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Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 22912298

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Construction and Building Materials


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Inuence of aggregate and curing regime on the mechanical properties of ultra-high performance bre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC)
S.L. Yang a,b, S.G. Millard b,*, M.N. Soutsos b, S.J. Barnett b, T.T. Le b
a b

Department of Civil Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100083, China Department of Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GQ, UK

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
A new generation of concrete, ultra-high performance bre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) has been developed for its outstanding mechanical performance and shows a very promising future in construction applications. In this paper, several possibilities are examined for reducing the price of producing UHPFRC and for bringing UHPFRC away from solely precast applications and onto the construction site as an in situ material. Recycled glass cullet and two types of local natural sand were examined as replacement materials for the more expensive silica sand normally used to produce UHPFRC. In addition, curing of UHPFRC cubes and prisms at 20 C and 90 C has been investigated to determine differences in both mechanical and ductility. The results showed that using more angular sand particles reduces the owability of fresh UHPFRC. The local natural sand can produce a similar mechanical and ductility of UHPFRC to the silica sand. However the use of Recycled Glass Cullet (RGC) gives approximately 15% lower performance, i.e. exural strength, compressive strength and fracture energy. Specimens cured at 20 C give approximately 20% lower compressive strength, 10% lower exural strength and 15% lower fracture energy than specimens cured at 90 C from 1 to 7 days. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 3 July 2008 Received in revised form 18 November 2008 Accepted 18 November 2008 Available online 27 December 2008 Keywords: UHPFRC High-strength Concrete Steel bres Curing Heat Recycled glass Fine aggregates Fracture energy

1. Introduction Ultra-high performance bre reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), which has very high compressive and tensile strength as well as a high ductility when compared with conventional concrete, is a high-priority topic for research. The UHPFRC mix [14]:  Improves the homogeneity by using sand, with particle size between 150 and 600 lm, as the only aggregate  Increases the density by using silica fume as partial cement replacement  Improves the ductility by incorporation of special steel bres  High-temperature curing at 90 C is also necessary to improve the microstructure of UHPFRC and achieve a high early age strength In recent years, UHPFRC has been successfully applied to dam repair, bridge deck overlays, coupling beams in high-rise building and other specialized structures [5,6]. However the high cost of UHPFRC is the disadvantage that restricts its wider usage. To alleviate both the environmental and

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 151 794 5224; fax: +44 151 794 5218. E-mail address: ec96@liv.ac.uk (S.G. Millard). 0950-0618/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2008.11.012

economical impact of UHPFRC, industrial by-products such as ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and silica fume (SF), have been used as partial cement replacements without signicantly affecting the mechanical properties [7,8]. The use of these low alkali cement replacements gives the opportunity to use nely crushed recycled glass as an economic replacement for silica sand, without the risk of an expansive and deleterious alkalisilica reaction (ASR) [913]. Although the heat-curing procedure of UHPFRC is mainly used in order to reduce curing time and increase early strength [14], this is not only energy-consuming and costly but also restricts the fabrication of UHPFRC products to a pre-casting factory. Investigation of UHPFRC without elevated temperature curing could lead to this material being used for in situ construction instead of factory fabrication. Normal temperature curing would be expected to lead to reduced early age material properties. However the increase in usability and the actual long-term material properties may still be sufciently high as to warrant this change. A pilot study previously carried out had indicated that the use of a coarse, non-silica sand did not give as high a compressive strength as achieved using ne silica sand. It was not clear whether this was due to the different grading of the sand and hence different packing within the hardened mix or whether a benecial pozzolanic reaction was occurring between the cement paste and the silica sand. The replacement of silica sand with a ne recycled glass

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Table 1 Physical, chemical and mechanical properties of cement, silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). Material Cement 1 52.5N Chemical composition (%) SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2Oeq SO3 Cl Bulk density(kg/ m3) Specic Surface(m2/kg) Age (days) Comp. strength (MPa) 18.7 6.3 3.2 64.7 0.7 0.13 3.1 0.025 1200 460 2 37 SF 93.1 0.9 2.0 0.4 1.2 0.3 0.3 0.09 321.3 20,000 7 52 GGBS 35 12 0.2 40 10 1050 470 28 63

The results of these studies demonstrate the feasibility of developing more environmentally friendly UHPFRC and using it for in situ construction.
2. Materials 2.1. Cementitious materials Portland cement (CEM 1) with a strength class 52.5 N [16] and two different types of supplementary cementitious materials were used in this study, i.e. ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and silica fume (SF).The chemical, physical and mechanical properties of cement, GGBS and SF used in this study are shown in Table 1. 2.2. Aggregate a. Silica sand (SS) The Silica sand (SS) used in this study is a commercial product, provided by WBB Minerals LTD., has a narrow grading distribution between 150 and 300 lm of approximately 90% particles. b. Ordinary sand (ne ordinary sand-type I and type II) Two types of ordinary sand, which were obtained from Cardigan Bay, Wales and Borras in England, were used after sieving and rejecting very coarse particles such as small stones and other impurities above 5 mm. According to the British Standard [16], these two types of sand could be categorized into ne ordinary sand-type I (FOS-I) and ne ordinary sand-type II(FOS-II), respectively . c. Recycled glass cullet (RGC) The recycled glass cullet (RGC) was supplied by Viridor Waste Management Ltd. and it was used in UHPFRC without any special treatment, washing or sieving. The recycled glass cullet (RGC) can be categorized as medium size aggregate sand according to the British Standard [17]. Fig. 1 shows the photos of the sand particles of 4 types of sand. From observation of the particle shape, particles of SS had the most spherical shape surface while the RGC had sharper and more angular grain shapes and a smoother surface. The particles of FOS-I and FOS-II looked similar to SS except for some irregular shapes, i.e. prisms and pyramids with blunt edges. The angular shape of RGC also led to a 6 8% higher void content than other kinds of aggregate. The particle distribution of 4 types of ne sand as aggregate in the study is shown in Fig. 2. The results from measurement of the relative density and water absorption are shown in Table 2.

Physical property

Mechanical property of cement

cullet gave the opportunity to investigate the alkalisilica reaction. While there is potential for a deleterious alkali silica reaction, the particle size distribution of the recycled glass used in this work suggests the possibility of a benecial pozzolanic reaction [15]. The production of UHPFRC using three different types of ne sand, i.e. silica sand, two different ordinary building sands and crushed recycled glass cullet, has been investigated. Different sand gradings were investigated to determine the inuence of the aggregate grading on the development of mechanical properties. Different temperature curing regimes were also investigated to determine if the mechanical properties of UHPFRC specimens under standard curing could catch up with those of heat cured specimens.

Fig. 1. Micrograph of sand particle obtained by optical microscope with a magnication of 50.

S.L. Yang et al. / Construction and Building Materials 23 (2009) 22912298 2.3. Steel bre The special steel bres supplied by Bekaert Ltd. are made using high carbon steel with a tensile strength of 2000 MPa and conform to British Standard [18]. Each bre is coated with brass and is 0.2 mm in diameter and 13 mm in length. 2.4. Superplasticiser The superplasticiser used in this study was polycarboxylate-based and the total waterbinder ratio was adjusted by taking into account the water content of the superplasticiser liquid. Table 3 Concrete mix proportion. Cementitious component (level of cement replacement) (kg/m3) Cement 657 GGBS 429.8 (35%) SF 119.4 (10%) 1050 0.15 1.05 Aggregate sand (kg/m3) Waterbinder ratio

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Superplasticiser (% solid by weight of binder)

3. Mix proportions The cement was replaced by GGBS and SF by 35% and 10% respectively, by weight. The steel bre content of UHPFRC is 2% by volume of the total mixture. This is commonly considered as the optimum proportion to give a balance between mechanical properties and nancial cost [19]. Use of the polycarboxylatebased superplasticiser enabled a water-binder ratio of 0.15 to achieved, which met the low water requirement of UHPFRC [1,7]. The mix design [7] is shown in Table 3. 4. Specimen preparation

reached. Usually, a further mix duration of approximately 5 min helped to achieve good owability and an even distribution of steel bre in cement matrix. The fresh UHPFRC was then transferred into steel moulds and compacted for 1 min using a vibrating table. The specimens were then covered with damp hessian and polythene sheeting. After one day, they were de-moulded and cured in water either at 20 C or at 90 C. The heat cured specimens were stored in a hot water bath from an age of 1 day until 7 days. These specimens were then stored in air at room temperature until testing. The 20 C cured specimens were kept in a standard curing tank until testing. 5. Experimental programme

Four groups of UHPFRC specimens were investigated, each using a different type of sand. In each group specimens were cast comprising 50 mm cubes for compressive strength [20] and 50 50 200 mm prisms for exural strength [21]. The solid UHPFRC mix constituents, in the order of cement, SF, GGBS and sand, were weighed according to the mix proportions and dry mixed in a horizontal pan mixer with a 15-l capability for approximately 1 min. The mixture of water and superplasticiser was gradually added to the rotating mixer. The steel bres were added after mixing for approximately 10 min. This time enabled the superplasticiser to become fully effective and a consistent mixture was

The workability of the fresh concrete was measured with a ow table [22] both before and after the mixing with bres. All cube specimens were tested using a loading rate of 0.8 kN/s [20]. The prism specimens were tested under four-point loading using displacement control and using a testing machine controlled by an external displacement transducer, such that the mid-span deection rate of the prism specimen was held constant throughout the test. The specimen mid-span deection rate was 0.15 mm/ min, with a span of 150 mm. The fracture energy [4] of specimens tested was calculated by integrating the area under the exural stress versus deection up to 1.25 mm. The mechanical test schedule of UHPFRC specimens is shown in Table 4 and each reading was taken as the average of three test results. 6. Results and discussion 6.1. Fresh concrete Table 5 shows measurements from the ow table test. Although the mix proportions and the mixing procedures were all the same, the ow diameter of concrete without bres varied between 224 and 185 mm in the sequence of SS, FOS-I, FOS-II, and RGC. It was deserved during mixing and testing that the owability of the fresh

Table 4 Test schedule of mechanical properties of UHPFRC Test age (day) 7 Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of silica sand, ne ordinary sand-type I, ne ordinary sand-type II and recycled glass cullet. 20 C curing 90 C curing Comp/Flex Comp/Flex 14 Comp/Flex Comp 28 Comp/Flex Comp/Flex 56 Comp/Flex Comp/Flex 91 Comp Comp

Note: Comp: compressive strength test. Flex: exural strength test. Table 2 Density and water absorption of aggregate sand. Aggregate Oven dry density (kg/m3) Bulk density (kg/m3) Void content Water absorption (%) SS 2.652 1.634 38.4% 0.80 FOS-I 2.645 1.555 41.2% 1.17 FOS-II 2.643 1.537 41.9% 0.84 RGC 2.678 1.443 46.1% 0.21 Table 5 Flow table test of UHPFRC before and after mixing with bres. Aggregate sand-type Flow diameter (mm) SS without bres with bres FOS-I 244 232 FOS-II 197 182 RGC 239 228 185 175

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concrete had a close relationship with the particle shape of the aggregate sand, and was negatively inuenced by the addition of bres. The same sequence of SS, FOS-I, FOS-II, and RGC was followed as the particle shape varied from spherical to more angular. The ow diameter of all mixes was also observed to reduce by approximately 10 mm after addition of 2% bres by volume, as seen in Table 5. No bleeding segregation was observed when mixing, even when using RGC sand. This nding was contrary to the results reported in [23], in which a high w/b ratio of 0.38 was used. These different results can be attributed to the effect that more angular and sharp sand particles will restrict the mortar to the region adjacent to the sand particles, and then less mortar can act as lubrication to improve the owability of fresh UHPFRC. After addition of bres, the mortar between sand particles will adhere to the bres, and further reduce the owability.

6.2. Hardened concrete 6.2.1. Compressive strength The use of a different natural sand, i.e. SS, FOS-I and FOS-II, as the aggregate of UHPFRC had little inuence on the compressive strength development. However replacement of natural sand with RGC resulted in a slightly lower compressive strength but faster strength gain at early age. Fig. 3 shows the development of the compressive strength of UHPFRC using SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGP under 20 C and 90 C curing. The compressive strength of specimens using SS, FOS-I and FOS-II and cured at 90 C all fell within the range 160180 MPa at age 91 days and within the range of 140160 MPa for the RGC specimens. None of the specimens cured at 90 C showed a signicant gain in strength after the 7 days of hot curing. UHPFRC specimens cured at 20 C continued to increase in compressive strength over time after

Fig. 3. Compressive strength versus age of UHPFRC: effect of replacement of sand aggregate with SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC.

Fig. 4. Typical exural strength versus deection curve of UHPFRC prism (50 50 200mm) under 90 C and 20 C curing at 28 days.

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the initial 7 day period, but at a diminishing rate as shown in Fig. 3. After 91 days the 20 C cured specimens had a very high compressive strength but did not match that of the 90 C cured specimens. From observation of the rate of increase in strength it seems unlikely that the strength of the 20 C cured specimens would reach that of the 90 C cured specimens at later ages. However, the compressive strengths of 20 C cured UHPFRC at 28 day age, i.e. 100130 MPa, are still considered as very high strength and this can be applied very effectively for building structures. The difference in the compressive strength between natural sand specimens and RGC specimens could be attributed to the sand geometry and internal structure. Firstly, the lower void content of aggregate sand can enable the mortar in addition to lling the gaps between the sand particles to form a more rigid and homogeneous cementitious matrix carrying a higher load. With a lower void content, the ordinary sand (i.e. FOS-I and FOS-II) and SS help to form more rigid concrete matrix than that of RGC sand, resulting in a higher compressive strength. Secondly, since particles of RGC sand are formed by crushing of larger glass particles, it is possible for RGC particles to have initial cracks and also very at and smooth external surfaces. This could lead to both a reduced bond between the cement paste and the crushed glass particles and weakening due to further internal cracking. 6.2.2. Flexural behaviour Regardless of the aggregate type, failures of tested UHPFRC specimens all exhibited ductile performance under exural strength testing. It is common for UHPFRC exural prisms under four-point bending to fail with the development of a single failure crack between the two loading heads. At the beginning of each test, several ne cracks appeared on the bottom of the prism and only one crack continued to open up to weaken the bre bridging effect. The crack then propagated to the top of the prism section. The crack tip usually ended just beneath one of the loading heads. Fig. 4 shows the typical exural stress versus deection curve obtained using 4-point loading at 28 days. The 90 C specimens can be seen to achieve a higher exural strength and a greater decreasing rate of exural stress after the ultimate exural stress is reached. The 20 C specimens were seen to achieve a lower exural strength and this decreases more slowly after the ultimate exural stress is reached.

Fig. 6. Density of hardened UHPFRC of SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC.

Fig. 7. Ratio of compressive strength to exural strength versus age.

Fig. 5. Flexural strength versus age of UHPFRC: effect of replacement of sand aggregate with SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC.

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6.2.2.1. Flexural strength. The exural strengths of silica-sandUHPFRC and ordinary-sand-UHPFRC were not found to be signicantly different but the exural strength of glass-UHPFRC was observed to be about 10% lower. Fig. 5 shows the development of exural strength versus the age of UHPFRC with aggregate of SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC. Under 90 C curing, the exural strength of all four groups did not change signicantly with age and the mean exural strength of SS, FOS-II, FOS-I and RGC specimens was 23.5 MPa, 24.8 MPa, 23.3 MPa and 21.0 MPa, respectively. Under 20 C curing, for all types of sand, the increase in strength with curing age from 7 days to 56 days was limited to 4 MPa, and a strength gap about 4 MPa lower from the 90 C curing specimens remained. The ultimate exural strength of UHPFRC is inuenced by the porosity and homogeneity of concrete matrix using different types of aggregate sand. As the bre bridging effect is dominant in carrying further loads after the appearance of cracking, the exural

behaviour of UHPFRC is mainly controlled by the brematrix interactions. This is further governed by various micro-mechanisms including bre bending and rupture, bre debonding and matrix spalling [24]. Since the same steel bres were used throughout in this study and no bre rupture occurred in any of the exural tests, the variation in the exural strength can be attributed to the different homogeneity and porosity of concrete matrix, which affected the bre debonding effect. With a lower void content and better particle distribution, UHPFRC made using SS and ordinary sand (i.e. FOS-I and FOS-II) had a more homogenous matrix than that of UHPFRC made using RGC sand. Furthermore, density measurements indicated that the porosity of RGC specimens was higher than that of SS, FOS-I and FOS-II specimens. Since excessive vibration may cause concentration and segregation of bres [25], the limited vibration time may have resulted in poor compaction of fresh UHPFRC. As shown in Fig. 6, the UHPFRC specimens with SS and ordinary sand (i.e. FOS-I and FOS-II) had a sim-

Fig. 8. Fracture energy versus age of UHPFRC with aggregate of SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC.

Fig. 9. Photos of the failure section from exural testing with a 45 and 90 viewpoint.

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ilar density which leads to a similar exural strength. The higher particle density of RGC but lower density of specimens meant that the glass-UHPFRC had more porous structure which resulted in a lower exural strength. Fig. 7 shows the ratio of exural strength to compressive strength versus age for UHPFRC specimens using SS, FOS-I, FOS-II and RGC aggregate. The ratio remained at approximately 14% for 90 C cured specimens, while for 20 C cured specimens the mean ratio varied approximately with age from 19% to 16%. Hot curing had a greater effect on the compressive strength than on the exural strength. 6.2.2.2. Fracture energy. The fracture energy versus age of UHPFRC specimens is shown in Fig. 8. The fracture energy of specimens using natural aggregate and cured at 90 C was approximately 26000 J/m2. The fracture energy of the specimens using RGC was approximately 30% lower than the specimens using natural sand. Under 20 C curing, the SS specimens showed increasing fracture energy with age and also showed the closest comparison of fracture energy resulting from 90 C and 20 C curing. This only differed by about 1000 J/m2 at 28 days. The FOS-I and the FOS-II specimens did not show the same increase of fracture energy with age as the SS specimens and had more variability. The fracture energy of UHPFRC specimens using SS, FOS-I and FOS-II aggregate was in the expected range of 15,00040,000 J/m2 [26] while the fracture energy of glass-UHPFRC specimens cured at 20 C was approximately 14,000 J/m2. As the fracture energy is closely related to efciency of the bre bond, the variation in fracture energy can be attributed to a different bond action for bres embedded in the concrete matrix. The differences in bond action can be illustrated by examining the orientation of projecting bres of tested specimens across the section, as shown in Fig. 9. It was observed that when viewed from a vertical perspective, the bres were uniformly distributed over the section and there were more irregular voids in the RGC section. When the viewed from a 45 perspective the bres on the sections of SS, FOS-I and FOS-II specimens appeared to be almost vertical to the section plane. For RGC specimens, the bres appeared to keep their original direction in the concrete matrix before being pulled out. The very smooth surface of RGC aggregate can also facilitate the propagation of a crack, initially due to a weaker bond between the glass cullet particles and the cement paste. Subsequently the RGC aggregate could initiate matrix spalling which could further reduce the bre debonding bond effect. 7. Conclusions Expensive silica sand normally used in UHPFRC can be replaced with more economic locally available natural sand, i.e. FOS-I and FOS-II, while maintaining the high mechanical performance and ductile behaviour. Within the parameters of this study, the grading of the ne sand does not signicantly inuence the strength of UHPFRC. However sand with more uniform and spherical particle shape and giving a lower concrete void content will lead to an enhanced owability and more uniform strength development. Although the use of recycled glass for ne aggregate does not produce quite as high mechanical properties as using natural sand, UHPFRC made using recycled glass still has very promising mechanical properties when compared to conventional concrete. This would appear to be largely due to the lower bulk density achieved using recycled glass cullet as a result of the particle shape or the particle size distribution. This could almost certainly be resolved through modication of the grading achieved from the recycled crushing process. However it has to be appreciated that there are increased energy costs incurred in producing a very ne recy-

cled glass product. However, when considering other aspects related both to economy and to the environment, the use of recycled glass in UHPFRC could lead to a more attractive product. With the expansion and maturity of the glass-recycling industry, a small reduction in mechanical properties from using recycled glass must be balanced against cost savings. Alternatively a slight increase in the cost of processing recycled glass into a ner particle size may give the same mechanical properties and still achieve signicant economies. Comparison of the mechanical properties from UHPFRC cured at 90 C and 20 C shows that 20 C cured UHPFRC is approximately 20% lower in compressive strength, 10% lower in exural strength and 15% lower in fracture energy than that of 90 C cured UHPFRC. However, the 20 C cured UHPFRC still has outstanding mechanical properties when compared with conventional concrete. This demonstrates the feasibility of in situ concrete placement, which can take the manufacture of UHPFRC out from the factory and onto a construction site. References
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[23] Bashar T, Ghassan N. Properties of concrete contains mixed colour recycled glass as sand and cement replacement. Construct Build 2008;22:71320. [24] Leung KY, Li VC. Effort of ber inclination on crack bridging stress in ber reinforced brittle matrix composites. J Mech Phys 1992;40:133362.

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