Unit 3 The eye and sight

3.1 Reflection 反射 and Refraction 折射

3.2 Thin lens
3.3 The power of a lens透鏡焦強
3.4 The structure of the eye
3.5 The accommodation of the eye 眼睛的調節作用
3.6 Depth of field 景深 and depth of focus 聚焦深度
3.7 Resolution 解像度 of the eye
3.8 Response of the eye to variations in wavelength and intensity
3.9 Defects of the eye

3.1 Reflection and Refraction

The law of Reflection

The angle of incidence 入射角 equals to the angle of reflection

Diffuse reflection 散射反射 and regular reflection 單向反射

Light is diffused when it reflects from a rough surface. Here many parallel rays shine on the
surface, but they are reflected at many different angles since the surface is rough

Mirror

Our image in a mirror is behind the mirror. The two rays shown
are those that strike the mirror at just the correct angles to be
reflected into the eyes of the person. The image appears to be in
the direction the rays are coming from when they enter the eyes.

Law of Refraction

The incidence and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the

normal, and lie in the same planes as the normal.

Snell’s Law
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

i: angle of incidence, r: angle of refraction

Refractive index (Index of Refraction)
c
n=
v

where v is the speed of light in the material and c = 2.9972458 × 108 m/s ≅ 3.00 × 108 m/s.
Since the speed of light is always less than c in matter and equals c only in a vacuum, the index of
refraction is always greater than or equal to one, that is, n ≥ 1.

Medium n
Air (at 0°C, 1 atm) 1.000293
Ethanol (at 20°C) 1.361
Water 1.333
Diamond (at 20°C) 2.419
Glass, crown 1.52
Glass, flint 1.66
Ice 1.309
Quartz, crystalline 1.544
Zircon 1.923

Total Internal Reflection 全內反射

A ray of light crosses a boundary where the speed of light increases and
the index of refraction decreases.

That is, n2 < n1 . The ray bends away from the perpendicular.

The critical angle θ c is the one for which the angle of refraction is 90°.
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
n1 sin θ1 = n2 (sin 90 ° =1)

θc = sin −1 ( n2 / n1 )
Total internal reflection occurs when the incident angle is greater than
the critical angle.

Fiber optics 光纖

• Fiber optics employs the transmission of light down fibers of plastic

or glass.
• Fibers in glasses or plastics are clad by a material that has a lower
index of refraction than the core to ensure total internal reflection
even when fibers are in contact with one another.

Endoscope 內窺鏡
• examine the inner structures and surfaces of a patient’s digestive or respiratory system.
• perform minor surgical procedures (such as excisions 切除 of growths or cauterization 燒灼 of
wounds) with the ability to visualize the tissues in question.
• obtain sample, such as by lassoing an intestinal polyp 息肉 for external examination
• others, such as transmission of an intense laser beam to burn away obstructing plaque 血液斑塊
in major arteries
3.2 Thin lens

Convex lens 凸透鏡 and concave lens 凹透鏡

• A lens that converges 聚焦 rays of light is called a convex lens.

• A lens that diverges 散焦 rays of light is called a concave lens. (The broken lines denote the
apparent path traveled by the diverging rays and not the actual path.)

The location of a real image formed by a convex lens

The distance u of the object from the centre of the

lens is related to the distance v of the image from
the centre of the lens by the formula

1 1 1
+ =
u v f

where f is the focal length of the lens.

A real image is one which can be captured on a

screen. This is in contrast with a virtual image.

In both cases, they can be seen by the eye,

because our eyes can focus at the positions of
these images.

3.3 The power of a lens

For the specific case of the eye it is necessary to maintain a constant lens-to- image distance v, as
the shape of the eyeball cannot change and the lens cannot move.

As an object approaches the lens, therefore, it is necessary to increase the amount of refraction
occurring at the lens or, in other words, to increase the power of the lens 透鏡焦強.

The eye is able to change the power of its lens to enable it to maintain a focused image of a
continually moving object.

This process is called accommodation 眼睛的調節作用.

The power P of a lens is related to the focal length by:
1
P=
f
if the focal length is measured in metres then the unit of power is the dioptre 屈光度(D).

A lens with a large convex curvature on both faces will have a greater power than a lens of the same
material with a small convex curvature on both faces.

The focal length f and the image distance v for a concave lens both have negative values. As the
power of a lens is calculated from the reciprocal of its focal length in metres, so the power of a
concave lens has a negative value.

A lens of large positive power (+40 D) converges light

by a large amount compared with a lens of low positive
power (+ 5 D).

A lens of large negative power (-50 D) diverges light by

a greater amount than a lens of low negative power
(- 5 D).

Example:
(a) An object is situated 180 cm in front of a convex lens of focal length 2.0 cm. Calculate the
distance from the lens at which the image is formed.
(b) The object is subsequently moved to a position 12 cm in front of the convex lens. Find the new
image position.

1 1 1 1 1 1
(a) u + v = f ⇒ 180 + v = 2 ⇒ v = 2.022 cm

1 1 1 1 1 1
(b) u + v = f ⇒12 + v = 2 ⇒ v = 2.400 cm

3.4 The Structure of the eye

The structure of the eye is similar to that of a simple camera.

The cornea 角膜 is curved and it is here that most refraction occurs.

Light passes through the aqueous humour 水狀液(a transparent liquid), through the pupil 瞳孔(the
opening in the iris) and is further refracted by the lens before passing into a dark chamber filled
with another transparent fluid called vitreous humour 玻 璃 液 . The fluid in the eye provide
nutrients and also help the eye to maintain its shape.

The image is finally formed on a light sensitive surface at the back of the eye called retina 視網膜 .
This surface contains millions of nerve endings that contains two type of cells, called rods 視桿細胞
and cones 視錐細胞.

The nerve fibres in the retina leave the eye at a point on the retina called the blind spot 盲 點 (so
called because there are no nerve endings at this point and so no light is detected here.)

This bundle of fibres, called the optic nerve 視 神 經 , carries information to the brain. The brain
inverts the image and allows an interpretation that is dependent on the extent to which each rod or
cone has been stimulated.

When the eye focuses on an object, the image is usually formed on the most sensitive part of the
retina called the fovea 黃點 . This is a small depression in the retina that contains only cones, and it
is here that the greatest detail is provide when an image is formed on it.

Example
The refracting system of the eye causes a clear image of an object at infinity to be formed at the
retina. The distance of the retina from the cornea is 1.9 cm. Assume that the eye acts as a single thin
lens, situated at the front surface of the cornea.

a. Calculate the focal length of the refracting system of this eye.

b. Calculate the power of this eye when viewing an object at infinity.

1 1 1 1 1 1
a. u + v = f ⇒ ∞ + 1.9 = f ⇒ f =1.9cm
1 1
b. P = f = 0.019 m = 52 .6 D

3.5 Accommodation of the eye

The eye has a structure that enables it to vary its focal length and hence to focus on an object first at
infinity and then at a point close to the eye. This ability to vary the focal length is called
accommodation.

The eye is said to be accommodated when focusing on an object at the near point. The near point is
the closest position to the eye that an object may be placed, in order for that eye to focus
comfortably on the object. (about 25 cm for an average person)

The eye is unaccommodated when viewing an object at the far point. The far point is the position
furthest from the eye that an object may be viewed clearly. (infinity for an average person)

Most refraction occurs at the front surface of the eye where the air is in contact with the cornea.
(about +46 D of the power of the refracting system of the eye)

Curvature of the eye lens is responsible for a small amount of refraction.

The amount of refraction may be varied slightly by changing the curvature of the front and rear
surfaces of the lens.

The ciliary muscles 睫狀肌肉 around the lens are responsible for this change in shape of the lens.
These muscles relax to allow the lens to flatten and the eye to focus on an object at infinity. When
the eye is viewing an object that is near, the ciliary muscles contract to cause the lens to bulge.

The eye of a middle-age adult has its lowest power of about +59 D when viewing an object at
infinity and it may change its power by about +4 D to +63 D in order to view an object at near
point.

3.6 Depth of field and depth of focus

When the distance of the object from the

eye is large, a small change in this distance
does not necessitate a change in power of
the eye lens. This is because the image
formed on the retina is still acceptably
clear.

The depth of field is the range of object distances for which an acceptably clear image is formed on
the retina without a change in power of the eye lens.

When the position of a focused image is just in front of, or just behind, the retina, the image at the
retina will be slightly out of focus (or blurred). It is possible for the eye to perceive an image
formed just in front of (or just behind)
the retina as acceptably clear. The range
of image distances for a given object in
which an image may be formed and
perceived as acceptably clear by the eye
without a change in power is called the
depth of focus.

3.7 Resolution 解像度 of the eye

When a person view a very distant car at night, the light from the two headlights of the car appears
to come from a single point source. As the car gets nearer, the person is able to distinguish the two
source of light as separate and is able to resolve the two source of light.

The resolution of the eye is the angle subtended at the eye due to light from two point objects that
the eye can just resolve.

Example
An eye can just detect two objects that are 2.0
mm apart as being separate when they are at a
distance of 10 m. Calculate the resolution of the
eye in radians.

2.0 ×10 −3
resolution = = 2.0 ×10 −4 radians
10
The ultimate resolution of the eye in
practice is determined by the
separation of the cones in the fovea
(~2.5(10-6 m)

PR 2 ×cone spacing
θ= =
eye diameter eye diameter

For an eye of diameter 1.9 cm, the resolution will therefore be 2*2.5*10-6/1.9*10-2
which is approximately 2.5*10-4 radians.

3.8 Response of the eye to variations in wavelength and intensity

The rods and cones in the retina both respond in degrees to variation in light intensity. Light-
sensitive chemicals in the rods and cones breaks down and cause electric impulses that are carried
along the respective nerve fibre to the brain.

Rods do not differentiate between colours.

Their response across the visible spectrum is
not linear.

Rods have a greater sensitivity in low light

conditions compared with cones. In low light
intensities, the rods are responsible for most
of the vision.

Vision at very low light intensities is called

scotopic vision 暗視覺 . There are no rods on
the fovea.

As the distance from the fovea across the

retina’s surface increases, the proportion of
rods to cones increase. The consequence of
this is that in very low-intensity light
conditions, there is no vision directly in
front of the eye and only vague vision
around this region.

Cones require a higher intensity of light in

order to operate efficiently. The fovea
contains only cones and it is the stimulation
of these cells that is responsible for detail in
an image.

There are three types of cone, (red, green,

blue cones) each having a maximum sensitivity in a different region of the visible spectrum.
Cones are responsible for colour
discrimination or photopic vision 明 視 覺 .
The interpretation of the colour of light
falling on an area of the retina is dependent
on the fraction of the absorption of this light
by each type of cone.

3.9 Defects of the eye

Short sight (myopia)

(power of eye) + (power of corrective lens) = (total power of refracting system)

Example

An eye has a refractive power of 64 D when viewing an object at infinity. In order to produce a
focused image of the distant object, the power of the eye needs to be 59 D. Calculate the power and
state the type of the corrective lens required by this eye.

(power of eye) + (power of corrective lens) = (total power of refracting system)

64 D + P = 59 D
P = −5 D
The power of the corrective lens required is −5 D. The negative power indicates that the lens is a
concave lens.

Example

Assume that the eye in this example acts as a single thin lens situated at the front surface of the
cornea and that the cornea-to-retina distance is 0.019 m. When viewing an object at infinity, the eye
of a short-sighted person forms a blurred image. The lowest power that this system is able to
maintain means that the furthest distance at which an object may be viewed clearly is 0.60 m (this is
far point of the eye). Calculate:
a. The focal length of this eye when viewing an object at the far point of 0.60m
b. The power of the eye when viewing an object at its far point
c. The power needed by this eye to view an object clearly at infinity
d. The power of the corrective lens which, when added to the unaided eye, will allow the eye to
view clearly an object at infinity

1 1 1 1 1 1
a. u + v = f ⇒ 0.600 m + 0.019 m = f ⇒ f = 0.018 m
1
b. P = f = 54 .3OD
1 1 1 1 1
c. P = f = u + v = ∞ + 0.019 m = 52 .6OD
d. (power of eye) + (power of corrective lens) = (total power of refracting system)
power of corrective lens = 52.6 OD – 54.3 OD = −1.7 OD

Long sight (hypermetropia)

Example

The eye of a long-sighted person has a near point of 60 cm. Calculate the power of the corrective
lens needed to bring the near point to a distance of 25 cm from the eye. Assume that the refractive
system of the eye acts as a single thin lens situated at the front of the cornea and that the distance
from the cornea to the retina is 0.019 m.

1 1 1 1 1
P= = + = + = 54 .3OD
f u v 0.60 m 0.019 m
1 1 1 1 1
P= = + = + = 56 .6OD
f u v 0.25 m 0.019 m
The power of the corrective lens = 56.6 OD − 54.3 OD = 2.3 OD
Astigmatism 散光

It is very common to find that the cornea is more curved in one direction compared with another.
This is called astigmatism.
Optometrists’ prescription

For myopic astigmatism:

– Rx: -2.00 -1.00 x180
For hyperopic astigmatism:
– Rx: +2.00 -1.50 x180
The first number refers to the sphere power, the required power in dioptres of the spherical surfaces
on the spectacle lens that correct for the overall myopia or hyperopic.

The second number refers to the cylinder power, the required power of the cylindrical surface
superimposed on the back surface of the spectacle lens to correct for astigmatism.

The third number refers to the orientation of the orientation of the cylinder axis, specifying whether
the axis of the cylinder is to be vertical, horizontal, or somewhere in between.
In optometric notation, the horizontal axis is referred to as the 180° axis, or simply, x180, and the
vertical axis as x90.

Presbyopia 老花

Presbyopia is a defect of the eye associated with old age and is partly due to the hardening of the
lens. This makes it less able to change shape and hence reduces the ability of the eye to
accommodate.

In a young eye, the lens can change the power of the optical system of the eye by as much as 14 D.
This range of accommodation may reduce to zero in old age, causing the eye to experience
problems in focusing on object at infinity as well as at the near point.

Colour blindness

Colour blindness is a defect that affects about 1 in 12 males and 1 in 200 females.

The degree of colour blindness varies from individual to individual, but essentially the problem lies
in the brain’s inability to distinguish between signals from one or two of the three cones.

The most common form of colour blindness involves the inability to distinguish between reds and
greens.