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From Scrolls to Hypermedia Books, scrolls, papyrus rolls, clay tablets, manuscripts, maps all materials and forms that carry human thought and understanding have long been the province of archives or libraries, both private and institutional. These repositories have functioned to collect, preserve, document, and make available to a diverse public such items as government records, books, manuscripts, music, film, and realia among other knowledge bearing objects (Given and McTavish 8). Librarians have invented classification schemes, bibliographic systems, and educational programs. They have provided sensory space, a site for exploration and inspiration where librarians collaborate with patrons and further inquiry (Aurand 13). The physical space architecture, furnishings, art invites readers to ponder and transcend their immediate lives. The hermeneutics of libraries nurtures imagination and thought (Slyck 523). Libraries and archives have been wondrous gifts passed from one hand to another, one spirit to another, one generation to another. They communicate. Libraries traditionally contain texts that encapsulate technical and scientific observations, the stark facts of recordkeeping, and creative texts expressive of human experience. As soon as one person created a mark intended to communicate, human awareness was manifest and represented. Had an innate, electronic means of creating texts been realizable, our history our story, its multilayered, labyrinthine complexity would reach back further than we can now imagine. Or so we would hope. Libraries and archives inspire such hope. We understand that libraries and archives select, preserve, represent, organize, and provide access in varying ways to diverse documents, providing an account of the human story imperfectly, yet still productively.

M. Paisey Complex political, social, and cultural restrictions have often shaped collections and access privileging and censoring, or distorting information through an imprudent

balance in collections. Wars and natural disasters have destroyed much. However, despite cultural and political constraints, a librarys higher mission preserves the human record, contains knowledge required of its users, and thereby educates as well as fosters individual growth as well as the growth of knowledge (Swanson 113). Therein lies the crux. The librarys higher mission not only provides calming space for personal reflection, it provides materials to further knowledge work. Thanks to Father Busa and his use of computing to produce the Index Thomisticus, automation and its methodologies and tools joined the humanities (Hockey Electronic 5). We were ready. With the advent of electronic tools and texts, cyberspace, and networked systems, library space has gradually moved beyond physical walls. From its genesis, digital humanities...has remained in touch with the goals that have animated it from the outset: using information technology to illuminate the human record, and bringing understanding of the human record to bear on the development and use of information technology (Schreibman 1). Humanities scholars whose lives have straddled the analog and digital will have a keen awareness of what electronic textuality has brought to our understandings of not only the humanities, but also scientific discourse. Stanford Universitys Spatial History Project includes studies of insect and animal populations. Using visualization technologies to map spatial and demographic history of such populations, scientists hope to examine familial collective behavior as well as migratory behavior. Hard science has been slow to adopt or perhaps associate its digital tools with those of digital humanists,

M. Paisey but this may have less to do with the tools than the unfortunate and perpetual schism between the two cultures. So, what is digital humanities? Digital scholarship or digital humanities is fundamentally an outlook or awareness of and attentiveness to the interpretive potentialities and innovative research that electronic tools and methodologies bring to humanities studies. Unsworth poses a key question, ...what new opportunities for scholarship are presented by the existence of digital primary resources? (2). Warwick recognizes the role that digitization plays in expanding research horizons; however, she views digital tools "to think with" as the most exciting aspect of digital humanities or humanities computing (378). McGann also underscores the primacy of digital tools and states, "What we have now is not so much a new world as a new set of tools for certain purposes, by certain people (Reimagining 22). Galey and Siemens offer the most comprehensive, yet succinct description of humanities computing and digital humanities. They state, "The field of humanities computing deals with computational tools and methods that intersect with humanities research; digital humanities, a more recent development, names the broader context of disciplinary interactions that look to digital culture and technology to prompt new modes of humanities scholarship -- and, in turn, to reassert the humanities' value in those traditionally science- and business-dominated domains" (204). Background and Historical Roots Digital humanities or humanities computing, as the interdiscipline was initially conceived, emerged during the mid twentieth century when humanities scholars initiated

a series of diverse projects requiring computational methodologies and tools. These early

M. Paisey electronic projects involved large-scale efforts aimed at automating linguistic textual analysis, organization of information, textual or data representation, authorship

investigation, data retrieval, and data storage (Hockey History 3). Father Roberto Busa, a Jesuit priest, is widely credited with initiating the foundational project in humanities computing (Svensson 3). His groundbreaking project, Index Thomisticus is a lemmatized concordance of every instance of eleven million words from St. Thomas Aquinas and related authors works (Hockey Electronic 5). This immense accomplishment in humanities computing earned him the credit as pioneer of humanities computing (Hindley 2). Available now, online, Busas Index Thomisticus is fully searchable in English along with several other languages. Busas project, his imagination, commitment, and resourcefulness moved humanities research from the linear constraints of paper-based technologies, manually managed, to electronic technologies. By automating a process previously anchored in print, Busa transformed the scale of projects, possibilities, and knowledge construction. Humanities scholars could now envision projects requiring a spatial working space. When the codex no longer confined textual analysis, humanities scholarship along with scholarship in any field using textual media was re-invented. McGann emphasizes this point, stating, ...electronic tools in literary studies dont simply provide a new point of view on the materials, they lift ones general level of attention to a higher order (Rationale 55). This conceptual shift in attention changed the perception of materials, the types of questions researchers ask, and the ways to go about answering these questions. Father Busa may not have foreseen his projects inherent potentialities and farreaching implications. Nonetheless, he set off a fundamental shift in the use of archives

M. Paisey

and libraries as well as specific issues that concern information science particularly the use of descriptive, administrative, and preservation metadata. During the 1960s, preeminent humanities scholars recognized the research opportunities intrinsic to digital humanities. Successive conferences ensued, the first humanities computing association was established (Association for Computers and Humanities) along with the first journal (Computers and the Humanities). The 1960s inaugurated centers for humanities computing. These centers developed suites of programs to address humanities questions, particularly those that related to the production of critical editions. The problems technologists and humanities scholars faced then variant spellings, variant alphanumeric characters, multiple manuscripts, data representation, and description continue to be key concerns. The late 1970s and 1980s brought about a momentous change and direction in computing humanities. Oxford University founded the Oxford Text Archive (OTA) thus, establishing an embryonic digital archive (Hockey Electronic 14). An early problem facing archivists at the OTA was the extent of undocumented, undescribed material. Archivists recognized the necessity of instituting a descriptive schema, but information science was not yet participating in computing humanities. The various levels of metadata so important in representation, discovery, provenance, and preservation were barely emergent, particularly with respect to archives and electronic texts. Nonetheless, the OTA had broken ground; the first digital library was unfolding other centers emerged at universities and corporations. Governments also weighed in, sponsoring electronic textual initiatives. At this point, digital archives (or databanks) specializing in Old Greek, Old English, and Latin emerged. The benefits of creating an

M. Paisey electronic archive or databank for these rare texts became abundantly clear. They are fragile, scarce, requested, and need preservation. One such document is the Nowell Codex (Beowulf), dated around the first millennium clearly a fragile, scarce, requested fragment that, despite substantial loss in fire, remains invaluable (Hockey History 9).

During 1980s and early 1990s, scholars increased their use of personal computers and as soon as Macs emerged, humanities scholars recognized the value in the graphical user interface. Such an interface could display non-standard characters such as those in Old English. Importantly, the Mac-based program HyperCard made it possible to create a network of hypertext. And, for the digitally inclined, hypertext and its capability to link files was momentous. Previously, electronic texts brought humanities research into a non-linear, spatial realm where textual extractions engendered imaginative research opportunities such as structuring concordances and textual comparisons. Now with hypertext, words could link within an electronic concordance. Hypertext provided the means by which a complex network of hyperlinks created information databases. The nascent digital archive (databank) grew with an intricate, non-linear, networked scheme. Digital archivists could map digitized text to digitized images and an authors notebook or sketches could be mapped to the text, as the rhizomorphous Walt Whitman Archive does today. Intersection of Libraries and Digital Humanities Electronic text enabled humanities scholars to approach texts and drive their resources "to their limits and beyond" (McGann Reimagining 4). Not only would electronic texts introduce new research interests and questions, they would also change the way users read and interact with materials (Todorov 67). Both the use and the users of

M. Paisey electronic texts would change. Shillingsburg states, ...electronic representations of written texts have as much capacity to change the readers or users as they have of changing the texts (Gutenberg 4). As a result, Shillingsburg, like McGann, claims that electronic texts have altered textuality itself. This textuality embraces Darntons textual communication circuit as well as a texts initial context, its current reception and understanding, and the interpretive discourse surrounding a text or textual artifact (Darnton 12). The merits of electronic texts, digital archives, or editions for scholars are numerous, yet the question of who creates the model, rationale, and construction arises. Closely related to these challenges, and paramount, is who edits the electronic text, archive, or edition? (Price 3). We have two distinct camps. One camp favors the digital humanist as collection developer; the other camp emphasizes the digital archivists and librarians role as collection developer. Price is firmly camped with the digital humanists. Still another view and probably the view closest to a consensus -- relates to the deeply

collaborative nature of large-scale digital archives (Pitti 473). Collaborative efforts would not only involve digital humanists and digital archivists, but also textual scholars, literary scholars, disciplinary scholars, librarians, archivists, information scientists, and technicians to name only a few. Certainly, it seems Price's division between humanities' scholars and librarians is artificial. Scholar librarians and archivists are trained not only in the humanities and textual transmission, but also in the selection, organization, and representation of material in a collection. This is not to say that a digital humanist should not endeavor to develop an electronic digital collection. Kirschenbaum offers a view of the digital scholar in

M. Paisey relation to librarian or archivist. He believes, Literary scholars need to play a role in decisions about what kind of data survives and in what form as bibliographers and editors have long been advocates in traditional library settings, where they have opposed policies that tamper with bindings, dust jackets, and other important kinds of material evidence (Approaches 4). While Kirschenbaum's perspective is understandable, painstaking training in bibliography is essential for special collections librarians and, regardless of what expertise bears on a digital archive, edition, or collection, without punctilious metadata, both efficient information retrieval and archival or digital preservation is at risk. Ideal conditions would unite the disciplinary scholar, the scholar librarian, and the scholar information scientist as collaborators. Price also raises the issue of terminology -- he objects to the current usage of digital humanities as well as the terms archive, edition, database, and thematic research collection (1). With regard to digital humanities, he feels the term inadequately describes digital textual studies. He is equally unhappy with the terms archive, edition, database, or thematic research collection (1-10). Of all terms, he is inclined toward thematic research collection, but states that it is insufficiently pithy

(6). His points are fair. Throughout the literature, scholarly digital archives are known by many other names, including electronic text, digital media (Rieger 5), electronic media, digital representations, among numerous other names. I am inclined toward the term scholarly digital archives or thematic research collection. Both terms, digital archives and thematic research collection, imply the

M. Paisey digitization of primary source material as well as books different editions, versions, copies, of a particular text along with other texts, including sound and video by an author or authors where texts are contextualized, logical, indeterminate, and thematic

they organize how we investigate our cultural heritage, rather than focusing exclusively on one particular text (McGann Electronic 5). Documents can be related and can be "studied and synthesized to make new knowledge" (Smith 312). Palmer defines a thematic collection as digital aggregations of primary sources and related materials that support research on a theme (1). She is interested in both the digital humanist and digital librarian building collections jointly (Thematic 350). Her current research addresses the needs of humanist scholars, their information seeking behaviors, and thematic collections. In addition, the concept of a scholarly thematic collection suggests an interdisciplinary approach that is located in space and concentrated in time (McGann Electronic 4). Prices recent Civil War Washington project or Radcliffes Lord Byron: His Life and Times collection employ a hypermedia model that integrates disparate documents, forming dynamic, de-centered archives that take emphasize the role of culture and society in the production, transmission, and interpretation of texts (McKenzie Bibliography 62). Conclusion Library science, information science, and digital humanities have or should have a synergistic relationship. Each discipline or field brings requisite skills in constructing digital collections whether one refers to them as digital archives or thematic research collections. Library science brings formal collection development strategies that include statements of mission, policy, selection, acquisition, organization, and representation. In

M. Paisey 10 dealing with a rare and scholarly collection, special collections librarians understand bibliography, scholarly editions, textual criticism, and digitization among other specialized skills. Information science establishes standards of representation and metadata as well as information architecture, encoding, and website usability. Finally, the digital humanities scholar brings in-depth knowledge of a particular subject area and the information habits of scholarly users. As McGann has argued, digital humanities or digital scholarship is an outlook and includes a new set of tools for specific users. Creating digital thematic collections or archives is a multidisciplinary enterprise that requires communication and collaboration among all professionals involved in a digital project or endeavor.

M. Paisey 11 Questions 1. How have electronic or digital archives altered they ways in which humanities scholars both read and research? 2. What editorial principles relate to constructing a scholarly digital archive? 3. What is a thematic digital archive, how does it differ from a traditional archive, and what kinds of questions and research does it enable a scholar in any field to conduct. 4. Describe the workflow in constructing a thematic research collection or digital archive. For example, FSUs Strozier SC Library holds a substantial collection of Lois Lenski Papers, if one were to develop a thematic research collection, what procedures would need to be established? 5. What metadata should a digital archive include in order to ensure discoverability, accurate description, and optimal interoperability?

M. Paisey 12

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