollo3s is a5out. +ut apart #ro. t-is8 -eadlines o#ten contain ele.ents o# appraisal8 i.e. t-ey s-o3 t-e reporter&s or t-e paper&s attitude to t-e #acts reported or co..ented on8 t-us also per#or.in% t-e #unction o# instructin% t-e reader. En%lis- -eadlines are s-ort and catc-in%8 t-ey Lco.pact t-e %ist o# ne3s stories into a #e3 eye=snarin% 3ords. * sRil#ully turned out -eadline tells a story8 or enou%- o# it8 to arouse or satis#y t-e reader&s curiosity.L l In so.e En%lis- and *.erican ne3spapers sensational -eadlines are 9uite co..on. :-e practices o# -eadline 3ritin% are di##erent 3it- di##erent ne3spapers. In .any papers t-ere is8 as a rule8 5ut one -eadline to a ne3s ite.8 3-ereas suc- papers as :-e :i.es8 :-e Guardian8 :-e Ne3 worR :i.es o#ten carry a ne3s ite. or an article 3it- t3o or t-ree -eadlines8 and so.eti.es as .any as #our8 e.%. +BI:*IN *$M,S: L4M: IN >*$"L Many (e-icles Marooned in +liSSard (:-e Guardian) S:*:E *MDI: "INDS NE? 4I:w DE"I4I:S IN $*S: 2 +MDGE:S *sserts +ooRReepin% Errors $ed 4ontroller to ,verstate *nticipated Bevenues d 292=MI$$I,N IN(,$(ED Beport *sserts +ot- +ea.e *nd Goldin Issued Notes ?it-out 2roper +acRin% (:-e Ne3 worR :i.es) "IBE ",B4ES *IB$INEB :, :MBN +*4u 4a5in "illed ?it- S.oRe Sa#e $andin% "or 97 2assen%ers *tlantic Dra.a In Super (4 17 (:-e :i.es) Suc- %roup -eadlines are al.ost a su..ary o# t-e in#or.ation contained in t-e ne3s ite. or article. :-e #unctions and t-e peculiar nature o# En%lis- -eadlines predeter.ine t-e c-oice o# t-e lan%ua%e .eans used. :-e voca5ulary %roups considered in t-e analysis o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s are co..only #ound in -eadlines. +ut -eadlines also a5ound in e.otionally coloured 3ords and p-rases8 as t-e italicised 3ords in t-e #ollo3in%; End t-is +lood5at- (Mornin% Star) { MilR Madness (Mornin% Star) :ax a%ent a c-eat (Daily ?orld) No ?onder >ouse3ives are 2leadin%; &>E$2/ (Daily Mirror) Bo.an 4at-olic 2riest sacRed (Mornin% Star) "urt-er.ore8 to attract t-e reader&s attention8 -eadline 3riters o#ten resort to a deli5erate 5reaRin%=up o# set expressions8 in particular #used set expressions8 and

de#or.ation o# special ter.s8 a stylistic device capa5le o# producin% a stron% e.otional e##ect8 e.%. 4aRes and +itter *le (:-e Sunday :i.es) 4onspirator=in=c-ie# Still at $ar%e (:-e Guardian) 4o.pare respectively t-e allusive set expression caRes and ale8 and t-e ter. co..ander=in=c-ie#. ,t-er stylistic devices are not in#re9uent in -eadlines8 as #or exa.ple8 t-e pun (e.%. &*nd 3-at a5out ?att&c:-e ,5server)8 alliteration (e.%. Miller in Maniac *ioodc :-e ,5server)8 etc. Syntactically -eadlines are very s-ort sentences or p-rases o# a variety o# patterns; a) "ull declarative sentences8 e.%. &:-ey :-re3 +o.5s on Gipsy Sites& (Mornin% Star)8 &*llies No3 $ooR to $ondon& (:-e :i.es) 5) Interro%ative sentences8 e. %. &Do=you love 3arz& (Daily ?orld)8 &?ill 4eltic con#ound punditsz& (Mornin% Star) c) No.inative sentences8 e.%. &Gloo.y Sunday& (:-e Guardian)8 / *tlantic Sea :ra##ic& (:-e :i.es)8 &Mnion peace plan #or Girlin% ste3ards& (Mornin% Star) d) Elliptical sentences; a. 3it- an auxiliary ver5 o.itted8 e.%. &Initial report not expected until AuneK& (:-e Guardian)8 &wac-ts.an spottedL (Mornin% Star) 5. 3it- t-e su5Gect o.itted8 e.%. &?ill 3in& (Mornin% Star)8 &?ill %ive Mrs. ,nassis d 2 7877 a year&.(77i~ Ne3 worR :i.es) &C c. 3it- t-e su5Gect and part o#=t-e predicate o.itted8 e.%. &,## to t-e sun& (Mornin% Star)& &Still in dan%er& (:-e Guardian) e) Sentences 3it- articles o.itted8 e. %. &Step to ,verall Settle.ent 4ited in :ext o# *%ree.ent& (International >erald :ri5une)8 &+laSe Rills 1 at 2artyL (Mornin% Star) 0 *rticles are very #re9uently o.itted in all types o# -eadlines. #) 2-rases 3it- ver5als c in#initive8 participial and %erundial8 e.%. :o%0MS aid/ (Mornin%Star)8 :o visit "aisal& (Mornin% Star)8 <ueep=in% 2rices Do3n& (:-e :i.es)8 &2reparin% reply on cold 3ar& (Mornin% Star)8 &SpeaRin% parts& (:-e Sunday :i.es) %) Ouestions in t-e #or. o# state.ents8 e.%. &:-e 3orse t-e 5etterz& (Daily ?orld)8 &Gro3l no38 s.ile8 laterz& (:-e ,5server) -) 4o.plex sentences8 e. %. &Senate 2anel >ears +oard o# Military Experts ?-o "avoured $osin% +idder& &(:-e Ne3 worR :i.es)8 &*r.y Says It Gave $SD to MnRno3n GIs& (International >erald :ri5une) i) >eadlines includin% direct speec-; a. introduced 5y a #ull sentence8 e.%.&8 &2rince Bic-ard says; LI 3as not in trou5leL& (:-e Guardian)8 &?-at ,ils t-e ?-eels o# Industryz *sRs Aa.es $o3ery=,learc- o# t-e S-ell=i and +. 2. Group& (:-e :i.es)C 5. introduced elliptically8 e.%. &:-e Oueen; LMy deep distress&L (:-e Guardian)8 &,5serve Mid=East 4ease#irecM:-ant& (Mornin%Star) :-e a5ove=listed patterns are t-e .ost typical8 alt-ou%- t-ey do not cover all t-e variety in -eadline structure.

:-e -eadline in +ritis- and *.erican ne3spapers is an i.portant ve-icle 5ot- o# in#or.ation and appraisalC editors %ive it special attention8 ad.ittin% t-at #e3 read 5eyond t-e -eadline8 or at 5est t-e lead. :o lure t-e reader into %oin% t-rou%- t-e 3-ole o# t-e ite. or at least a %reater part o# it8 taRes a lot o# sRill and in%enuity on t-e part o# t-e -eadline 3riter8
. T#E EDITORIAL

:-e #unction o# t-e editorial is to in#luence t-e reader 5y %ivin% an interpretation o# certain #acts. Editorials co..ent on t-e political and ot-er events o# t-e day. :-eir purpose is to %ive t-e editor&s opinion and interpretation o# t-e ne3s pu5lis-ed and su%%est to t-e reader t-at it is t-e correct one. $iRe any evaluative 3ritin%8 editorials appeal not only to t-e reader&s .ind 5ut to -is #eelin%s as 3ell. >ence t-e use o# e.otionally coloured lan%ua%e ele.ents8 5ot- lexical and structural8 >ere are exa.ples; L:-e lon%=su##erin% +ritis- -ouse3i#e needs a 5otto.less purse to cope 3it- t-is scale o# in#lation.L (Daily Mirror) L+ut since t-ey ca.e into po3er t-e trend -as 5een up8 up8 up and t-e pace see.s to 5e acceleratin%.L (Daily Mail). In addition to voca5ulary typical o# 5rie# ne3s ite.s8 3riters o# editorials .aRe an extensive use o# e.otionally coloured voca5ulary. *lon%side political 3ords and expressions8 ter.s8 clic-es and a55reviations one can #ind collo9uial 3ords and expressions8 slan%8 and pro#essionalis.s. :-e lan%ua%e o# editorial articles is c-aracteriSed 5y a co.5ination o# di##erent strata o# voca5ulary8 3-ic- en-ances t-e e.otioiial e##ect8 #or exa.ple; "*: GI":S ",B S,ME :>E :,2M,S: 5oss o# t-e %iant +anR ,r%anisation8 Sir Ao-n Davis8 -as sacRed t-e lesser 5oss Mr. Gra-a. Do3son8 3-o %ets ~8 1 78777 #ro. t-e co.pany&s till as Lco.pensationL #or loss o# o##ice. ?ere t-ere screa.s o# a%ony in t-e capitalist press or #ro. t-e :ories a5out t-e siSe o# t-is %olden -ands-aRez :-ere 3ereL not. "at %i#ts are t-e usual t-in% 3-en 5i% 5osses %o. :-e 5i%%er and ric-er t-ey are8 t-e #atter t-e c-e9ues. (Mornin% Star) (2) :>*:4>EB MBS. :>*:4>EB -as no3 arrived 5acR #ro. -er *.erican Ga.5oree proudly 5oastin% t-at s-e is no3 Ltotally esta5lis-ed as a political leader in t-e international sp-ere.L :-is si.ply %oes to s-o3 t-at t-e #a3nin% *.erican audiences dra3n #ro. t-e top dra3er o# MS capitalist society to 3-o. s-e spoRe 3ill 5uy any #arra%o o# trite and pious platitudes. ?-en s-e arrived 5acR 5ri..in% over 3it- -er ne3=#ound international #a.e8 s-e re%aled us all once a%ain 3it- -er vie3s on e9uality and t-e opportunity to 5e une9ual.

,ne t-in% is certain. :-e capitalist syste. #or 3-ic- s-e stands can never 5e accused o# denyin% t-e .aGority o# t-e +ritis- people o# t-is opportunity to 5e une9ual. (Mornin% Star) (!) $,4*$ +$,,DSM4uEBS $ocal Govern.ent 3as once dull. +ut loo.in% #or ratepayers t-is sprin% are rate increases o# an avera%e o# 2 per cent8 outside $ondon and a5ove 17 per cent8 3it-in it. :-ese #ollo3 last year&s = stratosp-eric increases. *las8 i# rapacious de.ands o# t-is Rind can e.er%e #ro. t-e.8 3-at %oes on in +ritain&s to3n -alls cannot 5e so tedious. 4-aotic8 #ri%-tenin%8 scandalous8 yesC dull8 no. ... (:-e Daily :ele%rap-) :-e a5ove 9uoted exa.ples #ro. En%lis- ne3spaper editorials a5ound in e.otionally coloured voca5ulary units. *lon% 3it- neutral and literary (co..on and special) voca5ulary one can #ind 3ords used 3it- e.otive colourin%; top.ost8 %iant8 screa.s (o# a%ony) (1)8 #a3nin%8 pious8 platitudes (2)8 scandalous8 #ri%-tenin%8 rapacious8 alas (!)C collo9uial voca5ulary units; to sacR8 #at(<)8 Ga.5oree (2)C slan%; to 5uy (in t-e sense o# &accept&) (2)C Land instances o# lin%uistic i.a%ery; t-is %olden -ands-aRe (1)8 t-e top dra3er o# MS capitalist society (2)8 stratosp-eric increases (!)8 etc. *ll t-ese lexical .eans are -i%-ly e.otive and t-orou%-ly evaluative. E.otional colourin% in editorial articles is ac-ieved 3it- t-e -elp o# various stylistic devices88 5ot- lexical and syntactical8 t-e use o# 3-ic- is lar%ely traditional. Editorials a5ound in trite stylistic .eans8 especially .etap-ors and epit-ets8 e.%. international cli.ate8 a price explosion8 a price spiral8 a spectacular si%-t8 an outra%eous act8 5rutal rule8 an astoundin% state.ent8 craSy policies. :raditional perip-rases are also very co..on in ne3spaper editorials8 suc- as ?all SII0(*.erican #inancial circles)8 Do3nin%.Street (t-e +ritis- Govern.ent)8 "leet Street (t-e $ondon press)8 t-e Great 2o3ers (t-e #ive or six 5i%%est and stron%est states)8 t-e t-ird 3orld (states ot-er t-an socialist or capitalist)8 and so on. Most trite stylistic .eans co..only used in t-e ne3spaper -ave 5eco.e clic-es. +ut %enuine stylistic .eans are alsor so.eti.es used8 3-ic- -elps t-e 3riter o# t-e editorial to 5rin% -is idea -o.e to t-e reader t-rou%t-e associations t-at %enuine i.a%ery arouses. 2ractically any stylistic device .ay 5e #ound in editorial 3ritin%8 and 3-en aptly used8 suc- devices prove to 5e a po3er#ul .eans o# appraisal8 o# expressin% a personal attitude to t-e .atter in -and8 o# exercisin% t-e necessary e.otional e##ect on t-e reader. Note t-e #ollo3in% exa.ple; L:-at t-is -u%e slice o# industry s-ould 5eco.e a 5attle%round in 3-ic- pu5lic cas- is used as a 3-ip 3it- 3-ic- to las- 3orRers is a scandal. ... wet it is t-e 3orRers 3-o are 5ein% served up as t-e la.5s #or sacri#ice8 and it is pu5lic .oney t-at is used to stoRe t-e #ires o# t-e sacri#icial pyre.L (Mornin% Star) :-e stylistic e##ect o# t-ese sustained si.iles is essentially satirical. * si.ilar e##ect is #re9uently ac-ieved 5y t-e use o# .etap-or8 irony8 t-e 5reaRin%=up o# set expressions8 t-e stylistic use o# 3ord=5uildin%8 5y usin% allusions8 etc. :3o types o# allusions can 5e distin%uis-ed in ne3spaper article 3ritin%; a. allusions to political and ot-er #acts o# t-e day 3-ic- are indispensa5le and -ave no stylistic value8 and 5. -istorical8

literary and 5i5lical allusions 3-ic- are o#ten used to create a speci#ic stylistic e##ect8 lar%elycsatirical. :-e e.otional #orce o# expression in t-e editorial is o#ten en-anced 5y t-e use o# various syntactical stylistic devices. So.e editorials a5ound in parallel constructions8 various types o# repetition8 r-etorical8 9uestions and ot-er syntactical stylistic .eans. . wet8 t-e role o# expressive lan%ua%e .eans and stylistic devices in t-e editorial s-ould not 5e over=esti.ate.d. :-ey stand out a%ainst t-e essentially neutral 5acR%round. *nd 3-atever stylistic devices one co.es across in editorials8 t-ey are #or t-e .ost part trite. +roadly speaRin%8 tradition rei%ns supre.e in t-e lan%ua%e o# t-e ne3spaper. ,ri%inal #or.s o# expression and #res- %enuine stylistic .eans are co.paratively rare in ne3spaper articles8 editorials included. >o3ever8 alt-ou%- all editorials8 as a speci#ic %enre o# ne3spaper 3ritin%8 -ave co..on distin%uis-in% #eatures8 t-e editorials in di##erent papeis vary in de%ree o# e.otional colourin% and stylistic ori%inality o# expression. ?-ile t-ese 9ualities are typical enou%- o# t-e LpopularL ne3spapers (t-ose 3it- lar%e circulations)8 suc- Las t-e Daily Mirror and t-e Daily Mail8 t-e so=called L9uality papersL8 as :-e :i.es and :-e Guardian8 .aRe rat-er a sparin% use o# t-e expressive and stylistic .eans o# t-e lan%ua%e. ?-atever stylistic L%e.sL one .ay encounter in t-e ne3spaper8 t-ey cannot o5scure t-e essentially traditional .ode o# expression c-aracteristic o# ne3spaper En%lis-. D. SCIENTI'IC PROSE STYLE :-e lan%ua%e o# science is %overned 5y t-e ai. o# t-e #unctional style o# scienti#ic prose8 3-ic- is to prove a -ypot-esis8 to create ne3 concepts8 to disclose t-e internal la3s o# existence8 develop.ent8 relations 5et3een di##erent p-eno.ena8 etc. :-e lan%ua%e .eans used8 t-ere#ore8 tend to 5e o5Gective8 precise8 une.otional8 devoid o# any individualityC t-#cre is a strivin% #or t-e .ost %eneraliSed #or. o# expression. L:-e proper .ediu. o# scienti#ic expression8L 3rites E. Sa=pir8 Lis t-ere#ore a %eneraliSed lan%ua%e t-at .ay 5e de#ined as a sy.5olic al%e5ra o# 3-ic- all Rno3n lan%ua%es are translations. ,ne can ade9uately translate scienti#ic literature 5ecause t-e ori%inal scienti#ic expression is itsel# a translation.L l :-e #irst and .ost noticea5le #eature o# t-is style is t-e I V % i Y a I se9uence o# utterances 3it- clear indication o# t-eir interrelations and interdependence. It 3ill not 5e an exa%%eration to say t-at in no ot-er #unctional style do 3e #ind suc- a developed and varied syste. o# connectives as in scienti#ic prose. * second and no less i.portant #eature8 and per-aps t-e .ost conspicuous8 is t-e use o# ter.s speci#ic to eac- %iven 5ranc- o# science. It 3ill 5e 3ise to state in passin% t-at due to t-e rapid disse.ination o# scienti#ic and tec-nical ideas8 particularly in 3-at are called t-e exact sciences8 3e .ay o5serve t-e process o# Lde=ter.iniSationL8 t-at is8 so.e scienti#ic and tec-nical ter.s 5e%in to circulate outside t-e narro3 #ield t-ey 5elon% to and eventually 5e%in to develop ne3 .eanin%s. +ut t-e over3-el.in% .aGority o# ter.s do not under%o t-is process o# de=ter.iniSation and re.ain t-e

property o# scienti#ic prose. :-ere t-ey are .5orn8 .ay develop ne3 ter.inolo%ical .eanin%s8 and t-ere t-ey die. No ot-er #ield o# -u.an activity is so proli#ic in coinin% ne3 3ords as science is. :-e necessity to penetrate deeper into t-e essence o# t-in%s and p-eno.ena %ives rise to ne3 concepts8 3-ic- re9uire ne3 3ords to na.e t-e.. *s -as already 5een pointed out8 a ter. 3ill .aRe .ore direct re#erence to so.et-in% t-an a descriptive explanation8 a non=ter.. >ence t-e rapid creation o# J ne3 ter.s in any developin% science. "urt-er8 t-e %eneral voca5ulary e.ployed in scienti#ic prose 5ears its direct re#erential .eanin%8 t-at is8 3ords used in scienti#ic prose 3ill al3ays tend=to 5e used0in .t-eir pri.ary lo%ical .eanin%. >ardly a sin%le 3ord 3ill 5e0#ound -ere 3-ic-8 in contrast to t-e 5elles=lettres style8 is used in8.ore t-an one .eanin%. Nor 3ill t-ere 5e any 3ords 3it- contextual .eanin%. Even t-e possi5ility o# a.5i%uity is avoided. "urt-er.ore8 ter.s are coined so as to 5e sel#=explanatory to t-e %reatest possi5le de%ree. +ut in spite o# t-is a ne3 ter. in scienti#ic prose is %en= erally #ollo3ed (or precededK) 5y an explanation. $iRe3ise8 neutral and co#n.on >terary 3ords used in scienti#ic prose 3ill 5e explained8 even i# t-eir .eanin% is only sli%-tly .odi#ied8 eit-er in t-e context (5y a parent-esis or an attri5utive p-rase) or in a #oot=note. In .odern scienti#ic prose an interestin% p-eno.enon can 5e o5servedc t-e exc-an%e o# ter.s 5et3een various = 5ranc-es o# science. :-is is evidently due to t-e interpenetration o# scienti#ic ideas. Sel#=su##iciency in any 5ranc- o# science is no3 a t-in% o# t-e past. 4olla5oration o# specialists in related sciences -as proved success#ul in .any #ields. :-e exc-an%e o# ter.inolo%y .ay t-ere#ore 5e re%arded as a natural outco.e o# t-is colla5oration.= Mat-e.atics -as priority in t-is respect. Mat-e.atical ter.s -ave le#t t-eir o3n do.ain and travel #reely in ot-er sciences8 includin% lin%uistics. * t-ird c-aracteristic #eature o# scienti#ic style is 3-at 3e .ay call sen tence=pa.t terns. :-ey are o# t-ree types; p V s t u=l a to r y8 a r % `n entative and I V m g ` I a t i v e. * -ypot-esis8 a scienti#ic conGecture or a #orecast .ust 5e 5ased on #acts already Rno3n8 on #acts syste.atiSed and de#ined. :-ere#ore8 every piece o# scienti#ic prose 3ill 5e%in 3it- postulatory pronounce.ents 3-ic- are taRen as sel#=evident and needin% no proo#. * re#erence to t-ese #acts is only preli.inary to t-e exposition o# t-e 3riter&s ideas and is t-ere#ore su..ed up in precisely #or.ulated state.ents acco.panied8 i# considered necessary8 5y re#erences to sources. :-e 3riter&s o3n ideas are also s-aped0in #or.ulae8 3-ic- are t-e enunciation o# a doctrine or t-eory8 o# a principle8 an ar%u.ent8 t-e result o# an investi%ation8 etc. :-e de#inition sentence=pattern in a scienti#ic utterance8 t-at is8 t-e sentence 3-ic- su.s up t-e ar%u.ent8 is %enerally a Rind o# clinc-er sentence. :-us8 in -is L$in%uistics and StyleL Nils Eric EnRvist concludes one o# -is ar%u.ents in t-e #ollo3in% 3ords; L:-e study o# #eatures not stata5le in ter.s o# contextual pro5a5ilities o# lin%uistic ite.s8 style .arRers8 stylistic sets and s-i#ts o# style is not t-e tasR o# stylistics 5ut o# ot-er levels o# lin%uistic or literary analysis.L l

* #ourt- o5serva5le #eature o# t-e style o# .odern scienti#ic prose8 and one t-at striRes t-e eye o# t-e reader8 is t-e use o# 9 ` V t at ions and re#erences. :-ese so.eti.es occupy as .uc- as -al#8 a pa%e.2 :-e re#erences also -ave a de#inite co.positional pattern8 na.ely8 t-e na.e o# t-e 3riter re#erred to8 t-e title o# t-e 3orR 9uoted8 t-e pu5lis-in% -ouse8 t-e place and year it 3as pu5lis-ed8 and t-e pa%e o# t-e excerpt 9uoted or re#erred to. I * #i#t- #eature o# scienti#ic style8 3-ic- .aRes=it distin%uis-a5le torn ot-er styles8 is t-e #re9uent use o# I V V t = n V te s8 not o# t-e re#erence Rind8 5ut di%ressive in c-aracter. :-is is in #ull accord 3it- t-e .ain re9uire.ent o# t-e style8 3-ic- is lo%ical co-erence o# ideas expressed. *nyt-in% t-at see.s to violate t-is re9uire.ent or see.s not to 5e i..ediately relevant to t-e .atter in -and8 5ut at t-e sa.e ti.e .ay serve indirectly to 5acR up t-e idea8 3ill 5e placed in a #oot=note. ...... :-e i.personality o# scienti#ic 3ritin%s can also 5e considered a typical #eature o# t-is style. :-is 9uality is .ainly revealed in t-e #re9uent use o# passive constructions.! Scienti#ic experi.ents are %enerally descri5ed in t-e passive voice8 #or exa.ple8 L:-en acid.Ss taRenL8 instead o#I7 (3e) t-en tooR acid.L * correspondent o# t-e :i.es $iterary Supple.ent says t-at to 3rite LI 3ei%-ed 17 %ra.s o# aspirin and dissolved t-e. in as little 3ater as I couldL 3ould 5e &deplora5le& in a researc- paper. :-e desira5le plain scienti#ic state.ent8 -e .aintains8 3ould 5e L:en %ra.s o# aspirin 3ere dissolved in a .ini.u. volu.e o# 3ater.L *not-er correspondent o5Gects to t-is .ode o# expression and says; L:-e terri5le t-in% a5out t-at second sentence is t-at its . in#ection -as spread in all its #alsity 5eyond researc-cinto politics8 reli%ion8 pu5lic state.ents8 #il. scripts8 Gournalis.. It creates t-e 5ureaucratic i.pression t-at t-in%s L3ere doneL and t-at no5ody Ldid t-e..L / $eavin% aside t-is unreasona5le protest a%ainst t-e esta5lis-ed and 3idely reco%niSed .odels o# scienti#ic syntax8 3e .ust a%ree t-at an over=use o# t-e passive8 particularly in ot-er styles8 3ill create t-e Lsententious voice o# 5oredo.L as t-e 3riter puts it. *nd -is state.ent8 L* pen 3as not #illed 3it- inR t-is .ornin%8 5ut I #illed .y pen8L 3ill certainly 5e .ore appropriate in ordinary lan%ua%e. +ut t-is is not a valid ar%u= .ent a%ainst usin% suc- constructions in scienti#ic prose. In connection 3it- t-e %eneral i.personal tone o# expression8 it s-ould 5e noted t-at i.personal passive constructions are #re9uently used 3it- t-e ver5s suppose8 assu.e8 presu.e8 conclude8 in#er8 point out8 etc.8 as in; &It s-ould 5e pointed out&8 &It .ust not 5e assu.ed&8 &It .ust 5e e.p-asiSed&8 &It can 5e in#erred&8 etc. :-ere is a noticea5le di##erence in t-e syntactical desi%n o# utterances in&t-e exact sciences (.at-e.atics8 c-e.istry8 p-ysics8 etc.) and in t-e -u.anities. =:-e passive constructions #re9uently used in t-e scienti#ic prosevo# t-eb exact xsviences are not indispensa5le in t-e -u=. .anities. :-is8 per-aps8 is due to t-e #act t-at t-e data and .et-ods o# investi%ation applied in t-e -u.anities are less o5Gective. :-e necessity to

9uote passa%es under o5servation and to a.pli#y ar%u.ents seriously a##ects syntactical patterns. In t-e -u.anities so.e see.in%ly 3ell=Rno3n pronounce.ent .ay 5e and o#ten is su5Gected to re=evaluation8 3-ereas in t-e exact sciences .uccan 5e accepted 3it-out 9uestion and t-ere#ore needs no co..ent. v >ere are t3o sa.ples o# scienti#ic prose8 one #ro. a lin%uistic paper and t-e ot-er #ro. a text5ooR on c-e.istry. L:-e critical literature on ueats& L,de on a Grecian MrnL is enor.ous8 and .uc- o# it is extre.ely penetratin%. It .ay t-ere#ore co.e as a surprise to .aintain t-at t-ere are several points in t-e poe. 3-ic- are in need o# #urt-er classi#ication8 and t-at to do so .ay %ive us not only 5etter Rno3led%e o# t-e poe.8 5ut -ypot-esis a5out .et-od 3-ic- can 5e tested else3-ere. :-e criticis.s #all into t-ree .ain %roupsC t-ose t-at taRe up so.e 9uite .inor 5le.is-es8 or. possi5le 5le.is-es8 in t-e ,deC a very lar%e %roup t-at discusses at %reat len%t- t-e e9uation 5et3een :rut- and +eautyC and a s.all %roup 3-ic- %ives extended8 line=5y=line discussion. It isi.e o# t-is latter %roup 3-ic- alone taRes up t-e di##iculty involved in lines 2@ and 298 in t-e possi5le uncertainty in t-e re#erence o# L:-at leaves a -eart -i%- sorro3#ul.L / >ere is t-e second sa.ple; L! 18 Sulp-ur :rioxide S,!. It is very easy to deco.pose sulp-urous acid into t-e an-ydride and 3ater. Gentle -eatin% 3ill e##ect it8 and indeed8 i# t-e solution 5e stron%8 t-e deco.position is spontaneous. Sulp-urous acid al3ays s.ells o# sulp-ur dioxide. :-e deco.position o# sulp-uric acid into 3ater and sulp-ur trioxide cannot 5e e##ected 5y any suc- si.ple .eans. :-e trioxideis.ade directly 5y inducin% S,2 to co.5ine 3it- .ore oxy%en. :-ere8 is al3ays a sli%-t tendency #or S,2 to pass into S,! in t-e presence o# oxy%en8 5ut t-e process is too slo3 to 5e o# .uc- interest. :-e %ases can8 -o3ever8 5e .ade.8 to react .uc- .ore rapidly 5y t-e use o# a suita5le catalytic a%ent8 t-e 5est Rno3n / 5ein% platinu.8 and as t-e e##ect o# t-e platinu. depends upon its sur#ace area it is necessary to arran%e #or t-is to 5e as %reat as possi5le. I# a piece o# as5estos #i5re is steeped in a solution o# platinu. c-loride in -ydroc-loric acid and t-en -eated8 t-e as5estos 5eco.es coated 3it- a t-in %rey coatin% o# spon%y platinu.. In t-is 3ay Lplatinised as5estosL is produced. I# no3 a .ixture o# sulp-ur dioxide and oxy%en is passed over -eated platinised as5estos8 t-e dioxide is converted into t-e trioxide8 t-us; 2SL,a , } :-e apparatus is 9uite si.ple and i#cs s-o3n in #i%. ! . :-e vapour o# sulp-ur trioxide 3-ic- co.es o## is condensed 5y .eans o# a #reeSin% .ixture into colourless ice=liRe= needles. =I# t-is can 5e stored8 3it-out access to .oisture8 it under%oes so.e sort o# .olecular c-an%e and turns to a 3-ite silRy crystalline solid.L2 :-e re.arRa5le di##erence 5et3een t-e t3o sa.ples lies in t-e #act t-at t-e second one re9uires a #ar %reater a.ount o# preli.inary Rno3led%e t-an t-e #irst one. *lt-ou%- 5ot- sa.ples are i.personal in #or.8 t-ey nevert-eless di##er in t-e a.ount o# o5Gectivity8 t-e #irst 5ein% less o5Gective in statin% data. "urt-er8 in t-e #irst excerp#

vie3s and opinions are expressed. In t-e second none are %iven. In 5ot- sa.ples t-e syntax is %overned 5y lo%ical reasonin%8 Land t-ere are no e.otional ele.ents 3-atsoever. >o3ever8 e.otiveness is not entirely or cate%orically excluded #ro. scienti#ic prose8 :-ere .ay 5e -ypot-eses8 pronounce.ents and con= elusions 3-ic-8 5ein% 5acRed up 5y stron% 5elie#8 t-ere#ore call #or t-e use o# so.e e.otionally coloured 3ords. ,ur e.otional reaction to #acts and ideas .ay 5ear valua5le in#or.ation8 as it itsel# sprin%s #ro. t-e inner 9ualities o# t-ese #acts and ideas. ?e depend in no s.all de%ree upon our e.otional reactions #or Rno3led%e o# t-e outer 3orld. *n interestin% investi%ation 3as .ade 5y N. M. BaSinRina into t-e e.otive c-aracter o# scienti#ic prose o# t-e 19t- century. In so.e articles pu5lis-ed in Nature8 a Gournal 3-ic- .ade its #irst appearance in 1@198 t-ere 3ere .any e.otional 3ords used8 evidently co.pensatin% #or lacR o# evidence and ar%u.ented #acts. It 3as nor.al in t-e discussion on .any #unda.ental pro5le.s to use suc- 3ords as .arvellous8 3onder#ul8 .onstrous8 .a%ni#icent8 5rilliant and t-e liRe to atte.pt proo# o# a -ypot-esis or a pronounce.ent. In .odern scienti#ic prose suc- e.otional 3ords are very seldo. used. *t least t-ey are not constituents o# .odern scienti#ic style. Nor can 3e #ind e.otional structures or stylistic devices 3-ic- ai. at rousin% aest-etic #eelin%s. In L`giX_gaX^_[ P_\ig_L y218 191@ t-ere 3as an interestin% series o# articles on t-e lan%ua%e o# science entitled L,n Science and its $an%ua%eL. :-e discussion e.anated #ro. .any co.plaints reac-in% t-e paper t-at t-e lan%ua%e o# .ucscienti#ic 3ritin% is unintelli%i5le to ordinary people uninitiated in t-e principles o# t-e %i0en science. *ll t-e participants in t-e discussion a%reed t-at science .ust -ave its o3n lan%ua%e (t-at is8 its o3n voca5ulary) and t-at t-e exposition o# ne3 ideas in science .ust rest on a very solid #oundation o# previously ac9uired Rno3led%e. +ut 3-at t-ey actually .eant 3as not only t-e Rno3led%e o# t-e ter.inolo%y o# t-e %iven science8 5ut also an i..ediate reco%nition o# tec-nicalities in t-e text8 3-icpredeter.ines understandin%. :-ese pre=re9uisites are con#ined exclusively to t-e lexical aspect o# t-e lan%ua%e. So it is not t-e lan%ua%e itsel# t-at is special8 5ut certain 3ords or t-eir sy.5ols. :-is8 per-aps8 explains t-e #act t-at t-ose 3-o Rno3 t-e tec-nical no.enclature o# a %iven science can read and understand scienti#ic texts in a #orei%n lan%ua%e even 3it- a poor Rno3led%e o# its 8 %ra..atical structure. :-e c-aracteristic #eatures enu.erated a5ove do not cover all t-e peculiarities o# scienti#ic prose8 5ut t-ey are t-e .ost essential ones. E. T(E STYLE O' O''ICIAL DOCUMENTS :-ere is one .ore style o# lan%ua%e 3it-in t-e #ield o# standard literary En%lis- 3-ic-as 5eco.e sin%led out8 and t-at is t-e s ty le o# o##icial d V Y ` g i W t s8 or Lo##icialeseL8 as it is so.eti.es called. *s -as already 5een pointed out8 t-is "S is not -o.o%eneous and is represented 5y t-e #ollo3in% su5styles or variants;

1) t-e lan%ua%e o# 5usiness docu.ents8 2) t-e lan%ua%e o# le%al docu.ents8 !) t-at o# diplo.acy8 ') t-at o# .ilitary docu.ents. $iRe ot-er styles o# lan%ua%e8 t-is style -as a de#inite co..unicative ai. and8 accordin%ly8 -as its o3n syste. o# interrelated lan%ua%e and stylistic .eans. :-e .ain ai. o# t-is type o#.co..unication is to state t-e conditions 5indin% t3o parties in an undertaRin%. :-ese parties .ay 5e; t-e state and t-e citiSen8 or citiSen and citiSenC a society and its .e.5ers (statute or ordinance)C t3o or .ore enterprises or 5odies (5usiness correspondence or contracts)C t3o or .ore %overn.ents (pacts8 treaties)C a person in aut-ority and a su5ordinate (orders8 re%ulations8 instructions8 aut-oritative directives)C a 5oard or presidiu. and an asse.5ly or %eneral .eetin% (procedures acts8 .inutes)8 etc. :-e ai. o# co..unication in t-is style o# lan%ua%e is to reac- a%ree.ent 5et3een t3o contractin% parties. Even protest a%ainst violations o# statutes8 contracts8 re%ulations8 etc.8 can also 5e re%arded as a #or. 5y 3-ic- nor.al cooperation is sou%-t on t-e 5asis o# previously attained concordance. :-is .ost %eneral #unction o# t-e style o# o##icial docu.ents predeter.ines t-e peculiarities o# t-e style. :-e .ost striRin%8 t-ou%- not t-e .ost essential #eature8 is a special syste. o# clic-es8 ter.s and set expressions 5y 3-ic- eac- su5style can easily 5e reco%niSed8 #or exa.ple; I 5e% to in#or. you8 I 5e% to .ove8 I second t-e .otion8 provisional a%enda8 t-e a5ove=.entioned8 -ereina#ter na.ed8 on 5e-al# o#8 private advisory8 Dear Sir8 ?e re.ain8 your o5edient servants. In #act8 eac- o# t-e su5divisions o# t-is style -as its o3n peculiar ter.s8 p-rases and expressions 3-ic- di##er #ro. t-e correspondin% ter.s8 p-rases and expressions o# ot-er variants o# t-is style. :-us in #inance 3e #ind ter.s liRe extra revenue8 taxa5le capacities8 lia5ility to pro#it tax. :er.s and p-rases liRe -i%- contractin% parties8 to rati#y an a%ree.ent8 .e.orandu.8 pact8 4-ar%e d&a##aires8 protectorate8 extra= territorial status8 plenipotentiary 3ill i..ediately 5rand t-e utterance as diplo.atic. In le%al lan%ua%e8 exa.ples are; to deal 3it- a caseC su..ary procedureC a 5ody o# Gud%esC as laid do3n in. $iRe3ise8 ot-er varieties o# o##icial lan%ua%e -ave t-eir special no= & .enclature8 3-ic- is conspicuous in t-e text and t-ere#ore easily discerni5le as 5elon%in% to t-e o##icial lan%ua%e style. +esides t-e special no.enclature c-aracteristic o# eac-8 variety o# -e style8 t-ere is a #eature co..on to all t-ese (arietiesct-e use o# a55reviations8 conventional sy.5ols and contractions8 #or exa.ple; M. 2. (Me.5er o# 2arlia.ent)8 Gvt (%3ern.enI)8 >.M.S. (>is MaGesty&s Stea.s-ip)8 d (dollar)8 ~ (pound)8 $td ($i.ited). :-ere are so .any o# t-e. t-at t-ere are special addendas in dictionaries to decode t-e.. :-is c-aracteristic #eature 3as used 5y DicRens in -is L2ost-u.ous 2apers o# t-e

2icR3icR 4lu5CL #or instance8 2.(.2.8 M.2.4. (2erpetual (ice=2resident8 Me.5er 2icR3icR 4lu5)C G.4.M.2.4. (General 4-air.an8 Me.5er 2icR3icR 4lu5). *55reviations are particularly a5undant in .ilitary docu.ents. >ere t-ey are used not only as conventional sy.5ols 5ut as si%ns o# t-e .ilitary code8 3-ic- is supposed to 5e Rno3n only to t-e initiated. Exa.ples are; D.*.,8 (Divisional mqW`WVW ,##icer)C adv. (advance)C atR (attacR)C o5G. (o5Gect)C *I: (anti=tanR)C *:*S (*ir :ransport *uxiliary Service)8 *not-er #eature o# t-e style is. t-e use o# 3ords in t-eir lo%ical dictionary .eanin%. Aust as in t-e ot-er .atter=o#=#act styles8 and in contrast intrinsically to t-e 5elles= lettres style8 t-ere is no roo. #or contextual .eanin%s or #or any Rind o# si.ultaneous realiSation o# t3o .eanin%s. In .ilitary docu.ents so.eti.es .etap-orical na.es are %iven to .ountains8 rivers8 -ills or villa%es8 5ut t-ese .etap-ors are perceived as code si%ns and -ave no aest-etic value8 as in; L2.172 d. In#. Div. continues atR 21 "e5. ' to captive o5Gs Spruce 2eac- and 4-erry and prepares to taRe over o5Gs 2lu. and *pple a#ter capture 5y 44+8 t- ar.d Div.L ?ords 3it- e.otive .eanin% are not to 5e #ound in t-e style o# o##icial docu.ents eit-er. Even in t-e style o# scienti#ic prose so.e 3ords .ay 5e #ound 3-ic- reveal t-e attitude o# t-e 3riter8 -is individual evaluation o# t-e #acts and events o# t-e issue. +ut no suc- 3ords are to 5e #ound in o##icial style8 except t-ose 3-ic- are used in 5usiness letters as conventional p-rases o# %reetin% or close8 as Dear Sir8 yours #ait-#ully. *s in all ot-er #unctional styles8 t-e distinctive properties appear as a syste.. ?e cannot sin%le out a style 5y its voca5ulary only8 reco%niSa5le t-ou%- it al3ays is. :-e syntactical pattern o# t-e style is as si%ni#icant as t-e voca5ulary8 t-ou%- not per-aps so i..ediately apparent. 2er-aps t-e .ost noticea5le o# all syntactical #eatures are t-e co.positional patterns o# t-e variants o# t-is style. :-us8 5usiness letters -ave a de#inite co.positional pattern8 na.ely8 t-e -eadin% %ivin% t-e address o# t-e 3riter/8 t-e date8 t-e na.e o# t-e addressee and -is address. = >ere is a sa.ple o# a 5usiness=&letter; S.it- and Sons 2 Main Street Manc-ester 9t- "e5ruary8 1917 Mr. Ao-n S.it- / 29 4ran5ourn Street; l $ondon Dear Sir8 . 0 ?e 5e% to in#or. you t-at 5y order and #or account o# Mr. Aulian o# $eeds8 3e -ave taRen t-e li5erty o# dra3in% upon you #or ~ 2 at t-ree .ont-s& date to t-e order o# Mr. S-arp. ?e %ladly taRe t-is opportunity o# placin% our services at your disposal8

and s-all 5e pleased i# you #re9uently .aRe use o# t-e.. Bespect#ully yours8 S.it- and Sons 5y Aane 4ra3#ord :-ere is every reason to 5elieve t-at .any o# t-e e.otional 3ords and p-rases in present=day co..ercial correspondence 3-ic- are not .erely conventional sy.5ols o# polite address8 did retain t-eir e.otive .eanin% at earlier sta%es in t-e develop.ent o# t-is variety o# o##icial lan%ua%e. >ere is an interestin% sa.ple o# a 5usiness letter dated Aune 8 11 . Mr. G. Dury to Secretary :-arloe8 Bi%-t >onora5le8 :-e 4o..issary o# S3eden8 Mr. +or.el8 dot- .ost -u.5ly intreat your -onour to 5e pleased to procure -i. -is audience #ro. -is -i%-nesse as soon as conveniently it .ay 5e. >e desires8 t-at t-e sa.e 5e 3it-out .uc- cere.ony8 and 5y 3ay o# private audience. I -u.5ly su5scri5e .ysel# wour >onour&s .ost -u.5le and o5edient servant8 G. Dury8 Aune 8 11 . Suc- 3ords and 3ord=co.5inations as &.ost -u.5ly8& &intreat& (entreat)8 &I -u.5ly su5scri5e&8 &.ost -u.5le and o5edient servant& and t-e liRe are too insistently repeated not to produce t-e desired i.pression o#8 -u.5leness so necessary #or one 3-o asRs #or a #avour. *l.ost every o##icial docu.ent -as its o3n co.positional desi%n. 2acts and statutes8 orders and .inutes8 notes and .e.orandacall -ave .ore or less de#inite #or.s8 and it 3ill not 5e an exa%%eration to state t-at t-e #or. o# t-e docu.ent is itsel# in#or.ative8 inas.uc- as it tells so.et-in% a5out t-e .atter dealt 3it- (a letter8 an a%ree.ent8 an order8 etc). In t-is respect 3e s-all 9uote t-e 2rea.5le o# t-e 4-arter o# t-e Mnited Nations 3-icclearly illustrates t-e .ost peculiar #or. o# t-e arran%e.ent o# an o##icial docu.ent o# a%ree.ent. 4>*B:EB ," :>E MNI:ED N*:I,NS1 L?e t-e 2eoples o# t-e Mnited Nations Deter.ined :, S*(E succeedin% %enerations #ro. t-e scour%e o# 3ar8 3-ict3ice in our li#eti.e -as 5rou%-t untold sorro3 to .anRind8 and :, BE*""IBM #ait- in #unda.ental ri%-ts8 in t-e di%nity and 3ort- o# t-e -u.an person8 in t-e e9ual ri%-ts o# .en and 3o.en and o# nations lar%e and s.all8 and :, ES:*+$IS> conditions under 3-ic- Gustice and respect #or t-e o5li%ations arisin% #ro. treaties and ot-er sources o# international la3 can 5e .aintained8 and :, 2B,M,:E social pro%ress and 5etter standards o# li#e in lar%er #reedo.8 1 :-e Bando. >ouse Dictionary o# t-e En%lis- $an%ua%e. N. w.8 19178 p. 19'1 L *nd "or :-ese Ends :, 2B*4:I4E tolerance and live to%et-er in peace 3it- one anot-er as %ood

nei%-5ours8 and :, MNI:E our stren%t- to .aintain international peace and security8 and :, ENSMBE8 5y t-e acceptance o# principles and t-e institution o# .et-ods8 t-at ar.ed #orce s-all not 5e used8 save in t-e co..on interest8 and :, EM2$,w international .ac-inery #or. t-e pro.otion o# t-e econo.ic and social advance.ent o# all peoples8 >ave Besolved to 4o.5ine ,ur E##orts to *cco.plis- :-ese *i.s. *ccordin%ly8 our respective Govern.ents8 t-rou%- representatives asse.5led in t-e 4ity o# San "rancisco8 3-o -ave ex-i5ited t-eir #ull po3ers #ound to 5e in %ood and due #or.8 -ave a%reed to t-e present 4-arter o# t-e Mnited Nations and do -ere=5y esta5lis- an international or%aniSation to 5e Rno3n as t-e Mnited Nations;& *s is seen8 all t-e reasons 3-ic- led to t-e decision o# settin% up an international or%aniSation are expressed in one sentence 3it- parallel in#initive o5Gect clauses. Eacin#initive o5Gect clause is #ra.ed as a separate para%rap- t-us ena5lin% t-e reader to attac- e9ual i.portance to eac- o# t-e ite.s .entioned. :-e separate sentences s-aped as clauses are naturally divided not 5y #ull stops 5ut eit-er 5y co..as or 5y se.icolons. It is also an esta5lis-ed custo. to divide separate utterances 5y nu.5ers8 .aintainin%8 -o3ever8 t-e principle o# dependence o# all t-e state.ents on t-e .ain part o# t-e utterance. :-us8 in c-apter I o# t-e M. N. 4-arter0t-e purposes and principles o# t-e c-arter are %iven in a nu.5er o# predicatives8 all expressed in in#initive constructions and nu.5ered; .. . L4>*2:EB I &=2MB2MSES *ND 2BIN4I2$ES :-e 2urposes o# t-e Mnited Nations are; G. :, M*IN:*IN international peace and security8 and to t-at end; to taRe e##ective collective .easures #or t-e prevention and re.oval o# t-reats to t-e=peace8 and #or t-e suppression o# acts.o# a%%ression or ot-er 5reac-es o# t-e peace8&and to 5rin% a5out 5y peace#ul .eans8 and in con#or.ity 3it- t-e principles o# Gustice and international la38 adGust.ent or settle.ent o# international disputes or situations 3-ic- .i%-t lead to a 5reac- o# t-e peace. 2. :, DE(E$,2 #riendly relations a.on% nations 5ased on respect #or t-e principle o# e9ual ri%-ts and sel#=deter.ination o# peoples8 and to taRe ot-er appropriate .easures to stren%t-en universal peace. !. :, *4>IE(E international cooperation on solvin% international pro5le.s o# an econo.ic8 social8 cultural8 or -u.anitarian c-aracter and in pro.otin% and encoura%in% respect #or -u.an . ri%-ts and #or #unda.ental #reedo.s #or all 3it-out distinction as to race8 sex8 lan%ua%e8 or reli%ionC and '. :, +E * 4EN:BE #or -ar.oniSin% t-e actions o# nations in t-e attain.ent o# t-ese co..on ends.L >ere is anot-er sa.ple o# an o##icial docu.ent .aintainin% t-e sa.e principles; Mnited Nations Econo.ic Distr. $i.ited and Social 4ouncil BI:*4I$.

@9IBev. 2 29 Nov. 19 . ,ri%inal; En%lis:ec-nical *ssistance 4o..ittee Expanded 2ro%ra..e o# :ec-nical *ssistance Bevie3 o# t-e 2ro%ra..e #or 19 1 *ustralia and E%ypt; revised dra#t resolution. :-e :ec-nical *ssistance 4o..ittee8 BE4*$$ING :>*: accordin% to Econo.ic and Social 4ouncil resolution '2 ((III) t-e preparation and revie3 o# t-e Expanded 2ro%ra..e and all ot-er necessary steps s-ould 5e carried out in a 3ay t-at :*G ou%-t to 5e in a position to approve t-e over=all pro%ra..e and aut-oriSe allocation to participatin% or%aniSations 5y !7 Nove.5er at t-e latest8 4,NSIDEB ING :>*: a realistic pro%ra..e suc- as t-e Expand=ed 2ro%ra..e cannot 5e planned and #or.ulated 3it-out prior Rno3led%e o# t-e #inancial resources availa5le #or its i.ple.entation8 ; 4,NSIDEBING :>*: :*G8 3it- t-e assistance o# suc- ad -oc su5co..ittees as it .ay #ind necessary to esta5lis-8 3ill nor.ally need a5out one 3eeR to carry out t-e tasR re#erred to in t-e resolution .entioned a5ove8 5earin% in .ind t-e necessary consultations 3it- t-e representatives o# t-e participatin% or%aniSations8 1. *SuS t-e Secretary=General to seeR to arran%e eac- year t-at t-e 2led%in% 4on#erence s-ould 5e convened as early as possi5le taRin% due account o# all #actors involvedC 2. DE4IDES t-at t-e Secretary=General s-ould in #uture 3orR on t-e assu.ption t-at in carryin% out t-e #unctions o# approvin% t-e pro%ra..e and aut-oriSin% allocations as re9uired 5y Econo.ic and Social 4ouncil resolution '2 ((III)8 t-e :*G 3ill usually need to .eet #or one 3eeRC !. BEOMES:S #urt-er t-e Secretary=General to trans.it t-is resolution to all States Me.5ers and non=.e.5ers o# t-e Mnited Nations 3-ic- participate in t-e Expanded 2ro%ra..e.L In no ot-er style o# lan%ua%e 3ill suc- an arran%e.ent o# utterance 5e #ound. In #act8 t-e 3-ole docu.ent is one sentence #ro. t-e point o# vie3 o# its #or.al syntactical structure. :-e su5Gect o# t-e sentence &:-e :ec-nical *ssistance 4o..ittee7 is #ollo3ed 5y a nu.5er o# participial constructionsc &Becallin%&c8 &4onsiderin%&c8 &4onsiderin%c8 is cut o## 5y a co..a #ro. t-e. and #ro. t-e -o.o%eneous predicatescJ &*sRs&8 &Decides&8 &Be9uests&. Every predicate structure is nu.5ered and 5e%ins 3it- a capital letter Gust as t-e participial constructions. :-is structurally illo%ical 3ay o# co.5inin% di##erent ideas -as its sense. In t-e text Gust 9uoted t-e reason #or suc- a structural pattern pro5a5ly lies in t-e intention to s-o3 t-e e9uality o# t-e ite.s and si.ilar dependence o# t-e participial constructions on t-e predicate constructions. LIn le%al En%lis-8L 3rites >. ?-ite-all8 L...a si%ni#icant Gud%e.ent .ay depend on t-e exact relations 5et3een 3ords. ...:-e lan%ua%e o# t-e la3 is 3ritten not so .uc- to 5e understood as not to 5e .isunderstood.L / *s is seen #ro. t-e di##erent sa.ples a5ove8 t-e overall code o# t-e o##icial style #alls

into a syste. o# su5codes8 eac- c-aracteriSed 5y its o3n ter.inolo%ical no.enclature8 its o3n co.positional #or.8 its o3n variety o# syntactical arran%e.ents. +ut t-e inte%ratin% #eatures o# all t-ese su5codes8 e.anatin% #ro. t-e %eneral ai. o# a%ree.ent 5et3een= parties8 re.ain t-e #ollo3in%; 1) conventionality o# expressionC 2) a5sence o# any e.otivenessC !) t-e encoded c-aracter o# lan%ua%e sy.5ols (includin% a55reviations) and ') a %eneral syntactical .ode o# co.5inin% several pronounce.ents into one sentence; 0

FINAL REMAR>S
:-is 5rie# outline o# t-e .ost c-aracteristic #eatures o# t-e #ive lan%ua%e styles and t-eir variants 3ill s-o3 t-at out o# t-e nu.5er o# #eatures 3-ic- are easily discerni5le in eac- o# t-e styles8 so.e s-ould 5e considered pri.ary and ot-ers secondaryC so.e o5li%atory8 ot-ers optionalC so.e constant8 ot-ers transitory. :-e necessary data can 5e o5tained 5y .eans o# an o5Gective statistical count 5ased on a lar%e nu.5er o# texts8 5ut t-is tasR cannot 5e satis#actorily co.pleted 3it-out t-e use o# co.puters. *not-er pro5le. #acin% t-e stylicist is 3-et-er or not t-ere are separate styles 3it-in t-e spoRen variety o# t-e lan%ua%e8 and t-e analysis o# t-ese styles i# it can 5e proved t-at t-ere are any. So #ar 3e are o# t-e opinion t-at styles o# lan%ua%e can only 5e sin%led out in t-e 3ritten variety. :-is can 5e explained 5y t-e #act t-at any style is t-e result o# a deli5erate8 care#ul selection o# lan%ua%e .eans 3-ic- in t-eir correla= tion constitute t-is style. :-is can scarcely 5e attained in t-e oral variety o# lan%ua%e 3-ic- 5y its very nature 3ill not lend itsel# to care#ul selection. >o3ever8 t-ere is #olRlore8 3-ic- ori%inated as an oral #or. o# co..unication8 and 3-ic- .ay per-aps 5e classed as a style o# lan%ua%e 3it- its o3n structural and se.antic la3s. :-e survey o# di##erent #unctional styles 3ill not 5e co.plete 3it-out at least a cursary looR into 3-at constitutes t-e very notion o# textNas0 a production o# .an&s creative activity in t-e real. o# lan%ua%e. :-e 3ord&text&8 3-ic- -as i.percepti5ly crept into co..on use8 -as never 5een lin%uistically ascertained. It is so 5road in its application t-at it can re#er to a span o# utterance consistin% o# t3o lines8 on t-e one -and8 and to a 3-ole novel8 on t-e ot-er. :-ere#ore t-e 3ord needs speci#ication in order to .aRe clear 3-at particular Rind o# lan%ua%e product -as t-e ri%-t to 5e ter.ed text. :-e student o# #unctional styles 3ill undou5tedly 5ene#it 5y looRin% at t-e text #ro. an an%le di##erent #ro. 3-at -e -as -it-erto 5een used to. ?-en analysin% t-e lin%uistic nature o# a text it is #irst o# all necessary to Reep in .ind t-e concept o# per.anence as set a%ainst ep-e.erality. :ext8 5ein% t-e result o# lan%ua%e activity8 enGoys per.anence inas.uc- as it 5elon%s to t-e 3ritten variety o# lan%ua%e. :ext can 5e 3-at it clai.s to 5e only i# it possesses t-e 9uality o# inte%rity8 i.e. 3-oleness c-aracteriSed 5y its %estalt (see p. !7). In ot-er 3ords8 text .ust enGoy a

Rind o# independent existenceC it .ust 5e an entity in itsel#. :-e inte%rity o# t-e text presupposes t-e su5ordination o# certain parts to one particular part 3-ic- reveals t-e .ain idea and t-e purport o# t-e 3riter. It -as already 5een stated t-at a text consists o# units 3-ic- 3e called supra=p-rasal (see p. 19'). :-ese units are not e9ual in t-eir si%ni#icance; so.e o# t-e. 5ear re#erence to t-e .ain idea8 ot-ers only 5acR up t-e purport o# t-e aut-or. It #ollo3s t-en t-at supra= p-rasal units can 5e classi#ied as predicative and relative. :-e interrelation 5et3een t-ese 3ill s-o3 3-at Rind8 o# i.portance t-e aut-or attac-es to one or ot-er part o# t-e utterance. :-e t-eory o# co..unication -as 5rou%-t a5out ne3 concepts re%ardin% t-e in#or.ation i.parted 5y di##erent texts. It 3ill 5e o# use to distin%uis- 5et3een t-e #ollo3in% ter.s; .eanin%8 si%ni#ied tion and content. ?e s-all reserve t-e ter. &.eanin%/ #or t-e se.antics o# a .orp-e.e8 a 3ord or o# a 3ord=co.5ination. :-e ter. &si%ni#ication& is -ere su%%ested to re#er only to t-e sentence and supra=p-rasal units. :-e ter. &content& s-ould 5e reserved #or t-e in#or.ation i.parted 5y t-e 3-ole o# t-e text. It #ollo3s t-en t-at t-e in#or.ation contained in a text is its content. >o3ever8 t-e content is not a .ec-anical su..in% up o# t-e si%ni#ications o# t-e sentences and t-e supra=p-rasal units. $iRe3ise8 t-e si%ni#ication o# a sentence or o# a supra=p-rasal unit is not a .ec-anical su..ary o# .eanin%s o# t-e constituents8 i.e. o# t-e 3ords or 3ord=co.5inations. :-e inte%ratin% po3er o# t-e text %reatly in#luences t-e si%ni#ica= tion o# t-e sentences8 deprivin% t-e. o# t-e independence t-ey 3ould enGoy in isolation. :-e sa.e can 5e o5served in t-e sentence8 3-ere t-e 3ords to a %reater or lesser de%ree lose t-eir independence and are su5Gected to so.eti.es al.ost i.percepti5le se.antic .odi#ications. :o p-rase t-e issue di##erently8 t-e content o# a text .odi#ies t-e si%ni#ications o# t-e sentences and t-e .eanin%s o# t-e 3ords and p-rases. :-e inte%ratin% po3er o# t-e text is considera5le and re9uires care#ul o5ser= vation. :-e in#or.ativn conveyed 5y a0text .ay 5e o# di##erent RindsC in particular8 t3o Rinds o# in#or.ation .i%-t 5e sin%led out8 &viS. content=conceptual and& content= #actual. 4ontent=conceptual in#or.ation is t-at 3-ic- reveals t-e #or.ation o# notions8 ideas or concepts. :-is Rind o# in#or.ation is not con#ined to .erely i.partin% intelli%ence8 #aots (real or i.a%inary)8 descriptions8 events8 proceedin%s8 etc. It's .uc- .ore co.plicated. 4ontent=conceptual in#or.ation is not al3ays easily discerni5le. It is so.et-in% t-at .ay not lie on t-e sur#ace o# its ver5al exposition. It can only 5e %rasped a#ter a .inute exa.ination o# t-e constituents o# t-e text provided t-at t-e reader -as ac9uired t-e sRill o# siipralinear analysis. Moreover8 it .ay -ave various interpretations and not in#re9uently reveals diver%ent vie3s as to its purport. It #ollo3s t-en t-at content=conceptual in#or.ation is .ainly #ound in t-e 5elles= lettres lan%ua%e style. >ere it rei%ns supre.e alt-ou%- it .ay also 5e encountered in so.e ot-er #unctional styles and particularly in diplo.atic texts.

4ontent=#actual in#or.ation is t-at contained in 3-at 3e -ave al= ready na.ed .atter=o#=#act styles8 i.e. in ne3spaper style8 in t-e texts o# o##icial docu.ents and in so.e ot-ers. :-e classi#ication o# in#or.ation into content=conceptual and content=#actual s-ould not lead to t-e conclusion t-at texts o# a scienti#ic nature8 #or exa.ple8 are deprived o# concepts. :-e 3ord &conceptual1 -as .ulti=di.ensional para.etres8 i.e. it can 5e applied to di##erent p-eno.ena. Scienti#ic.treatises and .ono%rap-s are undou5tedly c-aracteriSed 5y ori%inal concepts8 i. e. t-eories8 -ypot-eses8 propositions. +ut t-ese concepts are explicitly #or.ulated and need no special stylistic inventory to decode t-e.. ?-ereas t-e concepts contained in 3orRs o# art (to 3-ic- t-e #unctional style o# 5elles=lettres 5elon%s) are to 5e derived #ro. t-e %estalt o# t-e 3orR. :aRen 5y itsel#8 suc- a division o# in#or.ation .ay appear unconvincin%8 inas.uc- as too .any interpretations o# t-e 3ord &conceptual& can 5e su%%ested. +ut its&ai.8 5e it repeated8 is to e.p-asiSe t-e crucial di##erence 5et3een 3-at is .ore or less clearly stated in ver5al c-ains and 3-at is only su%%ested and t-ere#ore needs .ental e##ort to %et at 3-at is said 5y t-e unsaid. In conclusion 3e su%%est t-e #ollo3in% procedures in stylistic analysis 3-ic- 3ill #acilitate t-e process o# disclosin% t-e Rind o# in#or.ation contained in t-e %iven text. :-e #irst procedure is to ascertain t-e Rind o# text 5ein% dealt 3it-. :-is procedure .ay 5e called t-e taxono.ic sta%e o# analysis. :axono.y is t-e science o# classi#ication. It states t-e principles accordin% to 3-ic- o5Gects are classi#ied. :-ere is an i..ediate need to %et a clear idea as to 3-at #unctional style t-is or t-at text 5elon%s. "urt-er.ore8 t-e tax=ono.ical analysis 3ill 5rin% to .ind a de#inite .odel o# a text in t-e %iven style. So.eti.es it is not enou%- to state t-at t-e text 5elon%s to8 let us say8 t-e style o# .o##icial docu.ents. It is necessary to speci#y 3-at Rind o# a docu.ent is 5ein% analysed. :-us8 it is very i.portant to #ind out 3-et-er t-e text is a .e.orandu.8 or a note8 or a protest8 or a pact8 etc. I# t-e text is one t-at 5elon%s to t-e 5elles=lettres style8 it is necessary to point out 3-at Rind o# a text it is8 viS. a poe. (3-at type)8 a story8 a novel and #urt-er8 3it-in it8 a description8 a portrait8 a conversation (dialo%ue)8 t-e aut-or&s narrative8 -is speculations8 etc. :-e second procedure8 3-ic- .ay 5e called t-e content=%raspin% sta%e8 ai.s at an approxi.ate understandin% o# t-e content o# .t-e %iven text. It does not clai. to 5e a co.plete and ex-austive penetration into t-e -idden purport o# t-e aut-or. :-e conceptual in#or.ation 3ill 5e disclosed at later sta%es in t-e analysis. >o3ever8 t-is .super#icial %raspin% o# t-e %eneral content is an i.portant sta%e8 it s-ould stand out a%ainst a deeper understandin% o# t-e in#or.ation t-e text contains in t-e H5road .eanin% o# t-e ter.. :-e t-ird procedure8 3-ic- .i%-t 5e called se.antic8 -as as its purpose t-e close o5servation o# t-e .eanin%s o# separate 3ords and 3ord co.5inations as 3ell as o# t-e si%ni#ications o# t-e various sentences and supra=p-rasal units. :-is sta%e o# t-e analysis predeter.ines t-e lines o# #urt-er analysis 3-ic- 3ill reveal t-e deeper in#or.ation. In .aintainin% t-is procedure it is vitally i.portant not to lose si%-t o#

t-e #act t-at8 as -as 5een pointed out 5e#ore8 t-e .eanin%s o# 3ords and t-e si%ni#ications o# t-e sentences and S2Ms are lia5le to .odi#ications under t-e inte%ratin% po3er o# t-e 3-ole o# t-e text8 its %estalt. It is advisa5le at t-is sta%e o# analysis to consult dictionaries inas.uc- as dictionaries 3ill s-o3 t-e polyse.y o# t-e 3ords8 t-us ena5lin% t-e student to distin%uis- a si.ultaneous realiSation o# t3o or .ore .eanin%s o# a 3ord in t-e sentence. :-e #ourt- procedure8 3-ic- s-ould 5e called t-e stylistic sta%e8 ai.s at #indin% out 3-at additional in#or.ation .i%-t=5e i.parted 5y t-e aut-or&s use o# various stylistic devices8 5y t-e Guxtaposition o# sentences 3it-in a lar%er #ra.e o# utterance8 t-at is8 in t-e S2M8 and also 5y t-e interdependence o# predicative and relative S2Ms. :-e #i#t- procedure8 3-ic- conventionally .i%-t 5e called t-e #unctional sta%e o# analysis8 5rin%s us 5acR to t-e second one8 i.e. t-e content=%raspin% sta%e. :-is analysis sets t-e tasR o# investi%atin% t-e conceptual in#or.ation contained in t-e 3-ole o# t-e text. In .aintainin% t-is sta%e o# analysis t-e student s-ould asse.5le t-e previously ac9uired data and .aRe a Rind o# synt-esis o# all t-e procedures. :-ere is no -ierarc-y in .aintainin% analysis procedures 5ut t-e su%%ested se9uence -as proved to 5e t-e .ost e##icient in %ettin% a deeper insi%-t into 3-at constitutes t-e notion text.