Inservice defects

Creep 1st. type, When a material or components exposed to a constant applied load at a temperature in excess of 0.5 TM, grain boundary sliding generate a stress concentration at a triple point and produce a wedge-shaped grain boundary crac . !nd. Type" #nitiation of $oids at grain boundaries, especially those grain boundaries oriented trans$ersely to a tensile stress %ollowed by the growth of the $oids by $ia migration and precipitation of $acancies. This process is called ca$itation creep. The ca$ities are produced by the $oids. The growth and coalescence of the ca$ities are followed with crac de$elopment and then fracture. #n carbon steel and low alloy steels, due to long time exposure to high temperature, carbide spheroidi&ation produced on the grain boundaries and this will reduce the strength of the materials. Pitting Corrosion 'xtremely locali&ed corrosion and generally produces tiny holes or pit (itting occur when one area of a metal surface become anodic under stagnant condition of a medium )electrolyte* with respect to the rest of the surface, or when highly locali&ed changes in corrodent in contact with the metal, as in cre$ices. +auses of pitting" local inhomogeneity on the metal surface ,ocal loss of passi$ity Mechanical and chemical rupture of protecti$e oxide coating The presence of chloride ions -al$anic corrosion from a relati$ely distant cathode %ormation of a metal ion or oxygen concentration cell under a solid deposit. Fatigue %atigue crac is produced by application of repeated or cyclic stress at below nominal yield strength of material. The fatigue crac initiates at a certain stress concentration site existed in the components. The fatigue crac is indicated by a series of macroscopic crescents or beach mar , progressing from the origin of the crac . eg. forged steel trailer tow-bar with coarse grained pearlitic steel has been decarburi&ed at outer surface. The decarburi&ed surface had greatly reduced tensile strength, and caused fracture to initiate at the surface under cyclic tensile stress. Microscopic examination of fatigue fracture often re$eals characteristic striations Uniform Corrosion .niform corrosion is an electrochemical attac occurring consistently and e$enly o$er the surface of a metal/ and results in general thinning of the metal The thinning occurs by remo$ing a substantial amount of metal, which either dissol$es in the en$ironment or reacts with it to produce a loosely adherent, porous corrosion product. +orrosion rate and expected ser$ice life can be calculated from the thinning measurement. Intergranular Corrosion #t is a preferential dissolution of the grain boundary phases or the &ones ad0acent to them. -rain boundary material are more chemically acti$e than the grains themsel$es. This preferential attac is enhanced by segregation of specific elements or compounds, enrichment of one of the alloying elements in the grain boundaries, or by the depletion of an element necessary for corrosion resistance in the grain boundary areas. When the attac is se$ere, the grains may be dislodged due to complete deterioration of their boundaries. #n austenitic stainless steel, at sensiti&ing temperature ) 550-150o+*, if the carbon is about 0.0!2 or higher, the excess carbon will diffuse toward grain boundary for combining with chromium to form chromium carbides. 3t this condition the carbides and carbon precipitates out of solution. The result is metal ad0acent to grain boundaries has lower chromium content and is called as chromium-depleted &one. This &one is easily attac ed by corrosi$e en$ironment

4tress corrosion crac ing occur if the dislodged grains due to corrosion are also exposed to residual stress or applied stress. The crac ing progresses in direction normal to the stress. 4ources of high local stress or residual stress in manufacturing/ Thermal processing )welding, solidification of casting, improper heat treatment, non-uniform temperature in furnace, 5uenching*, stress risers )geometrical stress or notch, crac s due to incorrect heat treatment, inclusion, interface in case hardened steel, se$ere surface irregularities produced by grinding or rough machining* and fabrication )bending, stamping, deep drawing and other cold wor s* 4ources of stress in ser$ices/ stress risers )from mechanical impact, wear, fretting, erosion, ca$itation, pitting, intergranular attac *, en$ironmental effects )high-low temperature, non-uniform heating rate, sharp thermal gradient* and cyclic stresses )$ibration from rotary or reciprocating motion of mechanical de$ices*. +rac s undergo extensi$e branching and proceed in direction perpendicular to the stresses contributing to their initiation and propagation. Cracking by Hydrogen +rac ing is caused by the presence or absorption of hydrogen in combination with residual or applied tensile stresses. 6ydrogen diffusion in metal lattice cause metal become brittle- decrease in tensile ductility and notched tensile strength. +rac ing can cause by decarburi&ation due to remo$al of carbon from metal, occur by chemical reaction with en$ironment that contain 6 or hydrogen compounds. 'x. 6 interact with + in steel produce methane and corroded the internal tube boiler and the tube become brittle. +rac ing also produced due to high internal pressure caused by combination of atomic 6 into molecular 6 gas at internal discontinuities or inclusion in the interior of the metal. Oxidation 7xidation can increase metal loss 3 scale with sufficient thic ness cause fla ing and spalling. Carburization #n steel, this form of attac results from precipitation of chromium as chromium carbides. #n heater tube, cause loss in supporting thic ness, loss of ductility due to carbide formation and susceptibility to brittle fracture. Wear Wear can be defined as damage to solid surface caused by remo$al or displacement of material by mechanical action of a contacting solid, li5uid or gas Wear cause a loss of weight and alteration of dimension Types of wear/ adhesi$e, abrasi$e, erosi$e and corrosi$e 3dhesi$e wear" occurs when two metallic surfaces slide against each other under pressure. 3brasi$e wear" displacement of material from a surface by contact with hard pro0ections on a mating surface, or with hard particles, that are mo$ing relati$e to the wearing surface. 'rosi$e wear" in$ol$ing loss of surface by contact with a fluid containing particles. +orrosi$e wear"when chemical or electrochemical contributes to the wear rate.

Materials and Their (roperties ## F C!O"# FF$C!I%& P"OP$"!I$# Microstructures +omposition Temperature ,oading rate -eometry 'icrostructures 3s-cast structure +oldwor ed structure 3nnealing structure)reco$ery grain, recrystalli&ed grain, grain growth8normal grain* 6ot wor ed structure %usion &one8ha&8base metal Composition 4olid solution 9ispersion #ntermetallic compound 'utectic !emperature 3ging 4olution treatment Tempering 7$erheating (oading rate %atigue load +reep load +ompression load Tension load &eometry 9esign 4i&e P"OP$"!I$# OF ' !$"I (# !ensile #trengt)- highest applied force :ield strength ; the stress at which plastic deformation becomes noticeable or de$ides the elastic and plastic beha$ior of material. :oung<s modulus ; stress8strain, related to binding energy and measure stiffness of materials

Impact Properties .sed to e$aluate the brittleness of a material 9ifference in potential energy is impact energy absor$ed by the specimen 3bility of material to withstand impact blow is refered as toughness Transtion temperature - temperature at which materials change from ductile to brittle

Fracture !oug)ness Measure ability of material containing crac s or other small flaws to withstand an applied load. 4tress intensity factor, $alue that causes the flaw to grow and cause failure. +ritical stress intensity factor, stress intensity factor re5uired for a crac to propagate

Creep #trengt)- ,oad-carrying ability of material at high temperatures. Tested by applied constant stress below yield strength to a heated specimen. 7ccur due to dislocation climb at high temperature when atoms mo$e to or from dislocation line by diffusion. 4tress-rupture cur$e- estimate the expected lifetime of a component. ,arson-miller parameter-consolidate the stress-temperaturerupture time into single cur$e.

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*uctility- 3bility of material to be permanently deformed without brea ing when force is applied. 9uctility is measured by 2 elongation 9uctile material needs to form a complicated shape without brea ing it Fatigue #trengt)- Tested by repeated stress applied below yield strength until fail %atigue strength - the stress re5uired to cause failure by fatigue in a gi$en number of cycles. %atigue life- number of cycles permitted at particular stress before fails by fatigue

' !$"I (# U#$* I% I%*U#!"I ( P( %!# carbon steels- (lain carbon steel" + )0.1- 0.=2*, mn)1.52* ,ow carbon pearlite reduced steel", +)0.0>-0.012*, mn)1.52* ,ow carbon bainitic steel", +)0.1!80.152*, mn)1.52* ?oilers and turbines of power plant/ superheater tubes and headers, steam turbine rotor !00-=00 o+ #nexpensi$e, easily a$ailable, easily fabricated 4perator drum, heat exchanger, storage tan , piping +arbon steel with 0.52mo, better resistance to high temperature at =!5 to 5=0 o+ +arbon steel with 0.52mo can be used under hidrogen at !@0 o+ lo+, alloy steels - +ontain !.!5+r-1Mo, suitable for refinery reactor $essel, furnace tube, heat-exchanger shell, piping, separator drum austenitic steels- +" 0.15-0.012wt.+, 112wt.+r, 12wt.Ai with small additions of Ti, Ab and Mo. >00 4eries of steels )'B/ >0=, >1@* -ood creep and corrosion resistance 4ub0ect to 4++ by chlorides (rolong heating cause carbide and sigma phase formation. !00-@00 + Cotor8turbine disc, heat exchanger tubes, reactor cladding, tubes in furnace, superheater tubes, piping, headers, components for compressor, turbine and pump martensitic steels- =00 series/ 0.15-0.D12 + ,12Mn,11-1@ 2+r )e.g. =10* must be post-weld heat treated to a$oid hydrogen stress crac ing problems as a result of exposure to hydrogen sulfide en$ironment hard structure but brittle pump components, fasteners, turbine blades, $al$es, nife blade, also as furnace tube and piping (o+,Hig) lloy Ferritic #teels 6igh strength low alloy steel" 0.05 - 0.1!2+, 1.= - 1.D2Mn with microalloying of Ab, E or Ti )ferrite-pearlite structure*, eg. =05 7il and gas pipelines, driling rigs, pressure $essel, tubing, ship plate, railroad e5uipment, $ehicle chassis, bridge, building structure, transmission towers, fuel tan , reinforcing bar Copper and aluminum alloys