4.

4 The initial and final value theorems

In system analysis, the investigator often needs to know only the
steady-state value of the output for a preliminary study. In such
cases, the final value theorem is frequently useful. If y(t) and
dy/dt possess Laplace transforms, if the following limit exists,
and if y(t) approaches a definite value as
t
, this theorem
states that
)] ! lim )
"
s sY y
s

#.#-$)
%he theorem&s conditions are satisfied if the system model is
linear with constant coefficients !i.e., transforma'le so that Y(s)
( T(s) V(s)] and if all the roots of the denominator of sY(s) lie in
the left-hand plane. %he most common failure of the theorem is
the case where the input v is a pure sinusoid. %his introduces
purely imaginary roots and a steady-state sinusoidal response.
%hus, y(t) does not approach a definite value as
t
.
%he companion theorem is the initial value theorem.
)] ! lim ) " s sY y
s

#.#-))
%he conditions under which the theorem is valid are that the
limit and the transforms of y and dy*dt exist.
If the ramp response of dy*dt( ry +'v were not availa'le, the
final value theorem could have 'een used to find the steady-state
difference 'etween the input and output quickly. ,or v(t) =mt,
we o'tain

'

+
+
+

$
$ ,
)
$
$
lim
)
$
lim )] ) ! lim ) )
"
) )
" "
b m
b
s
b s
s
m
s
m
s
b
s
m
s s Y s V s y v
s
s s

#.#--)
%hus, the output does not follow the input unless
$ b
.
%he initial and final value theorems are especially useful when
the system is represented only in terms of its transfer function.
13
%he theorems can thus 'e directly applied without working
through the solution of a differential equation.
Example4.8
$) .erive formulas for the steady-state difference
'etween the input V(s) and the output Y(s) for a unit-step
input and a unit-ramp input. %he system diagram is given
in ,igure #.$-
)) /pply the results to the case where G(s) = K/s.
,igure #.$- / unity feed'ack system. %he error is
e(t)= v(t) -y(t).
0olution1
a) %he difference 'etween V(s) and Y(s) is E(s) in the figure,
where
E(s) = V(s) - Y(s) = V(s) - G(s)E(s) #.#-#)
0olve for E(s) in terms of V(s).
) $
)
)
s G
s V
s E
+

%he steady-state difference from the final value theorem is

14
) $
)
lim ) lim
" "
s G
s sV
s sE e
s s
ss
+


#.#-2)
,or a unit-step input, V(s) ( $*s, and #.#-2) gives
) " $
$
) $
$
lim
"
G s G
e
s
ss
+

#.#-3)
where
) lim ) "
"
s G G
s

,or a unit-ramp input, V(s) ( $*s

2
and
) lim
$
)
$
lim
"
"
s sG s sG s
e
s
s
ss

#.#-4)
') ,or G(s) =K/s,

s K G
s
* lim ) "
"
, and
"
ss
e
. %hus, this
particular system has a 5ero steady-state difference 'etween the
output and the step input.
,or a unit-ramp input,
K s sG
s

) lim
"
, and e
ss
($*K, which is a
finite 'ut non5ero difference.
15
4.5 Impulse response
6esides the step function, the pulse function and its
approximation, the impulse, appear quite often in the analysis
and design of dynamic systems. In addition to 'eing an
analytically convenient approximation of an input applied for
only a very short time, the impulse is also useful for estimating
the system&s parameters experimentally. %he impulse is an
a'straction that does not exist in the physical word 'ut can 'e
thought of as the limit of a rectangular pulse whose duration %
approaches 5ero while maintaining its strength /. %he strength
of an impulse or pulse is the area under its time curve ,igure
#.$#).
,igure #.$# Impulse and rectangular pulse. a) Impulse of
strength /. ') 7ectangular pulse. %he impulse is the limit of the
pulse as
" T
with / held constant.
%he impulse response of the first-order model
bv ry
dt
dy
+
can 'e
o'tained 'y the Laplace transform method. ,rom ta'les, the
transform of an impulse
) t v
of strength A is
V(s) =A
,rom #.$-8),
16
r s
bA y
A
r s
b
r s
y
s Y

) " ) "
)
In the time domain, this 'ecomes
rt
e bA y t y ] ) " ! ) +
%hus, the impulse can 'e thought of as 'eing equivalent to an
addition initial condition of magnitude bA.
4.6 Pulse response
%he response due to a pulse 'y using the step response to find
y(T), which is then used as the initial condition for a 5ero input
solution. /lternatively, the shifting property of Laplace
transforms can 'e applied. 9ith this viewpoint, the pulse in
,igure #.$#' is taken to 'e composed of a step input of
magnitude starting at t(", followed at t=T 'y a step input of
magnitude -) see ,igure #.$2).
,igure #.$2 7ectangular pulse as the superposition of two step
functions.
17
%he pulse input can now 'e expressed as follows.
) ) ) T t ! t ! t v
s s

#.3-$)
Its transform is
) $
$ $
)] ! )] ! )
sT sT
s s
e
s

s
e
s
T t ! " t ! " s V


#.3-))
/ssume that the system is sta'le and the initial condition is 5ero.
%he pulse response is found from #.$-8) with
* $ r
and a
partial fraction expansion.
sT sT
sT
e
s
#
e
s
#
s
#
s
#
s
e
s
b
s Y

+
+
+

,
_

) $ ) $
$ $
$
$
)

%he transform has 'een expressed as the sum of elementary

transforms. :ross multiplication gives
b s # s # + + ) $
) $
or
b #
b #

)
)
$
In the time domain, we o'tain
) ) ) )
)
* ) $
)
* $
T t ! # T t ! e
#
t ! # e
#
t y
s s
T t
s
t
+


,or $%t%T,

*
)
* $
)
t t
be b # e
#
t y

+
#.3--)
,or
T t
,

* *
) )
* ) $ * $
) $ )
t T T t t
e e b # # e
#
e
#
t y

+
#.3-#)
18
%his response is shown in ,igure #.$3. %he previous equation,
when written in terms of the pulse strength A=T, is

* *
) $ )
t T
e e
T
bA
t y


#.3-2)
If the strength A is kept constant as T approaches 5ero,
L&;opital&s rule gives
*
"
) lim
t
T
bAe t y

%his is the same as the impulse response when y") is 5ero.

,igure #.$3 <ulse response of a linear first-order system. a)
<ulse input. ') <ulse response.
19
<ro'lems
=se the Laplace transform method to o'tain the forced response
of the system
) ) t v y
dt
dy
+
for
" t
, for the following cases1
(&) v(t)=t
)) vt)(t
)
(') v(t)=te
-t
=se the Laplace transform to find the free response and the step
response for 5ero initial conditions) of the following models1
$)
$ ) " , " ) " , ) $) 4
)
)
+ +
dt
dx
x x
dt
dx
dt
x d
))
$ ) " , " ) " , ) > 3
)
)
+ +
dt
dx
x x
dt
dx
dt
x d
,ind the transfer function, and draw the 'lock diagram for the
following model. %he input is !, the output is x
&
. 0how the
varia'les x
2
and x
'
on the diagram.
! x x
dt
dx
x
dt
dx
x
dt
dx
+

- )
-
-
)
)
$
)
,ind the transfer functions, and draw the 'lock diagrams of the
following models for the given inputs and outputs. 0how 'oth
varia'les x
$
and x
)
on each diagram.
a)
! x x
dt
dx
x x
dt
dx
2 #
- 2
) $
)
) $
$
+
+
outputs ( x
$
, x
)
input ( !
')
) ) $
)
$ ) $
$
2 #
# - 2
! x x
dt
dx
! x x
dt
dx
+
+ +
output ( x
$
inputs ( !
$
, !
)
20
a) =se the following 'lock diagram to write the system&s
differential equation model directly in state varia'le form. %he
state varia'les are x
$
and x
)
.
') =se 'lock diagram reduction to derive the transfer function
(
$
s)*)s)
/ torque T is applied to a load of inertia *. %he damping is
negligi'le so that
) ) s T s *s
, where

is the speed of the load.

,or a sinusoidal torque
t A t T
+
sin )
, plot the frequency
response curves with A** () for a two-decade range centered at
$
+

rad*unit time.
=se the final value theorem to compute the steady-state error e
'etween the input and the output for the system shown in the
following figure with the input functions as follows1
a) ,s) ( $*s ') ,s) ( $*s
)
21
22