En03 MFRM

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net, el foro de los ingenieros
Handbook of Formulae and Physical Constants
For The Use Of Students And Examination Candidates
Duplication of this material for student in-class use or for examination purposes is permitted without written approval.
Approved by the Interprovincial Power Engineering Curriculum Committee and the Provincial Chief Inspectors' Association's Committee for the standardization of Power Engineer's Examinations n Canada.
www.powerengineering.ca
Printed July 2003
Este documento fue descargado de www.inge.xlphp.net, el foro de los ingenieros
Table of Contents
TOPIC PAGE
SI Multiples..........................................................................................1 Basic Units (distance, area, volume, mass, density) ............................2 Mathematical Formulae .......................................................................5 Applied Mechanics .............................................................................10 Thermodynamics.................................................................................21 Fluid Mechanics..................................................................................28 Electricity............................................................................................30 Periodic Table .....................................................................................34
Names in the Metric System

VALUE 1 000 000 000 000 1 000 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 100 10 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000 001 0.000 000 001 0.000 000 000 001 EXPONENT 1012 109 106 103 102 101 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 SYMBOL T G M k h da d c m n p PREFIX tera giga mega kilo hecto deca deci centi milli micro nano pico
Conversion Chart for Metric Units
To Millix 106
To Centix 105
To Decix 104
To Metre, Gram, Litre x 103
To Decax 102
To Hectox 101
To Kilo-
Kilo-
Hecto-
x 105
x 104
x 103
x 102
x 101
x 10-1
DecaTo Convert
x 104
x 103
x 102
x 101
x 10-1
x 10-2
Metre, Gram, Litre Deci-
x 103
x 102
x 101
x 10-1
x 10-2
x 10-3
x 102
x 101
x 10-1
x 10-2
x 10-3
x 10-4
Centi-
x 101
x 10-1
x 10-2
x 10-3
x 10-4
x 10-5
Milli-
x 10-1
x 10-2
x 10-3
x 10-4
x 10-5
x 10-6
Page 1
BASIC UNITS SI DISTANCE

1 metre (1 m) = 10 decimetres (10 dm) = 100 centimetres (100 cm) = 1000 millimetres (1000 mm) 1 decametre (1 dam) = 10 m 1 hectometre (1 hm) = 100 m 1 kilometre (1 km) = 1000 m Conversions: 1 in. 1 ft 1 mile 1 yd 1m Area 1 sq metre (1 m2) = 10 000 cm2 = 1 000 000 mm2 1 sq hectometre (1 hm2) = 10 000 m2 = 1 hectare (1 ha) 1 sq km (1 km2) = 1 000 000 m2 Conversions: 1 in.2 1 m2 1 acre 1 sq mile = = = = 6.45 cm2 = 645 mm2 10.8 ft2 0.405 ha 2.59 km2 1 ft2 = 144 in.2 1 yd2 = 9 ft2 1 sq mile = 640 acre = 1 section = = = = = 25.4 mm 30.48 cm 1.61 km 0.914 m 3.28 ft 12 in. 3 ft 5280 ft 1760 yd = = = = 1 ft 1 yd 1 mile 1 mile
IMPERIAL
Page 2
SI
Volume 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3 = 1 x 109 mm3 1 dm3 1 litre 1 mL 1 m3 = = = = 1 litre 1000 cm3 1 cm3 1000 litres Conversions: 1 in.3 1 m3 1 litre 1 U.S.gal 1 U.S. bbl 1 litre/s Mass and Weight 1 kilogram (1 kg) = 1000 grams 1000 kg = 1 tonne Conversions: = = = = = =
IMPERIAL
1 ft3 = 1728 in.3 1 yd3 = 27 ft3 1(liquid) U.S. gallon = = 1 U.S. barrel (bbl) = 1 imperial gallon = 231 in.3 4 (liquid) quarts 42 U.S. gal. 1.2 U.S. gal.
16.4 cm3 35.3 ft3 61 in.3 3.78 litres 159 litres 15.9 U.S. gal/min
2000 lb = 1 ton (short) 1 long ton = 2240 lb
1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of 2.2 lb Density
mass density =
m kg V m3
mass volume
weight density =
w lb V ft 3
weight volume
=
Conversions:
(on Earth) a mass density of 1
kg results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb m3 ft 3
Page 3
SI
Imperial
RELATIVE DENSITY
In SI R.D. is a comparison of mass density to a standard. For solids and liquids the standard is fresh water. water.
Conversions:
In Imperial the corresponding quantity is specific gravity; for solids and liquids a comparison of weight density to that of
In both systems the same numbers hold for R.D. as for S.G. since these are equivalent ratios.
RELATIVE DENSITY (SPECIFIC GRAVITY) OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES
Water (fresh)...............1.00 Water (sea average) ....1.03 Aluminum...................2.56 Antimony....................6.70 Bismuth.......................9.80 Brass ...........................8.40 Brick ...........................2.1 Calcium.......................1.58 Carbon (diamond).......3.4 Carbon (graphite)........2.3 Carbon (charcoal) .......1.8 Chromium...................6.5 Clay.............................1.9 Coal.............................1.36-1.4 Cobalt .........................8.6 Copper ........................8.77 Cork ............................0.24 Glass (crown)..............2.5 Glass (flint).................3.5 Gold ..........................19.3 Iron (cast)....................7.21 Iron (wrought) ............7.78 Lead ..........................11.4 Magnesium .................1.74 Manganese..................8.0 Mercury ....................13.6
Mica............................2.9 Nickel .........................8.6 Oil (linseed) ................0.94 Oil (olive) ...................0.92 Oil (petroleum) ...........0.76-0.86 Oil (turpentine) ...........0.87 Paraffin .......................0.86 Platinum....................21.5 Sand (dry) ...................1.42 Silicon.........................2.6 Silver.........................10.57 Slate ............................2.1-2.8 Sodium........................0.97 Steel (mild) .................7.87 Sulphur .......................2.07 Tin...............................7.3 Tungsten ...................19.1 Wood (ash) .................0.75 Wood (beech) .............0.7-0.8 Wood (ebony).............1.1-1.2 Wood (elm).................0.66 Wood (lignum-vitae) ..1.3 Wood (oak).................0.7-1.0 Wood (pine)................0.56 Wood (teak) ................0.8 Zinc.............................7.0
Page 4
Greek Alphabet
Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta
Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi
Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Kai Psi Omega
, , ,
MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE Algebra 1. Expansion Formulae
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (x - y)2 = x2 - 2xy + y2 x2 - y2 = (x - y) (x + y) (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 x3 + y3 = (x + y) (x2 - xy + y2) (x - y)3 = x3 - 3x2y + 3xy2 - y3 x3 - y3 = (x - y) (x2 + xy + y2)
2. Quadratic Equation
If ax2 + bx + c = 0, Then x =
- b b 2 4ac 2a
Page 5
Trigonometry 1. Basic Ratios
Sin A =
y , h
cos A =
x , h
tan A =
y x
2. Pythagoras' Law
x2 + y2 = h2
3. Trigonometric Function Values
Sin is positive from 0 to 90 and positive from 90 to 180 Cos is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180 Tan is positive from 0 to 90 and negative from 90 to 180
4. Solution of Triangles a. Sine Law
a b c = = Sin A Sin B Sin C

b. Cosine Law
c2 a2 b2
= a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C = b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A = a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B
Page 6
Geometry 1. Areas of Triangles a. All Triangles
Area =
base x perpendicular height 2 bc Sin A ab Sin C ac Sin B = = 2 2 2

s (s - a) (s - b) (s - c)
Area = and,
Area =
where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =

b. Equilateral Triangles
a+b+c 2
Area = 0.433 x side2

2. Circumference of a Circle
C = d
3. Area of a Circle
A = r 2 =
circumference x r = d 2 = 0.7854d2 4 2
4. Area of a Sector of a Circle
A=
arc x r 2 x r2 360 r 2 2 ( = angle in degrees)
A=
A=
( = angle in radians)
Page 7
5. Area of a Segment of a Circle
A = area of sector area of triangle Also approximate area =

6. Ellipse
4 2 h 3 d - 0.608 h
A=
Dd 4
Approx. circumference =
7. Area of Trapezoid a + b A= h 2 8. Area of Hexagon
(D + d )
2
A = 2.6s2 where s is the length of one side
9. Area of Octagon
A = 4.83s2 where s is the length of one side

10. Sphere
Total surface area A =4r2 Surface area of segment As = dh Volume V = 4 3 r 3
Volume of segment 2 Vs = h (3r h) 3 Vs = h (h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base 6
Page 8
11. Volume of a Cylinder
V=
2 d L where L is cylinder length 4
12. Pyramid
Volume V= 1 base area x perpendicular height 3
Volume of frustum VF =
13. Cone
h (A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown 3
Area of curved surface of cone: A= DL 2
Area of curved surface of frustum AF = (D + d)L 2
Volume of cone:
V= base area perpendicular height 3
Volume of frustum:
VF = perpendicular height (R 2 + r 2 + Rr) 3
Page 9
APPLIED MECHANICS Scalar Vector
- a property described by a magnitude only - a property described by a magnitude and a direction

displacement time
Velocity - vector property equal to
The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed

ft In SI the basic unit is m s , in Imperial s
Other common units are km , mi h h

Conversions:
m ft = 3.28 s s km mi = 0.621 h h
m Speed of sound in dry air is 331 m s at 0C and increases by about 0.61 s for each C rise
Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 108 m s

Acceleration - vector property equal to
change in velocity time
In SI the basic unit is
m ft , in Imperial 2 2 s s = 3.28 ft s2 m ft or 32.2 2 2 s s
Conversion:
m s2
Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81
Page 10
LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

u v t s a initial velocity final velocity elapsed time displacement acceleration
v = u + at s= v+u t 2 s = ut + 1 at 2 2 v 2 = u 2 + 2 as
Angular Velocity and Acceleration angular displacement (radians) angular velocity (radians/s); 1 = initial, 2 = final angular acceleration (radians/s2) 2 = 1 + t = 1 + 2 x t 2 = 1 t + t2 2 2 = 1 2 + 2 linear displacement, s = r linear velocity, v = r linear, or tangential acceleration, aT = r
Page 11
Tangential, Centripetal and Total Acceleration
Tangential acceleration aT is due to angular acceleration

a T = r
Centripetal (Centrifugal) acceleration ac is due to change in direction only ac = v2/r = r 2 Total acceleration, a, of a rotating point experiencing angular acceleration is the vector sum of aT and ac a = aT + ac
FORCE
Vector quantity, a push or pull which changes the shape and/or motion of an object In SI the unit of force is the newton, N, defined as a In Imperial the unit of force is the pound lb
Conversion: 9.81 N = 2.2 lb Weight
kg m s2
The gravitational force of attraction between a mass, m, and the mass of the Earth In SI weight can be calculated from Weight = F = mg , where g = 9.81 m/s2
In Imperial, the mass of an object (rarely used), in slugs, can be calculated from the known weight in pounds
m= Weight g g = 32.2 ft s2
Page 12
Newton's Second Law of Motion
An unbalanced force F will cause an object of mass m to accelerate a, according to: F = ma

Torque Equation
(Imperial F = w g a, where w is weight)
T=I
Momentum
where T is the acceleration torque in Nm, I is the moment of inertia in kg m2 and is the angular acceleration in radians/s2
Vector quantity, symbol p, p = mv in SI unit is

Work
(Imperial p = w g v, where w is weight)

kg m s
Scalar quantity, equal to the (vector) product of a force and the displacement of an object. In simple systems, where W is work, F force and s distance W = Fs In SI the unit of work is the joule, J, or kilojoule, kJ 1 J = 1 Nm In Imperial the unit of work is the ft-lb
Energy
Energy is the ability to do work, the units are the same as for work; J, kJ, and ft-lb
Page 13
Kinetic Energy
Energy due to motion

E k = 1 mv 2 2
In Imperial this is usually expressed as E k = w v 2 where w is weight 2g

Kinetic Energy of Rotation
1 E R = mk 2 2 where k is radius of gyration, is angular velocity in rad/s 2 or 1 E R = I 2 2 where I = mk2 is the moment of inertia
CENTRIPETAL (CENTRIFUGAL) FORCE

FC = or FC = m 2 r
Potential Energy
mv 2 r
where r is the radius
where is angular velocity in rad/s
Energy due to position in a force field, such as gravity Ep = m g h In Imperial this is usually expressed Ep = w h where w is weight, and h is height above some specified datum
Page 14
Thermal Energy
In SI the common units of thermal energy are J, and kJ, (and kJ/kg for specific quantities) In Imperial, the units of thermal energy are British Thermal Units (Btu)
Conversions: Electrical Energy
1 Btu = 1055 J 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
In SI the units of electrical energy are J, kJ and kilowatt hours kWh. In Imperial, the unit of electrical energy is the kWh
Conversions: Power
1 kWh = 3600 kJ 1 kWh = 3412 Btu = 2.66 x 106 ft-lb
A scalar quantity, equal to the rate of doing work In SI the unit is the Watt W (or kW)
1 W = 1J s
In Imperial, the units are: Mechanical Power Thermal Power Electrical Power Conversions:
ft lb , horsepower h.p. s
Btu s
W, kW, or h.p. 746 W = 1 h.p.

lb 1 h.p. = 550 ft s
1 kW = 0.948 Btu s
Page 15
Pressure
A vector quantity, force per unit area In SI the basic units of pressure are pascals Pa and kPa
1 Pa = 1 N2 m
In Imperial, the basic unit is the pound per square inch, psi
Atmospheric Pressure
At sea level atmospheric pressure equals 101.3 kPa or 14.7 psi

Pressure Conversions
1 psi = 6.895 kPa Pressure may be expressed in standard units, or in units of static fluid head, in both SI and Imperial systems Common equivalencies are: 1 kPa = 0.294 in. mercury = 7.5 mm mercury 1 kPa = 4.02 in. water = 102 mm water 1 psi = 2.03 in. mercury = 51.7 mm mercury 1 psi = 27.7 in. water = 703 mm water 1 m H2O = 9.81 kPa Other pressure unit conversions: 1 bar = 14.5 psi = 100 kPa 1 kg/cm2 = 98.1 kPa = 14.2 psi = 0.981 bar 1 atmosphere (atm) = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi
Page 16
Simple Harmonic Motion
Velocity of P = R 2 - x 2
m s
Acceleration of P = 2 x m/s2 The period or time of a complete oscillation = General formula for the period of S.H.M. T = 2
displacement acceleration
2 seconds
Simple Pendulum
T = 2
L g
T = period or time in seconds for a double swing L = length in metres
The Conical Pendulum
R/H = tan = Fc/W = 2 R/g
Page 17
Lifting Machines
W = load lifted, M.A. = W load = effort F
F = force applied
V.R. (velocity ratio) =
effort distance load distance M.A. V.R.
= efficiency =
1. Lifting Blocks
V.R. = number of rope strands supporting the load block

2. Wheel & Differential Axle
Velocity ratio =
2 R 2 (r - r1 ) 2
2R 2R r - r1
Or, using diameters instead of radii, Velocity ratio =

3. Inclined Plane
2D (d - d 1 )
V.R. =
length height
4. Screw Jack
V.R. =
circumference of leverage pitch of thread
Page 18
Indicated Power
I.P. = Pm A L N
where I.P. is power in W, Pm is mean or "average" effective pressure in Pa, A is piston area in m2, L is length of stroke in m and N is number of power strokes per second
Brake Power
B.P. = T where B.P. is brake power in W, T is torque in Nm and is angular velocity in radian/second
STRESS, STRAIN and MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
Direct stress =
load P = area A extension = original length L
Direct strain =
Modulus of elasticity E= PL direct stress P/A = = direct strain / L A force area under shear
Shear stress = x L
Shear strain =
Modulus of rigidity G= shear stress shear strain
Page 19
General Torsion Equation (Shafts of circular cross-section)

T = = G J r L
1. For Solid Shaft
J=
4 d 4 r = 2 32
2. For Hollow Shaft J = (r14 - r24 ) 2 4 = (d 1 d4 2) 32
T = torque or twisting moment in newton metres J = polar second moment of area of cross-section about shaft axis. = shear stress at outer fibres in pascals r = radius of shaft in metres G = modulus of rigidity in pascals = angle of twist in radians L = length of shaft in metres d = diameter of shaft in metres
Relationship Between Bending Stress and External Bending Moment

M==E y R I
1. For Rectangle
M I y E R I= BD 3 12
= = = = = =
external bending moment in newton metres second moment of area in m4 bending stress at outer fibres in pascals distance from centroid to outer fibres in metres modulus of elasticity in pascals radius of currative in metres
2. For Solid Shaft

4 I = D 64
Page 20
THERMODYNAMICS Temperature Scales
5 C = ( F 32) 9 R = F + 460 (R Rankine)

Sensible Heat Equation
F =
9 C + 32 5
K = C + 273 (K Kelvin)
= mcT m is mass c is specific heat T is temperature change
Latent Heat
Latent heat of fusion of ice = 335 kJ/kg Latent heat of steam from and at 100C = 2257 kJ/kg 1 tonne of refrigeration = 335 000 kJ/day = 233 kJ/min
Gas Laws 1. Boyles Law
When gas temperature is constant PV P1V1 = constant or
= P2V2
where P is absolute pressure and V is volume

2. Charles Law
When gas pressure is constant, or
V = constant T
V1 V2 , where V is volume and T is absolute temperature = T1 T2
Page 21
3. Gay-Lussac's Law
When gas volume is constant,
P = constant T
Or
P1 P2 = , where P is absolute pressure and T is absolute temperature T1 T2
4. General Gas Law

P1V1 P2V2 = = constant T1 T2
PV=mRT
where P V T m R
= = = = =
absolute pressure (kPa) volume (m3) absolute temp (K) mass (kg) characteristic constant (kJ/kgK)
Also PV = nRoT where P V T N Ro = = = = = absolute pressure (kPa) volume (m3) absolute temperature K the number of kmoles of gas the universal gas constant 8.314 kJ/kmol/K
SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES

Specific Heat at Constant Pressure kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC 1.005 2.060 0.825 1.051 5.234 14.235 1.105 2.177 1.043 0.913 0.632 Specific Heat at Constant Volume kJ/kgK or kJ/kg oC 0.718 1.561 0.630 0.751 3.153 10.096 0.85 1.675 0.745 0.652 0.451 Ratio of Specific Heats = cp / c v
GAS
Air Ammonia Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Helium Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulphide Methane Nitrogen Oxygen Sulphur Dioxide
1.40 1.32 1.31 1.40 1.66 1.41 1.30 1.30 1.40 1.40 1.40
Page 22
Efficiency of Heat Engines
Carnot Cycle = sink
T1 T2 T1
where T1 and T2 are absolute temperatures of heat source and
Air Standard Efficiencies 1. Spark Ignition Gas and Oil Engines (Constant Volume Cycle or Otto Cycle)
=1-
1 r
( - 1) v
where rv = compression ratio =
cylinder volume clearance volume
2. Diesel Cycle
specific heat (constant pressure) specific heat (constant volume)
(R 1) = 1 - -1 rv (R - 1)
where r = ratio of compression R = ratio of cut-off volume to clearance volume
3. High Speed Diesel (Dual-Combustion) Cycle
=1-
k - 1 rv - 1 [(k - 1) + k( - 1)] cylinder volume clearance volume absolute pressue at end of constant V heating (combustion) absolute pressue at beginning of constant V combustion volume at end of constant P heating (combustion) clearance volume
where rv =
k=
4. Gas Turbines (Constant Pressure or Brayton Cycle)

=11 r
1 p
Page 23
where rp = pressure ratio =
compressor discharge pressure compressor intake pressure
Page 24
Heat Transfer by Conduction

Q = AtT d where Q = heat transferred in joules = thermal conductivity or coeficient of heat transfer in 2J m or W m C m s C 2 A = area in m t = time in seconds T = temperature difference between surfaces in C d = thickness of layer in m
COEFFICIENTS OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY Material Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity W/m C
Air Aluminum Brass Brick Concrete Copper Cork Felt Glass Glass, fibre Iron, cast Plastic, cellular Steel Wood Wallboard, paper
0.025 206 104 0.6 0.85 380 0.043 0.038 1.0 0.04 70 0.04 60 0.15 0.076
Page 25
Thermal Expansion of Solids
Increase in length where L (T2 T1 ) Increase in volume Where V (T2 T1 )
= = = = = = = =
L (T2 T1 ) original length coefficient of linear expansion rise in temperature V (T2 T1 ) original volume coefficient of volumetric expansion rise in temperature
coefficient of volumetric expansion = coefficient of linear expansion x 3 = 3
Page 26
Chemical Heating Value of a Fuel
Chemical Heating Value MJ per kg of fuel = 33.7 C + 144 H 2 C H2 O2 S is the mass of carbon per kg of fuel is the mass of hydrogen per kg of fuel is the mass of oxygen per kg of fuel is the mass of sulphur per kg of fuel
O2 8
) + 9.3 S
Theoretical Air Required to Burn Fuel
Air (kg per kg of fuel) =
[8 C + 8 (H 3
O2 8
) + S] 100 23
Air Supplied from Analysis of Flue Gases
Air in kg per kg of fuel = C N2 CO2 CO
N2 C 33 (CO 2 + CO)
is the percentage of carbon in fuel by mass is the percentage of nitrogen in flue gas by volume is the percentage of carbon dioxide in flue gas by volume is the percentage of carbon monoxide in flue gas by volume
Boiler Formulae
Equivalent evaporation =
s (h 1 - h 2 ) m 2257 kJ/kg
Factor of evaporation =
(h 1 - h 2 ) 2257 kJ/kg
Boiler efficiency =
s (h 1 - h 2 ) m f x calorific value of fuel m
s where m h1 h2 f m
= = = =
mass flow rate of steam enthalpy of steam produced in boiler enthalpy of feedwater to boiler mass flow rate of fuel
Page 27
FLUID MECHANICS Discharge from an Orifice
Let A and Ac then Ac
= = =
or Cc
cross-sectional area of the orifice = (/4)d2 2 cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena conrtacta = ((/4) d c CcA 2 Ac dc = A d
where Cc is the coefficient of contraction
At the vena contracta, the volumetric flow rate Q of the fluid is given by
Q = area of the jet at the vena contracta actual velocity = A cv or Q = C cAC v 2gh
The coefficients of contraction and velocity are combined to give the coefficient of discharge, Cd
i.e. C d = C cC v and Q = C dA 2gh
Typically, values for Cd vary between 0.6 and 0.65 Circular orifice: Q = 0.62 A 2gh Where Q = flow (m3/s) A = area (m2) h = head (m)
Rectangular notch: Q = 0.62 (B x H) 2 2gh 3 Where B = breadth (m) H = head (m above sill)
Triangular Right Angled Notch: Q = 2.635 H5/2 Where H = head (m above sill)
Page 28
Bernoullis Theory
H = h+
P v2 + w 2g H = total head (metres) h = height above datum level (metres) P = pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
w = force of gravity on 1 m3 of fluid (N) v = velocity of water (metres per second)
Loss of Head in Pipes Due to Friction

2 Loss of head in metres = f L v d 2g
L = length in metres d = diameter in metres pipes
v = velocity of flow in metres per second f = constant value of 0.01 in large pipes to 0.02 in small
Note: This equation is expressed in some textbooks as 2 Loss = 4f L v where the f values range from 0.0025 to 0.005 d 2g Actual Pipe Dimensions
Page 29
ELECTRICITY Ohm's Law
I = or where
E R
E = IR I = current (amperes) E = electromotive force (volts) R = resistance (ohms)
Conductor Resistivity
R = where
L a = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm metres, m) L = length (metres) a = area of cross-section (square metres)
Temperature correction Rt = Ro (1 + t) where Ro = resistance at 0C () Rt = resistance at tC () = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004 28 (/C) R2 = R1
(1 + t 2 ) (1 + t 1 )
where R1 = resistance at t1 () R2 = resistance at t2 () Values copper platinum nickel tungsten aluminum /C 0.00428 0.00385 0.00672 0.0045 0.0040
Page 30
Dynamo Formulae
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
2 NpZ 60c
where Z = total number of armature conductors c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding) = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature p = number of pairs of poles N = speed (revolutions per minute) Generator Terminal volts = EG IaRa Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa where EG EB Ia Ra = = = = generated e.m.f. generated back e.m.f. armature current armature resistance
Alternating Current
R.M.S. value of sine curve = 0.707 maximum value Mean value of sine curve = 0.637 maximum value R.M.S. value 0.707 Form factor of sinusoidal = = = 1.11 Mean value 0.637 Frequency of alternator = pN cycles per second 60
Where p = number of pairs of poles N = rotational speed in r/min
Page 31
Slip of Induction Motor
Slip speed of field - speed of rotor x 100 Speed of field

Inductive Reactance
Reactance of AC circuit (X) = 2fL ohms where L = inductance of circuit (henries) 1.256T 2 A henries Inductance of an iron cored solenoid = L x 10 8 where T A L = = = = turns on coil magnetic permeablility of core area of core (square centimetres) length (centimetres)
Capacitance Reactance
Capacitance reactance of AC circuit = where
1 ohms 2fC
C = capacitance (farads)
1 Total reactance = 2fL ohms 2 fC Impedence (Z) =

=
Current in AC Circuit
(resistance) 2 + (reactance) 2
R 2 + (2 fL 1 2 ) ohms 2 fC
Current =
impressed volts impedance
Page 32
Power Factor
p.f. =
true watts volts x amperes
also p.f. = cos , where is the angle of lag or lead

Three Phase Alternators
Star connected Line voltage = 3 x phase voltage Line current = phase current Delta connected Line voltage = phase voltage Line current = 3 x phase current Three phase power P = 3 EL IL cos EL = line voltage IL = line current cos = power factor
Page 33
Page 34
ION NAMES AND FORMULAE
MONATOMIC
Ag+ Al3+ Au+ and Au2+ Be2+ Ca2+ Co2+ and Co3+ Cr2+ and Cr3+ Cu+ and Cu2+ Fe2+ and Fe3+ K+ Li+ Mg2+ Na+ Zn2+ silver ion aluminum ion gold ion beryllium ion calcium ion cobalt ion chromium ion copper ion iron ion potassium ion lithium ion magnesium ion sodium ion zinc ion BO33C2H3O2ClOClO2ClO3ClO4CNCO32C2O42CrO42Cr2O72HCO3H3O+ HPO42H2PO4HSO3HSO4MnO4N3NH4+ NO2NO3O22OCNOHPO33PO43SCNSO32SO42S2O32-
POLYATOMIC
borate ion acetate ion hypochlorite ion chlorite ion chlorate ion perchlorate ion cyanide ion carbonate ion oxalate ion chromate ion dichromate ion hydrogen carbonate or bicarbonate ion hydronium ion hydrogen phosphate ion dihydrogen phosphate ion hydrogen sulphite or bisulphite ion hydrogen sulphate or bisulphate ion permanganate ion azide ion ammonium ion nitrite ion nitrate ion peroxide ion cyanate ion hydroxide ion phosphite ion phosphate ion thiocyanate ion sulphite ion sulphate ion thiosulphate ion
Page 35
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net, el foro de los ingenieros

Handbook of Formulae and Physical Constants

For The Use Of Students And Examination Candidates

Printed July 2003

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Names in the Metric System

Conversion Chart for Metric Units

To Metre, Gram, Litre x 103

Metre, Gram, Litre Deci-

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BASIC UNITS SI DISTANCE

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2000 lb = 1 ton (short) 1 long ton = 2240 lb

1 kg (on Earth) results in a weight of 2.2 lb Density

(on Earth) a mass density of 1

kg results in a weight density of 0.0623 lb m3 ft 3

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Alpha Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta

Iota Kappa Lambda Mu Nu Xi Omicron Pi

Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Kai Psi Omega

MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE Algebra 1. Expansion Formulae

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Trigonometry 1. Basic Ratios

a b c = = Sin A Sin B Sin C

= a2 + b2 - 2 ab Cos C = b2 + c2 - 2 bc Cos A = a2 + c2 - 2 ac Cos B

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Geometry 1. Areas of Triangles a. All Triangles

base x perpendicular height 2 bc Sin A ab Sin C ac Sin B = = 2 2 2

where, s is half the sum of the sides, or s =

Area = 0.433 x side2

4. Area of a Sector of a Circle

arc x r 2 x r2 360 r 2 2 ( = angle in degrees)

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5. Area of a Segment of a Circle

A = area of sector area of triangle Also approximate area =

A = 2.6s2 where s is the length of one side

A = 4.83s2 where s is the length of one side

Total surface area A =4r2 Surface area of segment As = dh Volume V = 4 3 r 3

Volume of segment 2 Vs = h (3r h) 3 Vs = h (h 2 + 3a 2) where a = radius of segment base 6

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11. Volume of a Cylinder

2 d L where L is cylinder length 4

Volume V= 1 base area x perpendicular height 3

h (A + a + Aa ) where h is the perpendicular height, A and a are areas as shown 3

Area of curved surface of cone: A= DL 2

Area of curved surface of frustum AF = (D + d)L 2

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APPLIED MECHANICS Scalar Vector

- a property described by a magnitude only - a property described by a magnitude and a direction

Velocity - vector property equal to

The magnitude of velocity may be referred to as speed

Other common units are km , mi h h

Speed of light in vacuum equals 3 x 108 m s

In SI the basic unit is

m ft , in Imperial 2 2 s s = 3.28 ft s2 m ft or 32.2 2 2 s s

Acceleration due to gravity, symbol "g", is 9.81

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LINEAR VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION