Religion

Marvin Doods S. de Castro

Definition
The concept of religion is pervasive in many societies. Almost all had a general concept of it
though they never realized that it could be termed as religion. By definition, religion is any set of
attitudes, sets, beliefs and practices that have relations to supernatural and divine characteristics.
Supernatural and divine characteristics mean things beyond the capacity of normal humans.

Causes of Emergence
Early societies developed religion in the last 60,000 years of existence by Homo sapiens.
Evidences of this idea is found in many burial sites where artifacts dug and burial practices held
imply a belief in a different entity after death. Cave paintings of hunting depict the belief that
images have power over events. Evidences reveal that rituals were held to interact with spirits and
other supernatural forces. It is clear that religion's existence ruled over some aspects cultural and
social changes, which is the reason why anthropologists study how and why did they appear and
their differences with other religions. From these, four reasons emerge as to why religions appear.
First, the need to understand the human psyche. Early humans believed that the existing body
in the material world had a counterpart in a different realm. This duality implicates the existence of
a soul, which leaves the body in sleep and death. Since the dead do apppear in some dreams, peolple
believe that the ghosts or the other side of a person's existence still surrounds them. Edward Tylor
calls this “animism”, or the belief in souls and spirits. However, many others hold different views.
One is Tylor's student, R.R. Marret, who had the idea of “animatism”, that is, the belief in
supernatural forces. She further argued that the idea or belief in supernatural forces should precede
over the existence of supernatural beings.
The second reason why religions appear is the general act of reversion to childhood feelings,
as postulated by Freud. He believed that the upbringing of children creates a great impact in their
adult life. Children, nursed by their parents at the young stages of their life, create the view of an
ominipotent and omipresent guardian. In later life, when they feel helpless and weak, they revert to
their childhood beliefs and look for a god or a figure that could help them in their predicament, just
as they have relied on their parents in their early years.
The third reason comes from the idea that humans, though skilled and wise in their faulties,
do not have the control over many other things that come to them (natural disasters, illnesses and
ultimately, death) . Anxiety, uncertainty and stress contribute to the formation of religion. Through
them, humans seek comfort and certainty in the absence of their loved ones. Religion provides the
gateway through which sorrow and grief are channeled as general forces of the society and the
individual. Other theorists cited the beneficial effects of religion in the social context. William
James and Carl Jung saw the individual seeing beyond himself and resolving personal issues, thus
developing maturely in the society. Erich Fromm proposed that religion too provides a system of
values and a framework of action where everyone could achieve unity and peace. Abraham Maslow
saw the individual gaining trancendental understanding of the world as religion become formally
accepted in the person's life.
Fourth and last reason is that religion springs up from the society's desire to understand the
things that surround their actions. Aside from the law, custom and popular opinion, religion gives
the individual a place and identity in the society. Religion arises from the fact that society needs an
explanation of its general order. It represents the decision-making forces of the community that
grow beyond any individual and govern it.

Variations Among Societies

Though wide in its scope, there are many differences in religious beliefs and practices. They
could also differ in the hierarchy and the realtionships between gods. Communication and ritual
processes also differ.

Types of supernatural forces

The posession and form of supernatural forces in societies differ from one another.
Once is the Malayo-Polynesian idea of mana. Objects possessing mana (the supernatural force) give
out power, prosperity and success for the ancient societies. For example, war chiefs who are said to
possess mana win in many successive battles against other chiefdoms. When mana runs out, the
object or the possessor loses tbe advantage and power too. In the case of the warchief, he loses
battles, and may even lose his life. Taboo practices vary also. Taboos are prohibited or negative
objects which bring out bad luck to the individual or society who comes in contact with them. Cows
are prohibited from being slaughtered, the use of left hand is avoided to prevent bad luck and black
cats are common taboos followed all over the world.

Types of supernatural beings

Supernatural beings are divided into 2 major categories: those who are of nonhuman
origins (gods) and those who are of human origins (ghosts and spirits). Gods are seen taking human
forms. Most societies believe that the gods had the roles of creation taken, after which they give the
task of ruling them to lesser beings and only joined on worldly affairs periodically on whim.
Everyday activities are related to gods also, and specialization occurs on most religious designations
on gods.
Ghosts and spirits are believed to have been humans before they took spiritual form.
After their death, they remain in the material world to serve an earthly purpose before they
eventually leave and take their rest. Their presence are felt in special circumstances, such as the
occurrence of their daily habits or the significant emergence of their previous posessions.

Character of supernatural beings.

The character of supernatural beings are associated with the idea of parent and child
relationship. In recent studies, the perception of gods rests greatly on the perception of a parent to a
child. If a child is reared in a supportive and caring manner, that child might come to think that the
gods are expected to do her bidding if she had done the appropriate ways and rituals. However, if the
child is often punished and reprimanded, then the child might come to think of the gods as strictly
righteous entities who would punish him if he did the wrong thing. Studies hve proven that child
training also gives the personality a person makes out of the gods. Overly punished children have
come to think of the gods as admonishing and cruel entities, while those raised with great nurture
come to believe that the gods are benevolent and caring.

Hierarchy of supernatural beings

The ranking of supernatural beings differ from one society to another. Monotheistic
religions (those who believe in a single ruling supernatural being) has little or no ranking at all, save
for a few lesser beings (angels, spirits) who are subordinate to the ultimate god. Polytheistic
religions (those having more than one god) believe that all gods are supreme, but they are all equal.
Hierarchical distinctions are based on the stratification of the ruling society . The greater the
ranking of the ruling leaders, the greater the ranking of the gods and the greater their belief of the
supreme god that rules above all.

Relationship of gods to humans

 God-human relationship stems out from the feelings of injustice, grief and pain in
mortal lives. When these tragedies occur, humans call upon the gods for help. They may also ask for
forgiveness, for whatever transgressions they may have done.People may pray for the gods to be by
their side when in trouble and ask for their favor and guidance. Generally, gods do not intervene in
worldly events; they rarely interfere with worldly affairs. In most cases, however, gods participate in
events where issues of morality and social inequality take place. Gods punish people for untoward
behavior by taking away something from them and reward those who do good by giving them
favors. By this, we define the intervention of worldly affairs by the gods as determined bythe
events taking place in the society.

Life after death

Societies differ in the description of the events that happen after one's death. Many
believe that after death, the soul of the departed stay within the world and play role in the everyday
activities of the living. Souls are also punished accordingly by their behavior when they were still
living. Evil souls are sent to eternal damnation while gentle souls are rewarded by a good life in the
afterworld. Some believe that souls are reincarnated, or that they take other forms after death
determined by their actions in the present. The cycle of rebirth goes on and on, until one reaches the
Nirvana, or the supreme state.

Variations in religious practices

Aside from beliefs, religions also vary in their practices. They also vary in their
religious practitioners.

Ways of interacting with the supernatural

In many ways do the people communicate with the supernatural. Among these ways
is prayer, or a conversation with the gods either orally or silently. They could be memorized or
spontaneous, private or public. The way of conversing to the gods also vary.
Physiological experiences may give the individual a sudden temporary feeling of
elevation from the reality present through drugs and physical and mental practices. The person is
capable of communcating unconsciously through the trance-like state creates visions or
conversations with unseen entities.

Voodoo is the simulation of a living object into a non-living object. An example is

the Filipino practice of Kulam. The hair of a person is tied to a doll. The doll is then subjected to
many physical pains that the possessor of the hair also feels. Simulation too is employed in
divination wherein the fortunes of people are made to read through objects like cards, crystal balls,
dices and Ouija boards.

Sacrifices too are made to appease gods or to have them in the side of humans. Bulls,
cattle and many other things are offered in many ways to gain favor, to ask forgiveness or to merely
prolonging the harmonious relationship between god and man. Habits are also given up to show
faith as practiced in fasting and abstinence. The ultimate sacrifice, that is, the sacrifice of human
life, shows the value of human labor as the greatest factor in the society. Human sacrifice is done in
times of great need and implies the gravity of need.

Magic, a form of communication to the gods for the good or evil of somebody else is
practiced in the form of sorcery and withcraft. Sorcery utilizes materials, objects and medicines for
the success of the ritual, while witchcraft uses only thought to bring the desired effect. The belief in
the practice of witchcraft is mainly rooted in the absence of a cohesive authoritarian ruling body
that governs the society. Through witchcraft, offenders and would-be offenders are punished, thus
giving society a social-control mechanism for justice and punishment.

Types of practitioners

People who pracitice religious rituals also differ in their methods. Religious
practitioners are geerally grouped into four: shamans, sorcerers, mediums and priests.

Shamans are also called witchdoctors, in the sense that they heal illnesses through
witchcraft and non-scientific means. Believing that most diseases are results of the bewitching
process, shamans employ arcane methods of healing that are too successful. In many ways, the
methods used by the shaman are same with the methods employed by doctors. They differ only in
technique and level of sophistication.

Mediums are traditionally female practitioners who heal while in their unconscious
trances. They require the aid of spirits and invite them inside their bodies. Through that, they are
able to have the abilities of the said spirits and are able to use their abilities.

Priests are high members of the society who have taken formal schooling in their
religious practice. They earn the right to do their rituals and are protected by their status. Should he
fail to get the desired result of the society, the blame is not made towards him, since he only serves
as a channel of the communication. The no-response means that the people are not in the favor of
their gods, and should do something else to alleviate the situation.

Religion and adaptation

In many ways cultural adaptation includes radical changes in the religious aspect of
the society. Political, economical and social changes can create a shift in the pattern of beliefs of a
particular religion to suit its followers needs. In a sense, religious beliefs rely on the minute changes
of the social environment to proceed with its line of thought towards its followers. Otherwise, it is
overlapped by other ideologies or worse, erased totally from history.

Religious change as revitalization

Changes in a religion's set of beliefs and teachings gives it the continuing ability in
most of today's societies. Dogmas could not always be followed and orthodox teachings need to be
interpreted differently in different times. For a religion to gain its adherents, it must have its concrete
teachings. But for it to continue and to be accepted wholly by some group of people in one time, it
must adapt to the changes around it. Furthermore, for a religion to accepted once more by the people
after a long period of confusion is yet another process, governed also by outside forces. In this,
different religious changes require different political and social changes brought about abruptly. To
conclude, religion, as a concept and as an ideal, sifts through many environmental factors and is
shaped by such.