THE NEW FEDERALIST

January 15, 1988

Pages 5-8

American Almanac

How the Nation Was Won America's Untold Story: 1630-175

First Part Fr!" t#e $!!% $y

H! "raham #owry

$ir%inia's Shenandoah $alley& at the 'oot o' the (l)e *id%e +o)ntains! ,n the 'irst decade o' the 1-th cent)ry& America's re.)/lican leaders /e%an im.lementin% a strate%y o' e0tendin% settlements /eyond the A..alachian and Alle%heny +o)ntains& to con1)er the continent 'or re.)/licanism!

Author's Introduction T#is is a &!!% a&!ut #!' "en "!(e "!untains) T#e *es+ri,ti!n is n!t si",-y "eta,#!ri+a-, +!n+erning A"eri+a.s ast!nis#ing /eat !/ /!rging a su,er,!'er !ut !/ a +!ntinenta- 'i-*erness) It a-s! a,,-ies t! an e0tra!r*inary ,!-iti+a- /ig#t, 'age* /!r near-y a +entury &e/!re t#e !ut&rea% !/ t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n1 t#e &att-e t! &rea% &ey!n* t#e -!ng &arrier !/ t#e eastern A,,a-a+#ian 2!untain +#ain, in !r*er t! +!-!ni3e an* *e(e-!, t#e (ast territ!ries t! t#e 'est)

T#e (isi!n !/ *e(e-!,ing a +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+ in t#e Ne' W!r-* gui*e* A"eri+a.s +!-!nists as /ar &a+% as J!#n Wint#r!,.s /!un*ing !/ 2assa+#usetts in 1456) Wit# &ene/it /r!" t#e e0,erien+es !/ 7a,tain J!#n S"it#, '#!se si"i-ar #!,es /!r su+# a ,r!8e+t in 9irginia #a* /ai-e*, Wint#r!, !rgani3e* t#e 2assa+#usetts $ay e0,e*iti!n as a /irst-stage, s,a+e +!-!ny "ig#t &e !rgani3e* t!*ay) He re+ruite* a-- t#e s%i--e* ,ers!ns #e +!u-* "uster, in engineering, t!!-"a%ing, +!nstru+ti!n, an* agri+u-ture, t! t#e -i"its !/ ear-y se(enteent#-+entury te+#n!-!gy) His s"a-- s#i,s a-s! &r!ug#t #un*re*s !/ *e*i+ate* +!-!nists an* t#eir /a"i-ies, t! un*erta%e a nati!n&ui-*ing "issi!n t#at :!//i+ia-: !,ini!n !/ t#e ti"e +!nsi*ere* i",!ssi&-e) ;n*er se-/-g!(erning ,!'ers !/ in*e,en*en+e, t#e 2assa+#usetts +!-!ny esta&-is#e* an in-*e,t#, re,u&-i+an +iti3enry an* +!nsi*era&-e e+!n!"i+ ,!'er, *uring its /irst #a-/-+entury !/ e0isten+e) Its in/-uen+e 'as s,rea* in (arying *egrees t#r!ug#!ut Ne' Eng-an*, an* e(en int! t#e 2i*-At-anti+ +!-!nies) As +!-!nia- ,!tentia-s in+rease* /!r *e(e-!,"ent &ey!n* t#e "!untain &arriers, t#e !&sta+-es &e+a"e -ess t#e "!untains t#e"se-(es, an* "!re t#e +!"&ine* ,!-iti+a- an* "i-itary !,,!siti!n !/ /!r+es in &!t# $ritain an* Fran+e) T#e st!ry !/ #!' t#!se !&sta+-es 'ere !(er+!"e is t#e su&8e+t !/ t#is '!r%) A s"a-- gr!u, !/ +!-!nia- -ea*ers in A"eri+a, '!r%ing &!t# !,en-y an* &e#in* t#e s+enes, &egan i",-e"enting a strategy in 1<16 /!r an A"eri+an :&rea%!ut: &ey!n* t#e A,,a-a+#ian an* A--eg#eny "!untains) W#at t#ey a++!",-is#e* 'as in*is,ensa&-e t! A"eri+an in*e,en*en+e) W#at t#ey ins,ire* 'as t#e "issi!n !/ nati!n-&ui-*ing, /!r '#i+# A"eri+ans '!u-* /ig#t a 'ar t! ensure its &eing /u-/i--e*) In t#e -!ng strugg-e &et'een t#e /!un*ing !/ 2assa+#usetts an* :t#e s#!t #ear* .r!un* t#e '!r-*: at 7!n+!r* $ri*ge, t#at sense !/ "!ra- ,ur,!se 'as re,eate*-y teste*, yet sustaine*) T#e &!-* an* #a3ar*!us g!a- !/ ,!siti!ning t#e +!-!nies t! *e(e-!, t#e West 'as attaine* *uring t#e Fren+# an* In*ian War, '#!se (eterans ,r!(i*e* "u+# !/ t#e -ea*ers#i, /!r t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n) It "ay see" ,resu",tu!us t! *es+ri&e t#is a++!unt as :A"eri+a.s ;nt!-* St!ry): T! t#e aut#!r.s %n!'-e*ge, #!'e(er, t#e re+!r* !/ t#e +!ntinu!us e//!rt t! &ui-* a +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+, /r!" t#e Puritan /!un*ers t! t#e F!un*ing Fat#ers, #as ne(er &e/!re &een ,resente*, as a +!#erent, !ng!ing strategi+ &att-e) =et t#e e(i*en+e is t#ere, t#at t#e -ea*ing /igures '#! &r!ug#t A"eri+a t! t#e ,!int it +!u-* su++ess/u--y assert its in*e,en*en+e, #a* '!r%e* t! esta&-is# t#e ne+essary ,re+!n*iti!ns a-- a-!ng)

T#e e(i*en+e is si"i-ar-y a&un*ant, t#at a great "any A"eri+ans -!ng &e/!re t#e Re(!-uti!n t#!r!ug#-y *eteste* $ritis# ru-e, !n ,re+ise-y t#e issue !/ $ritain.s re/usa- t! ,er"it any rea- *e(e-!,"ent !/ t#e +!ntinent) In t#e +!-!nists. "in*s, $ritain.s !,,ressi!n 'as un*ers+!re* &y its !,en +!--usi!n 'it# Fran+e t! *estr!y +!-!nia- atte",ts t! *e(e-!, t#e interi!r) West'ar* +!-!ni3ati!n e//!rts, /r!" Ne' Eng-an* t! t#e 7ar!-inas, 'ere instant targets /!r In*ian "assa+res, ty,i+a--y *ire+te* &y Fren+# Jesuit :"issi!naries: !,erating /r!" 7ana*a !r, !n t#e s!ut#ern /-an%, /r!" Fren+# !ut,!sts in L!uisiana) A"eri+an e//!rts t! re"!(e su+# t#reats t#r!ug# a,,ea-s t! t#e "!nar+#y /!r assistan+e, !r &y "i-itary "easures !/ t#eir !'n 'ere re,eate*-y &etraye* &y $ritain.s ru-ing +ir+-es) T#ese ,!-iti+a- /a+ts !/ -i/e 'ere %n!'n t! generati!ns !/ A"eri+ans &e/!re t#e Re(!-uti!n) =et a++!r*ing t! ,re(ai-ing #ist!ri+a- !,ini!n, t#e issue !/ &ui-*ing a nati!n *i* n!t e(en arise unti- t#e 1<46s) Ha(ing &een :traine* in t#e tra*e,: t#e aut#!r %ne' s!"et#ing !/ t#e 'itting an* un'itting +!"&inati!ns '#i+# #a* ,r!*u+e* t#is *is"a--y -i"ite* (ie' !/ !ur nati!n.s /!un*ing) T#e ty,i+a--y resu-ting a++!unts ,e**-e t'! +ru+ia--y "is-ea*ing +-ai"s) First, t#at t#e Puritan *e(e-!,"ent !/ Ne' Eng-an* 'as s!"e s!rt !/ #ist!ri+a- >uir%, ter"inate* &e/!re 1<66 &y its !'n irre-e(an+e, 'it#!ut any -asting in/-uen+e) Se+!n*, t#at t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies "ere-y e0iste* *uring t#e /irst #a-/ !/ t#e eig#teent# +entury, in a stati+, une(ent/u- "!*e, 'it# n! signi/i+ant t#!ug#t !r ,ur,!se /!r t#e /uture) T#en a /urt#er +-ai" is genera--y a**e*, t#at A"eri+ans si",-y /!ug#t t#e Fren+# an* In*ian War in su,,!rt !/ $ritis# +!-!nia- ,!-i+y) ?n-y a/ter t#at 'ar, a++!r*ing t! !ur stan*ar* #ist!ry te0ts, *i* t#e i*ea !/ in*e,en*en+e e"erge, in res,!nse t! $ritain.s i",eria- "easures /!--!'ing t#e 1<45 Treaty !/ Paris) T#e /ina- &-!' is usua--y t#us *e-i(ere*1 t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n 'as t#e un,re*i+te* !ut+!"e !/ t#e +!-!nists. su**en #!sti-ity t! i",eria- ru-e, !(er su+# "atters as t#e Sta", A+t an* t#e ta0 !n tea) In !t#er '!r*s, t#e /!un*ing !/ t#e greatest re,u&-i+ in #ist!ry resu-te* /r!" n!t#ing "!re t#an a s,!ntane!us string !/ ,r!tests, against $ritis# in/ringe"ent u,!n s!"e ,etty rig#ts t#e +!-!nia-s a-rea*y :en8!ye*): T#ere 'as a ti"e '#en !ur +iti3ens 'ere !utrage* &y su+# e//!rts t! *eny t#e "!ra- ,ur,!se !/ t#e +reati!n !/ t#e ;nite* States) Per#a,s e(en t! sa(e it n!', t#ey "ust again &e+!"e s!, *es,ite "!re t#an a +entury an* a #a-/ !/ *e-i&erate e//!rts t! *e,ri(e t#e" !/ t#eir rea- #ist!ry)

It is a si",-e "atter !/ re+!r* t#at J!#n Wint#r!,.s 2assa+#usetts $ay ,r!8e+t 'as *e*i+ate* t! esta&-is#ing a re,u&-i+ in t#e Ne' W!r-*, as a strategi+ /-an% against t#e t#reatene* *estru+ti!n !/ Eur!,e, *uring t#e /irst *e+a*es !/ t#e se(enteent# +entury) T#e "!re *i//i+u-t +#a--enge +!n/r!nting an #ist!ri+a- in(estigat!r t!*ay, is t! /in* t#e ,at#s -ea*ing /r!" Ne' Eng-an*.s "a-igne* Puritan +!""!n'ea-t#, t! t#e /!un*ing !/ t#e +!nstituti!na- re,u&-i+ !/ t#e ;nite* States) $!t# &e/!re an* a/ter !ur War !/ In*e,en*en+e, $en8a"in Fran%-in, J!#n A*a"s, an* Sa"ue- A*a"s a-,r!+-ai"e* t#e fact !/ t#at +!nne+ti!n) T#eir tri&utes are se-*!" +ite* t!*ay, an* 'ere *e-i(ere* at t#e ti"e as t#!ug# -itt-e e0,-anati!n 'ere ne+essary) T#us, e(en 'it# testi"!ny /r!" t#e F!un*ing Fat#ers, t#e #ist!rian /a+es t#e tas% !/ *is+!(ering how t#e &att-es /!ug#t in se(enteent#-+entury 2assa+#usetts -e* t! A"eri+a.s (i+t!ry at =!r%t!'n in 1<81) T#ere is n!t#ing ar&itrary in ,!sing t#at >uesti!n) $ey!n* t#e e(i*en+e ,r!(i*e* &y Fran%-in an* t#e t'! A*a"ses, '#! 'ere a-- s!ns !/ 2assa+#usetts, t#ere is t#e /a+t t#at @e!rge Was#ingt!n raise* t#e 7!ntinentaAr"y at 7a"&ri*ge, !n t#e +!""!n /a+ing Har(ar* 7!--ege rat#er t#an in #is nati(e 9irginia) Against t#e usua- ,!rtraya-s !/ t#e ,r!(in+ianarr!'ness *i(i*ing t#e !rigina- +!-!nies, Was#ingt!n.s a+ti!n is itse-/ su//i+ient reas!n t! as%, '#at &r!ug#t a 9irginia ,-anter t! t#e /!r"er Puritan str!ng#!-*, t! -ea* a 'ar /!r A"eri+an in*e,en*en+eA T#e >uesti!n is a-s! raise*, '#at ,re+!n*iti!ns #a* a-rea*y &een "et in 9irginia, su+# t#at a 'ar /!r t#e rig#t t! &ui-* a nati!n, +!u-* &e *e+-are* 'it# reas!na&-e e0,e+tati!ns t#at it +!u-* &e *!neA T#e ans'er is suggeste* &y t#e (ery na"e gi(en t! t#ese /ig#ters /!r in*e,en*en+e1 t#e Continental Ar"y) W#en Was#ingt!n t!!% +!""an* !/ #is /!r+es, +!nsisting a-"!st entire-y !/ Ne' Eng-an* "i-itia units, #e #a* '!r%e* in +!--a&!rati!n 'it# $en8a"in Fran%-in /!r near-y a >uarter !/ a +entury) An* /!r near-y a >uarter +entury &e/!re t#at, Fran%-in #a* &een in P#i-a*e-,#ia, &ui-*ing a re,u&-i+an "!(e"ent !n t#e "!*e- !/ 7!tt!n 2at#er, t#e -ast great -ea*er !/ Ne' Eng-an*.s Puritans) 7!ntrary t! a-- ,re(i!us a++!unts, t#is '!r% *!+u"ents t#at Fran%-in 'as 7!tt!n 2at#er.s !'n ,r!tege an* t#e s!n !/ !ne !/ 2at#er.s -ea*ing re,u&-i+an !rgani3ers in $!st!n) T#e e(i*en+e /!r an #y,!t#esis !/ +!ntinuity is irre/uta&-e) T#e ,r!!/ -ies in *eter"ining t#e singu-arities '#i+# a++!unt /!r t#e /a+t, t#at t#e idea !/ a +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+, 'as trans/!r"e* int! a +!n+rete ,r!s,e+t, before A"eri+a.s *ire+t +#a--enges t! $ritis# aut#!rity *uring t#e 1<46s)

23HN #454*4*'S +A6 37 1671

8he "erman scientist and e0.lorer 2ohn #ederer .)/lished this ma. in #ondon in 1671& 'ollowin% e0.editions o' 166--1669& the 'irst to cross the (l)e *id%e +o)ntains in $ir%inia and western :arolina! :ommissioned /y $ir%inia "o;ernor William (er<eley& #ederer .ro;ed that $ir%inia's ;ast colonial claims to the West co)ld /e de;elo.ed& and shattered the myth that the (l)e *id%e was im.assa/le! $ir%inia's 8idewater oli%archy was determined to eliminate s)ch .ros.ects! When #ederer tried to demonstrate his disco;ery to a =com.any o' %entlemen=& they a/andoned him on the march >note 3 in his notes to the ma.? and 'alsely re.orted him dead! (e'ore ret)rnin% to 4)ro.e& #ederer s.ent nearly two years wor<in% 'or :onnectic)t "o;ernor 2ohn Winthro.& 2r!& who corres.onded with 4)ro.ean re.)/lican leader "ott'ried Wilhelm #ei/ni@! 5es.ite the .rimiti;e circ)mstances )nder which it was made& #ederer's ma. .ro;ided im.ortant new <nowled%e o' $ir%inia's interior& incl)din% the )..er reaches o' its coastal ri;ers& the line o' the (l)e *id%e& the e0istence o' the Shenandoah $alley /eyond it >la/eled =Sa;anae=?& and the A..alachian +o)ntains to the west >the =*ichohoc<ans=?! 5rawn 'rom an east-to-west

.ers.ecti;e& the ma. also notes >No! 6? =the head o' the *a.ahanoc< ri;er= as its so)th 'or<! #ederer 'irst crossed the (l)e *id%e >No! 1? A)st /elow that .oint& and so did Ale0ander S.otswood in 1716!

T#us, t#e /!un*ati!ns /!r A"eri+a.s in*e,en*en+e "ust &e ,r!(en t! #a(e &een esta&-is#e* t#r!ug# ear-ier, su++ess/u- e//!rts t! !,en t#e 'ay /!r *e(e-!,ing t#e West, *es,ite $ritis# an* Fren+# *eter"inati!n t! st!, it) T#r!'ing asi*e ,re(ai-ing #ist!ri+a- !,ini!n, in !r*er t! ta%e a /res# -!!% at t#e "atter, !ne +an i*enti/y a tru-y re"ar%a&-e singu-arity in t#e ,attern !/ e(ents !++urring ar!un* t#e year 1<16) Ne' r!ya- g!(ern!rs arri(e* t#at year t! ta%e +!""an* !/ 9irginia an* Ne' =!r%, t#e t'! "!st strategi+a--y ,-a+e* +!-!nies /!r *e(e-!,ing sett-e"ents &ey!n* t#e "!untains, /r!" t#e @reat La%es t! t#e 2ississi,,i Ri(er) 7!tt!n 2at#er ,u&-is#e* #is +-assi+ "anua- !n !rgani3ing a re,u&-i+an +iti3enry, Essays to Do Good. 9irginia.s @!(ern!r A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!* i""e*iate-y ann!un+e* ,-ans t! ,us# &ey!n* t#e su,,!se*-y i",assa&-e $-ue Ri*ge 2!untains as /ar as t#e 2ississi,,i) In Ne' =!r%, ,re,arati!ns 'ere "a*e t! se+ure t#e 2!#a'% 9a--ey as /ar as La%e ?ntari!, &y @!(ern!r R!&ert Hunter, a +-!se ,ers!na/rien* !/ J!nat#an S'i/t) $y t#e en* !/ t#at year, S'i/t #a* gaine* entry t! t#e inner"!st +ir+-es !/ Bueen Anne.s e"erging ne' g!(ern"ent) T#e "a8!r ,!-i+y s#i/t in Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent #a* &een in t#e '!r%s /!r se(era- years, an* J!nat#an S'i/t n! "ere satirist !r +!//ee-#!use ga*/-y ,-aye* a "a8!r r!-e in it) ;,!n /urt#er in(estigati!n, it &e+!"es +-ear t#at #e *i* s! in +!--a&!rati!n 'it# @!tt/rie* Wi-#e-" (!n Lei&ni3, ,ri(y +!un+i-!r t! Bueen Anne.s *esignate* su++ess!r, t#e E-e+tress S!,#ie !/ Han!(er) In t#e "i*st !/ t#is internati!na- &att-e, in '#i+# Lei&ni3 an* #is a--ies s!ug#t t! &rea% t#e nati!ns !/ Eur!,e a'ay /r!" t#eir ,!-i+ies !/ "utua--y assure* *estru+ti!n, t#e nati!n-&ui-*ing t#rust !/ t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies 'as -aun+#e* in earnest) It 'as a great ,r!8e+t /!r !t#er nati!ns t! e"u-ate, yet *esigne* t! su++ee* e(en i/ t#ey *i* n!t s! t#at "an%in* "ig#t sti-- #a(e a ,-a+e t! ,ursue its *i(ine-y !r*aine* +!""it"ent t! ,r!gress) T#e A"eri+an +!-!nies. true +!urse t! in*e,en*en+e +ann!t &e +#arte*, 'it#!ut un*erstan*ing t#e issues an* -ess!ns !/ t#e ,!-iti+a- 'ar/are '#i+# s#a,e* t#e reign !/ Bueen Anne) T#at st!ry is t#ere/!re treate* #ere in s!"e *etai- es,e+ia--y sin+e #er reign is genera--y ,!rtraye* as a :&-a+% #!-e: in t#e ga-a0y !/ A"eri+an #ist!ry te0ts) 7!nsi*era&-e s,a+e is a-s! gi(en t!

an!t#er (i+ti" !/ !&s+urity, 9irginia.s @!(ern!r A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!*, '#!se "agni/i+ent a++!",-is#"ents enrage* t#e !,,!nents !/ A"eri+a.s +!ntinenta- *e(e-!,"ent at t#e ti"e) S,!ts'!!*.s ty,i+a- treat"ent at t#e #an*s !/ A"eri+an #ist!rians is a "!st te--ing +ase) T#ey si",-y &ury #i" an!ny"!us-y in a ,!tters. /ie-*C yet #e ,ers!na--y ,a(e* t#e 'ay /!r A"eri+a.s /irst +!-!ni3ati!n &ey!n* t#e eastern "!untains, an* *!+u"enta&-y +reate* t#e nati!n-&ui-*ing /a+ti!n in 9irginia '#i+# ,r!*u+e* @e!rge Was#ingt!n) T#!ug# #un*re*s !/ (!-u"es #a(e &een 'ritten a&!ut @e!rge Was#ingt!n, n!ne #as e0,-!re* #is ,!-iti+a- -ega+y /r!" S,!ts'!!*, e(en t#!ug# a "ere g-an+e at t#e re-e(ant genea-!gies esta&-is#es a "u-ti,-e !/ *ire+t re-ati!ns#i,s &et'een t#e S,!ts'!!* an* Was#ingt!n /a"i-ies) T#at /a+t t#at it 'as A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!* '#! a,,!inte* $en8a"in Fran%-in ,!st"aster !/ P#i-a*e-,#ia, s#!u-* a-s! gi(e !ne ,ause, '#en +!nsi*ering stan*ar* #ist!ri+a- !,ini!n) ?ne /ina- ,!int s#!u-* &e state*, +!n+erning t#e #ist!ri+a- "et#!* e",-!ye* in t#is '!r%) Wit#!ut t#e re+!r* !/ Ne' Eng-an*.s re,u&-i+an !rigins, "any !/ t#e >uesti!ns t#e aut#!r +!n/r!nte* '!u-* n!t #a(e &een raise*) Ha* #e a*!,te* t#e genera- a0i!"s ,ur,!rting t! a++!unt /!r t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n, #e '!u-* ne(er #a(e s+rutini3e* t#e ear-y eig#teent#-+entury re+!r* /!r e(i*en+e !/ t#e +!-!nies. nati!n-&ui-*ing as,irati!ns) =et e(en &ey!n* t#!se !&sta+-es, t#e sear+# is +!",-i+ate* &y an!t#er ,r!&-e", '#i+# itse-/ re/-e+ts a /un*a"enta- rea-ity !/ t#e ,eri!*) F!--!'ing t#e *eat# !/ Bueen Anne in 1<1D, t#e ne' g!(ern"ent !/ @e!rge I &egan sa(age-y *estr!ying t#e ,!-i+y initiati(es '#i+# #a* -aun+#e* A"eri+a.s +!ntinenta- *e(e-!,"ent in 1<16) T#!se '#! +!ntinue* t#e /ig#t su+# as 2at#er, Fran%-in, S,!ts'!!*, an* Was#ingt!n /re>uent-y #a* t! "as% t#eir intenti!ns, an* !,erate +!(ert-y un*er t#e n!se !/ ene"y ru-e) T#us t#e *!+u"entary re+!r* !/ A"eri+a.s +#a--enge t! $ritis# ru-e "ust &e e0a"ine* /r!" an!t#er stan*,!int1 t#at !/ inte--igen+e 'ar/are, in t#e "!*e !/ resistan+e against an !++u,ying ,!'er) T#e ear-y +areer !/ $en8a"in Fran%-in &est e0e",-i/ies t#e +ase, an* /!r t#at reas!n is a-s! gi(en *etai-e* treat"ent in t#is '!r%) Swi't 3.ens the 5oor to the West During t#e /irst *e+a*e !/ t#e eig#teent# +entury, t#e -!ng-+#eris#e* *rea" !/ +reating an A"eri+an +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+ 'as near t! &eing e0tinguis#e*) T#e +!-!nia- ,!,u-ati!n 'as e//e+ti(e-y +!n/ine* t! a stri, !/ stagnating +!asta- sett-e"ents, an* t#eir /!r"er /ree*!"s an* sense !/ "issi!n 'ere ra,i*-y er!*ing un*er in+reasing-y +!rru,t !-igar+#i+a- ru-e)

T#e &est-%e,t se+ret !/ A"eri+an #ist!ry is t#at t#e +ru+ia- !,,!rtunity t! re%in*-e t#e :&ea+!n !/ #!,e: 'as ,r!(i*e* &y t#e &ri--iant satirist J!nat#an S'i/t E144<-1<D5F, Ire-an*.s re,u&-i+an -ea*er '#! trans/!r"e* t#e ,!-iti+aru-es !/ t#e ga"e, as t#e a--y !/ @er"any.s @!tt/rie* Wi-#e-" (!n Lei&ni3 E14D4-1<14F) In 1<16, t#e year t#at 7!tt!n 2at#er -aun+#e* a "a8!r re,u&-i+an !rgani3ing *ri(e t! u,-i/t t#e A"eri+an ,!,u-ati!n, &!-* ne' "!(es 'ere "a*e in t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies t! !,en t#e 'ay /!r 'estern e0,ansi!n) T#e strategy +a--e* /!r sei3ing 7ana*a an* t#e @reat La%es /r!" t#e Fren+#, !,ening 'estern Ne' =!r% t! sett-e"ents t#at +!u-* &e se+ure* /!r *e(e-!,"ent, an* -in%ing t#e "i*-At-anti+ t! t#e (ast res!ur+es !/ t#e 2i**-e West -ying &ey!n* t#e &arrier !/ t#e A,,a-a+#ian 2!untains) T#e "!"ent !/ !,,!rtunity 'as t#e arri(a- !/ ne' r!ya- g!(ern!rs in Ne' =!r% an* 9irginia, a--ie* t! t#e /a+ti!n !/ Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent n!' gui*e* &y J!nat#an S'i/t, '#!se e//!rts t! esta&-is# a re,u&-i+an ,!-i+y-"a%ing in/-uen+e !(er t#e $ritis# +r!'n #a* &een +-!se-y /!--!'e* &y 7!tt!n 2at#er sin+e at -east 1<68) $y 1<6<, $ritain an* Fran+e, t#e ,rin+i,a- a*(ersaries in Bueen Anne.s War '#i+# +!ntinue* t! engu-/ Eur!,e, 'ere &eing *raine* !/ t#eir rea- e+!n!"i+ res!ur+es) In $ritain, 9enetian-Dut+# &an%ing #!uses, +!ntr!--ing t#e "!ney-"ar%et *istri+t %n!'n as t#e 7ity !/ L!n*!n, 'ere +!n*u+ting a s,e+u-ati(e !rgy !n t!, !/ t#e ruin!us 'ar +!sts) T#e W#ig "inistry, '#i+# t! t#en #a* *!"inate* Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent, 'as -arge-y t#e +reati!n !/ t#e 7ity !/ L!n*!n &an%ers, sustaining itse-/ t#r!ug# t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s "i-itary :(i+t!ries: in Eur!,e '!n 'it# Dut+# an* Ha,s&urg Austrian a--ies) In Fran+e, Eur!,e.s -ea*ing ,!'er, t#e *e+aying regi"e !/ L!uis GI9 'as si"i-ar-y -!+%e* int! a +y+-e !/ gr!'ing *e&t an* *estru+ti(e 'ar/are un*er t#e *i+tates !/ its !'n 9enetian +re*it!rs) T#e nati!ns !/ Eur!,e 'ere ,-aying !ut t#e sui+i*a- s+enari! !/ T#!"as H!&&es.s Leviathan, t#e :eterna- 'ar !/ ea+# against a--,: *esigne* t! en* in an :!"ni,!tent: '!r-* g!(ern"ent) In 7!tt!n 2at#er.s Ne' Eng-an*, t#e *!u&-e-*ea-ing !/ @!(ern!r Du*-ey.s regi"e -!!ting t#e +!-!nists un*er aut#!rity !/ t#e $ritis# +r!'n, '#i-e su,,-ying :ene"y: Fren+# /!r+es in 7ana*a "irr!re* t#e *e,ra(ity !/ t#e &rea%*!'n +risis in Eur!,e) $ut su+# a +risis a-s! ,r!(i*e* unusua- !,,!rtunities /!r +#anges in ,!-iti+a- /!rtunes, an* in 1<6< t#e 2at#ers re+-ai"e* "u+# !/ t#eir -!st gr!un* &y -ea*ing t#e !,,!siti!n t! @!(ern!r Du*-ey)

P!siti!ne* t! inter(ene t! en* t#e H!&&esian nig#t"are un/!-*ing in Eur!,e 'ere t#e ,!-iti+a- net'!r%s !/ @!tt/rie* Wi-#e-" (!n Lei&ni3, t#e great @er"an s+ientist, e+!n!"ist, an* states"an an* t#e a+%n!'-e*ge* -ea*er !/ re,u&-i+an /!r+es internati!na--y) As ear-y as 14<6, '#i-e ser(ing t#e E-e+t!r !/ 2ain3, an* in t!u+# 'it# t#e Fren+# nati!n-&ui-*ing /!r+es ass!+iate* 'it# 2a3arin an* -ater 7!-&ert, Lei&ni3 #a* ,r!,!se* a @ran* Design /!r an :#ar"!nia uni(ersa-is: !/ s!(ereign re,u&-i+s, '#i+# in+-u*e* a +ru+ia- r!-e /!r A"eri+a) A-t#!ug# #ist!rians #a(e genera--y s!ug#t t! "ini"i3e Lei&ni3.s signi/i+an+e, an* (irtua--y !&-iterate #is i",!rtan+e t! A"eri+a, #e 'as n! stranger t! Ne' Eng-an*.s -ea*ers) A"!ng #is +!rres,!n*ents 'as J!#n Wint#r!,, Jr) E1464-14<4F, t#e -ea*ing A"eri+an astr!n!"er, ,#ysi+ist, an* in*ustriaentre,reneur !/ #is *ay) As g!(ern!r !/ 7!nne+ti+ut, #e se+ure* /!r it t#e (irtua--y s!(ereign status #is /at#er #a* esta&-is#e* /!r t#e 2assa+#usetts $ay 7!-!ny) Lei&ni3 'as /u--y a'are !/ t#e i",!rtan+e !/ A"eri+a.s *e(e-!,ing a +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+) In 1448, t#e @er"an s+ientist, ge!-!gist, an* e0,-!rer J!#ann EJ!#nF Le*erer &e+a"e t#e /irst re+!r*e* '#ite "an t! +r!ss 9irginia.s $-ue Ri*ge 2!untains, an* +#art t#e S#enan*!a# Ri(er (a--ey) His /in*ings an* "a,s 'ere ,u&-is#e* in L!n*!n in 14<1, an* 'ere use* in 1<16 an* again in 1<14 &y 9irginia @!(ern!r A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!*, in #is e0,e*iti!ns t! t#e $-ue Ri*ge 2!untains an* a+r!ss t#e S#enan*!a# Ri(er) Le*erer.s e0,-!rati!ns 'ere +ertain-y %n!'n t! Lei&ni3, /!r t#ey 'ere a "a8!r ne's ite" in Eur!,e, an* Le*erer returne* t! @er"any a/ter se(erayears. e",-!y"ent &y 7!nne+ti+ut @!(ern!r Wint#r!, as a ge!-!gi+asur(ey!r) During t#e strategi+ +risis '#i+# un/!-*e* a/ter 1<66, A"eri+a.s re,u&-i+an ,r!s,e+ts *e,en*e* u,!n *e/eating t#e $ritis# ,!-i+y e0e",-i/ie* &y Lei&ni3.s &itter ene"y J!#n L!+%e) T#r!ug# #is ,!siti!n !n t#e $!ar* !/ Tra*e, L!+%e a*(!+ate* t#e re(!%ing !/ a-- +!-!nia- +#arters an* t#e +!",-ete e+!n!"i+ su&8ugati!n !/ A"eri+a) Wit#in Lei&ni3.s net'!r%s, t#e -ea*ing /igure insi*e $ritain res,!nsi&-e /!r /rustrating t#is !-igar+#i+as+#e"e 'as J!nat#an S'i/t, t#e su,,!se*-y +yni+a- ga*/-y !/ t#e L!n*!n -iterary s+ene) It is a "ar% !/ !ur !'n +u-tura- *e+ay t#at S'i/t is +!""!n-y re"e"&ere* t!*ay !n-y as t#e aut#!r !/ Gulliver's Travels'atere* *!'n t! t#e -e(e- !/ a ,!int-ess +#i-*ren.s &!!%) ?-igar+#i+a--y ins,ire* a++!unts !/ $ritis# #ist!ry #a(e a-s! su,,resse* t#e /a+t t#at S'i/t 'as a "a8!r /igure in t#e ru-ing +ir+-es !/ Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent /r!" 1<16 t! 1<15)

8he *eal 2onathan Swi't $!rn in Du&-in !/ Eng-is# *es+ent, S'i/t 'as e*u+ate* at Du&-in ;ni(ersity.s Trinity 7!--ege, an instituti!n -!ng ass!+iate* 'it# Ne' Eng-an*.s re,u&-i+an -ea*ers#i,) $!t# J!#n Wint#r!,, Jr) an* In+rease 2at#er stu*ie* t#ere, an* In+rease.s !-*er &r!t#er Sa"ue- E14H4-14<1F "!(e* t! Ire-an* /r!" Eng-an* *uring t#e 7i(i- War, &e+!"ing a seni!r /e--!' at t#e +!--ege in 145D as 'e-- as !ne !/ Du&-in.s -ea*ing "inisters) T#e 2at#er /a"i-y re"aine* a+ti(e in Du&-in, an* in +!rres,!n*en+e 'it# 7!tt!n 2at#er in $!st!n, 'e-- int! t#e eig#teent# +entury) S'i/t.s /!r"a- e*u+ati!n at Trinity 7!--ege E148H-1484F an* -ater at ?0/!r* E2)A), 149HF, ,r!(i*e* #i" 'it# ,-enti/u- e0a",-es !/ t#e s+#!-asti+ a&sur*ities #e 'as t! ri*i+u-e t#r!ug#!ut #is -i/e) $ut &y #is ear-y "an#!!*, #e 'as n!net#e-ess a 'e---ar"e* +#a",i!n !/ t#e P-at!ni+ "et#!* in ,#i-!s!,#y an* s+ien+e, a &ri--iant satirist in t#e tra*iti!n !/ Eras"us an* Ra&e-ais, an* a *e(astating ,!-e"i+ist against su+# ,e**-ers !/ :2an is a &eastC t#e ;ni(erse is *ea*: as H!&&es, Des+artes, Ne't!n, an* L!+%e) $y 149<, S'i/t #a* attra+te* +!nsi*era&-e attenti!n t#r!ug# #is satiri+aatta+%s !n t#e *egenera+y !/ inte--e+tua- -i/e t#e sa"e *e+ay in +u-ture an* "!ra-ity t#at 7!tt!n 2at#er +#arge* in 1494 #a* re*u+e* Ne' Eng-an* t! a :-itt-e: ,e!,-e) T'! '!r%s 'ritten *uring 1494-149<, A Tale of a Tub an* The attle of the oo!s, "ar%e* S'i/t as a *anger!us "an in t#e eyes !/ t#!se '#! s!ug#t t! i",!se a +u-tura- *ar% age) A Tale of a Tub, +ir+u-ate* an!ny"!us-y an* n!t ,rinte* unti- 1<6D, t!!% ai" at t#e t#reat t#at :t#e 'its !/ t#e ,resent age &eing s! (ery nu"er!us an* ,enetrating: '!u-* :/in* -eisure t! ,i+% #!-es in t#e 'ea% si*es !/ re-igi!n an* g!(ern"ent,: as S'i/t ,ut it in #is ,re/a+e) S'i/t e0,-ains #is ,!-iti+a"!ti(e, an* #is +#!i+e !/ tit-e, &y n!ting :t#at sea"en #a(e a +ust!", '#en t#ey "eet a '#a-e, t! /-ing #i" !ut an e",ty tu& &y 'ay !/ a"use"ent, t! *i(ert #i" /r!" -aying (i!-ent #an*s u,!n t#e s#i,) T#is ,ara&-e 'as i""e*iate-y "yt#!-!gi3e*1 t#e '#a-e 'as inter,rete* t! &e H!&&es.s Le(iat#an, '#i+# t!sses an* ,-ays 'it# a-- s+#e"es !/ re-igi!n an* g!(ern"ent, '#ere!/ a great "any are #!--!', an* *ry, an* e",ty, an* n!isy, an* '!!*en, an* gi(en t! r!tati!n1 t#is is t#e -e(iat#an, '#en+e t#e terri&-e 'its !/ !ur age are sai* t! &!rr!' t#eir 'ea,!ns) T#e s#i, in *anger is easi-y un*erst!!* t! &e its !-* antity,e, t#e +!""!n'ea-t#) ) ) ) IAJn* it 'as *e+ree*, t#at in !r*er t! ,re(ent t#ese -e(iat#ans /r!" t!ssing an* s,!rting 'it# t#e +!""!n'ea-t#, '#i+# !/ itse-/ is t!! a,t t! /-u+tuate, t#ey s#!u-*

&e *i(erte* /r!" t#at ga"e &y a Ta-e !/ a Tu&) An*, "y genius &eing +!n+ei(e* t! -ie n!t un#a,,i-y in t#at 'ay, I #a* t#e #!n!ur *!ne "e t! &e engage* in t#e ,er/!r"an+e): S'i/t a**s t#at #is treatise is inten*e* t! :ser(e /!r an interi" !/ s!"e "!nt#s t! e",-!y t#!se un>uiet s,irits,: unti- :a -arge a+a*e"y +an &e ere+te*, +a,a&-e !/ +!ntaining nine t#!usan* se(en #un*re* /!rty an* t#ree ,ers!ns,: t#e nu"&er S'i/t +ites /!r ,ers!ns in Eng-an* 'it# :-i(ings,: !r in#erite* 'ea-t# /r!" /eu*a-isti+ gr!un* rent) T#at nu"&er, :&y "!*est +!",utati!n, is re+%!ne* t! &e ,retty near t#e nu"&er !/ 'its in t#is is-an*): T#e ,r!,!se* :a+a*e"y: is t! +!ntain t#e (ari!us s+#!!-s :t! '#i+# t#eir genius "!st in+-ines t#e"): T#e -ist !/ :t#e ,rin+i,a- s+#!!-s: +!nstitutes an atta+% !n t#e *egenerati!n !/ +u-ture in Eng-an* sin+e t#e *ays !/ 2ar-!'e, S#a%es,eare, an* 2i-t!n, an* es,e+ia--y !n t#e i",!se* su,re"a+y !/ 9enetian-ins,ire* !-igar+#i+a/as#i!ns /r!" t#e +!ntinent1 :T#ere is /irst, a -arge ,e*erasti+ s+#!!-, 'it# Fren+# an* Ita-ian "asters) T#ere is, a-s!, t#e s,e--ing s+#!!-, a (ery s,a+i!us &ui-*ing1 t#e s+#!!- !/ -!!%ing-g-asses1 t#e s+#!!- !/ s'earing1 t#e s+#!!- !/ +riti+s1 t#e s+#!!- !/ sa-i(ati!n1 t#e s+#!!- !/ #!&&y-#!rses): In The attle of the oo!s, S'i/t *e-i(ere* a *e(astating &-!' against an !ng!ing Jesuit-*esigne* !,erati!n !riginating in Fran+e, an* e0ten*e* int! $ritain &y Sir Wi--ia" Te",-e1 a rigge* *e&ate !(er '#et#er :+!rre+t: %n!'-e*ge 'as t#e ,r!,erty !/ t#e an+ient, !r t#e "!*ern, ,#i-!s!,#ers) $esi*es t#e e,iste"!-!gi+a- a&sur*ity !/ t#e an+ient-(s)-"!*ern *istin+ti!n, t#e :*e&ate: 'as *esigne* t! -i"it t#e +#!i+es t! an+ient Arist!te-ians !r "!*ern Arist!te-ians, t#r!'ing P-at!ni+ reas!n !ut t#e 'in*!') In #is satiri+a- a++!unt !/ :t#e &att-e /!ug#t -ast Fri*ay, &et'een t#e an+ient an* "!*ern &!!%s in St) Ja"es.s Li&rary,: S'i/t s-ays Arist!te-ians -e/t an* rig#t, !-* an* ne', '#i-e esta&-is#ing t#at t#e a+tua- /ig#t is &et'een P-at! an* Arist!t-e, an* t#eir a*#erents, an+ient an* "!*ern) S'i/t e",#asi3es t#e ,!int in a ,assage a&!ut Duns S+!tus, t#e "e*ie(a- Arist!te-ian '#!se na"e rig#t-y ser(e* as t#e !rigin !/ t#e '!r* :*un+e:1 :W#en t#e '!r%s !/ S+!tus /irst +a"e !ut, t#ey 'ere +arrie* t! a +ertain -i&rary, an* #a* -!*gings a,,!inte* t#e"C &ut t#is aut#!r 'as n! s!!ner sett-e*, t#an #e 'ent t! (isit #is "aster Arist!t-eC an* t#ere &!t# +!n+erte* t!get#er t! sei3e P-at! &y "ain /!r+e, an* turn #i" !ut /r!" #is an+ient stati!n a"!ng t#e *i(ines, '#ere #e #a* ,ea+ea&-y *'e-t near eig#t #un*re* years) T#e atte",t su++ee*e*, an* t#e t'! usur,ers #a(e reigne* e(er sin+e in #is stea*1 &ut t!

"aintain >uiet /!r t#e /uture, it 'as *e+ree* t#at a-- #ole"ic!s !/ t#e -arge si3e, s#!u-* &e #e-* /ast 'it# a +#ain): S'i/t.s ,!-e"i+ 'as !&(i!us-y n!t s! +!nstraine*) As #is "!+% &att-e un/!-*s, #e says !/ :t#e "!*erns:1 :T#ere +a"e t#e &!'"en un*er t#eir (a-iant -ea*ers, Des+artes, @assen*i, an* H!&&esC '#!se strengt# 'as su+#, t#at t#ey +!u-* s#!!t t#eir arr!'s &ey!n* t#e at"!s,#ere, e(er t! /a-- *!'n again, &ut turn -i%e t#at !/ E(an*er int! "ete!rs, !r -i%e t#e +ann!n&a-- int! stars): $esi*es #a(ing t#e uni(erse "a%e t#e Arist!te-ian "!*erns i",!tent against t#eir ene"ies, S'i/t re*ra's t#e &att-e -ines t! #a(e t#e Arist!te-ians %i-- one another, in+-u*ing in #is targets Sir Fran+is $a+!n E1541-14H4F, t#e !++u-t'!rs#i,,ing :,#i-!s!,#er: *e,-!ye* t! e0ter"inate t#e Eng-is# Renaissan+e) Wit# a**e* ir!ny, #e #as Arist!t-e s-ay Des+artes a++i*enta--y) :T#en Arist!t-e, !&ser(ing $a+!n a*(an+e 'it# a /uri!us "ien, *re' #is &!' t! t#e #ea*, an* -et /-y #is arr!', '#i+# "isse* t#e (a-iant "!*ern, an* 'ent '#i33ing !(er #is #ea*C &ut Des+artes it #itC t#e stee- ,!int >ui+%-y /!un* a *e/e+t in #is #ea*,ie+eC it ,ier+e* t#e -eat#er an* t#e ,aste-&!ar*, an* 'ent in at #is rig#t eye) T#e t!rture !/ t#e ,ain '#ir-e* t#e (a-iant &!'"an r!un*, ti-- *eat#, -i%e a star !/ su,eri!r in/-uen+eC *re' #i" int! #is !'n (!rte0): F!r su+# a s%i--/u- ,!-e"i+a- 'arri!r as S'i/t 'as, inter(enti!n *ire+t-y int! t#e ,!-iti+a- arena /!--!'e* natura--y, es,e+ia--y in an era '#en a-- +a",s r!utine-y re+ruite* -iterary +#a",i!ns) Fr!" 1<61 t! 1<6D, S'i/t "!(e* stea*i-y int! t#e +enter !/ t#e -ea*ing issues in Eng-is# an* Eur!,ean ,!-iti+s, &eginning in 1<61 'it# #is tra+t $n the Dissensions at Athens and %o"e. T#is +-assi+a- ,ara&-e e0,!se* s!"e !/ t#e T!ries. :,atri!ti+: !,,!siti!n t! King Wi--ia" III, in su,,!rt !/ t#e H!use !/ Stuart, as i*enti+a- t! t#e *e"ag!gi+ agitati!ns in an+ient At#ens '#i+# ser(e* t! +!(er a treas!n!us a--ian+e 'it# t#e Persian e",ire) S'i/t 'as >ui+%-y e-e(ate* t#at sa"e year t! t#e status !/ ,!-iti+a- ,r!,#et, '#en L!uis GI9 re(ea-e* #is intenti!ns t!'ar* Eng-an*, &y re+!gni3ing t#e Stuart ,reten*er t! t#e Eng-is# t#r!ne, u,!n t#e *eat# !/ t#e e0i-e* Ja"es II in Paris) F!r t#e ne0t t'e-(e years, S'i/t s#utt-e* &a+% an* /!rt# &et'een Du&-in an* L!n*!n, a+>uiring /rien*s an* ene"ies, &!t# T!ry an* W#ig, +#a",i!ning re,u&-i+an ,rin+i,-es !(er ,arty a--egian+es es,e+ia--y gi(en !-igar+#i+a+!ntr!- !/ -ea*ing /a+ti!ns in &!t# ,arties)

The brilliant satirist &onathan 'wift directed the re#ublican networ!s of his ti"e in En(land, 'cotland, and Ireland. )or!in( in alliance with Leibni*, the leader of the re#ublican forces internationally, 'wift #layed a decisive role in freein( +ueen Anne fro" the Du!e of ,arlborou(h, and hel#ed launch A"erica's initial brea!throu(hs toward beco"in( a continental nation. -or both Leibni* and 'wift, the #oint of reference dated bac! to the battle between .lato and Aristotle.

2onathan Swi't >1667-17 5?

"ott'ried Wilhelm ;on #ei/ni@ >16 6-1716?

%a#hael's %enaissance #aintin( of T#e S+#!!- !/ At#ens e"#hasi*ed the distinction between the two outloo!s. In the #aintin('s central fi(ures, .lato, #ointin( heavenward, is #ortrayed on the left/ Aristotle, on the ri(ht, is (esturin( downward, clutchin( his i""oral Et#i+s)

*a.hael's The School of Athens, detail!

Wi--ia" III *ie* in 2ar+# 1<6H, an* S'i/t returne* t! Eng-an* in A,ri-) War &et'een Eng-an* an* Fran+e, t! &e %n!'n as Bueen Anne.s War, #a* a-rea*y &r!%en !ut in 1<61, e//e+ti(e-y ,-a+ing +!ntr!- !/ t#e ne' Bueen.s g!(ern"ent un*er t#e +!""an*er !/ $ritis# /!r+es, J!#n 7#ur+#i--, /irst Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, '#!se /a"i-y s,a'ne* generati!ns !/ e(eryt#ing /r!" gen!+i*a- +!-!nia-is" an* internati!na- *rug tra//i+%ing t! Winst!n 7#ur+#i--, t#at "is(enerate* en+y+-!,e*ia !/ a-- t#eir (i+es) T#e ne' 'ar n!t !n-y t#reatene* t! re*u+e Eur!,e t! a ,i-e !/ ru&&-e un*er internati!na- !-igar+#i+a- +!ntr!-) War /urt#er "ena+e* t#e %ey re,u&-i+an /-an% against su+# a /ate1 t#e ,r!s,e+ts /!r a ne' A"eri+an nati!n) F!r t#e +!-!nies, t#e #an*'riting 'as !n t#e 'a--) In 1<61, Eng-an* initiate* 'ar against Fran+e, &ut +!n+-u*e* a treaty 'it# Paris, a//ir"ing t#at t#e !n-y signi/i+ant In*ian /!r+es in A"eri+a n!t un*er Fren+# Jesuit +!ntr!- t#e Ir!>u!is Fi(e Nati!ns '!u-* re"ain neutra- in any +!n/-i+t &et'een $ritain an* Fran+e) T#is s!-+a--e* treaty "eant t#at, !n+e t#e 'ar 'as un*er 'ay, Fren+# In*ians !ut !/ 7ana*a +!u-* "!(e /ree-y t#r!ug# Ir!>u!is+!ntr!--e* Ne' =!r% t! atta+% t#e :Eng-is#: +!-!nies !/ Ne' Eng-an*, '#i+# re+ei(e* n! "i-itary assistan+e /r!" L!n*!n '#ats!e(er) At t#e sa"e ti"e, ne' Fren+# a--ian+es 'it# t#e 7#!+ta' an* 7#i+%asa' tri&es in L!uisiana an* A-a&a"a t#reatene* t#e s!ut#ern +!-!nies, an* t#e Fren+# na(y &egan *e(astating assau-ts !n Ne' Eng-an* s#i,,ing, a-s! -e/t un,r!te+te* &y Eng-is# na(a- /!r+es) T#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug# '!u-* +ertain-y #a(e a,,r!(e* t#e si"i-ar !-igar+#i+a- strategy !/ #is #eir Winst!n 7#ur+#i--, '#! %e,t t#e ;nite* States Ar"y i*-e in $ritain as -!ng as ,!ssi&-e '#i-e t#e Na3is gr!un* u, Eur!,e *uring W!r-* War II) T#e t#reat t! A"eri+a *uring Bueen Anne.s War 'as a "a8!r +!n+ern !/ S'i/t.s, an* !n se(era- !++asi!ns #e raise* t#e i*ea !/ +!"ing t! t#e +!-!nies, un*er #is !//i+ia- +a,a+ity in t#e E,is+!,a-ian 7#ur+#, ,er#a,s as $is#!, !/ 9irginia) $ut t#e ,r!s,e+ts, &!t# /!r A"eri+a an* /!r t#e (ery sur(i(a- !/ Eur!,e, *e,en*e* u,!n en*ing t#e a'/u- +arnage !/ 'ar) Es,e+ia--y a/ter t#e August 1<6D *e/eat !/ t#e Fren+# at $-en#ei", '#ere D6,666 !/ L!uis GI9.s 46,666 tr!!,s 'ere ,er"anent-y e-i"inate* /r!" t#e +!"&at r!--s, t#e ,ea+e/u- sett-e"ent !/ :Bueen Anne.s War: &e+a"e t#e ,ara"!unt issue an* t#e !ne '#i+# !n S'i/t.s inter(enti!n '!u-* res#a,e t#e ,!-i+ies !/ Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent)

8he Worst :h)rchillB J!#n 7#ur+#i--, Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, 'as t#e /igure#ea* at t#e +enter !/ a gargantuan /inan+ia- an* ,!-iti+a- s'in*-e, i",!se* u,!n Eng-an* &y a 9enetian-*ire+te* Eur!,ean !-igar+#y) Sin+e t#e Puritan Re(!-uti!n '#i+# en*e* t#e reign !/ 7#ar-es I, an* t#e /!reign in(asi!n en*ing t#e Stuart Rest!rati!n in 1488, t#e 'e& !/ "!nar+#i+a- su++essi!n in Eng-an* #a* &e+!"e tattere* en!ug# t! en-arge t#e ,!ssi&i-ities /!r !utrig#t 9enetian ru-e !(er t#e re"ains !/ S#a%es,eare an* 2i-t!n.s Eng-an* as -!ng as a suita&-e :Eng-is#: /igure#ea* +!u-* &e su++ess/u--y insta--e*) T#e "an se-e+te* t! ru-e in Bueen Anne.s na"e 'as n!t '#at t#e !-igar+#y '!u-* +a-- :'e---&re*,: &ut #e 'as t#e %in* !/ *!g '#! '!u-* res,!n* t! !ne "aster a/ter an!t#er, as -!ng as t#ere 'as "!re in #is &!'-) J!#n 7#ur+#i-- E1456-1<HHF 'as t#e s!n !/ :Sir: Winst!n 7#ur+#i--, a *e(!te* "!nar+#ist '#! /!ug#t &rie/-y against 7r!"'e--.s ar"ies, an* t#en /-e* t! t#e ,r!te+ti!n !/ #is "!t#er-in--a' '#en t#e 7!""!n'ea-t# '!n +!ntr!- !/ West Eng-an*) W#i-e -i(ing in #er #!use, ,art-y ruine* &y a /ire set &y r!ya-ist tr!!,s &e+ause !/ #er /a"i-y.s ties t! t#e 7!""!n'ea-t#, Winst!n %e,t #is !,ti!ns !,en &y 'riting a treatise !n t#e *i(ine rig#t !/ %ings) $ut e(en a/ter t#e Stuart "!nar+#y 'as returne* t! ,!'er, Winst!n 'as '!rt# !n-y a /e' "in!r !//i+es *!-e* !ut &y t#e +r!'n.s /un+ti!naries) His *aug#ter Ara&e--a -e* t#e 'ay int! "!re su&stantia- r!ya- /a(!rs, &y &e+!"ing a "istress t! t#e Du%e !/ =!r%, an* "!t#er !/ /!ur !/ #is &astar* +#i-*ren) T#e *u%e, y!unger &r!t#er t! King 7#ar-es II an* -ater #is su++ess!r as Ja"es II, s#!'e* #is grati/i+ati!n ear-y, &y ta%ing !n Ara&e--a.s /i/teen-year-!-* &r!t#er J!#n as a ,age in 1445) J!#n 7#ur+#i-- a*!,te* #is sister.s "!*e- /!r a*(an+e"ent, &y #a(ing an a//air 'it# 7#ar-es II.s -ea*ing "istress, $ar&ara Pa-"er, Du+#ess !/ 7-e(e-an*, an* starte* #is !'n /!rtune 'it# L16,666 /r!" t#is n!t!ri!us +!urt intriguer) N!sing #is 'ay t#r!ug# t#e y!ung -a*ies-in-'aiting !/ t#e King.s ,a-a+e, J!#n 7#ur+#i-- se-e+te* #is 'i/e Sara#, '#! 'as t#en ,r!"!te* t! t#e inner +ir+-e !/ ser(i+e t! Ja"es II.s *aug#ter Anne, t#e /uture Bueen) Sara# Jennings, t#e /uture Du+#ess !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, s,ent "u+# !/ #er a*!-es+en+e as !ne !/ t#e n!t!ri!us-y "isn!"ere* :"ai*s !/ #!n!ur: at t#e *e,ra(e* +!urt !/ 7#ar-es II) Her "!t#er, '#! as a *e&t-ri**en 'i*!' #a* se+ure* -!*gings in St) Ja"es.s Pa-a+e t! es+a,e t#e -a', 'as /re>uent-y *es+ri&e* in ,a",#-ets !/ t#e ti"e as :a 'it+#: an* a :s!r+eress): Sara#.s +areer !/ ,a-a+e intrigue an* sa*isti+ "ani,u-ati!n "ig#t a,,ear t! &e *ra'n

/r!" t#e +#ara+ter !/ S#a%es,eare.s La*y 2a+&et#, e0+e,t s#e -a+%e* t#e sense !/ re"!rse) E(en &y &estia- !-igar+#i+a- stan*ar*s, J!#n an* Sara# 7#ur+#i-- 'ere an un-i%e-y +!u,-e t! ,-ay a "a8!r r!-e in t#e '!r-* a//airs !/ t#eir ti"e) $ut t#eir uns'er(ing, si"u-tane!us attenti!n t! &!t# t#e #ig#est &i**er at t#e ti"e, an* '#!e(er "ig#t raise t#e sta%es, "a*e t#e" t#e ,er/e+t *!"esti+ (e#i+-e /!r a 9enetian ,-!t t! !&-iterate '#at re"aine* !/ t#e Eng-is# 7!""!n'ea-t#.s re,u&-i+an as,irati!ns) A/ter !(erseeing s!"e sense-ess &-!!*&at#s, *uring a 'ar &et'een Fran+e an* t#e Dut+# in t#e 14<6s, 7#ur+#i-- 'as ,raise* &y #is Fren+# ,ay"asters /!r #is "er+enary e//!rts in t#e /ie-*) W#en L!uis GI9.s ene"y, t#e Dut+# Prin+e Wi--ia" !/ ?range, in(a*e* Eng-an* in 1488 t! sei3e t#e t#r!ne /r!" Ja"es II, 7#ur+#i-- ,r!",t-y &etraye* t#e Stuart King '#! #a* &est!'e* a >uarter-+entury.s ,atr!nage u,!n #i") He 8!ine* t#e ar"ies !/ Wi--ia", '#! *is,at+#e* #i" t! /ig#t t#e Fren+# !n t#e R#ine an* +reate* #i" Ear- !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#) T#ere 'as a &it "!re t! 7#ur+#i--.s treas!n t#an #is genera- in+-inati!n t! :g! 'it# t#e 'inner): ;n*er t#e ru-es !/ #ere*itary "!nar+#i+a- su++essi!n, e(en 'it# Ja"es II.s /-ig#t t! Fran+e +!nstrue* as #is :a&*i+ati!n,: Wi--ia" !/ ?range.s !n-y +-ai" t! &e any'#ere near t#e t#r!ne 'as #is "arriage in 14<< t! Ja"es.s re-u+tant *aug#ter 2ary, Anne.s !-*er sister) ?n t#e &asis !/ Sara# 7#ur+#i--.s years !/ ingratiating, "ani,u-ating :ser(i+e: t! t#e y!unger Anne, t#e ne' Ear- !/ 2ar-&!r!ug# e0,e+te* e(en -arger &!'-s t! &e ,-a+e* &e/!re #i") T#e ru-es !/ su++essi!n, stri+t-y a,,-ie*, '!u-* #a(e -e/t t#e in(a*er Wi--ia" 'it# t#e status !/ :,rin+e +!ns!rt: t! Bueen 2ary, '#! &y 1489 sti-&arren #a* a-"!st n! ,r!s,e+t !/ a *ire+t #eir) In t#at +ase, Anne '!u-* &e #er su++ess!r u,!n 2ary.s *eat#) $ut t#e 9enetian !-igar+#s '#! &an%r!--e* Wi--ia".s (enture insiste* !n a /e' a-terati!ns in res!-(ing t#e issue, '#i+# signa-e* s!"et#ing !/ t#e /ate inten*e* /!r Eng-an*) Wi--ia" su""!ne* a :+!n(enti!n: instea* !/ Par-ia"ent, ,r!,!se* #i"se-/ as King, an* se+ure* a,,r!(a- /!r a 8!int "!nar+#y) A-- a*"inistrati(e ,!'er '!u-* resi*e in #is #an*s, an* #e '!u-* reign a-!ne i/ 2ary *ie* &e/!re #i") Prin+ess Anne.s !&8e+ti!ns t#at t#e sett-e"ent (irtua--y entai-e* #er 'ai(ing #er rig#t !/ su++essi!n 'ere un*erstan*a&-e) Pers!na- entreaties /r!" Sara# 7#ur+#i-- an* t#e 8esuiti+a- Ang-i+an -ea*er J!#n Ti--!ts!n 'ere +!u,-e*

'it# 2ar-&!r!ug#.s ,ri(ate assuran+es t! a-- t#at Anne #a* agree* t#at Wi--ia" s#!u-* ru-e /!r -i/e, unti- Anne.s a+>uies+en+e 'as a fait acco"#li. In 1491, Ti--!ts!n 'as re'ar*e* &y &eing a,,!inte* Ar+#&is#!, !/ 7anter&ury) As -!ng as Sara# +!u-* "anage Anne, t#e 7#ur+#i--s /e-t t#ey +!u-* -!!% /!r'ar* t! at -east t'! reigns t! &ui-* t#eir !'n ,!'er) In a-- *ea-s a"!ng t#ie(es, #!'e(er, t#ere are ine(ita&-y s!"e -!!se en*s) 7#ur+#i--.s /irst ,r!&-e" 'as 'it# King Wi--ia" #i"se-/, '#! 'as "!re t#an uneasy a&!ut a "an '#! +!u-* s! rea*i-y s'it+# a--egian+es) T#e &etraya- !/ Ja"es 'as initia--y >uite -u+rati(e, as 7#ur+#i-- 'as gi(en t#e tas% !/ ,urging t#e Stuart ar"y, '#i-e %ee,ing t#e :(ast #ar(est: in ,r!+ee*s /r!" t#e sa-e !/ ne' +!""issi!ns, e(en /!r a**iti!na- regi"ents +reate* &y Wi--ia") Wi--ia" n!te* ,ri(ate-y t#at '#i-e #e a,,r!(e* t#e treas!n !n #is &e#a-/, #e *is-i%e* t#e trait!r) Bueen 2ary ,r!(e* t! &e yet an!t#er ,r!&-e") T#!ug# "isera&-e in #er "arriage 'it# Wi--ia", '#!se re,ute* #!"!se0ua-ity 'as t#e ta-% !/ a-- t#e +!urts !/ Eur!,e, t#e Bueen >ui+%-y re+!gni3e* t#e 7#ur+#i--s. e//!rts t! "a%e Anne t#eir !'n ,a'n, '#i-e ,-aying #er against &!t# Wi--ia" an* 2ary) As ear-y as 2ar+# 1496, 2ary 'r!te ,ri(ate-y t#at t#e ne' regi"e 'as t#reatene* &y a re,u&-i+an ,arty an* &y t#e Ja+!&ite ,arty su,,!rting t#e Stuarts, :an* I #a(e reas!n t! /ear t#at "y sister is /!r"ing a t#ir*): Bueen 2ary.s s,e+i/i+ +!n+erns ten*e* t! /!+us !n su+# "atters as Sara# 7#ur+#i--.s +#eating Anne !ut !/ t#!usan*s !/ ,!un*s at +ar*s, as 'e-- as ta%ing L1,666 a year /r!" Anne.s sett-e"ent as a :,ensi!n): King Wi--ia" #a* a**e* reas!n t! *istrust t#e 7#ur+#i--s, gi(en nu"er!us re,!rts t#at 2ar-&!r!ug# 'as in se+ret +!rres,!n*en+e 'it# Fren+# ,-!tters ar!un* Ja"es II, t#e *e,!se* Stuart %ing, '#! #a* ta%en re/uge in Fran+e) In January 149H, Wi--ia" stri,,e* 2ar-&!r!ug# !/ a-- !/ #is +!urt !//i+esC in 2ay, Bueen 2ary !r*ere* #i" arreste* an* sent t! t#e T!'er !/ L!n*!n, !n +#arges !/ +!ns,iring /!r a Ja+!&ite in(asi!n !/ Eng-an*) T#e +#arges 'ere n!t ,r!(en, n!r 'ere t#ey a++urate +!n+erning t#e reanature !/ t#e ,-!t 2ar-&!r!ug# 'as in(!-(e* in1 t#e *is"ant-ing !/ '#at re"aine* !/ t#e Eng-is# nati!n-state, an* +!n(erting it t! a -!!ting gr!un* /!r t#e sa"e 9enetian-Dut+# /inan+ia- interests '#i+# #a* a-rea*y in(a*e* Eng-an*)

(ritain's =$enetian 6arty= T#e reign !/ King Wi--ia" III 'as t!ta--y *!"inate* &y t#e s!-+a--e* :7!urt: !r :Junt!: W#igs, '#!se n!t!ri!us "ani,u-ati!ns !/ +urren+y an* *e&t instru"ents 'ere su+# tra*e"ar%s t#at e(en nineteent#-+entury $ritis# Pri"e 2inister Disrae-i r!utine-y re/erre* t! t#e" as t#e :9enetian ,arty): Setting !ut t! +!ntr!- &!t# Eng-an*.s +re*it an* *e&t, an* t#us its '#!-e e+!n!"y, t#ese +#a",i!ns !/ :Eng-is# -i&erties: an* :/ree enter,rise: s!!n &r!ug#t a ,r!-!nge* e+!n!"i+ *e,ressi!n t! t#e +!untry) E0e",-ary 'ere t#e a+ti(ities +entering ar!un* 7#ar-es 2!ntagu, $ar!n an* -ater Ear- !/ Ha-i/a0) T#e W#igs, !/ +!urse, 'ere staun+# su,,!rters !/ t#e ,!'ers !/ Par-ia"ent, an* t#us "!st +#arita&-y *is,!se* t!'ar* #a(ing t#e H!use !/ 7!""!ns ena+t "easures !/ e+!n!"i+ ruin) As King Wi--ia".s L!r* Treasurer, 2!ntagu se+ure* ,assage !/ a #uge -!an &i-- at #ig# rates !/ interest, !stensi&-y t! /inan+e Wi--ia".s !ng!ing 'ar in Eur!,e, an* !//ering /uture ta0es as se+urity) Si"u-tane!us-y &-ee*ing t#e Eng-is# e+!n!"y an* restri+ting any +re*it /!r i",r!(e* agri+u-ture an* "anu/a+turing, 2!ntagu.s s+#e"e +reate* Eng-an*.s /irst nati!na- *e&t, *esigne* t! &e se-/-e0,an*ing an* ,er"anent) T#e s+#e"e a-s! trans/erre* "u+# !/ t#e +!untry.s e0isting 'ea-t# t! a ne' +-ass !/ s,e+u-at!rs an* "!ney "anagers, '#! t#en ,r!+ee*e* t! &uy u, /urt#er seats in Par-ia"ent t! ,er,etuate t#e s'in*-e) As S'i/t re+!unte* -ater, t#is syste" 'as :!/ "ig#ty a*(antage t! t#!se '#! 'ere in t#e "anage"ent !/ it, as 'e-- as t! t#eir /rien*s an* *e,en*entsC /!r, /un*s !/ten ,r!(ing *e/i+ient, t#e g!(ern"ent 'as !&-ige* t! stri%e ta--ies /!r "a%ing u, t#e rest): T#ese 'ere !/ten s!-* at "!re t#an /!rty ,er+ent *is+!unt) $y t#e ti"e Bueen Anne su++ee*e* t! t#e t#r!ne in 1<6H, t#e *e&t #a* *!u&-e* an* tri,-e* se(era- ti"es !(er) 2!re t#an /!rty ,er+ent !/ t#e su" r!--e* !(er &y #er /irst ,ar-ia"ent, 'as +-ai"e* &y interest ,ay"ents a-!ne) $ut t#e sa"e ,er,etrat!rs !/ t#is s'in*-e #a* &y t#en a-s! esta&-is#e* a "!n!,!-y !(er Eng-is# &an%ing an* #a* i",!se* a (i+i!us +re*it +run+# as 'e--) In 149D, 2!ntagu !(ersa' t#e /!un*ing !/ t#e $an% !/ Eng-an*, '#i+# s!!n 'as issuing n!tes against g!(ern"ent :ta--ies: t! re,ay its !'n -!ans /!r +!n*u+ting t#e 'ar in Eur!,e) T#e ,!-iti+a- #eirs !/ t#e Eng-is# 7!""!n'ea-t# Party, -e* &y R!&ert Har-ey, #a* ,r!,!se* in 1491 a Nati!na- Lan* $an% t! issue -!'-interest +re*it, se+ure* &y i",r!(e"ents !/ -an*, '#i+# +!u-* a-s! /inan+e tra*e an*

"anu/a+turing) 2!ntagu.s 9enetian +r!'* un-eas#e* J!#n L!+%e, t#eir in#!use ,r!,agan*ist, t! +!unter t#is un'ante* !,,!siti!n t! t#e :en-ig#tene*: ,r!,!sa-s !/ t#e 9enetian :/a"i-ies): L!+%e.s ,a",#-et, :S!"e 7!nsi*erati!ns !/ t#e 7!nse>uen+es !/ -!'ering t#e Interest an* raising t#e 9a-ue !/ 2!ney,: *en!un+e* t#e e+!n!"i+ *e(e-!,"ent ,r!gra" !/ Har-ey.s +ir+-e, an* es,e+ia--y t#e ,r!(isi!n t#at interest rates &e #e-* t! /!ur ,er+ent !r -essM T#is is t#e sa"e J!#n L!+%e '#!se ,!-i+ies t#e eig#teent#-+entury $ritis# W#ig :9enetian ,arty: trie* t! i",!se !n A"eri+a, as a +!nstituti!na- "!*e!/ :-i&erty): T#e sa"e J!#n L!+%e, as a "e"&er !/ King Wi--ia".s 9enetian-re!rgani3e* $!ar* !/ Tra*e, a*(!+ate* re(!%ing t#e +#arters !/ a-- t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies, a r!ya- *i+tat!rs#i, !(er t#eir e+!n!"i+ a+ti(ity, an* a &an !n t#eir "anu/a+turing any /inis#e* g!!*s) T#e sa"e J!#n L!+%e, as an :En-ig#ten"ent: ,#i-!s!,#er, insiste* t#at t#e #u"an "in* 'as n!t#ing "!re t#an t#e ani"a- register !/ :sensati!ns): L!+%e.s 9enetian tra+t against Har-ey.s Nati!na- Lan* $an% 'as +!",-ete 'it# #an*-'ringing -a"entati!n !(er t#e /ate !/ t#e ,!!r, '#i-e "a%ing +-ear n!net#e-ess t#at #is rea- +!n+ern 'as /!r t#e s,e+u-ati(e "!ney-"anagers) Re8e+ting any n!ti!n !/ in(esting in t#e ,r!*u+ti!n !/ ne' 'ea-t#, L!+%e +!",-aine* t#at Har-ey.s ,r!,!se* /!ur ,er+ent interest rates '!u-* #ar" :'i*!'s an* !r,#ans, an* !t#ers uninstru+te* in t#e arts an* "anage"ent !/ "!re s%i--/u- "en, whose estates lyin( in "oney, t#ey 'i-- sure, es,e+ia--y !r,#ans, t! #a(e n! "!re ,r!/it !/ t#eir "!ney, t#an '#at interest t#e -a' &are-y a--!'s Ie",#asis a**e*J): T#e +#arter /!r 2!ntagu.s $an% !/ Eng-an*, s"ugg-e* t#r!ug# Par-ia"ent un*er t#e guise again !/ /inan+ing t#e 'ar against Fran+e, in*e&te* t#e g!(ern"ent t! t#e 9enetian-+!ntr!--e* "!ney "anagers at t#e *!u&-e*, :"!*erate: rate !/ eig#t ,er+ent interest) $ut t#is ne'-y -i+ense* -!!ting agen+y #a* &igger t#ings in "in*) ?n+e 2!ntagu se+ure* a,,!int"ent as 7#an+e--!r !/ t#e E0+#e>uer, #e "!(e* t! i",!se a /urt#er +re*it +run+# &y +utting t#e a"!unt !/ +ir+u-ating +!inage (irtua--y in #a-/) He a,,!inte*, as t#e a,,r!,riate instru"ent /!r su+# e+!n!"i+ +arnage, a ne' War*en !/ t#e 2int in 1495, t#e Arist!te-ian ,-agiarist an* *e(!te* stu*ent !/ t#e !++u-t, Sir Isaa+ Ne't!n) T#e ,at#eti+ Ne't!n, '#! #a* trie* t! stea- a -itt-e s+ienti/i+ +re*i&i-ity &y +-ai"ing Lei&ni3.s in(enti!n !/ *i//erentia- +a-+u-us as #is !'n, grati/ie* #is ,atr!n 2!ntagu &y su,,-ying #i" a "istress, Ne't!n.s !'n nie+e an* a*!,te* *aug#ter)

In 1494, Ne't!n !(ersa' t#e :@reat Re+!inage,: un*er '#i+# a-- Eng-is# +!ins s#a(e* !r :+-i,,e*: at t#eir e*ges /!r t#eir "eta--i+ (a-ue a +enturies. !-* ,ra+ti+e '!u-* n! -!nger &e a++e,te* as -ega- ten*er) N!r '!u-* t#ey &e re*ee"e* /!r t#eir /a+e (a-ue, e(en t#!ug# t#ey #a* +ir+u-ate* as su+#) Instea* t#ey 'ere t! &e turne* in, t! &e re,-a+e* at a -ater, uns,e+i/ie* *ate, /!r /a+e-(a-ue +!ins e>ua- t! t#e t!ta- "eta--i+ 'eig#t !/ t#e !-* +!ins) $y +!nte",!rary esti"ates, t#is re"!(e* !(er LH,<66,666 !/ s,e+ie /r!" +ir+u-ati!n in 1494, a /igure "!re t#an a t#ir* -arger t#an t#e entire +r!'n *e&t at t#e en* !/ Ja"es II.s reign) 2ean'#i-e, 2!ntagu #a* +ran%e* u, t#e nati!na- *e&t t! !(er LH6 "i--i!n) $y 149<, t#e 9enetian +!u, insi*e Eng-an* 'as near-y t!ta-) 2!ntagu 'as a,,!inte* t#at year ,ri"e "inister, su++ee*ing #is +r!ny L!r* Si*ney @!*!-,#in E1441-1<15F) @!*!-,#in 'as a-rea*y an inti"ate, 'it# Sara# 7#ur+#i--.s #e-,, !/ Prin+ess Anne, an* a-s! ser(e* as -!r* treasurer *uring King Wi--ia".s reign) In 1498, @!*!-,#in.s s!n "arrie* !ne !/ 7#ur+#i--.s *aug#ters, an* *uring t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s ,er,etuati!n !/ :Bueen Anne.s War,: @!*!-,#in.s +!ntr!- !/ t#e Treasury ensure* t#e +!ntinua- /-!' !/ /un*s int! t#e &!tt!"-ess ,it !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s +a",aigns in Eur!,e) A-s! in 149<, R!&ert S,en+er, Ear- !/ Sun*er-an*, 'as na"e* L!r* 7#a"&er-ain, te",!rari-y e-e(ating t#e ,!'er !/ an!t#er 9enetian +!ns,irat!r '#! #a* #e-,e* arrange Wi--ia".s sei3ure !/ t#e Eng-is# t#r!ne) Sun*er-an*.s s!n 7#ar-es "arrie* 7#ur+#i--.s se+!n* *aug#ter, an* e0ten*e* t#e 9enetian :/a"i-y: syste" !/ +!ntr!- u,!n &e+!"ing Se+retary !/ State, /r!" 1<68-1<16, /!r t#e W#ig Junt! t#en ru-ing Bueen Anne) 7#ar-es 2!ntagu, $ar!n Ha-i/a0, 'as a,,!inte* in 1<6< &y t#e sa"e Junt! t! an e(en #ig#er ,!siti!n a"&assa*!r t! 9eni+e) 8he #ei/ni@ :ard In 1<66, s#!rt-y a/ter 2!ntagu.s "issi!n t! 9eni+e as :s,e+ia- ,-eni,!tentiary: /!r King Wi--ia", a ne' t'ist 'as a**e* t! t#e 9enetian ,arty.s s+#e"e t! assu"e +!",-ete +!ntr!- !(er Eng-an*)

8homas Ho//es *enC 5escartes

,saac Newton 2ohn #oc<e

A Rogues' Gallery of Aristoteleans. All of the" #ro"oted the ideolo(y of an oli(archical world order, based on the evil notions that "an is a beast and the universe is dead. All of the" were s#onsored throu(h the 0enetian controllers of Euro#ean finance, and were identified as ene"ies of "an!ind by Leibni*, 'wift, and the ,athers. The deceitful #la(iarist Isaac 1ewton, for e2a"#le, #rostituted his own niece to the head of the an! of En(land, and &ohn Loc!e advocated sei*in( all land titled in A"erica in the na"e of the 3in(.

Bueen 2ary.s *eat# /r!" s"a--,!0 in 149D #a* ,-a+e* Prin+ess Anne ne0t in -ine t! su++ee* Wi--ia" !n t#e t#r!ne, t! &e /!--!'e* in turn &y #er s!n, t#e Du%e !/ @-!u+ester, t#e !n-y !ne !/ #er eig#teen +#i-*ren t! sur(i(e in/an+y) In 1498, 2ar-&!r!ug# 'as a,,!inte* as g!(ern!r t! t#e y!ung *u%e, an* t#e 7#ur+#i--s. #!-* !n t#e /uture /a(!rs !/ t#e +r!'n see"e* se+ure in*ee*) $ut in 1<66 t#e e-e(en-year-!-* Du%e !/ @-!u+ester *ie* su**en-y !/ s"a--,!0, -ea(ing n! aut!"ati+ s!-uti!n t! t#e >uesti!n !/ a su++ess!r, es,e+ia--y in -ig#t !/ Anne.s re+ent string !/ "is+arriages) P!-iti+a- rea-ities ru-e* !ut t#e return !/ t#e 7at#!-i+ e0i-e Ja"es II !r #is #eirs) $!t# W#ig insisten+e !n a Pr!testant su++essi!n, an* T!ry *e/ense !/ t#e #ere*itary "!nar+#y, n!' +!n(erge* u,!n a ,-an /irst "!!te* '#en Wi--ia" !/ ?range sei3e* t#e t#r!ne in 14891 Anne.s su++ess!r '!u-* &e t#e E-e+tress S!,#ie !/ Han!(er E1456-1<1DF, t#e gran**aug#ter !/ Ja"es I) T#e arrange"ent satis/ie* t#e *i+tates !/ r!ya- genea-!gy, &ut /r!" t#e !-igar+#i+a- stan*,!int, t#ere 'as an en!r"!us +!",-i+ati!n) S!,#ie.s +!urt at Han!(er 'as t#e /!+a- ,!int !/ in/-uen+e !/ t#e great re,u&-i+an -ea*er, @!tt/rie* Wi-#e-" (!n Lei&ni3, '#! /irst arri(e* t#ere in 14<9 at t#e age !/ t#irty-t#ree, a-rea*y a "a8!r /igure in internati!na- s+ienti/i+ an* e+!n!"i+ ,!-i+y "a%ing) In 1<61, '#en t#e Eng-is# Par-ia"ent a,,r!(e* t#e A+t !/ Sett-e"ent *eter"ining t#e Han!(erian su++essi!n, Lei&ni3 'as !//i+ia--y a ,ri(y +!unse--!r t! S!,#ie, an* an assistant in t#e 7!urt !/ 7#an+ery) Su++ee*ing Wi--ia" t! t#e t#r!ne in 1<6H, t#e ne' Bueen Anne >ui+%-y &e+a"e t#e +enter !/ !ne !/ t#e /ier+est strugg-es &et'een !-igar+#is" an* re,u&-i+anis" sin+e t#e /ig#t /!r t#e Eng-is# 7!""!n'ea-t#) Fr!" t#e !-igar+#y.s stan*,!int, t#e &att-e ,-an re>uire* intensi/ying t#e gri, !/ J!#n an* Sara# 7#ur+#i-- !(er t#e +!unse-s !/ t#e Bueen, is!-ating #er /r!" Lei&ni3.s ,!-iti+a- in/-uen+e, an* ensuring t#at S!,#ie ne(er as+en*e* t#e Eng-is# t#r!ne /!r t#en Lei&ni3 '!u-* a+>uire *ire+t ,!-i+y-"a%ing aut#!rity at a -e(e- '#i+# "ig#t ti-t t#e &a-an+e in /a(!r !/ re,u&-i+anis" internati!na--y) T#e en!r"ity !/ t#e Lei&ni3 t#reat in t#e eyes !/ t#e !-igar+#y ir!ni+a--y -e/t a +ru+ia- !,ening !n an!t#er /-an%1 t#e +!ntr!- !(er Bueen Anne #erse-/) As -!ng as Anne reigne*, S!,#ie +!u-* n!t su++ee* t! t#e t#r!ne) T#e /a+t t#at Anne 'as t#irty-si0 years !-* in 1<6H, an* S!,#ie t'i+e t#at age, ga(e Anne a +ertain /ree*!" s#e "ay !n-y ,artia--y #a(e gras,e*) As -!ng as S!,#ie

'ere a-i(e, any !-igar+#i+a- in+-inati!ns t! ter"inate t#e reign, !/ e(en a re&e--i!us Bueen Anne, '!u-* &e #e-* in +#e+% &y t#e :Lei&ni3 +ar*): In t#e "eanti"e, e(ery e//!rt 'as "a*e t! %ee, Anne un*er t#e s'ay !/ t#e 7#ur+#i--s, an* -!!%ing ,ast t#e *ay !/ S!,#ie.s *eat# /r!" !-* age t! ensure +!ntr!- !(er t#e ne0t Han!(erian in -ine, @e!rg Lu*'ig, t#e Prin+e E-e+t!r Et#e /uture @e!rge IF) S!,#ie #erse-/ see"s t! #a(e entertaine* -itt-e #!,e !/ &e+!"ing Bueen !/ Eng-an*, t#!ug# Lei&ni3 an* #is /rien*s in Eng-an* "a*e se(era- unsu++ess/u- atte",ts t! se+ure !//i+ia- resi*en+y /!r #er t#ere) ;,!n ne's !/ t#e A+t !/ Sett-e"ent in 1<61, S!,#ie t!-* J!#n T!--an*, en(!y t! Han!(er /!r R!&ert Har-ey, t#e S,ea%er !/ t#e H!use !/ 7!""!ns1 :S#e 'as a/rai* t#e nati!n #a* a-rea*y re,ente* t#eir +#!i+e !/ an !-* '!"an, &ut s#e #!,e* n!ne !/ #er ,!sterity '!u-* gi(e t#e" any reas!ns t! gr!' 'eary !/ t#eir *!"ini!n): In t#e +ase !/ #er s!n @e!rg Lu*'ig, su+# a +auti!us-y guar*e* state"ent ,r!(e* "!re t#an 8usti/ie*) A-rea*y nineteen years !-* '#en Lei&ni3 arri(e* in Han!(er in 14<9, t#e Prin+e E-e+t!r #a* +#!sen t#e ,at#eti+ Dut+# Prin+e Wi--ia" !/ ?range as #is i*!-, an* #unting as #is a(!+ati!n) F!--!'ing t#e A+t !/ Sett-e"ent, t#e !-igar+#y.s interest in t#is ,!tentia- "!nar+# &e+a"e e//usi(e) $!t# 7#ar-es 2!ntagu, t#e 9enetian-run ,!'er&r!%er &i--e* as $ar!n Ha-i/a0, an* t#e "!*e- #ire-ing, J!#n 7#ur+#i--, ,ers!na--y *e(!te* +!nsi*era&-e ti"e an* ,r!*igi!us su"s !/ "!ney t#r!ug#!ut Anne.s reign, t! %ee, t#e E-e+t!r in t#e !-igar+#s. +a",) T#eir e//!rts 'ere su++ess/u-) T#e E-e+t!r !,en-y !,,!se* t#e ,ea+e ,-an /!r Eur!,e '#i+# Lei&ni3 an* S'i/t steere* t! t#e neg!tiating ta&-e a/ter 1<16) In 1<1D, as King @e!rge I, #e a,,!inte* 2!ntagu t! t#e #ig#est ,!st in #is +a&inet, First L!r* !/ t#e Treasury, an* u,gra*e* #is /eu*a- -!!ting tit-e /r!" $ar!n t! Ear- !/ Ha-i/a0) 9eni+e 'as 'e-- ,-ease*) W#i-e t#is rigge* ga"e !/ t#e Han!(erian su++essi!n 'as &eing ,-aye* !ut, t#e re,u&-i+an "!"ent !/ !,,!rtunity 'as in+reasing-y -i"ite* t! 'inning t#e su,,!rt !/ Bueen Anne, &e/!re #er :insuran+e ,!-i+y: ran !ut) As -!ng as S!,#ie -i(e*, t#e :Lei&ni3 +ar*: re"aine* in /!r+e, an* Bueen Anne.s re"aining !n t#e t#r!ne 'as t#e :-esser !/ t'! e(i-s,: /r!" t#e !-igar+#s. stan*,!int, e(en i/ s#e 'ere in*u+e* t! &rea% su&stantia--y 'it# t#eir ,!-i+ies) W#ate(er #er *e/i+ien+ies, Anne 'as n!t e0a+t-y una'are t#at "a+#inati!ns at +!urt #ist!ri+a--y in(!-(e* -arger sta%es t#an !ne "ig#t i"agine) S#e 'as t#e great-gran**aug#ter !/ 2ary, Bueen !/ S+!tsC s#e 'as t#e *aug#ter !/

Ja"es II, *e,!se* &y Wi--ia" !/ ?range 'it# t#e +ru+ia- assistan+e !/ J!#n 7#ur+#i--) $ut /r!" a*!-es+en+e ign!re* as a *aug#ter !/ t#e r!ya- /a"i-y 'it# !n-y t#e "!st re"!te ,r!s,e+ts !/ &e+!"ing Bueen s#e #a* *e(e-!,e* a /i0ate* *e,en*en+e !n t#e :/rien*s#i,: !/ Sara# Jennings, t#e enrage*, "ani,u-ati(e "ai*-!/-#!n!r in t#e Stuart sta&-e '#! "arrie* J!#n 7#ur+#i--) +arl/oro)%h's :o). ?n+e Anne 'as !n t#e t#r!ne, t#e 7#ur+#i--s. ,!'er gre' en!r"!us-y) Wit#in /i(e *ays, 2ar-&!r!ug# 'as na"e* +a,tain genera- !/ t#e ar"y, "aster genera- !/ !r*nan+e, a"&assa*!r e0tra!r*inary t! H!--an*, an* a "e"&er !/ t#e Bueen.s +a&inet +!un+i-) Sara# &e+a"e t#e Bueen.s /irst -a*y at +!urt as gr!!" !/ t#e st!-e, an* s!!n 'as na"e* ranger !/ t#e @reat Par% at Win*s!r /!r -i/e, a ni+e-y sa-arie* ,!siti!n t! '#i+# 'as a**e* ,!ssessi!n !/ t#e r!ya- -!*ge) ?//i+ia--y, Sara#.s a,,!int"ents 'ere '!rt# L5,466 ,er year, an* #er #us&an*.s near-y L46,666) Pr!/iteering in +!""issi!ns, +!ntra+ts an* s!-*iers. ,ay a**e* /ar greater su"s t! t#e 7#ur+#i-- /!rtune) ?n 2ay D, 1<6H, Bueen Anne issue* an !//i+ia- *e+-arati!n !/ 'ar against Fran+e) Days &e/!re 2ar-&!r!ug# sai-e* /!r H!--an* t! ta%e +!""an* in t#e /ie-*, t#e Bueen grante* #is :urgent re>uest: t#at @!*!-,#in &e na"e* L!r* Treasurer, t#e #ig#est ,!st in t#e +a&inet) $y t#e en* !/ 1<6H, 2ar-&!r!ug# #a* &een e-e(ate* t! *u%eC an* /!--!'ing #is (i+t!ry at $-en#ei" in 1<6D, t#e Bueen ann!un+e* s#e '!u-* &ui-* t#e Pa-a+e !/ $-en#ei" /!r t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s, !n t#e s+a-e !/ L!uis GI9.s 9ersai--es) Es,e+ia--y 'it# su+# -a(is# &a+%ing /r!" t#e Bueen, t#e :+!n>uering #er!: 2ar-&!r!ug# 'as, t! a-- a,,earan+es, t#e "!st ,!'er/u- "an in Eng-an* &y 1<65) $ut e0+e,t /!r #is "i-itary re,utati!n Ea *u&i!us !ne, in t#e eyes !/ "any !/ #is !//i+ersF, #is in/-uen+e *eri(e* "ain-y /r!" t#e "a+#inati!ns !/ #is :La*y 2a+&et#,: Sara#, Du+#ess !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, an* #er irrati!nas'ay !(er Bueen Anne) As -!ng as 2ar-&!r!ug# #e-* su+# /a(!r 'it# t#e Bueen, t#e !-igar+#i+a- +a&a- ar!un* #i" see"e* assure* !/ su++ess) T#!ug# Lei&ni3.s E-e+tress S!,#ie 'as t#e a+%n!'-e*ge* su++ess!r in -ine /!r t#e t#r!ne !/ Eng-an*, re-ati!ns 'it# Han!(er 'ere -arge-y un*er t#e +!ntr!- !/ 2ar-&!r!ug# an* #is 9enetian ,arty +r!nies) Anne #erse-/ 'as ,ersua*e* t#at S!,#ie '!u-* &e a t#reat t! #er aut#!rity 'ere s#e grante* resi*en+e in Eng-an*)

$!t# t#e Hig# T!ries an* t#e Junt! W#igs 'ere +!""itte* t! %ee,ing t#e :Lei&ni3 +ar*: !ut !/ ,-ay, an* as t#e :rig#t: an* :-e/t: !/ t#e !-igar+#y.s /!r+es, stage* !,erati!ns t! ,re(ent su+# !,,!rtunities) ?n N!(e"&er 15, 1<65, T!ry L!r* Ha(ers#a" ,r!,!se*, in #is annua- State !/ t#e Nati!n a**ress t! t#e H!use !/ L!r*s 'it# t#e Bueen in atten*an+e, t#at Anne in(ite S!,#ie t! +!"e t! Eng-an* t! -i(e) Pu&-i+ ,ressure in t#at /!r" +!u-* !n-y e"&arrass t#e Bueen, an* ga(e t#e W#ig -!r*s t#e !,,!rtunity t! *e"!nstrate t#eir :-!ya-ty: &y *e/eating t#e "easure) T#e "aneu(er 'as a-s! *esigne* t! *ri(e Bueen Anne int! t#e +-ut+#es !/ t#e W#ig Junt!, an* greater re-ian+e !n t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s) T#at sa"e nig#t /!--!'ing t#e (!te, t#e Bueen 'r!te t! t#e Du+#ess !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#1 :I &e-ie(e *ear 2rs) Free"an Ias Anne +a--e* #er in t#eir +!rres,!n*en+eJ an* I s#a-- n!t *isagree as 'e #a(e /!r"er-y *!ne, /!r I a" sensi&-e !/ t#e ser(i+es t#!se ,e!,-e #a(e *!ne "e t#at y!u #a(e a g!!* !,ini!n !/, an* 'i-- +!untenan+e t#e", an* a" t#!r!ug#-y +!n(in+e* !/ t#e "a-i+e an* ins!-en+e !/ t#e", t#at y!u #a(e a-'ays &een s,ea%ing against): Bueen Anne a-s! 'r!te t! t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, '#! 'as t! (isit Han!(er ear-y in 1<64, +!n+erning :t#e *isagreea&-e ,r!,!sa- !/ &ringing s!"e !/ t#e #!use !/ Han!(er int! Eng-an*: an* urging #i" :t! set t#e" rig#t in n!ti!ns !/ t#ings #ere): $y t#e ti"e 2ar-&!r!ug# arri(e* in Han!(er in Fe&ruary, S!,#ie #a* 'ritten a +are/u--y '!r*e* -etter t! t#e Ar+#&is#!, !/ 7anter&ury e0,ressing #er *esire t! +!"e t! Eng-an*) T#at sa"e "!nt#, #er -etter a,,eare* as a #a"#hlet in L!n*!n, &!un* 'it# a se+!n* -etter, a**resse* t! a W#ig -!r*, /r!" an Eng-is# agent in Han!(er, suggesting t#at t#e !,,!siti!n t! in(iting S!,#ie t! Eng-an* !riginate* 'it# :Ja+!&ites): T#e se+!n* -etter 'as signe* &y Sir R!-an* @'ynne, a /!r"er W#ig 2e"&er !/ Par-ia"ent '#! #a* '!r%e* t! ingratiate #i"se-/ 'it# t#e E-e+tress S!,#ie sin+e +!"ing t! Han!(er in 1<65) @'ynne.s -etter 'as su&se>uent-y attri&ute* t! Lei&ni3, &ut &ears a-- t#e ear"ar%s !/ a Junt! W#ig &-a+% !,erati!n) In(!%ing t#e Ja+!&ite s,e+ter !/ 7at#!-i+-Stuart-Fren+# ,-!ts against Eng-an*.s Pr!testant "!nar+#y 'as t#e W#igs. stan*ar* ta+% against any seri!us !,,!siti!n an* t#e sa"e !ne t#ey use* against S'i/t an* #is a--ies) Pu&-is#ing t#e -etter 'it# S!,#ie.s !'n +!u-* !n-y intensi/y Bueen Anne.s #!sti-ity t! any /urt#er "a+#inati!ns ai"e* at &ringing S!,#ie Ean* t#us Lei&ni3F t! Eng-an*) An* t#e Du%e !/

2ar-&!r!ug#.s a+ti!ns in Han!(er +!n/!r" t! a +-assi+ :+!(er: !,erati!n t! ,-a+e #is !'n a,,arent r!-e &ey!n* sus,i+i!n) $esi*es "a%ing +-ear t! a +!",-iant E-e+t!r @e!rge t#at a (isit t! Eng-an* &y #is "!t#er S!,#ie 'as i---a*(ise*, an* "ig#t '!r% against #is !'n interests, 2ar-&!r!ug# 'arne* #i" t#at @'ynne "ust &e *enie* any /urt#er a++ess t! t#e Han!(erian +!urt) @'ynne t#en retire* t! Ha"&urg untiS!,#ie.s *eat#) 2ar-&!r!ug# a-s! ,r!"ise* @e!rge t#at Par-ia"ent '!u-* ena+t /urt#er -egis-ati!n t! guarantee t#e Han!(erian su++essi!n, an* "a*e #i" a ,ri(ate -!an !/ LH6,666 in e0+#ange /!r a &-an% +!""issi!n /r!" @e!rge gi(ing t#e Du%e su,re"e "i-itary +!""an* u,!n Anne.s *eat#) T#e arrange"ents !"itte* any +!nsi*erati!n t#at S!,#ie '!u-* &e+!"e Bueen !/ Eng-an*) During t#e sa"e "!nt#, 'it# Bueen Anne.s +!nsent, t#e &i--s ,r!"ise* &y 2ar-&!r!ug# ,asse* &!t# #!uses !/ Par-ia"ent, &y initiati!n !/ t#e W#igs) T#e %ey ,ie+e !/ -egis-ati!n 'as t#e Regen+y A+t, esta&-is#ing a +!""issi!n !/ regents t! ru-e Eng-an* u,!n Anne.s *eat# until her successor could arrive fro" 4anover. T#e (ery ,re"ise !/ t#e &i-- +arrie* t#e n!t-s!-su&t-e i",-i+ati!n t#at t#e E-e+tress S!,#ie '!u-* ne(er resi*e in Eng-an* *uring Anne.s -i/eti"e, an* t#e regen+y +!""issi!n itse-/ 'as *esigne* t! ensure t#at t#e 9enetian ,arty '!u-* #a(e a-- ne+essary ,!'ers !/ state t! i",!se t#eir !'n ,!-i+ies an* a-s! t#eir anti+i,ate* ,a'n, King @e!rge I) 2ani,u-ate* int! e"&ra+ing #er !'n '!rst ene"ies, Bueen Anne n!' /u-/i--e* #er ,r!"ise t! t#e Du+#ess !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#, t! :+!untenan+e: t#!se :t#at y!u #a(e a g!!* !,ini!n !/): ?n A,ri- 5, s#e agree* t! na"e 7#ar-es 2!ntagu, $ar!n Ha-i/a0, as S,e+ia- En(!y t! Han!(er t! +!n(ey t#e A+t !/ Regen+y) 2!ntagu, t#e -!ngti"e -ea*er !/ t#e W#ig Junt!, a-s! *e-i(ere* t! t#e E-e+tress a -ist !/ t'enty-!ne +an*i*ates ,i+%e* &y t#e Junt! t! ser(e as L!r* Justi+es t! a*"inister t#e regen+y) In res,!nse t! t#is ,retense !/ +!nsu-tati!n, S!,#ie stru+% se(en na"es /r!" t#e -ist in+-u*ing 2!ntagu.s !'n) S!,#ie.s gesture *i* n!t a-ter t#e /a+t t#at t#e Junt! #a* su++ee*e* in t#eir Regen+y A+t "aneu(er) T#e &est t#at +!u-* &e sai* 'as t#at t#e Han!(erian su++essi!n #a* &een rea//ir"e*, &ut t#e :Lei&ni3 +ar*: '!u-* #a(e t! &e ,-aye* +!(ert-y, t#r!ug# inter"e*iaries, an* in Bueen Anne.s !'n +!urt, &e/!re t#e en* !/ S!,#ie.s -i/e) Pierre *e Fa-aiseau, Han!(erian agent in L!n*!n /r!" 1<65 t! 1<6<, in/!r"e* Lei&ni3 t#at Par-ia"ent.s a+ti!ns

:'ere t#e "!st +!n(enient "eans t! su++ee* in t#is a//air 'it#!ut s#!+%ing t#e Bueen, an* I +an te-- y!u /ran%-y t#at t#!se '#! &e-ie(e t#at t#e g!a+!u-* #a(e &een rea+#e* &y any !t#er "eans !r #ig#-#an*e*-y, %n!' neit#er t#e Bueen, '#! is (ery !,ini!nate* an* >uite /er!+i!us, n!r Eng-an*): T#e entire e,is!*e, "!re!(er, *e"!nstrate* +!n+-usi(e-y t#at t#e %ey !&sta+-es, t! 'ea%ening t#e !-igar+#y.s gri, !n Bueen Anne, 'ere Sara#.s insi*i!us in/-uen+e an* t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s ,!'ers !/ &-a+%"ai- as Eng-an*.s :in*is,ensa&-e: +!""an*er in t#e 'ar 'it# Fran+e) T#e 9enetian +a&a-, 'it# rene'e* +!n/i*en+e in &!t# assets, t#en ,r!+ee*e* t! !(er,-ay its #an*) 8he =Secret S.rin%s= S'i/t.s !'n /irst-#an* 8u*g"ent !/ Bueen Anne.s reign e",#asi3e* t#e e0tra!r*inary *egree !/ +!ns,irat!ria- a+ti(ity &e#in* t#e !//i+ia- e0teri!r) :I a" *e+ei(e*,: #e 'r!te, :i/ in #ist!ry t#ere +an &e /!un* any ,eri!* "!re /u-- !/ ,assages '#i+# t#e +uri!us !/ an!t#er age '!u-* &e g-a* t! %n!' t#e se+ret s,rings !/): ?n "any i",!rtant *etai-s, !ur +uri!sity re"ains, &e+ause S'i/t #i"se-/ +!u-* n!t ris% +!""itting t#e" t! ,a,er *uring #is -i/eti"e) 2u+# !/ t#e st!ry +an &e re+!nstru+te* ne(ert#e-ess, t#!ug# re,!rting it /u--y '!u-* g! &ey!n* t#e s+!,e !/ t#e ,resent '!r%) Des,ite Bueen Anne.s &-in* /a(!ritis" regar*ing t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s, s#e #a* strugg-e* /r!" t#e &eginning !/ #er reign t! %ee, #er g!(ern"ent /r!" !utrig#t *!"inati!n &y any !ne /a+ti!n, an* t! +#e+% t#e in/-uen+e !/ &!t# t#e Hig# T!ries an* Junt! W#igs) 2ar-&!r!ug# an* @!*!-,#in, /!r e0a",-e, s#e &e-ie(e* t! &e "i-* T!ries) ;nti- 1<64, s#e e0+-u*e* t#e Junt! W#ig -!r*s /r!" #er +a&inet, an* in 1<6D s#e re,-a+e* t#e Hig# T!ry Se+retary !/ State N!tting#a" 'it# W#ig "!*erate R!&ert Har-ey) I/ Sara# 7#ur+#i-- 'ere t! -!se #er r!-e as insi*e +!ntr!--er, a-ternati(es t! 9enetian ,!-i+y +!u-* &e &r!ug#t t! t#e +-!se attenti!n !/ t#e Bueen in+-u*ing t#!se !riginating 'it# Lei&ni3 #i"se-/) Har-ey 'as !ne su+# +#anne-, an* t#e "!st signi/i+ant a"!ng t#e !//i+ia+a&inet "e"&ers) He #a* "aintaine* s!"e *ire+t -iais!n 'it# Lei&ni3 sin+e t#e -ate 1496s, an* #is /ig#t against t#e $an% !/ Eng-an* *e"!nstrate* t#at t#e t'! i*enti/ie* s!"e ene"ies in +!""!n) $ut Har-ey.s ,!-iti+a- in,uts (arie* in >ua-ity, /!r as Lei&ni3 -ater !&ser(e* !/ #i", #e 'as t!! ,r!ne t! :&a+% r!!": *ea-ing in ,ursuit !/ #is !&8e+ti(es)

A"!ng "e"&ers !/ Bueen Anne.s ,ers!na- #!use#!-*, an i",!rtant ,!siti(e in/-uen+e 'as t#e S+!ttis# *!+t!r J!#n Ar&ut#n!t E144<-1<55F, '#! &egan atten*ing t#e Bueen in 1<65 an* 'as a,,!inte* #er ,#ysi+ian e0tra!r*inary in ?+t!&er 1<65) Ar&ut#n!t #a* stu*ie* 'it# 7#ristiaan Huygens in Paris, at t#e a+a*e"y Lei&ni3 #a* !n+e *ire+te* un*er t#e ,atr!nage !/ 7!-&ert) He &e+a"e !ne !/ S'i/t.s +-!sest -i/eti"e /rien*s an* +!-+!ns,irat!rs, a ,!et an* a ,!-e"i+ist, a +!--a&!rat!r !/ t#e +!",!ser Han*e- in Eng-an*, a "e"&er !/ t#e R!ya- S!+iety, an* a -ea*ing ,!-iti+a- +!n/i*ant !/ Bueen Anne) Pers!na--y +-!sest t! t#e Bueen 'as A&igai- Hi-- 2as#a" E14<6-1<5DF, '#! 'as t! *ri(e Sara# 7#ur+#i-- t! *istra+ti!n, an* re,-a+e #er as t#e Bueen.s /a(!rite ,ers!na- atten*ant) A&igai- 'as ir!ni+a--y !ne !/ Sara#.s +!usins, &ut s#e 'as a-s! se+!n* +!usin t! R!&ert Har-ey, /!r '#!" s#e ,r!(i*e* stea*y a++ess t! Bueen Anne, an* 'as a rea*y ear /!r J!nat#an S'i/t) Her #us&an*, Sa"ue- 2as#a", '#!" s#e "arrie* se+ret-y in 1<6< in Ar&ut#n!t.s +#a"&ers 'it# t#e Bueen ,resent, &e+a"e a "e"&er !/ :t#e s!+iety: !r :$r!t#ers 7-u&: '#i+# ser(e* as S'i/t.s se+ret +!un+i- 'it#in Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent /r!" 1<11 t! 1<15) A&igai-.s &r!t#er J!#n, ,r!"!te* t#r!ug# ar"y ran%s &y t#e Bueen #erse-/, +!""an*e* t#e $ritis#-A"eri+an e0,e*iti!n against Bue&e+ in 1<11) W#en t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s an* t#eir Junt! a--ies "a*e t#eir *ri(e /!r a&s!-ute ,!'er in 1<64, t#ey *is+!(ere* "!re !&sta+-es in t#eir 'ay t#an 'ere t#!ug#t t! e0ist an* t#an Sara# +!u-* e(en -!+ate) ?n+e t#eir #ea*-!ng rus# 'as !ut/-an%e*, t#e a*(antage in t#e &att-e /!r Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent &egan s#i/ting t! a ne' +!"&inati!n !/ /!r+es "argina--y, &ut +ru+ia--y, strengt#ene* &y t#e :Lei&ni3 +ar*): In Fe&ruary 1<64, '#i-e t#e Junt! 'as sett-ing t#e "atter !/ t#e Regen+y A+t, Bueen Anne 'as ,ersua*e* &y t#e sa"e +r!'* t! &egin /!r"a- ,r!+ee*ings /!r t#e A+t !/ ;ni!n &et'een Eng-an* an* S+!t-an*) T#!ug# t#e t'! %ing*!"s #a* -!ng re+!gni3e* t#e sa"e +r!'n, t#e 9enetian +a&a-, /!r its !'n ,ur,!ses, n!' 'ante* t#e" /u--y a*"inistere* as !ne) Fr!" Han!(er, t#e E-e+t!r @e!rge ann!un+e* !n +ue t#at #e regar*e* t#e "easure as t#e greatest ,r!!/ !/ Anne.s su,,!rt /!r t#e Han!(erian su++essi!n) F!r ,u&-i+ +!nsu",ti!n, su+# reas!ning stresse* t#e (a-ue !/ a**ing s! "any Pr!testant su&8e+ts t! t#e /uture Han!(erian %ing*!") In t#e Junt!.s ,ri(ate re+%!ning, t#e "erger #a* &est &e *!ne '#i-e t#e S+!ttis# Stuart Bueen Anne 'ere sti-- !n t#e t#r!ne) T#e reign &eing *esigne* /!r @e!rge I, '#!" t#e Ja+!&ites '!u-* s+!rn/u--y re/er t! as :t#e

'ee &it @er"an -air*ie,: 'as n!t e0,e+te* t! &e an attra+ti(e re,-a+e"ent /!r '#at re"aine* !/ S+!ttis# in*e,en*en+e) N!r 'as t#e S'iss-9enetian +a&a- +entere* in E*in&urg# yet su//i+ient-y a++e,te* t! ensure S+!t-an*.s +!nsent t! t#e uni!n, 'it#!ut an a,,ea- /!r t#e /u-- "easure !/ its -!ya-ty t! Bueen Anne) E(en t#at 'as n!t en!ug#) S+!ttis# !,,!siti!n ,r!(e* intense, an* &y t#e /a-- !/ 1<64 t#e ,!ssi&i-ity !/ an u,rising against t#e A+t !/ ;ni!n 'as rea-) It 'as ,re(ente* !n-y &y t#e *e+isi(e inter(enti!n !/ L!r* @e!rge Ha"i-t!n, Ear- !/ ?r%ney, t#e -ea*er !/ t#e S+!ttis# nati!na-ists, an* !rigina--y an !,,!nent !/ t#e a+t) He 'as a-s! a +!usin t! t#e Bueen, '#! sa' t#at #is ser(i+es 'ere 'e-- re'ar*e*) T#e A+t !/ ;ni!n, rati/ie* in 1<6<, re"!(e* t#e ,r!#i&iti!n against S+!ts #!-*ing "a8!r ,!-iti+a- ,!sts un*er t#e +r!'n, an* ?r%ney 'as na"e* g!(ern!r !/ 9irginia) T#!ug# #e ne(er sa' t#e +!-!ny #e g!(erne* in na"e !n-y unti- #is *eat# in 1<5<, t'! !/ t#e S+!ttis# -ieutenant-g!(ern!rs #e +#!se in #is stea* +reate* +ru+ia- !,enings /!r A"eri+a.s e"ergen+e as a +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+ 'it# &ene/it, as 'e s#a-- s!!n see, !/ ,assages /!r '#i+# J!nat#an S'i/t %ne' t#e :se+ret s,rings): T#e Junt! *i* n!t *ete+t in 1<64 t#is *isaster *e(e-!,ing !n t#e /-an% !/ its anne0ati!n !/ S+!t-an*, &ut its *ri(e /!r greater ,!'er s!!n en+!untere* /r!nta- resistan+e /r!" Bueen Anne #erse-/) In Ju-y !/ t#at year, L!uis GI9 !/ Fran+e "a*e #is /irst seri!us !(ertures /!r ,ea+e) T#e Bueen.s Se+retary !/ State, R!&ert Har-ey, a*(ise* #er t! enter int! neg!tiati!ns t! en* t#e ruin!us 'ar '#i+# t#e !-igar+#y 'as *eter"ine* t! ,er,etuate) ;tter-y +!n/i*ent !/ t#eir ,!-iti+a- ,!siti!n, t#e Junt! -!r*s n!' *eter"ine* t! re,-a+e Har-ey 'it# !ne !/ t#eir !'n, t#e y!ung Ear- !/ Sun*er-an*, '#! 'as a-s! t#e 7#ur+#i--s. s!n-in--a') T#ey 'ere ast!un*e* '#en Bueen Anne re/use* t! e(en *is+uss t#e "atter) Sara# at /irst +#!se ta+ti+a--y t! stay !ut !/ t#e +!ntr!(ersy, &ut s#e +!",-aine* in a -etter t! 2ar-&!r!ug# !/ a :se+ret in/-uen+e: !n Anne '#i+# s#e +!u-* n!t i*enti/y) $y -ate August, t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s 'ere !,en-y ,ressuring t#e Bueen t! a,,!int Sun*er-an*) @!*!-,#in 'as +!u,-ing t#reats !/ resignati!n 'it# "!re "ena+ing !nes, te--ing #er in 'riting !n Se,te"&er H5, :=!u #a(e an !,,!rtunity !/ "a%ing y!ur @!(ern"ent str!ng, '#i+# y!u 'i-- ne(er #a(e again): ?n t#e sa"e *ay t#at @!*!-,#in 'r!te t! t#e Bueen, Har-ey ,resente* #is !'n argu"ents t! #er against yie-*ing t! t#e !utrage!us *e"an*s !/ t#e -!r* treasurer an* +a,tain genera-) Har-ey urge* Bueen Anne t! :re-ie(e t#ere-

/!re t#!se '#! are g!ne t!! /ar,: &ut instea* s#e 'r!te t'i+e t! 2ar-&!r!ug# a,,ea-ing /!r #is su,,!rt !/ #er *e+isi!n t! re8e+t Sun*er-an*) T#e Du%e re/use*, at t#e sa"e ti"e suggesting t#at #er !,,!siti!n t! t#e Junt! W#igs "ere-y strengt#ene* t#e #an* !/ Fran+e) In #is re,-y !n ?+t!&er 15, 2ar-&!r!ug# !,en-y *e/en*e* t#eir ,r!gra" !/ en*-ess 'ar) Har-ey, "ean'#i-e, atte",te* t! !rgani3e a ne' ru-ing +!a-iti!n, a"!ng "!*erate T!ries an* n!n-Junt! W#igs) $ut Anne 'as +!n/r!nte* 'it# 2ar-&!r!ug#.s :*i,-!"ati+: &-a+%"ai-, 'it# t#e Junt!.s t#reat t! *e,ri(e #er !/ a ,ar-ia"entary "a8!rity, an* 'it# su//i+ient #ints t#at 2ar-&!r!ug# '!u-* resign #is "i-itary +!""an* un-ess s#e yie-*e* !n t#e Sun*er-an* a,,!int"ent) In N!(e"&er, t#e Du%e returne* t! L!n*!n t! ,ers!na--y ensure t#e *e/eat !/ Har-ey.s +!a-iti!n s+#e"e, str!ng-ar"ing 'a(ering W#igs int! -ine) @ru*ging-y Bueen Anne a++e,te* Sun*er-an* int! #er +a&inet, &ut s#e retaine* Har-ey as Se+retary !/ State, an* assigne* t#e 7#ur+#i--s. s!n-in--a' t! a -esser ,!siti!n) J!nat#an S'i/t a-s! returne* /r!" Du&-in t! L!n*!n in N!(e"&er, staying t#is ti"e unti- 2ay 1<69) Des,ite t#e Junt!.s !stensi&-e (i+t!ry !n t#e Sun*er-an* >uesti!n, it s!!n &e+a"e a,,arent t#at a-- t#eir ,ressure !n t#e Bueen #a* ,r!*u+e* >uite +!ntrary, an* -!nger-ter" resu-ts) Anne n!' regar*e* t#e 2ar-&!r!ug#s an* @!*!-,#in as #!sti-e t! #er interests) Sara#.s !'n "ani,u-ati(e ,!'er 'as *e/initi(e-y &r!%en, an* A&igai- 2as#a" re,-a+e* #er in t#e Bueen.s truste* inner +ir+-e) Har-ey, 'it# !&(i!us su,,!rt /r!" t#e Bueen, "!(e* "!re *eter"ine*-y t!'ar* asse"&-ing a ne' g!(ern"ent, in '#i+# #e #i"se-/ '!u-* &e+!"e #ea* !/ t#e +a&inet as -!r* treasurer) ?n Fe&ruary 4, 1<68, #er /!rty-t#ir* &irt#*ay, Bueen Anne sent a -etter t! 2ar-&!r!ug# in/!r"ing #i" s#e inten*e* t! re,-a+e @!*!-,#in) Sensing t#at t#e Bueen 'as sti-- n!t ,re,are* t! ris% t#e *is"issa- !r resignati!n !/ #er +a,tain genera- in t#e "i*st !/ t#e 'ar, 7#ur+#i-- ,u--e* !ut a-- t#e st!,s) T#e *u%e an* *u+#ess, 'it# @!*!-,#in, *e"an*e* an au*ien+e 'it# t#e Bueen !n Fe&ruary 8) First @!*!-,#in, an* t#en Sara#, !//ere* t#eir resignati!ns un-ess Anne '!u-* *is"iss Har-ey /r!" t#e +a&inet, &ut t#e Bueen !n-y ga(e t#e" :-ea(e t! retire as y!u *esire): 2ar-&!r!ug# t#en rai-e* against #a(ing t! +!nten* 'it# :s! (i-e a +reature: as Har-ey, an* ann!un+e* #e "ust surren*er #is +!""an*s, '#i-e 'arning t#e Bueen t#at #e /eare* :t#e Dut+# '!u-* i""e*iate-y !n t#e ne's "a%e a ,ea+e I'it# Fran+eJ (ery in8uri!us /!r Eng-an*):

Arabella Churchill 56789:6;<=>. 4er se2ual favors to Charles II were the fa"ily's entree to royal. society.

John Churchill 567?=:6;@@>, Du!e of ,arl: borou(h . rother of the royal #rostitute, Arabella, he was ad"itted to court as a #a(e boy. 4e followed his sister's e2a"#le as best he could, beco"in( a #laythin( for the "istress of the Du!e of Aor! 5later 3in( &a"es II>.

Sarah Jennings Churchill, Duchess of ,arlborou(h 5677=:6;88>. The BLady ,acbethB behind her husband's drea"s of #ower. 4er "other, a #alace servant, was sus#ected of witchcraft.

Bueen Anne re,-ie*, :An* i/ y!u *!, "y L!r*, resign y!ur s'!r*, -et "e te-y!u, y!u 'i-- run it t#r!ug# "y #ea*): 2ar-&!r!ug# re/use* t! atten* t#at e(ening.s "eeting !/ t#e +a&inetC t#e ne0t *ay t#e +!rru,t Par-ia"ent ra--ie* t! t#e *u%e) T#e Bueen su""!ne* #i" t! in/!r" #i" s#e '!u-* *is"iss Har-ey, '#! resigne* a *ay -ater, a-!ng 'it# t#ree "inisters -!ya- t! #i") 2ar-&!r!ug#.s &-a+%"ai- #a* again su++ee*e*, &ut n!' /!r t#e -ast ti"e) @!*!-,#in staye* !n, an* t#e *rains at t#e $ritis# treasury 'ere !,ene* ane' /!r 2ar-&!r!ug#.s 'ar) In ear-y 2ar+#, t#eir /rien*s in t#e Fren+# !-igar+#y assiste* 'it# a +ru*e-y rigge* s#!' !/ an in(asi!n !/ S+!t-an*, un*er t#e na"e !/ t#e Stuart ,reten*er t! t#e t#r!ne) 2ar-&!r!ug# an* t#e W#ig Junt! 'ere t#en a&-e t! ,-ay ,atri!ts, "!&i-i3ing against t#e e0,e*iti!n a wee! before it even sailed, an* ,-e*ging an an0i!us an* grate/u- Bueen Anne t#eir /u--est su,,!rt) 5eci.herin% ,saac (ic<ersta'' T#e Junt!.s !usting !/ Har-ey, '#! 'as re,-a+e* as Se+retary !/ State &y Sun*er-an*, +!u,-e* 'it# t#e Ang-!-Fren+# !-igar+#y.s re/ue-ing !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s 'ar "a+#ine, "ar%e* a *anger!us es+a-ati!n &y t#e 9enetian ,arty t! e0tinguis# any re,u&-i+an ,r!s,e+ts *uring Bueen Anne.s reign) T#!ug# s#e n!' re+!gni3e* s!"e !/ #er *!"esti+ ene"ies "!re +-ear-y, t#ey sti-#e-* t#e u,,er #an*) Internati!na--y, t#e t#reat 'as e(en greater, /!r Fran+e.s King L!uis GI9 'as s-i,,ing /urt#er un*er t#e +!ntr!- !/ t#e Jesuits, t#e "ur*er!us +u-t +reate* &y t#e 9enetians t#e"se-(es t! e-i"inate t#e a,!st!-i+ aut#!rity !/ t#e 7at#!-i+ 7#ur+#) J!nat#an S'i/t res,!n*e* t! t#e +risis &y ,u&-is#ing !ne !/ t#e "!st e0,-!si(e +!unterinte--igen+e *!+u"ents in "!*ern #ist!ry, .redictions for the Aear 6;=9, . . . by Isaac ic!erstaff, EsC. @enera--y %n!'n t!*ay !n-y t! -iterary s,e+ia-ists, an* a+%n!'-e*ge* si",-y as a gent-e s,!!/ !/ astr!-!gy, S'i/t.s inter(enti!n un*er #is :$i+%ersta//: ,seu*!ny" 'as a &ri--iant, ,ree",ti(e assau-t, e0,!sing s!"e !/ t#e /!u- 9enetian ,-!ts t#en !ng!ing an* t#reatening reta-iati!n s#!u-* t#ey ,r!+ee*) T#e ,!-iti+a- signi/i+an+e !/ S'i/t.s $i+%ersta// !,erati!n 'as &r!a*-y re+!gni3e* &y -ea*ing +ir+-es !/ t#e ti"e, in+-u*ing t#!se /ig#ting /!r an A"eri+an re,u&-i+) In 2assa+#usetts, 7!tt!n 2at#er ,ai* t#e e0tra!r*inary tri&ute !/ +!,ying a-- !/ S'i/t.s :,re*i+ti!ns: int! #is *iary, !t#er'ise entire-y reser(e* /!r #is !'n '!r*s an* t#!ug#ts) His ,r!tege $en8a"in Fran%-in '!u-* -ater -aun+# .oor %ichard's Al"anac! E1<55F in *e-i&erate

i"itati!n !/ t#e ic!erstaff .a#ers, as '!u-* nu"er!us ,a",#-eteers *uring t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n) T#e ic!erstaff .a#ers +ann!t &e *e+i,#ere* t!*ay 'it#!ut re+!nstru+ting t#e strategi+ an* ,!-iti+a- "a, !/ t#e ti"e, fro" the vanta(e #oint of a re#ub: lican cons#irator !n t#e insi*e) T! t#e e0tent t#at tas% +an &e a++!",-is#e* #ere, S'i/t ,r!(i*es i",!rtant +-ues t! t#e inner '!r%ings !/ t#e ,r!+ess '#i+# -e* t! t#e /!un*ing !/ t#e ;nite* States) F!r su+# re,u&-i+an -ea*ers as Lei&ni3 an* S'i/t, t#e strategi+ situati!n *e"an*e* strengt#ening t#e nati!n-&ui-*ing /a+ti!ns !/ &!t# $ritain an* Fran+e) T#e sa"e t'! "!nar+#ies #e-* +!",eting tit-es t! t#e territ!ry t#e +!-!nies nee*e* /!r a re,u&-i+ in N!rt# A"eri+a, an* t!get#er #a* '!r%e* t! +!nstrain t#eir gr!'t#, &e-!' t#e t#res#!-* re>uire* /!r *e/ensi&-e in*e,en*en+e) S#!u-* &!t# +r!'ns /a-- /ir"-y un*er t#e *i+tates !/ 9enetian ,!-i+y, t#eir ,!tentia-s /!r interna- e+!n!"i+ *e(e-!,"ent "ig#t &e e-i"inate*, a-!ng 'it# any t!-eran+e /!r su+# ,r!gress in t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies) T#e re,u&-i+an tas% 'as t! re(ita-i3e t#e se(enteent#-+entury nati!n-&ui-*ing ten*en+ies !/ t#e 7!""!n'ea-t# ,arty in Eng-an*, an* t#e "!re su++ess/u,r!gra"s !/ 2a3arin, Ri+#e-ieu, an* 7!-&ert in Fran+e) As s#i/ting +ir+u"stan+es re>uire*, t#e strategy a-s! entai-e* ,-aying !ne g!(ern"ent !// against an!t#er, as Fran%-in #i"se-/ '!u-* in steering A"eri+a.s +!urse /!r in*e,en*en+e) $y 1<68, t#e situati!n in Fran+e 'as gri") T#e +!untry 'as s-i*ing int! e+!n!"i+ ruinC ,easant re(!-ts an* ur&an &rea* ri!ts s,rea*, as ta0es r!se 'it# t#e s,ira-ing 'ar *e&t) =et L!uis "!re tig#t-y e"&ra+e* t#e ,!-i+ies *estr!ying #is +!untry) It 'as 'i*e-y ru"!re* t#at #e #a* &e+!"e a Jesuit a//i-iate in 1<65C in 1<69, t#e /anati+ Jesuit Le Te--ier !//i+ia--y &e+a"e #is +!n/ess!r) Ear-y in 1<6<, L!uis &anne* a &!!% urging e+!n!"i+ re/!r" &y t#e aging 2ar>uis *e 9au&an, t#e &ri--iant "i-itary engineer '#!se /!rti/i+ati!ns st!,,e* 2ar-&!r!ug#.s a*(an+e t!'ar* Paris t#at sa"e year, e(en t#!ug# +!nstru+te* a generati!n ear-ier) ?/ L!uis. !-igar+#i+ ta0 ,!-i+y, 9au&an 'r!te, :It is +ertain t#at t#e e(i- #as &een ,us#e* t! e0+ess, an* t#at i/ n! re"e*y is a,,-ie*, t#e ,e!,-e 'i-- /a-int! su+# *estituti!n t#at t#ey 'i-- ne(er re+!(er): Instea*, 9au&an ,r!,!se* ta0ing t#e in+!"e !/ t#e /eu*a-ist -an*!'ners at /i(e t! ten ,er+ent, '#i-e a&!-is#ing e0isting ta0es !n '!r%ers an* /ar"ers, su&stituting a ta0 !/ n! "!re t#an t#ree an* !ne #a-/ ,er+ent !n t#eir earnings) It 'as t#is :-!'er +-ass !/ t#e ,e!,-e,: 9au&an e",#asi3e*, :'#i+#, &y t#eir -a&!r an*

in*ustry, an* t#eir +!ntri&uti!ns t! t#e r!ya- treasury, enri+# t#e s!(ereign an* #is rea-"): =et un*er ,re(ai-ing ,!-i+ies, #e a**e*, :it is t#at +-ass '#i+# n!', t#r!ug# t#e *e"an*s !/ 'ar, an* t#e ta0ati!n !/ its sa(ings, is re*u+e* t! -i(ing in rags an* +ru"&-ing +!ttages, '#i-e its -an*s -ie /a--!'): 9au&an.s /!rti/i+ati!n *esigns, "!*e-e* a/ter t#!se !/ Le!nar*! *a 9in+i, '!u-* -ater ,r!te+t %ey +!asta- +ities !/ t#e y!ung A"eri+an re,u&-i+ against $ritis# atta+%s) $ut &y 2ar+# 1<68 Et#e &eginning !/ t#e Ne' =ear, &y t#e :?-* Sty-e: +a-en*ar sti-- in use in $ritain an* its A"eri+an +!-!niesF, t#e t#reat 'it#in Fran+e #a* &een +!",!un*e* &y t#e 9enetian ,arty.s su++ess in *e,ri(ing Har-ey !/ #is ritua- :sta//: !/ !//i+e) Har-ey surren*ere* #is sta// !n Fe&ruary 16) S'i/t.s .redictions t#us re/ers t! t#e :&i+%ering: !(er t#e :sta//: t#e &att-e /!r ,!-iti+a- +!ntr!-) S'i/t.s -iterary *e(i+e in t#e ic!erstaff .a#ers is t! ,resent #i"se-/ as t#e aut#!r !/ a ne' a-"ana+, +!",eting against t#e +u-tis# astr!-!gers '#! *!"inate* t#e /ie-*) He a**s in t#e su&tit-e, :Written t! ,re(ent t#e Pe!,-e !/ Eng-an* /r!" &eing /art#er i",!se* !n &y (u-gar A-"ana+%-2a%ers,: '#!" #e *en!un+es as :"ean, i--iterate tra*ers &et'een us an* t#e starsC '#! i",!rt a year-y st!+% !/ n!nsense, -ies, /!--y, an* i",ertinen+e, '#i+# t#ey !//er t! t#e '!r-* as genuine /r!" t#e ,-anets, a-t#!ug# t#ey *es+en* /r!" n! greater a #eig#t t#an t#eir !'n &rains): ;n*er t#is satiri+a- guise, #!'e(er, S'i/t *e-i(ers '#at a"!unts t! an !,en -etter t! t#e inner e-ite !/ t#e !-igar+#y, ann!un+ing re,u&-i+an ,re,arati!ns /!r *ea*-y 'ar/are) T#e nature !/ t#e &att-e is /irst esta&-is#e* sy"&!-i+a--y, an* #ist!ri+a--y1 :2y /irst ,re*i+ti!n is &ut a tri/-e, yet I 'i-- "enti!n it, t! s#!' #!' ign!rant t#!se s!ttis# ,reten*ers t! astr!-!gy are in t#eir !'n +!n+erns1 it re-ates t! Partri*ge t#e A-"ana+%-"a%erC I #a(e +!nsu-te* t#e star !/ #is nati(ity &y "y !'n ru-es, an* /in* #e 'i-- in/a--i&-y *ie u,!n t#e H9t# !/ 2ar+# ne0t, a&!ut e-e(en at nig#t, !/ a raging /e(erC t#ere/!re I a*(ise #i" t! +!nsi*er !/ it, an* sett-e #is a//airs in ti"e): S'i/t.s ,re*i+ti!n !/ t#e *eat# !/ Partri*ge, a 'i*e-y rea* astr!-!ger !/ t#e ti"e, is !n-y :a tri/-e: &e+ause #e is a+tua--y ai"ing at a #ig#er -e(e- !/ e(i-1 t#e sti---e0isting +u-ts !/ an+ient $a&y-!n an* Syria, t#e :2agi: !r 2agi+ians, t#e Satan-'!rs#i,ing astr!-!gers !/ t#e !-igar+#y) S'i/t i*enti/ies t#e '!r-*-#ist!ri+ "agnitu*e !/ t#e &att-e &y t'i+e in(!%ing S!+rates, t#e

an+ient @ree% ,#i-!s!,#er '#! esta&-is#e* t#at t#e ,!'er !/ #u"an reas!n is &ase* !n t#e ,rin+i,-es !riginating in t#e *i(ine 7reat!r !/ t#e ;ni(erse) F!r t#us !//en*ing t#e +u-t !/ irrati!na-is", u,!n '#i+# !-igar+#i+ ,!'er is &ase*, S!+rates re+ei(e* a :,re*i+ti!n: !/ #is !'n (i!-ent *eat#) It 'as *e-i(ere* &y !ne !/ t#e Syrian 2agi, an* 'as /u-/i--e* &y an a+t !/ 8uri*i+a"ur*er, '#en S!+rates 'as e0e+ute* &y !r*er !/ t#e +u-t.s At#enian /!--!'ers, /!r t#e +ri"e !/ :i",iety): T! t#e 9enetian *es+en*ants !/ t#e W#!re !/ $a&y-!n, S'i/t.s ,re*i+ti!n !/ t#e astr!-!ger Partri*ge.s *eat# sent a "essage un"ista%a&-y +-ear) S! *i* #is satiri+ ,-e*ge t! :rest!re: astr!-!gy t! t#e -e(e- !/ s+ien+e in !t#er '!r*s, t! re,-a+e it 'it# t#e -a's !/ t#e uni(erse1 :F!r e0a",-e1 a "an "ay, &y t#e in/-uen+e !/ an !(er-ru-ing ,-anet, &e *is,!se* !r in+-ine* t! -ust, rage, !r a(ari+e, an* yet &y t#e /!r+e !/ reas!n !(er+!"e t#at e(i- in/-uen+e) An* t#is 'as t#e +ase 'it# S!+rates): $ey!n* /!rete--ing t#e *eat# !/ Partri*ge, $i+%ersta//.s /irst ,re*i+ti!n see"s +uri!us at /irst g-an+e1 :?n t#e Dt# I!/ A,ri-J 'i-- *ie t#e +ar*ina- *e N!ai--es, Ar+#&is#!, !/ Paris): 7ar*ina- *e N!ai--es 'as !ne !/ Fran+e.s -ea*ing re,u&-i+an /igures, an* a "e"&er !/ !ne !/ its "!st in/-uentia,!-iti+a- /a"i-ies, '#i+# -ater ,r!(i*e* +ru+ia- su,,!rt /!r t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n) T#e *aug#ter !/ t#e -ater Du%e *e N!ai--es, A*rienne, &e+a"e t#e in(a-ua&-e 'i/e !/ t#e 2ar>uis *e La/ayette) 7ar*ina- *e N!ai--es 'as a-s! t#e /!re"!st ,r!te+t!r in t#e +#ur+# !/ t'! "a8!r 7at#!-i+ re,u&-i+an /a+ti!ns1 t#e ?rat!rians, an* t#e 'ing !/ t#e Jansenists ass!+iate* 'it# t#e great $-aise Pas+a-) As su+#, #e 'as &itter-y #ate* &y t#e Jesuits, '#! at !ne ,!int ,-!tte* t! %i*na, #i", an* re,eate*-y s!ug#t #is re"!(a- as ar+#&is#!, !/ Paris) S'i/t /!--!'s #is ,re*i+ti!n !/ *e N!ai--es. *eat# 'it# a #!st !/ !t#ers, in+-u*ing t#e *eat#s !/ t#e Fren+# Dau,#in, !/ L!uis GI9, an* !/ P!,e 7-e"ent GI E#i"se-/ a /re>uent t!!- !/ t#e JesuitsF, ,-us a series !/ +atastr!,#es an* u,#ea(a-s, su+# as t#e &urning !/ t#e Paris su&ur&s an* :an insurre+ti!n in Dau,#ine, !++asi!ne* &y t#e !,,ressi!ns !/ t#e ,e!,-e, '#i+# 'i-n!t &e >uiete* in s!"e "!nt#s): He a-s! 'arns t#at :a s#a"e/u- *is+!(ery 'i-- &e "a*e !/ a Fren+# Jesuit, gi(ing ,!is!n t! a great /!reign genera-C an* '#en #e is ,ut t! t#e t!rture, 'i-- "a%e '!n*er/u- *is+!(eries): I""e*iate-y /!--!'ing t#e .redictions for the Aear 6;=9, S'i/t ,u&-is#e* an!t#er ,ie+e '#i+# "a*e it +-ear t#at t#e /irst !ne 'as *esigne* as a ,ree",ti(e inter(enti!n in defense !/ 7ar*ina- *e N!ai--es an* #is +ir+-e,

+!u,-e* 'it# a series !/ 'arnings t! t#e ene"y, +!n(eye* in t#e !t#er ,re*i+ti!ns) T#e se+!n* ,ie+e, in t#e /!r" !/ an an!ny"!us -etter :t! a Pers!n !/ H!n!ur,: re,!rts t#e *eat# !/ Partri*ge, 'it#in /!ur #!urs !/ t#e ti"e $i+%ersta// ,re*i+te*) ES'i/t.s -itt-e ga"e 'it# Partri*ge ,r!(e* s! su++ess/u- t#at t#e astr!-!ger 'as at /irst *enie* ,er"issi!n t! /urt#er ,rint #is a-"ana+ !n t#e gr!un*s t#at #e 'as *ea*MF T#e -etter +!n+-u*es as /!--!'s1 :$ut '#et#er #e I$i+%ersta//J #at# n!t &een t#e cause !/ t#is ,!!r "an.s *eat#, as 'e-- as t#e ,re*i+t!r, "ay &e (ery reas!na&-y *is,ute*) ) ) ) I s#a-- 'ait 'it# s!"e i",atien+e, an* n!t 'it#!ut s!"e e0,e+tati!n, t#e /u-/i--ing !/ 2r) $i+%ersta//.s se+!n* ,re*i+ti!n, t#at t#e 7ar*ina- *e N!ai--es is t! *ie u,!n t#e Dt# !/ A,ri-C an* if that should be verified as e2actly as this of #oor .artrid(e, 6 "ust own I should be wholly sur#rised, and at a loss, and infallibly e2#ect the acco"#lish"ent of all the rest Ie",#asis a**e*J): T#e t#reatene* :a++!",-is#"ent !/ a-- t#e rest,: i/ anyt#ing s#!u-* #a,,en t! *e N!ai--es, *r!(e t#e Jesuits &erser%) S'i/t n!te* in #is 1<69 :9in*i+ati!n !/ Isaa+ $i+%ersta// t#e /a+t t#at t#e In>uisiti!n in P!rtuga- :'as ,-ease* t! &urn "y ,re*i+ti!ns, an* +!n*e"n t#e aut#!r an* rea*ers !/ t#e"): He a-s! t#en i*enti/ie* t#e ,!-iti+a- /!r+es in Eur!,e '#i+# -ent su&stan+e t! #is 'arnings as t#e +ir+-es !/ Lei&ni3) $i+%ersta// re,!rts :near an #un*re* #!n!rary -etters /r!" se(era- ,arts !/ Eur!,e: ,raising #is 1<68 ,re*i+ti!ns, an* +ites t#e /!--!'ing as #is (ery /irst e0a",-e1 :T#e "!st -earne* 2!nsieur Lei&ni3 t#us a**resses "e in #is t#ir* -etter1 Illustrissi"o ic!erstaffio astrolo(iae instauratori, Dc. I:"!st i--ustri!us $i+%ersta//, rest!rer !/ astr!-!gy:J) As /!r *e N!ai--es, S'i/t.s :9in*i+ati!n: +ite* t#e su,,!se* re,!rt :!/ a Fren+#"an, '#! 'as ,-ease* t! ,u&-is# t! t#e '!r-*, t#at t#e 7ar*ina- *e N!ai--es 'as sti-- a-i(e, n!t'it#stan*ing t#e ,reten*e* ,r!,#e+y !/ 2!nsieur $i>uersta//e1 &ut #!' /ar a Fren+#"an, a Pa,ist, an* an ene"y, is t! &e &e-ie(e* in #is !'n +ause, against an Eng-is# Pr!testant, '#! is true t! t#e g!(ern"ent, I s#a-- -ea(e t! t#e +an*i* an* i",artia- rea*er): T#e ir!ni+ 8!%e inten*e* in t#is ,assage, +!n+erning t#e +re*i&i-ity !/ t#!se :true t! t#e g!(ern"ent,: is *ire+te* at t#e /a+t t#at t#e "inistry run &y 2ar-&!r!ug#.s +r!nies @!*!-,#in an* Sun*er-an*, re,eate*-y +!--a&!rate* 'it# Eng-an*.s su,,!se* ene"ies in t#e Fren+# !-igar+#y) T#e ,!-iti+ai",a+t !/ t#e ic!erstaff .a#ers *eri(e* /r!" S'i/t.s re*ra'ing t#e &att-e -ines !n t#eir rea- &asis1 t#e /ig#t &et'een re,u&-i+anis" an* !-igar+#is")

(rea<in% $enice's "ri. on America E(en '#i-e t#e &att-e !(er ,!-i+y-"a%ing +!ntr!- !/ Bueen Anne.s g!(ern"ent sti-- rage*, Har-ey.s tenure as se+retary !/ state /r!" 1<6D unti- #is !uster in ear-y 1<68 "ar%e* t#e &eginnings !/ i",r!(ing ,r!s,e+ts /!r A"eri+a) A signi/i+ant &rea% !++urre* '#en t#e S+!ttis# Ear- !/ ?r%ney 'as grante* t#e tit-e !/ g!(ern!r !/ 9irginia /!--!'ing t#e 1<6< A+t !/ ;ni!n 'it# Eng-an*) A/ter *e+a*es !/ e(i- a*"inistrati!n &y t#e +r!'n.s +!-!nia- !//i+ia-s in A"eri+a, ?r%ney.s a,,!int"ent -e* t! t#e insta--ati!n !/ t'! !/ t#e "!st e0tra!r*inary r!ya- g!(ern!rs in !ur #ist!ry, R!&ert Hunter E1444-1<5DF an* A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!* E14<4-1<D6F) An intriguing ,attern !/ e(i*en+e esta&-is#es t#at t#e :se+ret s,rings: /!r t#is re"ar%a&-e !,ening 'ere triggere* t#r!ug#!ut &y J!nat#an S'i/t) ?r%ney.s 'i/e 'as a (ery *ear /rien* an* a*"irer !/ S'i/t, '#! +a--e* #er t#e 'isest '!"an #e e(er %ne', an* /re>uent-y g!t Har-ey t! see% #er ,!-iti+a- a*(i+e) ?r%ney.s !'n r!-e in se+uring t#e A+t !/ ;ni!n ga(e #i" +!nsi*era&-e in/-uen+e 'it# Bueen Anne, su//i+ient t! see t#at t#e -ieutenants #e +#!se t! g!(ern in 9irginia, +!u-* !(erri*e t#e (et! ,!'er !n +!-!nia- a,,!int"ents, #e-* &y t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug# an* t#e W#ig Junt!) $!t# Hunter an* S,!ts'!!* 'ere ?r%ney.s /rien*s an* /e--!' S+!ts, an* ser(e* as seni!r !//i+ers un*er #i" in 2ar-&!r!ug#.s Eur!,ean +a",aigns) Hunter 'as t#e /irst !/ t#e" na"e* -ieutenant g!(ern!r !/ 9irginia, &y '#i+# ti"e #e 'as a-s! an !,en !,,!nent !/ t#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#) A/ter near-y t'! *e+a*es !/ -!ya- "i-itary ser(i+e, an* a ,r!"!ti!n t! /u-+!-!ne- a/ter t#e &att-e !/ $-en#ei", Hunter inter(ene* against in+!",etent !r*ers issue* &y 2ar-&!r!ug# at Ra"i--ies in 2ay 1<64) T#e *u%e t!!% a genera-.s re(enge &y &ringing Hunter.s "i-itary +areer t! a *ea* en*, an* Hunter resigne* /r!" t#e ar"y '#en t#e +a",aign &r!%e /!r t#e 'inter) T#ere 'as "u+# "!re t! Hunter t#an t#e ty,i+a- +areer !//i+er !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#.s *ay, an* t#e %eys t! #is /uture 'ere n!t a-- in 2ar-&!r!ug#.s #an*s) He #a* gr!'n u, in Ayrs#ire, a #!t&e* !/ resistan+e in t#e S+!ttis# L!'-an*s t! t#e *egenerate reign !/ 7#ar-es II, '#!se +!rru,t +!urt /irst &est!'e* /a(!rs !n t#e 7#ur+#i--s) T#e S+!ttis# s+#!!- syste" !/ #is y!ut# 'as t#en !ne !/ t#e &est in Eur!,e, an*, un-i%e Eng-an*.s, 'as str!ng-y in/-uen+e* &y +!ntinenta- -earning) Pr!/i+ien+y 'as re>uire* in @ree%, Latin, Ita-ian, Fren+#, an* Dut+#, as 'e-- as #ist!ry, ge!gra,#y, ,#i-!s!,#y, "at#e"ati+s, an* "usi+) Hunter #i"se-/ &e+a"e a ,!et, ,-ay'rig#t, an*

,!-iti+a- satirist, an* #is :-iterary: /rien*s in+-u*e* n!t !n-y S'i/t &ut Ar&ut#n!t, Bueen Anne.s ,ers!na- :,#ysi+ian e0tra!r*inaire): Hunter.s /rien*s#i, 'it# S'i/t "!st ,r!&a&-y &egan &et'een 1499 an* 1<6H) During t#!se years, Hunter 'as stati!ne* at t#e Eng-is# garris!n in Du&-in, as a "a8!r in t#e Iris# Drag!!ns) In t#e su""er !/ 1499, S'i/t 'as na"e* *!"esti+ +#a,-ain t! t#e -!r* -ieutenant !/ Ire-an*, L!r* $er%e-eyC an* t#e /!--!'ing year #e &e+a"e ,re&en*ary !/ Du&-in.s St) Patri+%.s 7at#e*ra-) A/ter #is 8!urney t! Eng-an* in 1<61, '#en #e ,u&-is#e* #is +-assi+a- ,ara&-e atta+%ing t#e !-igar+#y.s Ang-!-Fren+# +!--a&!rati!n 5$n the Dissen: sions at Athens and %o"e>, S'i/t returne* t! Du&-in t! +!",-ete '!r% !n #is D!+t!r !/ Di(inity *egree, +!n/erre* in Fe&ruary 1<6H &y Trinity 7!--ege) Ne's !/ Hunter.s a,,!int"ent as -ieutenant-g!(ern!r !/ 9irginia *i* n!t sit 'e-- 'it# 2ar-&!r!ug#) S#!u-* 9irginia &rea% !ut /r!" t#e !-igar+#y.s Ang-!-Fren+# +!ntain"ent, t#e t#reat !/ A"eri+a.s e"ergen+e as a re,u&-i+an su,er,!'er '!u-* &e+!"e >uite rea-) T#e +!-!nia- +#arter !/ 9irginia +-ai"e* a territ!ry s! (ast as t! ast!un* "!st A"eri+ans t!*ay, in+-u*ing t#e +urrent states !/ West 9irginia, Kentu+%y, In*iana, I--in!is, ?#i!, 2i+#igan, Wis+!nsin, an* t#e ,!rti!n !/ 2innes!ta east !/ t#e 2ississi,,i Ri(er) ET#e ar"ies !/ t#e A"eri+an Re(!-uti!n, in /a+t, !rgani3e* t#e territ!ries !/ t#e /irst /!ur states -iste*, as +!unties !/ 9irginia)F 2ar-&!r!ug# signa-e* s!"et#ing !/ #is intenti!ns regar*ing t#e Hunter a,,!int"ent &y ,re(enting #i" /r!" se--ing #is !//i+er.s +!""issi!n a "ar%et in '#i+# t#e *u%e !t#er'ise assi*u!us-y ,r!/iteere*) Hunter !(er+a"e t#is unusua- &it !/ /inan+ia- #arass"ent, &ut t#e ne0t "!(e against #i" 'as inten*e* t! &e "!re *e+isi(e) A/ter setting sai- /r!" Eng-an* t! assu"e t#e g!(ern!rs#i,, Hunter 'as +a,ture* &y Fren+# :,ri(ateers,: a,,arent-y !// 9irginia.s +!ast, !n August 1H, 1<6<, an* ta%en t! Paris as a ,ris!ner !/ 'ar) 2ar-&!r!ug# #a* r!utine-y arrange* ,ris!ner e0+#anges /!r !//i+ers in a "atter !/ *ays, &ut Hunter.s /ina- re-ease 'as n!t se+ure* /!r !(er a year an* a #a-/) Hunter.s status as a $ritis# r!ya- !//i+er, as 'e-- as #is ,re(i!us "i-itary ran%, entit-e* #i" t! +!n/ine"ent un*er si",-e #!use arrest, an* a-s! t! ,ar!-e /!r a nu"&er !/ "!nt#s *uring 1<68 &a+% t! Eng-an*) 2ar-&!r!ug#, !/ +!urse, guarantee* #is return t! t#e Fren+#) W#i-e in L!n*!n, Hunter "et re,eate*-y 'it# S'i/t, an* t#e t'! "en +!rres,!n*e* '#i-e Hunter 'as in Fren+# #an*s, 'it#in t#e restri+ti!ns !/ +ens!rs#i, an* inter+e,ti!n !/ t#eir

-etters &y &!t# si*es) E(en t#e +auti!n ne+essitate* &y su+# ene"y s+rutiny *i* n!t ,re(ent S'i/t /r!" stressing t#e i",!rtan+e !/ t#eir 9irginia ,r!8e+t) Writing t! Hunter !n January 1H, 1<69, S'i/t *e+-are* #is #!,e t#at Hunter :"a%e #aste !(er an* get "y 9irginian &is#!,ri+): W#et#er S'i/t a+tua--y #!,e* /!r su+# a ,!st in t#e E,is+!,a-ian 7#ur+#, !r '#et#er #e raise* it t! sy"&!-i3e #is ,!-iti+a- "issi!n, t#e re/eren+e is signi/i+ant in eit#er +ase) His ne0t -etter t! Hunter ne(er g!t t#r!ug#) S'i/t 'r!te again !n 2ar+# HH1 :I i"agine "y /!r"er -etter 'as inter+e,te* &y t#e Fren+# +!urt): Again #e stresse* :t#at a-- "y #!,es n!' ter"inate in "y &is#!,ri+ !/ 9irginia): ;n*er t#e ,retense !/ a :,r!*igi!us-y 'itty: 8!%e a&!ut t#e 'eat#er inter/ering 'it# 2ar-&!r!ug#.s "!(e"ents, S'i/t a-s! #inte* t#at Hunter '!u-* s!!n es+a,e t#e *u%e.s +-ut+#es1 :T#e Du%e !/ 2ar-&!r!ug# #as at -engt# /!un* an ene"y t#at *ares /a+e #i", an* '#i+# #e 'i-- +ertain-y /-y &e/!re 'it# t#e /irst !,,!rtunity, an* 'e are a-- !/ t#e !,ini!n it 'i-- &e #is 'isest +!urse t! *! s!): Hunter 'as re-ease* a 'ee% !r s! -ater, at t#e &eginning !/ A,ri- 1<69) Hunter -an*e* in Eng-an* !n A,ri- HD, reentering a ,!-iti+a- 'ar t#at #a* gr!'n e(en "!re intense *uring #is i",ris!n"ent) T#e Junt! W#igs #a* /!--!'e* u, t#eir 1<68 !usting !/ Har-ey, &y /urt#er ,ressing Anne t#at s,ring t! na"e an!t#er !/ t#eir !'n, L!r* S!"ers, as Presi*ent !/ t#e Bueen.s 7!un+i-) Anne #a* in/!r"e* 2ar-&!r!ug# it '!u-* :&e utter *estru+ti!n t! "e t! &ring L!r* S!"ers int! "y ser(i+e ) ) ) it is '#at I +an ne(er +!nsent t!): Sara# 7#ur+#i-- '!rsene* "atters at t#e sa"e ti"e &y trying t! e0t!rt a ,r!"ise t#at #er *aug#ters '!u-* assu"e #er !'n -u+rati(e ,!siti!ns u,!n #er retire"ent) $y t#e s,ring !/ 1<69, 2ar-&!r!ug# #i"se-/ sense* t#at t#eir #an* 'as !(er,-aye*, an* t#at Bueen Anne 'as !n t#e (erge !/ see%ing t! +rus# t#e Junt!) =et #e ,-aye* /urt#er int! t#e #an*s !/ :t#e ene"y t#at *ares t! /a+e #i",: &y as%ing t#e Bueen t! "a%e #i" +a,tain genera- /!r -i/e) S'i/t re,!rte* t#at Anne rea+te* :as i/ s#e a,,re#en*e* an atte",t u,!n t#e 7r!'n): Har-ey a-- t#e '#i-e, t#!ug# !ut !/ !//i+e, #a* "aintaine* a se+ret +!rres,!n*en+e 'it# A&igai- 2as#a") A-!ng 'it# S'i/t.s an* Hunter.s /rien* J!#n Ar&ut#n!t, 2rs) 2as#a" #a* re,-a+e* Sara# 7#ur+#i-- in Bueen Anne.s inner +ir+-e, an* 'as '!r%ing t! +#ange t#e ,attern !/ :&a+%stairs: a++ess t! t#e r!ya- +#a"&ers) W#en Bueen Anne re8e+te* 2ar-&!r!ug#.s :R!"an-genera-: *e"an*, as s#e #a* Sara#.s :#ere*itary-,riestess: ,-!y, t#e *u%e a++use* #er !/ a+ting si",-y !n t#e ,ee(is#ness !/ 2rs) 2as#a" a

:"ere ser(ant,: '#! 'as n!' #!sti-e an* ungrate/u- t! Sara#, #er /!r"er :&ene/a+t!r): Anne.s re,-y *istur&e* &!t# *u%e an* *u+#ess1 :I sa' (ery ,-ain-y y!ur uneasiness at "y re/using t#e "ar% !/ /a(!ur y!u *esire*, an* &e-ie(e* /r!" an!t#er -etter I #a* /r!" y!u !n t#e su&8e+t y!u /an+ie* t#at a*(i+e +a"e /r!" 2as#a", &ut I *! assure y!u y!u 'r!ng #er "!st e0tre"e-y, /!r u,!n "y '!r* s#e %n!'s n!t#ing !/ it, as I t!-* y!u in an!t#er -etter) W#at I sai* 'as "y !'n t#!ug#ts) ) ) ) =!u see" t! &e *issatis/ie* 'it# "y &e#a(i!ur t! t#e Du+#ess !/ 2ar-&!r!ug#) I *! n!t -!(e +!",-aining, &ut it is i",!ssi&-e t! #e-, saying !n t#is !++asi!n I &e-ie(e n!&!*y 'as e(er s! use* &y a /rien* as I #a(e &een &y #er e(er sin+e "y +!"ing t! t#e 7r!'n): T#!ug# t#e Bueen sti-- /e-t s#e +!u-* n!t *is,!se !/ t#e +a,tain genera-, unti!t#er arrange"ents /!r en*ing t#e 'ar 'ere in ,-a+e, t#e ti*e 'as running against t#e 9enetian ,arty) 2ar-&!r!ug# an* @!*!-,#in 'ere sti-- *eter"ine*, #!'e(er, t! *! e(eryt#ing in t#eir ,!'er t! ,re(ent any a+tua- *e(e-!,"ent !/ t#e A"eri+an +!-!nies) Just as t#ey re/use* t! a--!' R!&ert Hunter t! &e+!"e t#e instru"ent /!r "a%ing 9irginia t#e gate'ay t! t#e West, s! t#ey '!r%e* t! ,er,etuate t#e Jesuit-run In*ian atta+%s !ut !/ 7ana*a against Ne' =!r% an* Ne' Eng-an*) T#is ,arti+u-ar ,ie+e !/ Ang-!-Fren+# !-igar+#i+a- +!--usi!n 'as t#e su&8e+t !/ "!unting +!n+ern an* &itter resent"ent in A"eri+a) A/ter t#e Ha(er#i-- "assa+re in 1<68, u,!n ,ers!na- a,,ea- /r!" A"eri+an +!-!nia- -ea*ers, Bueen Anne #a* !r*ere* an e0,e*iti!n against Fren+# 7ana*a t! r!!t !ut su+# terr!ris") A $ritis# na(a- s>ua*r!n, 'it# /i(e regi"ents !/ ar"y regu-ars, 'as t! ,r!+ee* t! $!st!n &y t#e "i**-e !/ 2ay 1<69) An a**iti!na- H,<66 +!-!nia- tr!!,s 'ere t! &e raise* &y Ne' Eng-an* an* Ne' =!r%, t! ta%e ,art in a +!"&ine* atta+% against Bue&e+ an* 2!ntrea-) Ne' Eng-an* "i-itia"en 'aite* "!nt# a/ter "!nt# at $!st!n, &ut t#ere 'as n! sign !/ t#e $ritis# /-eet) W!r* /ina--y arri(e* in t#e /a--, t#at t#e e0,e*iti!n inten*e* /!r A"eri+a, #a* &een !r*ere* t! P!rtuga-M N!t !n-y 'as 2ar-&!r!ug# sti-- +!""an*er !/ t#e ar"y) His &r!t#er, @e!rge 7#ur+#i--, 'as a-s! /irst -!r* !/ t#e A*"ira-ty, in e//e+t t#e +#ie/ !/ $ritis# na(a- !,erati!ns) An* &esi*es @!*!-,#in.s ,!'ers as -!r* treasurer t! inter(ene in "i-itary "atters &y +!ntr!--ing e0,en*itures, t#e *is,!siti!n !/ na(a- res!ur+es 'as a-s! un*er t#e i""e*iate +!ntr!- !/ t#e treasurer !/

t#e na(y, R!&ert Wa-,!-e, '#!se +areer as a ,!'er/u- ene"y !/ A"eri+a '!u-* stret+# a-- t#e 'ay int! t#e 1<D6s) A/ter t#e sa&!tage !/ t#e 1<69 atte",t t! &rea% t#e Fren+# strang-e#!-* !n t#e +!-!nies, an inter+!-!nia- asse"&-y "et in R#!*e Is-an*, an* a,,ea-e* again /!r an atta+% !n 7ana*a, t! ta%e ,-a+e in t#e s,ring !/ 1<16) Bueen Anne ga(e #er a,,r!(a-) $ut !n+e "!re t#e ,-an 'as sa&!tage*, an* /ina--y re*u+e* "ere-y t! an atta+% !n P!rt R!ya-, N!(a S+!tia, !,,!site t#e n!rt#ern +!ast !/ 2aine) A -arge-y Ne' Eng-an* /!r+e sei3e* it !n Se,te"&er HD, 1<16, an* rena"e* it Anna,!-is /!r t#e Bueen) E(en t#is t!%en e//!rt 'as "!re t#an 2ar-&!r!ug# an* @!*!-,#in #a* ,-anne*) W!r* #a* rea+#e* L!n*!n in August 1<69 !/ t#e *eat# !/ L!r* L!(e-a+e, 8ust re+ent-y a,,!inte* g!(ern!r-genera- !/ Ne' =!r%) @!*!-,#in ,r!,!se* a ne' s+#e"e, t! /inis# !// Hunter.s g!(ern!rs#i, !/ 9irginia an* ,er#a,s Hunter #i"se-/) T#e -!r* treasurer 'r!te t! 2ar-&!r!ug# t#at #e 'ante* :t! 8!in t#e t'! g!(ern"ents !/ Ne' =!r% N Ne' Eng-an* int! !ne, t! gi(e t#ese t! 7!--) Hunter, i/ y!u a,,r!(e t#e S+#e"e N t#e ,ers!n N t! sen* #i" t#it#er i""e*iate-y 'it# instru+ti!ns t! raise a&!ut 1566 "en in t#!se g!(ern"ents an* trans,!rt t#e" t! Ja"ai+a)IMJ: T#e :&att-e ,-an: /!r t#e A"eri+an "i-itia"en '#! 'ere t! &e *rag!!ne* int! t#is !,erati!n, 'as t! in(a*e t#e Fren+# an* S,anis# +!-!nies in t#e West In*iesM Wit# Ne' Eng-an* -itera--y u, in ar"s !(er t#e Fren+# "ena+e in 7ana*a, @!*!-,#in.s "ur*er!us ,-an ne(er g!t !// t#e gr!un*) E(en t! t#e "!st ra&i* !/ t#e 9enetian ,arty, it "ust #a(e a,,eare* ,!-iti+a--y *erange*) N! /urt#er *etai-s are ,r!(i*e* &y a(ai-a&-e s!ur+es, &ut, in a "atter !/ *ays, 2ar-&!r!ug# re,-ie*, in/!r"ing @!*!-,#in t#at #e #a* a,,r!(e* Hunter.s a,,!int"ent as g!(ern!r-genera- of 1ew Aor! and 1ew &erseyE Bueen Anne in/!r"e* Hunter s#e #a* +!n/ir"e* it !n Se,te"&er 4, 1<69, an* Hunter a++e,te*) W#at #a* #a,,ene*A W#et#er 2ar-&!r!ug# an* @!*!-,#in /u--y rea-i3e* it !r n!t, an in-*e,t# +!u, 'as un*er 'ay against t#e") T#!ug# Sara# 7#ur+#i-- 'as sti-- in ,-a+e as t#eir ,a-a+e guar*, t#e :se+ret ,assages: t! t#e Bueen 'ere !,ening 'i*e t! t#eir ene"ies, an* ,-anning 'as again un*er 'ay /!r a ne' g!(ern"ent t! &e #ea*e* &y Har-ey) Wit#in a year, /irst Sun*er-an*, 7#ur+#i--.s s!n-in--a', an* t#en @!*!-,#in #i"se-/ '!u-* &e

!ut !/ !//i+e, an* in 1<11 S'i/t '!u-* ,ers!na--y -ea* t#e /ina- !ns-aug#t against 2ar-&!r!ug#) @!*!-,#in.s s+#e"e /!r *ea-ing 'it# Hunter 'as 8u*!e* &ey!n* anyt#ing t#e ,-!tters +!u-* #a(e i"agine*) W#en Hunter sai-e* /!r A"eri+a t! assu"e t#e g!(ern!rs#i, !/ Ne' =!r%, #e +!n(!ye* t#e -argest sing-e "igrati!n in !ur +!-!nia- #ist!ry, near-y 5,666 @er"an sett-ers /r!" t#e R#enis# Pa-atinate, re/ugees /r!" 2ar-&!r!ug#.s 'ar in Eur!,e) Ar"e* 'it# &!t# +i(i- an* "i-itary ,!'ers, Hunter 'as a-s! +#arge* 'it# ,re,aring a /u---s+a-e in(asi!n !/ 7ana*a, t! &e +!n*u+te* &!t# &y -an* an* sea) An* t#e -ieutenant-g!(ern!rs#i, !/ 9irginia, -e/t (a+ant &y #is ne' a,,!int"ent, 'as /i--e* &y A-e0an*er S,!ts'!!*, '#! '!u-* !,en t#e gate'ay t! an A"eri+an +!ntinenta- re,u&-i+ s! 'i*e it '!u-* ne(er &e +-!se* again)