REMOTE SENSING

Dr. GEORGE JOSEPH

DIRECTOR
CENTER FOR SPACE SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION IN ASIA AND THE
PACIFIC
(Affiliated to The United Nations)
 WHAT IS REMOTE SENSING?

`REMOTE SENSING IS THE SCIENCE OF MAKING

INFERENCES ABOUT OBJECTS FROM MEASUREMENTS,
MADE AT A DISTANCE, WITHOUT COMING INTO PHYSICAL
CONTACT WITH THE OBJECTS UNDER STUDY.’

`REMOTE SENSING MEANS SENSING OF THE EARTH’S

SURFACE FROM SPACE BY MAKING USE OF THE
PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE EMITTED,
REFLECTED OR DIFFRACTED BY THE SENSED OBJECTS,
FOR THE PURPOSE OF IMPROVING NATURAL RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT, LAND USE AND THE PROTECTION OF THE
ENVIRONMENT.’
REMOTE SENSING IN EVERY DAY LIFE
 Visual Perception of Remote Sensing
Platform

Sensor

Yellow :
Green : Interpreter
Ripe
Raw

Remote sensing is recognizing yellow papaya is ripe

PRESENT AREA LAND USE PRESENT YIELD
UNDER CROPS PATTERN LEVELS

INCREASE LAND
IMPROVE
UNDER CROPS YIELDS
USE OF HIGH
YIELD VARIETY
ARABLE
WASTELAND AGRICULTURAL
PRACTICES
DEVELOPMENT/ INCREASE
CONSERVATION
FOOD
GRAIN SOURCES OF
IRRIGATION
ADDITIONAL
SOURCES

SUPPLY IRRIGATION
AREA INCREASE

IMPROVE
BUFFER
IMPORT OF AGRICULTURE
STOCK FOODGRAIN INPUTS

FOOD GRAIN AGRICULTURAL FERTILISERS FOR

REQUIREMENT WORLD
PRACTICES YIELDS
PRICES
INFORMATION REQUIREMENT SCENARIO FOR INCREASING
FOOD GRAIN SUPPLY
WHY IMAGING FROM SPACE?

SYNOPTIC
COVERAGE

800 km

10 km

100 m

10 m
1.6 m

4.5
km
11.3 357 km 1956 km
35.7 km
km
Polar Orbit
 WHY IMAGING FROM SPACE?
GLOBAL COVERAGE & REPEAT OBSERVATIONS
750
4
600
3

450

300

150
2 1 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6

00
Latitude

150
Orbit
15 Number

300
5
450
2820
km
600

750
 Sensor
Platform
(satellite)
Sun
Ground Truth/
Accuracy Check Tables
Base Map

Data transmission
Thematic
map
(absorption/scattering/emission)

Reports
Decision criteria/
Atmosphere

Visual
Funds availability/
Other Database
Digital
GIS
Data
Cloud
Photo products
Analysis
Thermal emission
Reflection

Digital products
Decision
Fluorescence

Data Making
products Discussions with
Periodic beneficiaries
Monitoring
Data using RS
Earth Surface reception & Implementation
recording at field level
Monitoring

SCHEMATICS SHOWING REMOTE SENSING

SYSTEM FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

IF A CHARGED PARTICLE ACCELERATES (MOVES FASTER, SLOWER

OR CHANGES DIRECTION), IT PRODUCES BOTH AN ELECTRIC FIELD
(BECAUSE THE PARTICLE IS CHARGED) AND A MAGNETIC FIELD
(BECAUSE THE PARTICLE IS MOVING).

BECAUSE THE MOTION OF THE PARTICLE IS CHANGING, THE

ELECTRIC FIELD IS CHANGING AND THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS
CHANGING.

THE CHANGING ELECTRIC FIELD CREATES A NEW MAGNETIC FIELD

AND THE CHANGING MAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCES A NEW ELECTRIC
FIELD.

THE COLLAPSING AND REGENERATION OF THE ELECTRIC AND

MAGNETIC FIELDS IS WHAT ALLOWS EM RADIATION TO PROPAGATE.
 Propagation of EM Waves
y

x
z

• Changing B field creates E field

• Changing E field creates B field
C = nλ

E = hn = hc / λ
 POLARISATION
A CONDITION IN WHICH ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ARE CONSTRAINED TO VIBRATE IN A CERTAIN PLANE
OR PLANES THE WAVE IS SAID TO BE POLARIZED.
POLARIZATION IS GIVEN BY THE ELECTRIC FIELD
VECTOR

LINEAR POLARISATION
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

UNITS:
WAVELENGTH UNITS: LENGTH
-10
Angstrom (A) : 1 A = 1x10 m;
-9
Nanometer (nm): 1 nm=1x10 m;
Micrometer (µm): 1 µm = 1x10-6m;
Wave number units: inverse length (often in cm-1)
 EM RADIATION DESIGNATIONS

Optical Infrared (OIR) region

Visible 0.4 – 0. 7 µm
Near Infrared (NIR) 0.7 – 1.5 µm
Short Wave Infrared (SWIR) 1.5 – 3 µm
Mid Wave Infrared (MWIR) 3-8 µm
Long Wave Infrared (LWIR)
(Thermal Infrared (TIR) 8-15 µm
Far Infrared (FIR) Beyond 15 µm
 MICROWAVES
P band 0.3–1 GHz (30 - 100 cm)
L band 1-2 GHz (15 - 30 cm)
S band 2-4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm)
C band 4–8 GHz (3.8 - 7.5 cm)
X band 8–12.5 GHz (2.4 – 3.8 cm)
Ku band 12.5–18 GHz (1.7- 2.4 cm)
K band 18–26.5 GHz (1.1 – 1.7 cm)
Ka band 26.5-40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm)
Note : 1 GHz = 109 Hz
 REMOTE SENSING

PASSIVE ACTIVE

IMAGING SOUNDING IMAGING SOUNDING

CAMERA
VTPR SLAR LIDAR
TV
SAR
MSMR
 ENERGY SOURCE FOR PASSIVE SENSING
REFLECTION OF SOLAR RADIATION& EMISSION
The radiant exitance from
Spectral distribution at the top of the sun and earth follows
atmosphere for solar irradiance and earth’s Planck’s equation
emission. Sun T ~6000°K,
Earth T ~300°K
C1
Radiant exitance (W m-2 µm-1)

Mλ =
[ ]
Power radiated at each

104 λT
λ5 eC 2
−1
wavelength

1000
Sun
100 2898
Earth λmax = µm
T
10

1
0.1 0.5 1 10
Wavelength (µm)
For earth, λmax ~9.5 µm

10.5 – 12.5 µ is used for At MICROWAVE frequency C2/ λT <<1

THERMAL IMAGING to avoid
the ozone absorption at ~9.5 µm Mλ ∝ εT → BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE
 ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS
0.4-1.3,
Sun Absorption by
molecules 1.5-1.8,

transmission
2.2-2.6,
µm
(absorption/scattering/emission)

Data
Atmosphere

3.0-3.6,
UV-VIS-NIR IR MW
UV Far IR-MW
4.2-5.0,
Ionization Electronic Vibrational Rotational Forbidden
Cloud Dissociatio Transitions Transitions Transitions
(H2O)
Transitions 7--- 15,
Reflection

n (O3,O2) (H2O,CO2) (O2)

Fluorescence
Thermal

(O,N2,O2,O3)
emission

1cm-30cm

UV VISIBLE INFRARED MICROWAVE RADIO

TRANSMISSION (%)

X C S L
Earth Surface
ATMOSPHERIC

H2O
REFLECTED IR THERMAL IR
CO2
O3

H2O
H2O

CO2 H2O
H2O

O3

O2

O2
100
CO2
H2O

H2O

0
0.5µm 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 15 20µ 0.1 cm 0.5 1.0 5 10
WAVELENGTH
INFLUENCE OF ATMOSPHERE IN MEASUREMENTS

• Molecular Absorption
Only window regions of EM Spectrum
available

• Molecular/Aerosol Scattering
Modifies the Spatial/Spectral distribution
of incoming and Outgoing Radiation

• Atmospheric Turbulence
Limits resolution
 • REFLECTANCE SPECTRA
80

R
E 60
SILTY CLAY SOIL
F
L
VEGETATION
E
40
C
T
A
N 20 MUCK SOIL
C
E
(%) WATER (Shallow/Deep)
0

0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.6 4.8

Wave length (µm)

 FRESH SNOW
GREEN VEGETATION
DARK TONED SOIL

LIGHT TONED SOIL

CLEAR WATER
TURBID WATER

GREEN BAND RED BAND NEAR IR SHORTWAVE IR

(0.52-0.59 µm) (0.62-0.67 µm) (0.77-0.86 µm) (1.55-1.75 µm)
 COLOUR FORMATION
YELLOW (MINUS BLUE)

RED GREEN

MAGENTA (MINUS GREEN) CYAN (MINUS RED)

BLUE
 COLOUR COMPOSITES

Natural Colour False Colour Composite

BLUE+GREEN+RED GREEN BLUE
RED GREEN
NIR RED
 BASIC ELEMENTS OF VISUAL
INTERPRETATION
TONE (COLOR)

SIZE AND SHAPE

TEXTURE AND PATTERN

RELATIVE&
ABSOLUTE LOCATION

SHADOWS
 SIGNATURE
Key to feature identification from space imagery depends on the
characteristic changes in the properties of the EM spectrum

reflected/emitted from the target surface – referred ‘signature’

80
R
Signatures could be inferred through: E
F
60 SILTY CLAY SOIL
L
E VEGETATION
• SPECTRAL VARIATION C
40
T
• POLARISATION CHANGE A
MUCK SOIL
N
• THERMAL INERTIA C
20
E
• TEMPORAL VARIATION (%)
0
WATER (Shallow/Deep)
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
Wave length (µm)
7000
6000
5000
Frequency

Signatures are not completely 4000

deterministic; they are statistical in 3000
nature with a mean and dispersion 2000
1000
0
2.79 3.08 3.37 3.66 3.95 4.24 4.53 4.82
Radiance (mw/cm2/ str/µm)
 Band 3 Histogram
(.52-.59 micron) Band 4 Histogram
(.77-.86 micron)

250
200

Pixel count
Pixel count

Barren 200 Crop, Barren

150 Water Water
150
Crop
100
100
50 50

0 50
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100105110 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105110 115

Grey Level Values Grey Level Values

Scatter plot Scatter plot

Band 3 versus Band 4 Band 3 versus Band 4
120 120
Crop Crop Barren
105 105

90
Band 4

90
Barren Band 4
75 75
Urban
60 60
Water Water
45 45
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Band 3 Band 3
Clusters
IMAGING MODES
 SENSOR PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
SPATIAL A MEASURE OF DISERNABLE PHYSICAL
DIMENSION OF THE SURFACE FROM THE
RESOLUTION IMAGE

A MEASURE OF THE WIDTH OF THEWAVELENGTH

SPECTRAL (BANDWIDTH) WHICH IS USED TO GENERATE
RESOLUTION THEIMAGE. NARROWER THE BANDWIDTH HIGHER
THE SPECTRAL RESOLUTION

RADIOMETRIC • A MEASURE OF WHAT IS THE MINIMUM CHANGE

RESOLUTION IN RADIANCE THAT CAN BE MEASURED
•NE Delta Refl/Radiance/Temp
•FREQUENCY OF OBSERVATION: NUMBER OF
TEMPORAL DAYS BETWEEN TWO CONSECUTIVE
OBSERVATION FOR A PARTICULAR GROUND
RESOLUTION TARGET UNDER SIMILAR VIEWING GEOMETRY

OTHER SENSOR PARAMETERS OF INTEREST ARE THE NUMBER OF

SPECTRAL BANDS, THE POSITION OF THE CENTRAL WAVELENGTH ON THE
EM SPECTRUM FOR EACH BAND.
 RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION

- A MEASURE OF THE INSTRUMENT’S CAPABILITY TO

DIFFERENTIATE SMALLEST CHANGE IN REFLECTANCE/
EMITTANCE
NOISE EQUIVALENT DIFFERENTIAL RADIANCE NEΛL
NOISE EQUIVALENT DIFFERENTIAL REFLECTANCE NEΛP
NOISE EQUIVALENT DIFFERENTIAL TEMPERATURE NEΛT

DEFINED AS THE CHANGE IN RADIANCE/REFLECTANCE/

TEMPERATURE WHICH GIVES A SIGNAL OUTPUT OF THE
SENSOR EQUAL TO THE NOISE AT THAT SIGNAL LEVEL
 SPECTRAL RESOLUTION

Intensity
IDEAL FILTER 1

RESPONSE = 1 for λc + ∆λ/2 ≤ λ ≥ λc - ∆λ/2

0
= 0 for λc - ∆λ/2 λ ≥ λc + ∆λ/2
λ1 λc λ2
Wavelength

GAUSSIAN FILTER

Intensity
Bandwidth ∆λ = Full Width at Half Maximum
1

(FWHM) 0.5 ∆λ

Desirable to have Sharp Roll Off and Roll On to

λ0
improve out of band contributions. Wavelength

%Transmissi
PRACTICAL FILTER

on

Wavelength
Spectral response of
nma practical filter (LISS-B3).
 INFORMATION CONTENT VS RESOLUTION

A) OCM (360m) D) 72m (LISS-I)

B) 360m (OCM) C) 188m (WiFS)

F) 23m (LISS-III) G) 5.8m (IRS 1C PAN)

E) 36m (LISS-II)

. `A’ is from a scene from IRS Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM). The area in the small
square marked (≈ 4km x 4km) is shown in various resolutions from B to G..
 APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENT RESOLUTION

• 1M+ SCALES

• 1:500K SCALES
• 1:250K SCALES
 1m

• 1:50K SCALES

• 1:12500 SCALES

• 1:2000/4000/1:8000
SCALES
60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69

70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89

90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99

100 101 97 103 104 105 106 107 10 109

110 111 82 113 114 115 116 117 11 119

120 121 82 123 124 125 126 127 19 129

130 131 92 133 134 135 136 137 17 139

Enlarged 10 Times
140 141 91 143 144 145 146 147 99 149

150 151 15 153 154 155 156 157 78 159

DN Value
 DATA PRODUCTS
Input is a digital data

IMAGE RECTIFICATION AND RESTORATION

RADIOMETRIC CORRECTION
GEOMETRIC CORRECTION
NOISE REMOVAL
GEOREFRENCING
 IMAGE CLASSIFICATION
Assign each pixel to a class based on signature
of surface materials belonging to that class
The image classification process involves the
subdivision of feature space into homogenous regions
separated by decision boundaries. Scatter plot
Band 3 versus Band 4
1 120
2 Crop
3
105
4 Fallow Barren
90

Band 4
Forest Barren
75

Water Wheat 60
Water
45

Multispectral image Classified map 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

Band 3
THAT IS THE RADIOMETRIC INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE
IMAGE IS CONVERTED TO THEMATIC INFORMATION, SUCH AS
VEGETATION TYPE,FOREST,BUILTUP AREA, WATER BODIES Etc
 Image Classification

classification process
Input data Output data

(Digital) (Thematic)

‘’A classification is not complete until the accuracy is assessed ‘’

 Sub-satellite track

Range direction

SAR
Swath Azimuth direction

Schematics showing the projection of the side-looking radar beam on ground.

 STEREO IMAGING
dP2 dP1
Negatives

(H-h) h dP
=
H−h B

h ~ dP
B/H
H
dP - parallax difference between the points
B - length of airbase
H - flight altitude
h
True base
(Datum)
dP1 dP2

dP
B

Geometry of a stereoscopic pair of aerial photographs. B is the air base

(absolute parallax). dP is the difference in parallax from top and bottom
of the object.
SPOT HRS
 754003
70 60

Latitude
km 450
30002 1 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6
15
00 0
15 15 Orbit
5
300 Number
450 2820
6000 km
75

OFF-NADIR VIEWING CAPABILITY

 Sampling the Spectrum
BGR NIR SWIR MWIR LWIR
400 nm 700 1500 3000 5000 14000
nm

LOW Panchromatic: one very wide

band

MED Multispectral: several to tens of bands

HIGH Hyperspectral: hundreds of narrow bands

MULTISPECTRAL - HYPERSPECTRAL
SIGNATURE COMPARISON
Multispectral

Resampled to Landsat TM7 Bands

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING FOR
EARTH RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

TO IDENTIFY THE CATEGORY TO WHICH THE EARTH

SURFACE EXPRESSION (MANIFESTED AS DATA)
BELONGS, BASED ON SIGNATURE DIFFERENCES.
THE SURFACIAL EXPRESSIONS ARE INDICATORS OF
CERTAIN RESOURCES, WHICH ARE NOT DIRECTLY
OBSERVABLE BY REMOTE SENSING.
TO INFER A PARTICULAR PARAMETER OR
PHENOMENON (WHICH IS ONLY PARTLY
REPRESENTED IN THE DATA) USING SUITABLE
MODELLING (YIELD OF A CROP, VOLUME OF TIMBER
FROM FOREST, OCEAN CURRENTS, ETC.)
 i
N
5 0 5 Km
Changes in Quilon district (Kerala) (1: 250, 000)
SCALE
(Approx)

KAKKI RESERVOIR KAKKI RESERVOIR

Landsat 4 MSS (29th Jan 1983) IRS-1D LISS III (28th Feb 2002)
AGRICULTURE & SOIL LAND
¾ Crop Acreage & Production ¾ Landuse/Land Cover
Estimation ¾ Wasteland Mapping
¾ Soil & Land Degradation
¾ Urban Sprawl
Mapping
¾ Watershed Development ¾ Large Scale Mapping
¾ Horticulture
FOREST, ENVIRONMENT, BIO WEATHER & CLIMATE
¾ Forest Cover & Type Mapping
¾Extended Range
¾ Forest Fire and Risk Mapping
¾ Biodiversity Characterisation Monsoon Forecasting
¾ Environmental Impact Studies ¾Ocean State Forecasting

DISASTER SUPPORT
¾ Flood Damage Assessment
¾ Drought Monitoring
¾ Land Slide Hazard Zonation
WATER OCEAN
¾ Potential Ground Water Zones ¾ Potential Fishing Zone
¾ Command Area Management (PFZ)
¾ Reservoir Sedimentation ¾ Coastal Zone Mapping
EARTH OBSERVATION – APPLICATIONS
 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
™ TO ARRIVE AT A DECISION WE NEED TO INTEGRATE DATA
FROM VARIOUS SOURCES

™ THE DATA SOURCES INCLUDE SPATIAL AND ATTRIBUTE

INFORMATION
™ GIS IS A COMPUTER BASED TOOL FOR END TO END
PROCESSING FOR A DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
CAPTURE, STORAGE,
ANALYSIS (QUERIES),
RETRIEVAL, DISPLAY
Land use

slope

soil
 Various IRS Payloads Specifications
Swath IGFOV
Satellite Payload Band (km) (m)

IRS-P6 AWiFS B2, B3,B4 (VNIR) B5 (SWIR) 740 56-70

Resourse
sat-1
B2, B3,B4 (VNIR) ,B5(SWIR)
Oct 03
LISS 3*
141 23.5
23.5 Mx
B2, B3, B4 (VNIR)
LISS 4
70 Mono 5.6

Cartosat-1 FORE PAN 30 2.5

May- 05
AFT PAN 27 2.5
Cartosat-2
Carto-2 PAN 12 <1
Jan-07
UNIVERSITIES PRESS

ISBN 81 7371 535 8

Rs. 425
 Image Classification Methods

Supervised Classification Unsupervised Classification

Distribution Free Statistical Techniques

Euclidean classifier
K-nearest neighbour
Minimum distance
based on probability
Decision Tree distribution models,
 Nearest Mean Classifier
(Minimum Distance Classifier)

Advantages:
– mathematically simple
– computationally
efficient
Disadvantages:
– insensitive to different
degrees of variance in
the data (point 2)
Enlarged 10 Times
 OPTOMECHANICAL SCANNERS

Ad = a2
a a

Ground target
х
х
 SPACE PLATFORM

R
O
D T
R 1.
S
S2
Im
TW
1. L
Studio S8 L
HUB Im
W
T
L
L

APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITES
color (Å) f (*1014 Hz) Energy (*10
- 19 J)
V
I
violet 4000 4600 7.5 6.5 5.0 4.3 B
G
indigo 4600 4750 6.5 6.3 4.3 4.2 Y
O
blue 4750 4900 6.3 6.1 4.2 4.1 R

green 4900 5650 6.1 5.3 4.1 3.5

yellow 5650 5750 5.3 5.2 3.5 3.45
orang
5750 6000 5.2 5.0 3.45 3.3
e
red 6000 8000 5.0 3.7 3.3 2.5
TYPICALGROUND TRACK OF A RS SATELLITE
 Kumbh Mela Site Kumbh Mela Site
As seen through IRS PAN on As seen through IRS PAN on
15th April, 2000 15th January, 2001
THE DUAL WAVE-PARTICLE NATURE OF EMR

EMR has both particle and wave properties

It is made up of photons which are packets (quanta) of energy

The energy E of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency u

and inversely proportional to its wavelength λ

E = hu = hc/ λ

where h = Planck’s constant = 6.6 x 10-34 Js

c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m s-1
Why UV is more dangerous compared to visible

A UV photon has a shorter wavelength and hence higher energy than

a yellow photon.
UV photons cause more skin damage than optical photons
 UNITS:
WAVELENGTH UNITS: LENGTH
Angstrom (A) : 1 A = 1x10-10 m;
Nanometer (nm): 1 nm=1x10-9 m;
Micrometer (µm): 1 µm = 1x10-6 m;
Wavenumber units: inverse length (often in cm-1)
 SUPERVISED
SUPERVISED CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION

FEATURE SELECTION.
ONCE THE TRAINING STATISTICS HAVE BEEN SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECTED FROM EACH BAND FOR EACH CLASS OF INTEREST,
A JUDGMENT MUST BE MADE TO DETERMINE THE BANDS THAT
ARE MOST EFFECTIVE IN DISCRIMINATING EACH CLASS FROM
ALL OTHERS.

CLASIFICATION
MULTIVARIATE STATISTICAL PARAMETERS (MEANS, STANDARD
DEVIATIONS, COVARIANCE MATRICES, CORRELATION MATRICES, ETC.)
ARE CALCULATED FOR EACH TRAINING SITE.

EVERY PIXEL BOTH WITHIN AND OUTSIDE THE TRAINING SITES IS THEN
EVALUATED AND ASSIGNED TO THE CLASS OF WHICH IT HAS THE
HIGHEST LIKELIHOOD OF BEING A MEMBER.
 Sun ATMOSPHERIC WINDOWS 0.4-1.3,

Absorption by
1.5-1.8,
….;’.;.’,: molecules
2.2-2.6,
;:
3.0-3.6,
µm
UV
UV-VIS-NIR IR Far IR-MW MW
4.2-5.0,

Ionization Electronic Vibrational Rotational Forbidden 7--- 15,

Dissociation Transitions Transitions Transitions Transitions
(O,N2,O2,O3) (O3,O2) (H2O,CO2) (H2O) (O2)

1cm-30cm
UV VISIBLE INFRARED MICROWAVE RADIO
TRANSMISSION (%)

X C S L
ATMOSPHERIC

H2O
REFLECTED IR THERMAL IR CO2
O3

H2O
H2O

CO2 H2O
H2O

O3

O2

O2
100
CO2
H2O

H2O

0
0.5µm 1.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 15 20µ 0.1 cm 0.5 1.0 5 10
WAVELENGTH