Surfaces

Contaminant 1 nm 1100 nm 1100 nm 10100 nm 1100 mm Adsorbed gas Oxide layer Beilby (amorphous) layer Work-hardened layer Metal substrate

FIGURE 4.1 Schematic illustration of the cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The thickness of the individual layers depends on processing conditions and the environment. Source: After E. Rabinowicz and B. Bhushan.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Terminology for Surface Finish

Flaw Waviness height Roughness height, Rt Roughness spacing Roughness-width cutoff Waviness width Lay direction

=
Surface profile Error of form

+
Waviness

+
Roughness

Maximum waviness height Maximum Ra Minimum Ra Lay

0.002-2 125 63 0.010 0.005 (a)

Maximum waviness width Roughness-width cutoff Maximum roughness width

Lay symbol

Interpretation
Lay parallel to the line representing the surface to which the symbol is applied

Examples

Lay perpendicular to the line representing the surface to which the symbol is applied

FIGURE 4.2 (a) Standard terminology and symbols used to describe surface nish. The quantities are given in in. (b) Common surface-lay symbols.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Lay angular in both directions to line representing the surface to which symbol is applied

Pitted, protuberant, porous, or particulate nondirectional lay (b)

Surface Roughness

y A

Digitized data

f g hi j k l a b c de Surface profile Center (datum) line

x B

Ra Roughness
ya + yb + yc + + yn 1 n 1 Ra = = ! yi = n n i=1 l
Z
l

|y| dx

FIGURE 4.3 Coordinates used for measurement of surface roughness, used in Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2).

Rq Roughness
Rq =
2 2 2 y2 a + yb + yc + + yn = n

1 n 2 yi = ! n i=1

1/2

y2 dx

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Stylus Prolometry
Stylus Head Rider Stylus Workpiece Stylus path Actual surface

(a)

(b)

0.5 m (20 in.)

0.6 m (25 in.)

0.4 mm (0.016 in.) (c) Lapping (d) Finish grinding

3.8 m (150 in.)

5 m (200 in.)

(e) Rough grinding

(f) Turning

FIGURE 4.4 (a) Measuring surface roughness with a stylus. The rider supports the stylus and guards against damage. (b) Path of the stylus in measurements of surface roughness (broken line) compared with the actual roughness prole. Note that the prole of the stylus' path is smoother than the actual surface prole. Typical surface proles produced by (c) lapping, (d) nish grinding, (e) rough grinding, and (f) turning processes. Note the difference between the vertical and horizontal scales.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Micro-Scale Adhesion

N F Microweld Plastic Projected contact patches Elastic

FIGURE 4.5 (a) Schematic illustration of the interface of two contacting surfaces, showing the real areas of contact. (b) Sketch illustrating the proportion of the apparent area to the real area of contact. The ratio of the areas can be as high as four to ve orders of magnitude.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Friction in Manufacturing
Ar<<A Ar<A

Ar ~A

Coulomb Friction
F !Ar ! = = = N "Ar "

Friction force, F

Forging, extrusion F N Stretch forming Deep drawing Bending Drawing, rolling Metal cutting

Normal force, N

Tresca Friction !i m= k

FIGURE 4.6 Schematic illustration of the relation between friction force F and normal force N. Note that as the real area of contact approaches the apparent area, the friction force reaches a maximum and stabilizes. At low normal forces, the friction force is proportional to normal force; most machine components operate in this region. The friction force is not linearly related to normal force in metalworking operations, because of the high contact pressures involved.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Coefcient of Friction in Metalworking

Coecient of Friction () Cold Hot 0.05-0.1 0.2-0.7 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.03-0.1 0.05-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.5-2

Process Rolling Forging Drawing Sheet-metal forming Machining

TABLE 4.1 Coefcient of friction in metalworking processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Effect of Lubrication
Good lubrication Poor lubrication

(a)

2 (b)

FIGURE 4.7 (a) The effects of lubrication on barreling in the ring compression test. (a) With good lubrication, both the inner and outer diameters increase as the specimen is compressed; and with poor or no lubrication, friction is high, and the inner diameter decreases. The direction of barreling depends on the relative motion of the cylindrical surfaces with respect to the at dies. (b) Test results: (1) original specimen, and (2-4) the specimen under increasing friction. Source: A.T. Male and M.G. Cockcroft.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Ring Compression Test

Original dimensions 80 of specimen: OD = 3/4 in.= 19 mm ID = 3/8 in.= 9.5 mm 70 Height = 1/4 in.= 0.64 mm

=0 .577

0.40 70 0.30 60 m = 1.0

60 Reduction in internal diameter (%) 50 40 30 20 10 0 210 220

0.20 Reduction in internal diameter (%) 50 0.7 40 30 20 0.3 10 0.2 0 210 0.10 ~0.02 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Reduction in height (%) (a) 70 220 0 10 0.05 20 30 40 50 Reduction in height (%) (b) 60 70 0.15 0.5 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.055 0.05 0.04 0.03

230 240 250

FIGURE 4.8 Charts to determine friction in ring compression tests: (a) coefcient of friction, ; (b) friction factor, m. Friction is determined from these charts from the percent reduction in height and by measuring the percent change in the internal diameter of the specimen after compression.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Prole Evolution Due to Wear

Scale: 25 m 250 m

Unworn

Worn (a)

Unworn

Worn (b)

FIGURE 4.9 Changes in originally (a) wire-brushed and (b) ground-surface proles after wear. Source: E. Wild and K.J. Mack.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Adhesive Wear Model

Hard Plastic zone (microweld) (a) (b) Soft Metal transfer (possible wear fragment) (c)

FIGURE 4.10 Schematic illustration of (a) asperities contacting, (b) adhesion between two asperities, and (c) the formation of a wear particle.
Unlubricated Mild steel on mild steel 6040 brass on hardened tool steel Hardened tool steel on hardened tool steel Polytetrauoroethylene (PTFE) on tool steel Tungsten carbide on mild steel k to 103 103 104 105 106 Lubricated 52100 steel on 52100 steel Aluminum bronze on hardened steel Hardened steel on hardened steel k to 1010 108 109 109 109

102

107

Archard Wear Law:

LW V =k 3p

TABLE 4.2 Approximate order of magnitude for the wear coefcient, k, in air.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Abrasive and Other Wear

Top die

5 5

1 5 3 4 2 1 1 5 3 4 1

1 Erosion 2 Pitting (lubricated dies only) 3 Thermal fatigue 4 Mechanical fatigue 5 Plastic deformation

Chip Hard particle

Ejector

Bottom die

C L

FIGURE 4.11 Schematic illustration of abrasive wear in sliding. Longitudinal scratches on a surface usually indicate abrasive wear.

FIGURE 4.12 Types of wear observed in a single die used for hot forging. Source: After T.A. Dean.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Regimes of Lubrication
Tooling Lubricant Workpiece (a) Thick film Boundary film (b) Thin film

(c) Mixed

(d) Boundary

FIGURE 4.13 Regimes of lubrication generally occurring in metalworking operations. Source: After W.R.D. Wilson.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Roller Burnishing

Roller Roller Burnished surface Roller

Workpiece (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 4.14 Examples of roller burnishing of (a) the llet of a stepped shaft, (b) an internal conical surface, and (c) a at surface.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Thermal Wire Spraying

Wire or rod Gas nozzle Air cap Workpiece

Combustion chamber Oxygen Fuel gas High-velocity gas Molten metal spray Deposited coating

FIGURE 4.15 Schematic illustration of thermal wire spraying.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical Vapor Deposition

Carrier gases Exhaust

Exhaust scrubber TiCl4 Graphite shelves Tools to be coated Electric furnace Stainless steel retort

FIGURE 4.16 Schematic illustration of the chemical vapor deposition process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electroplating
+ -

-SO4

Cu++
-SO4

Agitator
-SO4

H+ Cu++
-SO4

H+

H+

H+
-SO4

Cu++ -SO4 Cu++

Part to be plated (cathode)

Cu++

H+

Heating coils

Sacrificial (copper) anode (a) (b)

FIGURE 4.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the electroplating process. (b) Examples of electroplated parts. Source: Courtesy of BFG Electroplating.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Coordinate Measuring Machine

z -axis spindle

Probe adapter Probe

(b)

Measuring table

Computer controller

Machine stand

(c)

FIGURE 4.18 (a) A coordinate measuring machine with part being measured; (b) a touch signal probe measuring the geometry of a gear; (c) examples of laser probes. Source: Courtesy Mitutoyo America Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Dimensional Tolerancing
Lower deviation Upper deviation Hole Lower deviation Upper deviation Tolerance Tolerance

Maximum diameter

Zero line or line of zero deviation Maximum diameter Basic size

Minimum diameter

Basic size

Shaft

(a)

Bilateral tolerance

40.00 + 0.05 mm - 0.05 1.575 + 0.002 in. - 0.002

Unilateral tolerance

40.05 + 0.00 mm - 0.10 1.577 + 0.000 in. - 0.004

Minimum diameter

Limit dimensions

40.05 mm 39.95 1.577 in. 1.573

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 4.19 (a) Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft, according to the ISO system. (b)-(d) Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft. Source: L.E. Doyle.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Tolerances by Process
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12 ISO No. 0.100 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25
m old

0.010

0.001

ll he e m S r g Pe or r ,f e e t as trud Pl ill ex m et st oll, h m er ca t r t ug ro wd ie Ho cas , t Po Al-d h ne en ll n nc pla tm , ro die u s ur , p n e e d ,t Z l, ape l d u i r Inv r t in D Sh ex gr ld h, o g C u Ro w ll dra mi ld ore Coank inish -EDM ,b l F n M r b m n ECsh tu rea sio i i , c n h i f c Pre d, roa rin B g ish Fin
sh Poli , , lap e hon

e an

nt

nd Sa

st ca

50 m 2.0 1.0 0.5

Tolerance range (in.)

0.05

0.01 0.005

0.0001 0.5

4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 Surface roughness, Ra ( in.)

FIGURE 4.20 Tolerances and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing processes. These tolerances apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimension. Source: After J.A. Schey.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

mm

0.1

Frequency Distribution
10 Frequency of occurrence (number of shafts) 8 6 4 2 0 12.95 13.00 Diameter of shafts (mm) (a) 10 Lower specification Upper specification 8 6 4 2 0 12.95 13.00 Diameter of shafts (mm) (c) 13.05 13.05 Frequency of occurrence 99.73% 95.46 68.26

-4! -3

-2

-1

0 +1 (b)

+2

+3

+4!

Frequency of occurrence

FIGURE 4.21 (a) A plot of the number of shafts measured and their respective diameters. This type of curve is called a frequency distribution. (b) A normal distribution curve indicating areas within each range of standard deviation. Note: The greater the range, the higher the percentage of parts that fall within it. (c) Frequency distribution curve, showing lower and upper specication limits.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Control Charts
13.04 13.03 13.02 13.01 13.00 12.99 12.98 12.97 12.96 0 Average diameter, x (mm) Average of 5 samples Average of next 5 samples Average of next 5 samples UCLx _ x (average of averages) LCLx

Time (a)

0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 Time (b)

Range, R (mm)

UCLR R (average range) LCLR

FIGURE 4.22 Control charts used in statistical quality control. The process shown is in good statistical control, because all points fall within the lower and upper control limits. In this illustration, the sample size is ve, and the number of samples is 15.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Constants for Control Charts

Sample Size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308 0.266 0.223 0.180 D4 3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777 1.716 1.652 1.586 D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.078 0.136 0.184 0.223 0.284 0.348 0.414 d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078 3.258 3.472 3.735

TABLE 4.3 Constants for Control Charts.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Control Chart Trends

Tool changed _ Average diameter, x (mm)
_ UCLx

_ x

_ LCLx

Time (a)

_ Average diameter, x (mm)

_ UCLx

_ LCLx

Time (b)

_ Average diameter, x (mm)

_ UCLx

FIGURE 4.23 Control charts. (a) Process begins to become out of control, because of factors such as tool wear. The tool is changed, and the process is then in good statistical control. (b) Process parameters are not set properly; thus, all parts are around the upper control limit. (c) Process becomes out of control, because of factors such as a sudden change in the properties of the incoming material.

_ LCLx

Time (c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Micrometers

(a)

(b)

Digital gages

Display examples

CRT

Floppy disk drive Printer

Bar-code reader (c)

FIGURE 4.24 Schematic illustration showing integration of digital gages with a miniprocessor for real-time data acquisition and SPC/SQC capabilities. Note the examples on the CRT displays, such as frequency distribution and control charts. Source: Mitutoyo Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian !Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7