RF Planning

INTRODUCTION TO RF PLANNING
Designing a cellular system - particularly one that incorporates both Macrocellular and Microcellular networks is a delicate balancing exercise. The goal is to achieve optimum use of resources and maximum revenue potential whilst maintaining a high level of system quality. ull consideration must also be given to cost and spectrum allocation limitations. ! properly planned system should allow capacity to be added economically when traffic demand increases. !s every urban environment is different" so is every macrocell and microcell network. #ence informed and accurate planning is essential in order to ensure that the system will provide both the increased capacity and the improvement in network quality where required" especially when deploying Microcellular systems.
$ planning plays a critical role in the %ellular design process. &y doing a proper $ 'lanning by keeping the future growth plan in mind we can reduce a lot of problems that we may encounter in the future and also reduce substantially the cost of optimi(ation. )n the other hand a poorly planned network not only leads to many *etwork problems " it also increases the optimi(ation costs and still may not ensure the desired quality.
TOOLS USED FOR RF PLANNING *etwork 'lanning Tool %+ 'ropagation Tool Traffic Modeling Tool 'ro,ect Management Tool
Network Planning Tool 'lanning tool is used to assist engineers in designing and optimi(ing wireless networks by providing an accurate and reliable prediction of coverage" doing frequency planning automatically" creating neighbor lists etc. +ith a database that takes into account data such as terrain" clutter" and antenna radiation patterns" as well as an intuitive graphical interface" the 'lanning tool gives $ engineers a state-of-the-art tool to. Design wireless networks . 'lan network expansions . )ptimi(e network performance . Diagnose system problems The ma,or tools available in the market are 'lanet" 'egasos" %ell %ad. !lso many vendors have developed 'lanning tools of their own like *etplan by Motorola" T/M0 by /ricsson and so on.
Network Planning Tool (PLANET)
Propagaton Test Kit
The propagation test kit consists of . Test transmitter. . !ntenna 1 generally )mni 2. . $eceiver to scan the $00 1$eceived signal levels2. The receiver scanning rate should be settable so that it satisfies 3ee4s law. . ! laptop to collect data. . ! 5'0 to get latitude and longitude. . %ables and accessories. . +attmeter to check 60+$. ! single frequency is transmitted a predetermined power level from the canditate site. These transmitted power levels are then measured and collected by the Drive test kit. This data is then loaded on the 'lanning tool and used for tuning models.
Propagaton Test Kit
Tra i! "o#eling Tool
Traffic modelling tool is used by the planning engineer for *etwork modelling and dimensioning. 7t helps the planning engineer to calculate the number of network elements needed to fulfil coverage" capacity and quality needs. *etdim by *okia is an example of a Traffic modelling tool.
Pro$e!t "anage%ent Tool
Though not directly linked to $ Design 'lanning" it helps in scheduling the $ Design process and also to know the status of the pro,ect 0ite database - This includes $ data" site acquisition"power" civil "etc. 7nventory %ontrol ault tracking inance Management
RF PLANNING PROCEDURES
RF PLANNING PROCEDURE
PRELIMINARY WORK Propagation tool set&p 0et up the planning tool hardware. This includes the server and or clients which may be 8*79 based. 0etup the plotter and printer to be used.
Terrain' (l&tter' )e!tor #ata a!*&isition an# set&p 'rocure the terrain" clutter and vector data in the required resolution. 0etup these data on the planning tool. Test to see if they are displayed properly and printed correctly on the plotter.
PRELIMINARY WORK Set&p site tra!king #ata+ase This is done using 'ro,ect management or site management databases. This is the central database which is used by all relevant department" vi(. $ " 0ite acquisition" 'ower" %ivil engineering etc" and avoids data mismatch.
Loa# %aster lease site lo!ations in #ata+ase 7f predetermined friendly sites that can be used are available" then load this data into the site database.
PRELIMINARY WORK "arketing Anal,sis an# GOS #eter%ination Marketing analysis is mostly done by the customer. 5rowth plan is provided which lists the pro,ected subscriber growth in phases. 5)0 is determined in agreement with the customer 1generally the 5)0 is taken as :;2 &ased on the marketing analysis" 5)0 and number of carriers as inputs" the network design is carried out. -oning Anal,sis This involves studying the height restrictions for antenna heights in the design area.
PRELIMINARY WORK Set Initial Link .&#get 3ink &udget !nalysis is the process of analy(ing all ma,or gains and losses in the forward and reverse link radio paths. 7nputs &ase station < mobile receiver sensitivity parameters !ntenna gain at the base station < mobile station. #ardware losses1%able" connector" combiners etc2. Target coverage reliabilty. ade margins. )utput Maximum allowable path loss.
PRELIMINARY WORK Initial !ell ra#i&s !al!&lation 8sing link budget calculation" the maximum allowable path loss is calculated. 8sing )kumura hata emprical formula" the initial cell radius can be calculated.
Initial !ell !o&nt esti%ates )nce the cell radius is known" the area covered by one site can be easily calculated. &y dividing the total area to be covered by the area of each cell" a initial estimate of the number of cells can be made.
INITIAL SURVEY "orp/olog, De inition Morphology describes the density and height of man made or natural obstructions. Morphology is used to more accurately predict the path loss. 0ome morphology area definitions are 8rban" 0uburban" rural" open etc. Density also applies to morphology definitions like dense urban" light suburban" commercial etc. This basically leads to a number of sub-area formation where the link budget will differ and hence the cell radius and cell count will differ.
"orp/olog, Dri0e Test This drive test is done to prepare generic models for network design. Drive test is done to characteri(e the propagation and fading effects. The ob,ective is to collect field data to optimi(e or ad,ust the prediction model for preliminary simulations. ! test transmitter and a receiver is used for this purpose. The received signals are typically sampled 1 around => samples in ?> 2.
PROPAGATION MODEL
Propagation Tool A#$&st%ent The data collected by drive testing is used to prepare generic models. or a given network design there may be more than one model like dense-urban" urban" suburban" rural" highway etc. The predicted and measured signal strengths are compared and the model ad,usted to produce minimum error. These models are then used for initial design of the network.
INITIAL DESIGN (o%plete Initial (ell Pla!e%ent 'lanning of cell sites sub-area depending on clutter type and traffic required. R&n Propagation Anal,sis 8sing generic models prepared by drive testing < prop test" run predictions for each cell depending on morphology type to predict the coverage in the given sub-areas. 'lanning tool calculates the path loss and received signal strength using %o-ordinates of the site location" 5round elevation above mean sea level" !ntenna height above ground" !ntenna radiation pattern 1vertical < hori(ontal2 < antenna orientation" 'ower radiated from the antenna.
INITIAL DESIGN Reset (ell Pla!e%ent( I#eal Sites) !ccording to the predictions change the cell placements to design the network for contigious coverage and appropriate traffic. S,ste% (o0erage "aps 'repare presentations as follows &ackground on paper showing area M!' which include highways" main roads etc. 'hase @ sites layout on transparency. 'hase @ sites composite coverage prediction. 'hase : sites layout transparency. 'hase : composite coverage prediction on transparency. 7f more phases follow the same procedure.
INITIAL DESIGN Design Re0iew 1it/ T/e (lient 7nitial design review has to be carried out with the client so that he agrees to the basic design of the network. During design review" first put only the background map which is on paper. Then step by step put the site layout and coverage prediction. Display may show some coverage holes in phase @ which should get solved in phase : .
SELECTION OF SITES Prepare Initial Sear!/ Ring *ote the latitude and longitude from planning tool. 5et the address of the area from mapping software. $elease the search ring with details like radius of search ring" height of antenna etc. Release sear!/ rings to pro$e!t %anage%ent )isit rien#l, site lo!ations 7f there are friendly sites available that can be used 1infrastructure sharing2" then these sites are to be given preference. 7f these sites suite the design requirements" then visit these sites first.
SELECTION OF SITES Sele!t Initial An!/or Sites 7nitial anchor sites are the sites which are very important for the network buildup" /g - 0ites that will also work as a &0%. Enter Data In Propagation Tool /nter the sites exact location in the planning tool. Per or% Propagation Anal,sis *ow since the site has been selected and the latAlon of the actual site 1 which will be different from the designed site2 is known" put this site in the planning tool and predict coverage. %heck to see that the coverage ob,ectives are met as per prediction.
SELECTION OF SITES Reset 2 Re0iew Sear!/ Rings 7f the prediction shows a coverage hole 1 as the actual site may be shifted from the designed site2" the surrounding search rings can be resetted and reviewed. (an#i#ate site )isit( A0erage 3 per ring) or each proposed location" surveys should carried out and at least B suitable site candidates identified. Details of each candidate should be recorded on a copy of the 0ite 'roposal orm for that site. Details must includeC 0ite name and option letter 0ite location 13at.A3ong2 C &uilding #eight C 0ite address and contact number C #eight of surrounding clutter C Details of potential coverage effecting obstructions or other comments1!" &" %"...2
SELECTION OF SITES Dri0e Test An# Re0iew .est (an#i#ate 7n order to verify that a candidate site" selected based on its predicted coverage area" is actually covering all ob,ective areas" drive test has to be performed. Drive test also points to potential interference problems or handover problems for the site. The test transmitter has to be placed at the selected location with all parameters that have been determined based on simulations. Drive test all ma,or roads and critical areas like convention centers" ma,or business areas" roads etc. Take a plot of the data and check for sufficient signal strength" sufficient overlaps and splashes1 least inteference to other cells2.
SELECTION OF SITES Dri0e Test Integration The data obtained from the drive test has to be loaded on the planning tool and overlapped with the prediction. This gives a idea of how close the prediction and actual drive test data match. 7f they do not match 1 say D> to E> ;2 then for that site the model may need tuning. )isit Site 1it/ All Dis!iplines( SA' Power' (i0il et! ) ! meeting at the selected site takes place in which all concerned departments like $ /ngineering" 0ite acquisition" 'ower" %ivil /ngineer" %ivil contractor and the site owner is present. !ny ob,ections are taken care off at this point itself.
PRE-CONSTRUCTION STUDIES
Sele!t E*&ip%ent T,pe For Site 0elect equipment for the cell depending on channel requirements 0election of antenna type and accessories. Lo!ate E*&ip%ent On Site For (onstr&!tion Drawing 'lan of the building 1 if site located on the building2 to be made showing equipment placement" cable runs" battery backup placement and antenna mounting positions. !ntenna mounting positions to be shown separately and clearly. Drawings to be checked and signed by the 'lanner" site acquisition" power planner and pro,ect manager.
PRE-CONSTRUCTION STUDIES
Per or% Link .alan!e (al!&lations 3ink balance calculation per cell to be done to balance the uplink and the downlink path. &asically link balance calculation is the same as power budget calculation. The only difference is that on a per cell basis the transmit power of the &T0 may be increased or decreased depending on the pathloss on uplink and downlink. E"I St&#ies 0tudy of $ $adiation exposure to ensure that it is within limits and control of ha(ardous areas. Data sheet to be prepared per cell signed by $ 'lanner and pro,ect manager to be submitted to the appropriate authority.
SYSTEM DESIGN
Ra#io Fre*&en!, Plan2 PN Plan requency planning has to be carried out on the planning tool based on required %A7 and %A! and interference probabilities. S,ste% Inter eren!e Plots %A7" %A!" &est server plots etc has to be plotted. These plots have to be reviewed with the customer to get the frequency plan passed. Final (o0erage Plot This presentation should be the same as design review presentation. This plot is with exact locations of the site in the network.
SYSTEM DESIGN
I#enti i!ation o !o0erage /oles %overage holes can be identified from the plots and subsequent action can be taken1like putting a new site2 to solve the problem.
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Isotropi! RF So&r!e ! point source that radiates $ energy uniformly in all directions 17.e.- in the shape of a sphere2 Theoretical only- does not physically exist. #as a power gain of unity 7.e. >d&i. E e!ti0e Ra#iate# Power (ERP) #as a power gain of unity i.e. >d&i The radiated power from a half-wave dipole. ! lossless half-wave dipole antenna has a power gain of >d&d or :.@=d&i. E e!ti0e Isotropi! Ra#iate# Power (EIRP) T/e ra#iate# power ro% an isotropi! so&r!e /7$' F /$' G :.@= d&
BASIC DEFINITIONS
$adio signals travel through space at the 0peed of 3ight % F B H @>D meters A second requency 1 2 is the number of waves per second 1unit- #ert(2 +avelength 12 1length of one wave2 F 1distance traveled in one second2 1waves in one second2 F % A 7f frequency is E>>M#I then wavelength F B H @>D E>> H @>J F >.BBB meters
BASIC DEFINITIONS
#. d& is a a relative unit of measurement used to describe power gain or loss. The d& value is calculated by taking the log of the ratio of the measured or calculated power 1':2 with respect to a reference power 1'@2. This result is then multiplied by @> to obtain the value in d&. d& F @> H log@>1'@A':2 The powers '@ ad ': must be in the same units. 7f the units are not compatible" then they should be transformed. /qual power corresponds to >d&. ! factor of : corresponds to Bd& 7f '@ F B>+ and ': F @= + then @> H log@>1'@A':2 F @> H @> H log@>1B>A@=2 F:
BASIC DEFINITIONS
#.% The most common Kdefined referenceK use of the decibel is the d&m" or decibel relative to one milliwatt. 7t is different from the d& because it uses the same specific" measurable power level as a reference in all cases" whereas the d& is relative to either whatever reference a particular user chooses or to no reference at all. ! d& has no particular defined reference while a d&m is referenced to a specific quantity- the milliwatt 1@A@>>> of a watt2. The 7/// definition of d&m is Ka unit for expression of power level in decibels with reference to a power of @ milliwatt.K The d&m is merely an expression of power present in a circuit relative to a known fixed amount 1i.e." @ milliwatt2 and the circuit impedance is irrelevant.L
BASIC DEFINITIONS
#.% d&m F @> log 1'2 1@>>> m+Awatt2 where d&m F 'ower in d& referenced to @ milliwatt ' F 'ower in watts 7f power level is @ milliwatt'ower1d&m2 F @> log 1>.>>@ watt2 1@>>> m+Awatt2 F @> log 1@2 F @> 1>2 F> Thus a power level of @ milliwatt is > d&m. 7f the power level is @ watt @ watt 'ower in d&m F @> log 1@ watt2 1@>>> m+Awatt2 F @> 1B2 F B>
BASIC DEFINITIONS
#.% d&m F @> log 1'2 1@>>> m+Awatt2 The d&m can also be negative value. 7f power level is @ microwatt 'ower in d&m F @> log 1@ x @>/-J watt2 1@>>> m+Awatt2 F -B> d&m 0ince the d&m has a defined reference it can be converted back to watts if desired. 0ince it is in logarithmic form it may also be conveniently combined with other d& terms.
BASIC DEFINITIONS
#.02% To convert field strength in dbvAm to received power in d&m with a => optimum terminal impedance and effective length of a half wave dipole A >d&u F @> logM1@>-J2:1@>>>21A2:A1?H=>2N d&m !t D=>M#I >d&u F -@B: d&m BEd&u F -EB d&m
FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

Friis For%&la 'r F 't 5t5r: 1?d2: Propagation Loss 3p F @>log M?d A N:
Gt Pt Lp d Gr Pr
The square term is the propagation exponent. 7t is greater than : when obstructions exist. Propagation Loss in #.4 3 p F B:.?? G :>3og1d2 G:>3og1f2 f F M#( d F km
PROPAGATION MECHANISMS
Re le!tion )ccurs when a wave impinges upon a smooth surface. Dimensions of the surface are large relative to . $eflections occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls. Di ra!tion (S/a#owing) )ccurs when the path is blocked by an ob,ect with large dimensions relative to and sharp irregularities 1edges2. 0econdary OwaveletsP propagate into the shadowed region. Diffraction gives rise to bending of waves around the obstacle. S!attering )ccurs when a wave impinges upon an ob,ect with dimensions on the order of or less" causing the reflected energy to spread out orOscatterP in many directions. 0mall ob,ects such as street lights" signs" < leaves cause scattering
MULTIPATH
Multiple +aves %reate OMultipathP Due to propagation mechanisms" multiple waves arrive at the receiver 0ometimes this includes a direct 3ine-of-0ight 13)02 signal
MULTIPATH
"&ltipat/ Propagation Multipath propagation causes large and rapid fluctuations in a signal These fluctuations are not the same as the propagation path loss. "&ltipat/ !a&ses t/ree %a$or t/ings $apid changes in signal strength over a short distance or time. $andom frequency modulation due to Doppler 0hifts on different multipath signals. Time dispersion caused by multipath delays These are called Ofading effects Multipath propagation results in small-scale fading.
WHAT IS FADING ?
The communication between the base station and mobile station in mobile systems is mostly non-3)0. The 3)0 path between the transmitter and the receiver is affected by terrain and obstructed by buildings and other ob,ects. The mobile station is also moving in different directions at different speeds. The $ signal from the transmitter is scattered by reflection and diffraction and reaches the receiver through many non-3)0 paths. This non-3)0 path causes long-term and short term fluctuations in the form of log-normal fading and rayleigh and rician fading" which degrades the performance of the $ channel.
WHAT IS FADING ?
Signal Power (dBm)
Large scale a!"#g c$%&$#e#'
S%all scale a!"#g c$%&$#e#'
LONG TERM FADING

Terrain configuration < man made environment causes long-term fading. Due to various shadowing and terrain effects the signal level measured on a circle around base station shows some random fluctuations around the mean value of received signal strength. The long-term fades in signal strength" r" caused by configuration and man made environments form a distribution" i.e the mean received signal strength" r" normally in d& if the signal strength is measured over a at least ?>. the terrain log-normal varies logdistance of
/xperimentally it has been determined that the standard deviation" " of the mean received signal strength" r" lies between D to @: d& with the higher generally found in large urban areas.
RAYLEIGH FADING
This phenomenon is due to multipath propagation of the signal. The $ayleigh fading is applicable to obstructed propagation paths. !ll the signals are *3)0 signals and there is no dominant direct path. 0ignals from all paths have comparable signal strengths. The instantaneous received power seen by a moving antenna becomes a random variable depending on the location of the antenna.
RICEAN FADING
This phenomenon is due to multipath propagation of the signal. 7n this case there is a partially scattered field. )ne dominant signal. )thers are weaker.
DOPPLERS SHIFT
Dopplers shift is the shift in frequency due to the motion of mobile from the actual carrier frequency. %onsider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v along a path segment having a length d between points 9 and Q while it receives signal from a remote source 0.
S
( ! Y
The %hange in frequency due to dopplers shift is given by fd F 1vA2 H cos12 7t can be seen from the above equation that if the mobile is moving towards the direction of arrival of wave the dopplers shift is positive 7.e. the apparent received frequency is increased. .
LIN) BUDGET PLANNING AND INITIAL CELL ESTIMATES
WHY LIN) BUDGET ANALYSIS?

3ink budget analysis provides . %overage design thresholds . /7$' needed to balance the path . Maximum allowable path loss 7t is important that the uplink and downlink paths be balanced" otherwise not enough signal will survive the transmission process to achieve the required signal to noise ratio10*$2 or the bit-errorrate1&/$2. 'ath imbalance results from the facts that the gains and losses in the uplink and downlink paths are not the same. The calculations have to be done separately on the uplink and the downlink.
THE RF PATH
PBS Path Loss Downlink Noise Fading nter!eren"e PMS Path Loss Uplink
MS Sensitivity
BS Sensitivity
THE RF PATH
INPUTS &ase station and Mobile receiver 0ensitivity 'arameters . Minimum acceptable 0ignal to *oise ratio . /nvironmental A Thermal *oise . $eceiver *oise figure !ntenna gain at the base station and mobile station. #ardware 3osses 1%able " %onnectors" %ombiners" Duplexers etc2 Target %overage reliability. ade margins.
OUTPUTS &ase station /$' Maximum allowable path loss %ell si(e estimates %ell count estimates
GAINS AND LOSSES

Gains &ase station !ntenna gain Mobile antenna gain Diversity gains Losses #ardware losses . %ombiner . %ables . %onnectors . Duplexer !ir 7nterface . ade Margin 7n-car 7n-building &ody 3oss . 'enetration 3osses
ANTENNA GAINS
"o+ile Station Antenna 'ortable mobile phones antenna have typically gain of > to @ d&d. %ar mounted antenna has a typical gain of @ to B d&d.
.ase Station Antenna )mni directional antenna typically have a gain of >-Ed&d. Directional antenna typically have a gain of E to @? d&d.
DIVERSITY GAIN
Diversity is used on the uplink to overcome deep fades due to multipath by combining multiple uncorrelated signals. Diversity antenna systems are used mostly at the &T0 on the uplink. Diversity antenna system can be realised by physically separating two receive antenna in space or by using polari(ation diversity. Diversity gain should be considered in 3ink &udget !nalysis whenever it is used. Typically a gain of Bd& is considered whenever diversity is used in the 8plink calculation.
CABLES
Rumper cable Main cable
$adio /quipment
CABLE LOSS
Two types of cables are used" maincable and ,umper cable. %able losses are given in per @>>feet. Rumper cable have more loss than main cable. %able loss is also dependant on frequency
S &% '%#(MM%ND%D US% L(SS0.,, Feet +,,M-& ./,,M-&
:.@J>d& @.:@d& >.S=d& @.ESd& @.:=d&
#$BL% )*P%
3D ?-=> 3D =-=> 3D S-=>
@A: inch #eliax oam Rumper cable SAD inch #eliax oam Main cable T ==M @ =AD inch #eliax oam Main cable T E>m
CONNECTOR * COMBINER LOSS

(onne!tor Loss %onnectors used to connect $ components have a typical loss of >.@d& each. (o%+iner Loss ! combiner is a device that enables several transmitters of different frequencies to transmit from the same antenna. Two types of combiners are available. #ybrid combiners combine two inputs to one output. #ybrid combiners have a typical insertion loss of Bd&. %avity combiners combine more input to one output 1 typically = inputs2 %avity combiners have around Bd& loss. %avity combiners cannot be used in cells where synthesi(er frequency hopping is used.
DUPLE(ER
! duplexer enables simultaneous transmission and reception of signals on the same antenna . 7t provides isolation between the transmitted and received signal. Duplexers typically have a insertion loss of >.= to @ d&
T,- R,
D+&le,er
T, R,
Ra!"$ U#"'
BODY LOSS
or all receiving environments a loss associated with the effect of users body on propagation has to be used 7.e proximity of the user with the mobile. This effect is in the form of few d& loss in both the uplink and downlink directions. &ody loss is typically taken as : d& .
PENETRATION LOSSES
'enetration losses depend on the location of the subscriber with respect to the site. 5enerally B types of scenarios are taken into consideration vi(. 7nbuilding" 7n-car and on street. &ody loss is also a type of penetration loss .
Penetration Loss 7n-&uilding 'enetration 1d&2 7n-car 'enetration 1d&2 &ody 3oss 1d&2
Loss @= B-@> :-=
Fade Mar gin Calculat ion

(ell Area Pro+a+ilit, %ell area probability 1%!' 2 is the percentage of the cell area that has signal strength greater than the receiver sensitivity. %!' is dependent on the radio environment" primarily the standard deviation of the log normal faded signal 12 and the propagation loss constant 1n2 The %!' is calculated using the following equation '%!FU 1 @G erf 1a2 G exp 1 +here'%! a
1a23. 21
21@ - erf1
a23. 2
222
%ell area probability

MF$D%

(ell Area Pro+a+ilit, & M n
!D/
.,nLog.,(e) 1
ade margin applied 0tandard deviation of received signal 'ropagation constant

O&t#oor Fa#e "argin The outdoor fade margin depends on the standard deviation of the lognormal shadowing and the propagation constant The propagation constant depends on the environment and the frequency. or urban areas propagation constant varies from :.S to = " with a typical value of = for both D=> Mh( and @E>> Mh(. 0tandard deviation also varies on environment and frequency " and may vary slightly with frequency. The urban areas have higher standard deviation than rural areas. Typical value ranges from =-@:d& with a typical value of Dd& )utdoor fade margin can be calculated using a plot of the %!' equation. The next figure shows the %!' plot for a propagation constant of B.= and standard deviation of =" D and @:. rom the figure fade margin to be applied to the 3ink &udget may be selected depending on the standard of the received signal.

O&t#oor Fa#e "argin
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY
This figure is provided by the equipment vendor. $eceiver sensitivity is the ability of the receiver to receive signals in the sense that any signal below the sensitivity is considered as noise and is not usable. $eceiver sensitivity is given by 0 F !ntenna *oise1d&m2 G $eceiver *oise igure1d&2 G %A*1d&2 0 F the receivers sensitivity %A* F %arrier to noise ration required in the presence to achieve a specified &/$. !ntenna *oise1d&m2 F @>log1kT&2 +here k F &otl(mann constant @.BD 9 @>-:> milli Roules A Velvin T F $oom temperature in degrees kelvin & F &andwidth in #(
UPLIN)
"A5I"U" ALLO1A.LE PAT6 LOSS( "APL) ON UPLINK
MS A#'e##a ga"# .Gm / B$!0 L$ss .L2ody / I#-2+"l!"#g - Car &e#e'ra'"$# L$ss .LBldg / Fa!e Marg"# .M!ade / Ga"# $ rece"1e a#'e##a .G'$ / D"1ers"'0 ga"# .GD /
Ca2le3C$##ec'$r a#! C$%2"#er l$sses .L### /
M$PLUP 4 Pm 3 Gm 5 LBody 5 LBldg 5 M!ade 3 G'$ 3 GD 5 L### 3 ''e"eiver Sensitivity
IN A NUTSHELL
DO1NLINK Transmitter power %ombiner loss %able loss1includes ,umper and connector loss2 Transmit !ntenna gain ade margin &ody loss Mobile antenna gain Mobile receiver sensitivity UPLINK Mobile Transmit power Mobile antenna gain &ody 3oss ade Margin $eceive antenna gain %able loss1includes ,umper and connector loss2 &T0 receiver sensitivity
LIN) BUDGET SHEET

L"#42+!ge' F$r Ge#eral P+r&$se
Downlink (BTS to MS)

BTS Tx power Combining loss Feeder loss BTS antenna gain T$'al EIRP 43 dBm 3 dB dB !" dBi ## dBm
Uplink (MS to BTS)

MS Tx power MS antenna gain T$'al EIRP 33 dBm 0 dBi 33 dBm
BTS antenna gain Feeder loss
!" dBi dB
MS $x Sensiti%it& MS antenna gain
'!0 dBm 0 dBi
Di%ersit& gain BTS $x Sensiti%it&
3 dB '!0"(00 dBm
Fading margin *enetration +oss ,ntenna-bod& loss
) dB 0 dB dB
Fading margin *enetration +oss ,ntenna-bod& loss
) dB 0 dB dB
Ma,5 all$6e! &a'7l$ss L"#4 2ala#ce .!$6#l"#4 - +&l"#4/
!4.(00 dB
Ma,5 all$6e! &a'7l$ss
!#0(00 dB
'!(00 dB
CELL SI8E-COUNT ESTIMATION

)nce the Maximum allowable pathloss is known" the achievable cell si(e can be evaluated. %ell radius is calculated using M!'3 and #ata4s empirical formula. %ell radius is the distance from base station where the path loss equals M!'3. &eyond this radius" the signal is too weak to be acceptable. /ach area has a different correction factor. !lso the coverage ob,ectives are usually different for 8rban" 0uburban and $ural areas. Therefore M!'3 has to be calculated for each area and then cell si(e determined separately. )nce the cell radius is calculated" cell count estimates can be made.
HATA9S EMPIRICAL FORMULA

'3 F JE.== G:J.Jlog@>fc - @B.D:log@>hb G 1??.E - J.==log@>hb2 log@>$ a1hm2 -% where fc - requency in M#I hb - Transmitter antenna height hm - $eceiver antenna height $ - $adius in Vm a1hm2 is the correction factor for effective mobile antenna height 0olving backwards the cell radius is given by log@>$ F M!'3 G% - JE.== G:J.Jlog@>fc G @B.D:log@>hb G a1hm2 1??.E - J.==log@>hb2
INITIAL CELL COUNT

)nce the cell radius for each area is calculated" then the minimum number of cells required to provide coverage can be determined. or each area ! F :.J$: +here $ - radius of cell ! - !rea of the corresponding hexagon. %ell count F 8rban !rea1Vm:2 G 0uburban area1Vm:2 G $ural !rea1Vm:2 !urban1Vm:2 !suburban1Vm:2 !rural1Vm:2
DRIVE TEST FOR MODEL TUNING
INTRODUCTION
Drive test types
'redesign drive test
'ostdesign drive test
'redesign drive test for measurement integration This is at beginning of design when no site has been built or even selected. !ll test sites are temporary. Drive test is performed mostly for characteri(ation of propagation and fading effects in the channel. The ob,ect is to collect field data to optimi(e and ad,ust the prediction model for preliminary simulations. 'ost design drive test for site verification A optimi(ation Drive test is performed to verify if they meet the coverage ob,ectives.
INTRODUCTION
7n field measurement we have to collect variations due to propagation and slow fading. The received signals are typically sampled and averaged over spatial windows called bins. There are several sampling issues to be considered like Sa%pling rate A0eraging win#ow N&%+er o +ins to +e %eas&re#
SAMPLING CRITEREA
+hen measuring the $ signal strength certain sampling criterea must be met to eliminate the short-term fading components from the longterm component 1 7.e. log normal fading 2 The $ signal strength measurements must be taken over a radio path or mobile path distance interval of ?>" where is the wavelength of the $ signal. 7f the distance interval is too short" the short term variation cannot be smoothed out and will affect the local mean. 7f the distance interval is too long" the averaged output cannot represent the local mean since it washes out the detailed signal changes due to the terrain variations. The number of $ measurements taken within the ?> distance should be greater than =>. Depending on the speed of the vehicle during the drive test" the sampling interval in time is selected. Measurements have to be stopped whenever the vehicle is not moving.
SAMPLING CRITEREA
f F @E>>M#I" then F B H @>D A @E>> H @>J F >.@=D m ?> F ?> H >.@=D F J.B: m => measurements must be recorded every J.B:m or @ measurement every >.@:J?m The conversion from sampling distance to mobile velocity can be done as follows minimum sampling rate 1 per second 2 F v A 1>.@:J? mAsample2 7f velocity of vehicle is => kph then 0ampling rate1 per second 2 F 1=>>>>A BJ>>2 A >.@:J? F @@> samples A sec T/M0 kit cannot be used for this purpose as it can report $ signal strength measurements at a maximum rate of @ sample per second 7f
WINDOW SI8E
7n field measurements the interest is on local averages of received signals. The si(e of averaging window have to be small enough to capture slow variations due to shadowing and large enough to average out the fast variations due to multipath. ! typical range is :> to @=>> m. The bin si(e is typically selected in ?> to @=>>m" i.e. all measurements in this si(e square are averaged to one value. *ormally the post processing tool takes care of averaging the collected data over different bins.
NUMBER OF BINS
Bin
The predicted and measured signal strengths for all bins within the drive route is compared and the best set of correction factors to minimi(e the prediction errors is determined. !ll the bins within the coverage area cannot be drive tested. 0o a large enough sample set should be considered. The more the number of bins" the larger the confidence level of results. 5enerally for acceptable confidence at least B>> to ?>> bins have to be considered.
PROPAGATION )IT
The propagation test kit consists of . Test transmitter. . !ntenna 1 generally )mni 2. . $eceiver to scan the $00 1$eceived signal levels2. The receiver scanning rate should be settable so that it satisfies 3ee4s law. . ! laptop to collect data. . ! 5'0 to get latitude and longitude. . %ables and accessories. . +attmeter to check 60+$.
Rece"1er A#'e##a Tra#s%"' A#'e##a
GPS A#'e##a
Tra#s%"''er
RECEIVER
LAPTOP
CABLE INTEGRITY TEST
TEST TRANSMITTER
WATTMETER
:; O7%s 'er%"#a'"$#
%able integrity is checked by measuring 60+$. ! good known cable is connected from the test transmitter to the wattmeter. The cable under test is placed between the wattmeter < => )hms load. orward and reverse power levels are measured and 60+$ can be calculated as 60+$ F 1 @ G '$A' 2A1@ - '$A' 2. /ach cable should be checked and any that exhibit greater than @.: - @ 60+$ must be replaced. %able integrity check must be performed on all ,umpers and antenna feedlines.
CABLE LOSS
TEST TRANSMITTER Ca2le A :; O7%s 'er%"#a'"$# WATTMETER
!ll cables used for testing must be measured and clearly labelled with insertion loss before they are used. These are normal wear items and so it is important to replace any cables that become kinked or frayed or that are worn or damaged connectors. 0tep @ %onnected a cable W!4 directly to the wattmeter. Terminate the other end of the wattmeter with a => ohms resistance. 7nsert @ +att element in forward position. !d,ust to full deflection . $ecord reading W!4
CABLE LOSS
TEST TRANSMITTER Ca2le A Ca2le B '$ 2e 'es'e!
:; O7%s 'er%"#a'"$
WATTMETER
0tep : %onnect cable W&4 as shown. Turn transmitter on. $ecord reading W&4. %able 3oss for cable & in d& F @> log@>1&A!2
TRANSMITTER SETUP
7f the propagation test is being done for model tuning to produce a generic model for macro cells" then a high point in the particular area has to be selected. The transmitter and the transmit antenna will be placed at this point 1say the roof of the building 2. The transmit antenna is connected to the transmitter via a $ cable. %heck to see that the cable is connected properly and tight. 3oosely connected or faulty cable can increase the 60+$. ! test frequency has to selected from the frequency band allocated to the operator. 0et the transmitter to this test frequency.
TEST TRANSMITTER
TEST SITE SELECTION

0ite selection is based on a number of criteria. 7t may not be possible to satisfy all these criteria at the same time" but it is important to select the best sites available. Drive test sites should be selected to give a good representative sample of the system coverage area. The exact number of sites required will depend on the si(e of the system coverage area and the variability of the characteristics of the coverage area. !ll terrain and clutter types in the area should be represented in the drive test data for proper prediction tuning. . Typical terrain types are- lat" $olling #ills" 3arge #ills" Mountains . Typical clutter types are- +ater" )pen 3and" orest" %ommercial A 7ndustrial" 3ow Density 8rban" Medium Density 8rban" #igh Density 8rban" %ity %enter" !irport. %ity maps" topographical maps and aerial photographs can be useful in determining the terrain and clutter types for an area. 7t may also be necessary to drive the area and observe building types and density.
TEST SITE SELECTION

Site A0aila+ilit, Test sites must be available for use during the drive test. The site ownerAsupervisor should approve access to the site for as long as needed to complete the testing. This may involve multiple visits to the site" possibly on short notice. Test sites must also be physically accessible to allow setup of the transmitter equipment and mounting of the antenna. or this reason building top sites are preferred to tower sites.
Site )isit /ach site selected should be visited before testing to verify that is suitable for use. The inspection should be done by the same people who will be doing the site setup for the actual drive test. amiliarity with the site should speed up the site setup during the drive test.
BUILDING SITE SELECTION
+hen inspecting a building site the rooftop should be checked for any obstructions that would interfere with signal propagation. This could include ob,ects on the rooftop itself or other nearby buildings or structures. The antenna location should be selected and a sketch of the rooftop made to identify this location relative to other ob,ects nearby. 'hotographs should be taken of the location where the antenna will be mounted and in all directions looking away from the site.
BUILDING SITE SELECTION
TOWER SITE SELECTION
+hen inspecting a tower site the best location to mount the antenna to the tower must be deter-mined. This should be selected such that the tower doesn4t interfere with the propagation pattern of the transmit antenna. This will usually require that the antenna be above the tower or on an arm extending from the side of the tower. The area around the tower should be checked for any obstructions that would interfere with signal propagation.
TEMPORARY STRUCTURE
5enerally cranes are used for temporary structure. +hen cranes are used power generators have to be arranged in advance. The location should be selected such that the antenna will be above any nearby obstacles.
TEMPORARY STRUCTURE
DRIVE TEST PLAN

/ach drive route should be marked on a detailed road map showing the exact route to be driven. These maps should be used during the actual drive for navigation of the test vehicle. They can also be used during the verification to check that the positioning information in the drive test drive test file is correct. ! separate map should be prepared for each route. &oth line of site 13)02 and non-3)0 points have to be included in the drive test. The data collected should represent typical coverage scenarios. 7n urban area the effect of street orientations have to be considered. The selection of drive test route should be based on the terrain variations" Ma,or highways and throughfares" potential shadowing areas and handoff region.
DRIVE TEST PROCEDURE

The actual dive test must be performed carefully to insure that the data collected is accurate. 7t is important that all equipment used be tested and all setup information be recorded. 7f any of the procedures are not followed or any of the data is not properly recorded then the drive test data will not be usable and the drive will have to be repeated. /ngineer should study the drive test plan ahead of time and highlight the intended drive test routes. or each drive test a team of two people should get involved. The measurement process should be stopped the car stops 1 eg near traffic lights2 or whenever the sampling and measurements look suspect.
DRIVE TEST OUTPUT

Lat 9@ 9: 9B Long Q@ Q: QB 'SS M@ M: MB Fre6
The result of drive test is a collection of data files which has lat" long" $eceived 0ignal 0trength 7ndicator1$0072 at that point and the frequency. The location information 1 lat" long 2 is used by the post processing tools as a reference of correlation between the measured vs. predicted signal levels for measurement integration. This file has to be transferred onto the planning tool either by a floppy or by data transfer using 3!*.
DRIVE TEST OUTPUT
COMPUTER MODELING
INTRODUCTION
Models are used to predict path loss. Different models are used for different purpose. /g-- $ural Macro-cell -)kumura hata model" Microcells - $ay tracing Models have to be tuned using data collected by drive testing. 5ood propagation tool G 0ound engineering ingenuity F 0ound $ design. 0ome of the popular prediction models are )kumura hata" +alfisch 7kegemi" %)0T:B@" $ay tracing etc.
COMPUTER MODELLING
Ok&%&ra 6ata "o#el This is used for Macro cell modeling. 7t has become the most popular propagation model for mobile environments. 7t is best applicable for cell ranges of = to :> kms. &elow a range of @ km it becomes very unreliable since obstacles in the close vicinity of receiver and transmitter become the dominant scattering influences which are not taken into account in the formula. 'ath loss F V@ G V:log1d2 G VBlog1#eff2 G V? H Diff G V=log1#eff2log1d2 G VJlog1#meff2 GVSlog1f2 G Vmorphology V@ - @Vm intercept value. 8pto this point model assumes free space loss V: - 0lope value VB - /ffective height coefficient V? - %oefficient for diffraction calculation V= - #ata model multiplier
COMPUTER MODELLING
1al is/7Ikega%i "o#el +alfish and 7kegami is a propagation model used in urban environment. 7t takes into account near-by building structures. 7t assumes a regular grid pattern throughout the city. The model has four main parameters. &uilding separation 1in meters21b2 - 7t is the distance between the centre of two buildings. . !verage building height 1h2 - This is the average height of all buildings in the cell4s coverage area. . $oad width 1w2 . $oad orientation angle 1 2 The model has separate equations for 3)0 and *3)0 conditions. 7n *3)0 roof-top-to-street diffraction and scatter loss and multi-screen diffraction loss for the immediate surroundings at mobile4s location are taken into account.
COMPUTER MODELLING
d
/ w b
Wal "s7 I4ega%" M$!el
COMPUTER MODELLING
Ra, Tra!ing 7n microcellular environments cells are generally location below rooftops and average cell coverage area is around @ Vm or less. This makes it difficult to do coverage predictions. Most of the popular models like )kumara #ata model have been found to be unreliable in such conditions. 7n any statistical analysis a large sample is required inorder to get reliable results. 7n microcellular environment situations change rapidly in the small coverage area making it difficult to provide reliable results using any statistical models. Deterministic models have been created inorder to overcome this problem.
COMPUTER MODELLING
Ra, Tra!ing $ay tracing is one such method and is used commonly in microcellular environments. $ay tracing follows a certain number of rays from the point of transmission to the point under calculation.There are different threshold for the number of rays to be taken in consideration as the ray becomes negligible after it has experienced a certain number of reflections. There are primarily two methods for ray tracing - $ay launching and mirror image methods. or the method of ray launching a receiving circle is defined . The rays that cross this circle are taken into account when evaluating field strength level at the centre of the circle. The limitations of this method are that the map has to be precise" the buildings have to be modelled reliably and the computational load might turn out to be enormous. This is especially the case when a large number of reflections have to be taken into account.
COMPUTER MODELLING
Ra, La&n!/ing "et/o#
$e0ei%ing Cir0le
single point signal so1r0e
COMPUTER MODELLING
"ODEL TUNING 'ropagation models use clutter and terrain data to predict cell coverage at a site. #owever usually the terrain and clutter data available from the maps are not perfect. This means that the actual cell coverage could be different from the predicted cell coverage. This could in turn result in wrong cell designing. To avoid this model tuning is done. 7n model tuning data collected from the propagation test is loaded on the planning tool. This data represents the real life condition cell coverage. The prediction for that cell is then done using the same conditions as were for the propagation tests 1i.e. using the same antenna type" same height of the antenna at the site" same downtilts" same transmit power etc. 2.
COMPUTER MODELLING
"ODEL TUNING 7deally both the propagation test cell coverage and the predicted cell coverage should match. 7f they match then the model does not require to be tuned. 7f the models do not match then the certain parameters in the propagation model equation are altered so that they both match. )nce both the cell coverage match the model is then said to be tuned. *ow the actual antenna type" height of antenna" transmit power are used and prediction done. This prediction can then be assumed to be correct. %ell designing is then done using this prediction.
COMPUTER MODELLING
"ODEL TUNING 7deally model tuning needs to be done for all the sites. #owever in many cases " the *etwork is divided into different clutter types 1around S to D2 1e.g. urban"dense urban" semi urban" rural etc.2 and models are tuned for each clutter types. The sites are then categori(ed in these clutter types and then fitted in the model tuned for that clutter type. This method though not perfect is widely accepted and saves lot of time and money for the operator.
COMP UTER M ODE LING

T&ning O "o#el In PlaNET +e will have a look at a general process of model tuning in '3!*/T using )kumura #ata Model. 3oad the 'rop Test 0urvey data on '3!*/T Do a prediction using same antenna type" height" transmit power" etc. as used during survey. %heck if surveyed data matches that of prediction" if yes model tuning not required" if not we proceed with model tuning. 'lanet has analysis capability with which it can compare predicted and surveyed data to give $M0 and mean error for the predicted with respect to the surveyed data. 7t displays it with a 3og d versus slope graph. To tune the model we should try to bring mean error to (ero and the slope to (ero. +e do this by varying the values of V@ and V:

T&ning O "o#el In PlaNET Steps In T&ning 0et )kumura #ata constants to initial values V@ F -:> V: F -??.E VB F -=.DB V? F >.= V= F J.== VJ F > 0et all clutter values to (ero !nalyse model with surveyed data" '3!*/T will give you new suggested values for V@ and V: and $M0 and mean errors. This is also displayed on 3og1d2 versus error graph. )ur ob,ective is to get a line with no slope and centred on (ero. 8se suggested values for V@ and V: and analyse again. $epeat this procedure till we get mean error to be (ero. !fter getting mean error to be (ero our next aim is to obtain the line on the graph with no slope. This is done by varying the value of V: positively or negatively depending on the graph. )nce we get the line with no slope" note the suggested value of V@ for that V:.

T&ning O "o#el In PlaNET Steps In T&ning !nalyse again with these values for V@ and V:. This should centre the line and will have no slope. *ow add clutter factors and analyse again. 7f the line remains centred on (ero and has no slope "the model is tuned. 7f not we need to repeat the process of varying the values of V@ and V: till we get the line centred on (ero and with no slope to tune the model.
ANTENNAS
ANTENNAS
!ntennas form a essential part of any radio communication system. !ntenna is that part of a transmitting or receiving system which is designed to radiate or to receive electromagnetic waves. !n antenna can also be viewed as a transitional structure between free-space and a transmission line 1such as a coaxial line2. !n important property of an antenna is the ability to focus and shape the radiated power in space e.g.- it enhances the power in some wanted directions and suppresses the power in other directions. Many different types and mechanical forms of antennas exist. /ach type is specifically designed for special purposes.
ANTENNAS TYPES
7n mobile communications two main categories of antennas used are . )mni directional antenna These antennas are mostly used in rural areas. 7n all hori(ontal direction these antennas radiate with equal power. 7n the vertical plane these antennas radiate uniformly across all a(imuth angles and have a main beam with upper and lower side lobes.
ANTENNAS TYPES
. Directional antenna These antennas are mostly used in mobile cellular systems to get higher gain compared to omnidirectional antenna and to minimise interference effects in the network. 7n the vertical plane these antennas radiate uniformly across all a(imuth angles and have a main beam with upper and lower side lobes. 7n these type of antennas" the radiation is directed at a specific angle instead of uniformly across all a(imuth angles in case of omni antennas.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Ra#iation Pattern The main characteristics of antenna is the radiation pattern. The antenna pattern is a graphical representation in three dimensions of the radiation of the antenna as a function of angular direction. !ntenna radiation performance is usually measured and recorded in two orthogonal principal planes 1/-'lane and #-plane or vertical and hori(ontal planes2. The pattern of most base station antennas contains a main lobe and several minor lobes" termed side lobes. ! side lobe occurring in space in the direction opposite to the main lobe is called back lobe.
Ra#iation Pattern
Antenna Gain !ntenna gain is a measure for antennas efficiency. 5ain is the ratio of the maximum radiation in a given direction to that of a reference antenna for equal input power. 5enerally the reference antenna is a isotropic antenna. 5ain is measured generally in Odecibels above isotropic1d&i2P or Odecibels above a dipole1d&d2. !n isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all directions. d&i F d&d G :.@= !ntenna gain depends on the mechanical si(e" the effective aperature area" the frequency band and the antenna configuration. !ntennas for 50M@D>> can achieve some = to J d& more gain than antennas for 50ME>> while maintaining the same mechanical si(e.
Main Lo2e $7is 8 Power Beamwidth
First N9ll
Side Lo2e
Ba"k Lo2e
Front7to7+a!k ratio 7t is the ratio of the maximum directivity of an antenna to its directivity in a specified rearward direction. 5enerally antenna with a high front-to-back ratio should be used.
First N&ll .ea%wi#t/ The first null beamwidth 1 *&+2 is the angular span between the first pattern nulls ad,acent to the main lobe. This term describes the angular coverage of the downtilted cells.
Antenna Lo+es Main lobe is the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum radiation. 0ide lobes The half power beamwidth 1#'&+2 is the angle between the points on the main lobe that are Bd& lower in gain compared to the maximum. *arrow angles mean good focusing of radiated power. 'olarisation is the propagation of the electric field vector . !ntennas used in cellular communications are usually vertically polarised or cross polarised.
6al 7power +ea%wi#t/
Polarisation
Fre*&en!, +an#wi#t/ 7t is the range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna" with respect to some characteristics" conforms to a specified standard. 60+$ of an antenna is the main bandwidth limiting factor. Maximum power coupling into the antennas can be achieved when the antenna impedance matches the cables impedance. Typical value is => ohms. Mechanical si(e is related to achievable antenna gain. 3arge antennas provide higher gains but also need care in deployment and apply high torque to the antenna mast.
Antenna i%pe#an!e
"e!/ani!al si8e
COUPLING BETWEEN ANTENNAS

!ntenna radiation pattern will become superimposed when the distance between the antennas becomes too small. This means the other antenna will mutually influence the individual antenna patterns. 5enerally = to @> hori(ontal separation provides sufficient decoupling of antenna patterns. The vertical distance needed for decoupling is usually much smaller as the vertical beamwidth is generally less. ! @ separation in the vertical direction is sufficient in most cases.
ANTENNA INSTALLATION
!ntenna installation configurations depend on the operators preferences. 7t is important to keep sufficient decoupling distances between antennas. 7f T9 and $9 direction use separated antennas" it is advisable to keep a hori(ontal separation between the antennas in order to reduce the T9 signal power at the $9 input stages.
ANTENNA DOWNTILTING
*etwork planners often have the problem that the base station antenna provides an overcoverage. 7f the overlapping area between two cells is too large" increased switching between the base station 1handover2 occurs. There may even be interference of a neighbouring cell with the same frequency. 7f hopping is used in the network" then limiting the overlap is required to reduce the overall hit rate. 7n general" the vertical pattern of an antenna radiates the main energy towards the hori(on. )nly that part of the energy which is radiated below the hori(on can be used for the coverage of the sector. Downtilting the antenna limits the range by reducing the field strength in the hori(on.
ANTENNA DOWNTILTING
!ntenna downtilting is the downward tilt of the vertical pattern towards the ground by a fixed angle measured w.r.t the hori(on. Downtilting of the antenna changes the position of the half-power beamwidth and the first null relative to the hori(on. *ormally the maximum gain is at > 1parallel to the hori(on2 and never intersects the hori(on. ! small downtilt places the beams maximum at the cell edge +ith appropriate downtilt" the received signal strength within the cell improves due to the placement of the main lobe within the cell radius and falls off in regions approaching the cell boundary and towards the reuse cell. There are two methods of downtilting . Mechanical downtilting . /lectrical downtilting.
MECHANICAL DOWNTILTING
Mechanical downtilting consists of physically rotating an antenna downward about an axis from its vertical position. 7n a mechanical downtilt as the front lobe moves downward the back lobe moves upwards. This is one of the potential drawback as compared to the electrical downtilt because coverage behind the antenna can be negatively affected as the back lobe rises above the hori(on. !dditionally " mechanical downtilt does not change the gain of the antenna at GA- E>deg from antenna hori(on. !s the antenna is given downtilt" the footprint starts changing with a notch being formed in the fron4t while it spreads on the sides. !fter @> degrees downtilt the notch effect is quiet visible and the spread on the sides are high. This may lead to inteference on the sides.
6ertical antenna pattern at >
6ertical antenna pattern at @= downtilt &acklobe shoots over the hori(on
ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT
/lectrical downtilt uses a phase taper in the antenna array to angle the pattern downwards. This allows the the antenna to be mounted vertically. /lectrical downtilt is the only practical way to achieve pattern downtilting with omnidirectional antennas. /lectrical downtilt affects both front and back lobes. 7f the front lobe is downtilted the back lobe is also downtilted by equal amount. /lectrical downtilting also reduces the gain equally at all angles on the hori(on. The that ad,usted downtilt angle is constant over the whole a(imuth range. 6ariable electrical downtilt antennas are very costly.
ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT
ELECTRICAL DOWNTILT
#ori(ontal and vertical pattern for allgon S@?? antenna #ori(ontal &eamwidth F E> 6ertical &eamwidth F @J /lectrical Downtilt F @J
OBSTACLE RE<UIREMENT
*earby obstacles are those reflecting or shadowing materials that can obstruct the radio beam both in hori(ontal and vertical planes. +hen mounting the antenna on a roof top" the dominating obstacle in the vertical plane is the roof edge itself and in the hori(ontal plane" obstacles further away like surrounding buildings" can act as reflecting or shadowing material. The antenna beam will be distorted if the antenna is too close to the roof. #ence the antenna must be mounted at a minimum height above the rooftop or other obstacles. 7f antennas are wall mounted" a safety margin of @= degrees between the reflecting surface and the B-d& lobe should be kept.
OBSTACLE RE<UIREMENT
Sa!ety Margin .: Degrees
B9ilding
Main 'adiation Dire"tion -al! Power Beamwidth
OPTIMAL DOWNTILT
!lthough the use of downtilt can be a effective tool for controlling interference" there is a optimum amount by which the antenna can be downtilted whereby both the coverage losses and the interference at the reuse cell can be kept at a minimum.
downtilt angle (D)
2eig/t (2) 3 dB Beamwidt/ Main lobe
Cellmax
OPTIMAL DOWNTILT
The figure shows a cells coverage area. The primary illumination area is the area on the ground that receives the signal contained within the Bd& vertical beamwidth of the antenna. The distance from the base station to the outer limit of the illumination area is denoted by %ellmax. 7t should be noted that the cellmax can be different from the cell boundary area which is customer defined. 7deally in a well planned network %ellmax should always be less than the co-channel reuse distance to minimise interference. +e now derive the relation between height 1#2" downtilt angle 1D2" Bd& vertical beamwidth and %ellmax. !s shown in the schematic is the angle between the upper limit of the Bd& beamwidth and the hori(on.
OPTIMAL DOWNTILT
tan 1 2 F %ellmax A # F D - >.= H Bd& vertical beamwidth %ellmax F # H tan 1D - >.= H Bd& vertical beamwidth2 or the %ellmax to be a positive quantity " downtilt angle must be more than half of the Bd& vertical beamwidth. +hen the downtilt angle is less than half of the Bd& beamwidth" part of the signal from the main beam shoots over the hori(on . The signal directed towards or above the hori(on can potentially cause interference at the reuse sites.
DIVERSITY ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Di vers ity Antenna yst e!s

NEED OF DI)ERSIT9
B9ilding
B9ilding B9ilding
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s NEED OF DI)ERSIT9

7n a typical cellular radio environment" the communication between the cell site and mobile is not by a direct radio path but via many paths. The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver is obstructed by buildings and other ob,ects. #ence the signal that arrives at the receiver is either by reflection from the flat sides of buildings or by diffraction around man made or natural obstructions. +hen various incoming radiowaves arrive at the receiver antenna" they combine constructively or destructively" which leads to a rapid variation in signal strength. The signal fluctuations are known as Wmultipath fading4.
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s "&ltipat/ Propagation
"&ltipat/ Propagation Multipath propagation causes large and rapid fluctuations in a signal These fluctuations are not the same as the propagation path loss. "&ltipat/ !a&ses t/ree %a$or t/ings $apid changes in signal strength over a short distance or time. $andom frequency modulation due to Doppler 0hifts on different multipath signals. Time dispersion caused by multipath delays These are called Ofading effects Multipath propagation results in small-scale fading.
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s

DI)ERSIT9 TE(6NI:UE Diversity techniques have been recognised as an effective means which enhances the immunity of the communication system to the multipath fading. 50M therefore extensively adopts diversity techniques that include
D"1ers"'0 'ec7#"=+es I#'erlea1"#g I# '"%e !$%a"# Fre=+e#c0 H$&&"#g I# Fre=+e#c0 !$%a"# S&a'"al !"1ers"'0 I# s&a'"al !$%a"# P$lar"sa'"$# !"1ers"'0 I# &$lar"sa'"$# !$%a"#

(ON(EPT OF DI)ERSIT9 ANTENNA S9STE"S 0patial and polarisation diversity techniques are realised through antenna systems. ! diversity antenna system provides a number of receiving branches or ports from which the diversified signals are derived and fed to a receiver. The receiver then combines the incoming signals from the branches to produce a combined signal with improved quality in terms of signal strength or signal-to-noise ratio 10A*2. The performance of a diversity antenna system primarily relies on the branch correlation and signal level difference between branches.
Di vers ity Antenna yst e!s

(ON(EPT OF DI)ERSIT9 ANTENNA S9STE"S
Fade
)ransmission media .
n!ormation
)ransmission )media 1
Peak
'e"eiver

(ORRELATION .ET1EEN .RAN(6ES The branch correlation coefficient 1r2 represents the degree of similarity between the signals from two different receiving branches. The correlation coefficient ranges from > to @. rF@ means the signals from two different branches behave exactly the same. 7n this case" the signals are coherent. rF> means the signals from two different branches behave completely different. 7n this case" the signals are uncorrelated. To achieve the best performance" a diversity antenna system is required to provide uncorrelated signals. or rF@" the diversity antenna becomes ineffective in combating the multipath fading. 7n reality" however" it is not always practical to have a diversity antenna system which guarantees rF>. /xtensive research in this field has revealed that a diversity antenna system can perform satisfactorily provided that r X>.S.

C$%2"#"#g C$%2"#e! s"g#al e! '$ rece"1er S"g#al ?
Signal Strengt/
S"g#al >
Combined signal Signal ! Signal
Time

SIGNAL LE)EL DIFFEREN(E The second key parameter for a good diversity antenna system is the mean signal level difference. The difference is a statistical parameter which indicates the balance of the signal strengths from the two receiving branches. 7n a real system" the statistical balance can be verified by comparing the mean values of the two signals measured over a lengthy period. 7f the ratio betn the median values is >d&" the two receiving branches are statistically balanced. The performance of the diversity system will deteriorate while the ratio increases or decreases from >d&.

SIGNAL LE)EL DIFFEREN(E
Signal strengt/
Signal le%el di33eren0e
Time

SPATIAL DI)ERSIT9 ANTENNA S9STE"S The spatial diversity antenna system is constructed by physically separating two receiving base station antennas. )nce they are separated far enough" both antennas receive independent fading signals. !s a result" the signals captured by the antennas are most likely uncorrelated. The further apart are the antennas" the more likely that the signals are uncorrelated. The types of the configuration used in 50M networks are hori(ontal separation vertical separation composite separation.

T9PI(AL SPATIAL ANTENNA DI)ERSIT9 (ONFIGURATIONS
-ori;ontal Separation
<erti"al Separation
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s (RITERIA FOR SELE(TING T9PE OF SPATIAL SEPARATION
&ranch correlation The physical limitation of the supporting structure should also be considered while selecting the spatial diversity antenna configuration. or example" if a wide framework is not permitted on top of a mounting tower" vertical separation is a alternative to be considered. To achieve the required correlation coefficient 1r X>.S2 different configurations require different separations. The separation indicated in Table below shows that low values of correlation are more easily obtained with hori(ontal rather than vertical separation. That is why most of the diversity antenna systems in 50M networks use hori(ontal separation.
#ori(ontal 0eparation dA E>>M#I @D>>M#I @> B.Bm @.Sm 6ertical 0eparation dA E>>M#I @D>>M#I @S =.Sm :.Dm
0eparation

(RITERIA FOR SELE(TION OF SPATIAL SEPARATION Signal le0el #i eren!e ! system using hori(ontally separated diversity antennas has a symmetrical configuration and is therefore able to provide balanced signal strengths. ! system using vertically separated antennas needs large separation to meet the required correlation. The consequence is that the two antennas have different antenna height gains" which may result in imbalance between the two signal strengths.

(RITERIA FOR SELE(TION OF SPATIAL SEPARATION Ang&lar #epen#en!e !ngular dependence reflects the dependence of the performance of a diversity antenna system on the angular position of a mobile relative to the boresight of the antenna. #ori(ontally separated antenna system has high dependence on the mobile4s angular position. The effective separation reduces as the mobile moves away from the antenna boresight. !s the mobile is E>Y off the antenna boresight" the effective separation becomes (ero. 7n such a case" the signals from two antennas are very likely coherent which will then lead to a deterioration of the diversity performance.
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s ANGULAR DEPENDAN(E

Separation $ed10ed Separation 4ero Separation
V"e6 r$% 2$res"g7'
V"e6 r$% @: !eg $ 2$res"g7'
V"e6 r$% A; !eg $ 2$res"g7'
Most of the 50M cell sites are B sectored cell sites. The maximum angular offset is therefore approximately J>Y. 0imulation shows that the performance of a hori(ontally separated antenna system experiences noticeable deterioration only when the angular offset exceeds S>Y .

PROS AND (ONS OF 6ORI-ONTAL (ONFIGURATION A#0antages /asier to achieve low values of correlation and balance between the signals. #ence widely used. #igh angular dependence. The impact is however marginal for sectorised applications. $equire si(eable headframe on the supporting structure.
Disa#0antages

PROS AND (ONS OF )ERTI(AL (ONFIGURATION A#0antages 0lim supporting structure. !ngular independence $equire large separation for low values of correlation. May cause imbalance between the two diversity branches. 5enerally not used.
Disa#0antages
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s T6REE ANTENNA SPATIAL (ONFIGURATION

., Separation
'e"eive .
)ransmit
'e"eive 1
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s T1O ANTENNA SPATIAL (ONFIGURATION

., Separation
)7 '7
D9ple7er
'e"eive 1
)ransmit
'e"eive .

POLARISATION DI)ERSIT9 ANTENNA S9STE"S ! single 1say vertical2 polarised electromagnetic wave is converted to a wave with two orthogonal polarised fields while it is propagating through scattering environment. 7t has also been found that the two fields exhibit some extent of decorrelation.

DUAL POLARISED ANTENNAS ! dual-polarisation antenna consists of two sets of radiating elements which radiate or" in reciprocal" receive two orthogonal polarised fields. The antenna has two input connectors which separately connects to each set of the elements. The antenna has therefore the ability to simultaneously transmit and receive two orthogonally polarised fields.
-0<
Slant =:

AD)ANTAGES OF DUAL POLARISED ANTENNAS The best advantage of using the dual polarisation antenna is the reduction in the number of antennas per sector. $educed si(e of the headframe of the supporting structure $educed windload and weight. $educed difficulty in site acquisition and installation. %ost saving . $equiring slim tower . $equiring less installation time. . %ost of one dual polarisation antenna is generally lower than that of two . 0ingle polarised antennas
Divers ity Antenna yst e!s DUAL POLARISED ANTENNA (ONFIGURATIONS

DUAL POLE ANTENNA DUAL POLE ANTENNA DUAL POLE ANTENNA
T $ T( R( R( R(
SINGLE POLE ANTENNA
T $ R( T( T( R(
T $ T( R(
INTERFERENCE
WHAT IS INTERFERNCE ?
7nterference is the sum of all signal contributions that are neither noise not the wanted signal.
EFFECTS OF INTERFERNCE
7nterference is a ma,or limiting factor in the performance of cellular systems. 7t causes degradation of signal quality. 7t introduces bit errors in the received signal. &it errors are partly recoverable by means of channel coding and error correction mechanisms. The interference situation is not reciprocal in the uplink and downlink direction. Mobile stations and base stations are exposed to different interference situation.
SOURCES OF INTERFERNCE
!nother mobile in the same cell. ! call in progress in the neighboring cell. )ther base stations operating on the same frequency. !ny non-cellular system which leaks energy into the cellular frequency band.
TYPES OF INTERFERNCE
There are two types of system generated interference . %o-channel interference . !d,acent channel interference (o7(/annel Inter eren!e This type of interference is the due to frequency reuse " i.e. several cells use the same set of frequency. These cells are called co-channel cells. %o-channel interference cannot be combated by increasing the power of the transmitter. This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the interference to neighboring co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel interference" co-channel cells must be physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient isolation due to propagation or reduce the footprint of the cell.
(o7(/annel Inter eren!e 0ome factors other then reuse distance that influence co-channel interference are antenna type" directionality" height" site position etc" 50M specifies %A7 Z Ed&.
%arrier f@ d&
7nterferer f@
% 7 Distance
(o7(/annel Inter eren!e
D
C? C?
CB
C>
CB
C>
7n a cellular system" when the si(e of each cell is approximately the same" co-channel interference is independent of the transmitted power and becomes a function of cell radius1$2 and the distance to the centre of the nearest co-channel cell 1D2.
(o7(/annel Inter eren!e [ F D A $ F B* &y increasing the ratio of DA$" the spatial seperation between the cochannel cells relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. 7n this way interference is reduced from improved isolation of $ energy from the co-channel cell. The parameter [ " called the co-channel reuse ratio" is related to the cluster si(e. ! small value of [ provides larger capacity since the cluster si(e * is small whereas a large value of [ improves the transmission quality.
A#$a!ent7(/annel Inter eren!e 7nterference resulting from signals which are ad,acent in frequency to the desired signal is called ad,acent channel interference. !d,acent channel interference results from imperfect receiver filters which allow nearby frequencies to leak into the passband. !d,acent channel interference can be minimi(ed through careful filtering and channel assignments. &y keeping the frequency separation between each channel in a given cell as large as possible " the ad,acent interference may be reduced considerably.
A#$a!ent7(/annel Inter eren!e
%arrier f@ d&
7nterferer f:
! % Distance
COUNTERING INTERFERENCE
PO1ER (ONTROL $ power control is employed to minimise the transmit power required by M0 or &0 while maintaining the quality of the radio links. &y minimising the transmit power levels" interference to co-channel users is reduced. 'ower control is implemented in the M0 as well as the &00. 'ower control on the 8plink also helps to increase the battery life. 'ower received by the M0 is continously sent in the measurement report. 0imilarly uplink power received from the M0 by the &T0 is measured by the &T0. %omplex algorithm evaluate this measurements and take a decision subsequently reducing or increasing the power in the 8plink or the downlink.
COUNTERING INTERFERENCE
SE(TORI-ATION or @:> degrees sectored site as compared to an omni site almost @ABrd interference is received in the uplink. The more selective and directional is the antenna" the smaller is the interference. $eduction in interference results in higher capacity in both links.
FRE<UENCY PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
The ob,ective of a cellular system is to provide quality communication to the maximum number of users in a defined area. The number of users supported by the system can be increased by using more frequencies. requency resources are however always limited. #ence $ 'lanning engineers are required to maximise spectrum efficiency. 7n order to accommodate a maximum number of subscribers per network" the available frequencies need to be reused as often as possible. This creates interference towards other cells" which have detrimental impact to the link quality. inding the optimum compromise between dense re-use and least interference is the ob,ective of frequency planning.
INTRODUCTION
The system design and planning of the system has to be done so as to reuse the frequencies as often as possible while keeping the cochannel and ad,acent channel interference within acceptable limits. !lso a minimum received signal level has to be provided throughout the coverage area of the network. requency planning can be done Manually by skilled expert $ /ngineers. +ith powerful planning tool having the option of automated frequency planning.
FRE<UENCY PLANNING STEPS

The steps to be followed in manual frequency planning are . %alculating the frequency reuse distance theoratically. . Determining the cell repeat pattern . 'lanning the frequency groups. . 7nputting the planned frequency into the planning tool. . 5enerating the %A7 and %A! plots and checking out the results. . $ectifying the fault areas.

Deter%ining t/e !ell repeat pattern requencies have to be reused at different cells throughout the network to maximise capacity. The distance cells using the same set of frequencies is called the frequency reuse distance. This reuse distance depends on the number of frequency reuse groups *. )nce * has been determined every *th cell will be assigned the same frequencies. !lso a minimum received signal level has to be provided throughout the coverage area of the network. The cell repeat pattern is dependent on the frequency spectrum available" the traffic required and most important on the way the network is planned. 5enerally SA:@ or S site repeat pattern and ? site repeat patterns are used.

(ell re&se pattern The distribution of the %A7 ratio desired in a system determines the number of frequency groups" " which may be used. 7f we have * carrier frequencies then *o of carriers A group F *A 0ince the number of frequency groups are fixed" a smaller number of frequency groups1 2 results in more carriers per set and per cell. #ence a reduction in the number of frequency groups would allow each site to carry more traffic. #owever decreasing the number of frequency groups and reducing the frequency reuse distance results in lower average %A7 distribution in the system. 5enerally SA:@ and ?A@: reuse patterns are used.

;2<= (ell re&se pattern 0ay we have ?: frequencies and we require : carriers per site then we can use S site repeat pattern. #ence a cluster will be formed of S sites. The frequencies for manual frequency planning for a cluster si(e of S are arranged a s shown below
#arrier. #arrier1
$. @ ::
B. : :B
#. B :?
D. ? :=
%. = :J
F. J :S
G. S :D
$1 D :E
B1 E B>
#1 @> B@
D1 @@ B:
%1 @: BB
F1 @B B?
G1 @? B=
$> @= BJ
B> @J BS
#> @S BD
D> @D BE
%> @E ?>
F> :> ?@
G> :@ ?:

;2<= (ell re&se pattern
G?
G?
B?
GB B> A?
G>
F?
B?
GB B> A?
G>
F?
BB
FB E?
F>
BB
FB E?
F>
C?
AB C> D?
A> EB
C?
AB C> D?
A> EB
CB E>
E>
CB
DB
D>
DB
D>

>2=< (ell re&se pattern 0ay we have ?D frequencies and we require ? carriers per site then we can use ? site repeat pattern. #ence a cluster will be formed of ? sites. The frequencies for manual frequency planning for a cluster si(e of ? are arranged a s shown below
$. @ @B := BS B. : @? :J BD #. B @= :S BE D. ? @J :D ?> $1 = @S :E ?@ B1 J @D B> ?: #1 S @E B@ ?B D1 D :> B: ?? $> E :@ BB ?= B> @> :: B? ?J #> @@ :B B= ?S D> @: :? BJ ?D
#arrier. #arrier1 #arrier> #arrier=

>2=< (ell re&se pattern
B? C?
DB
BB
B>
A?
CB DB
C>
B?
D? A?
D>
C?
AB C> B?
A>
BB
B>
CB DB
D? B> A?
D>
C?
AB
A> B?
BB
CB B?
C>
D?
D>
C?
AB C>
A> BB
BB
B>
CB
B>
INTERFERENCE PREDICTION
)nce the repeat pattern is determined the frequencies should be entered in the planning tool. /nter the %A7 threshold and %A! threshold. or 50M put @:d&150M specifies Z Ed&2 as %A7 and >d&1 50M specifies %A! Z -Ed&2 as %A!. 5enerate a %A7 and %A! plot. !nalyse the plot and check for problems. Debug and solve the interference problems. *ote that to get a correct %A7 and %A! plot" all the sites prediction on the tool should be completed. Morever the models should be correctly tuned and the coverage predicted by the propagation model should match the coverage on the field.
AUTOMATIC FRE<UENCY PLAN

'lanning tools nowadays have automatic frequency planning options. This tool uses predictions. #ence the models have to be accurately tuned. Morever %o-cell and co-site separations" allowed frequency bands" target levels for allowed co-channel and ad,acent channel interference need to be defined.
FRE<UENCY CO-ORDINATION
)n international borders frequencies are commonly co-ordinated with neighboring countries to avoid mutual interference. 5enerally sets of reserved or preferential frequencies are negotiated between the national authorities of the respective countries.
SITE SELECTION
INTRODUCTION
Site Lo!ation 'roper site location determines usefulness of its cells. 0ite are expensive and have to be chosen carefully. The planner needs to visit each and every site.
Goo# Site Sele!tion +e need to understand various factors we must take into account to ensure that the selected site is good. 0imple way is to ask yourself three questions @2 +hy am 7 putting this site \ :2 +ill this selected site serve that purpose \ B2 !re there any possible problems that might arise if i select this site. 7f yes can 7 solve or avoid those problems \
BAD SITE SELECTION

#illtop locations for a &T0 site should be avoided as they cause 8ncontrolled interference 7nterleaved coverage !wkward #) behaviours &ut are good for microwave links
Desired "ell 2o9ndary Un"ontrolled inter!eren"e
nterleaved "overage area weak own signal? strong !oreign signal
GOOD SITE SELECTION

0ites off hilltop locations are preferable for a &T0 site as . hills can be used to separate cells . interference can be easily controlled . minimum overlapping will result . can face problems for microwave links
Desired "ell 2o9ndary
SITE SELECTION CRITERIA

Ra#io !riteria or site sele!tion 5ood view in the main beam direction *o surrounding nearby high obstacle 5ood visibilty of terrain $oom for antenna mounting 3)0 to the two microwave site and if possible to the &0% 0hort cabling distance
Non7ra#io !riteria 0pace for equipment !vailaibilty of lease lines or microwave links 'ower supply !ccess restrictions $ental costs
REPEATERS
REPEATERS
INTRODUCTION
D$#$r s"!e a#'e##a M$2"le s"!e a#'e##a Re&ea'er rece"1es D$#$r s"g#al a' C -A;!B% Re&ea'er a%&l" "es '7e s"g#al a#! re2r$a!cas's '7e s"g#al
D$#$r Cell
P$$r C$1erage area
$epeater units are designed to receive signals from a donor site" amplify and rebroadcast the donor sites signals into poor coverage areas or to extend the coverage range of the donor site. These repeater are bi-directional and do not translate frequency and subsequently are limited in output power and gain. $epeaters provide between => to D> d& of gain.
REPEATERS
INTRODUCTION There are two types of repeater band selective and channel selective. &and selective repeater amplifies a band of frequency. #ence it amplifies any frequency that falls within its band. %hannel selective repeater allows selection of a number of individual channels to amplify and rebroadcast. Typically a channel selective repeater allows selection of : to ? channels. 7f the 50ME>> or D%0@D>> network incorporates frequency hopping" then only band selective repeaters should be used.
REPEATERS
ANTENNA ISOLATION 0ince repeaters are non-frequency translating" the isolation between the donor-side and mobile-side antenna needs to be much greater than the gain of the repeater. 7f antenna isolation is less than or equal to the repeater gain" the repeater will begin to amplify its own feedback and oscillate.This condition must be avoided. The isolation between the antenna needs to be at least @> d& greater than the gain of the repeater. . 7so F 5rep G @>d& ollowing equation can be used to calculate antenna isolation . 6ertical separation 7so F :D G ?>log1 d A 2 . #ori(ontal separation 7so F :: G :>log1 d A 2 - 15! G 5&2 . where d F 0eparation distance1feet2 F +avelength . 5! F 5ain of donor-side antenna in direction of Mobile side antenna.
REPEATERS
ANTENNA ISOLATION 0eparation type is based on site type. 7f the site is a roof" then hori(ontal separation should be used while if the site is on a tower vertical separation should be used. 7f directional antennas are used then the required hori(ontal spacing is given by . 7so F :: G :>log1 d A 2 - 15amax - 5aback2 - 15bmax - 5bback 2 . and . 7so F 5rep G @>d& . 7f gain of the directional antenna is @Sd&i and front-to-back Z:=d& and the repeater1 gain of D>d&2 is used on 50ME>> then . D> G @> F :: G :>log1dA@2 - 1@S-:=2 - 1@S-:=2 . E> F :: G:>log1d2 G D G D . ::G:>log1d2 F S? . :>log1d2 F =: . log1d2 F :.J
REPEATERS
ANTENNA ISOLATION #ence a hori(ontal separation of BED feet is required to provide a isolation of E>d& between the donor-side and the mobile-side antenna which is quite unreasonable. 3arge antenna separation produce large cable losses and reduce repeater output power. 0ome obstruction should be in between both the antennas to reduce this separation. 7f vertical spacing is given by . 7so F :D G ?>log1 d A 2 . . . . . and . 7so F 5rep G @>d& if the repeater is used on 50ME>> then D> G @> F :D G ?>log1dA@2 E> F :D G ?>log1d2 ?>log1d2 F J:
END

RF Planning

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RF Planning

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INTRODUCTION TO RF PLANNING

Propagaton Test Kit

Propagaton Test Kit

Tra i! "o#eling Tool

Pro$e!t "anage%ent Tool

RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

FREE SPACE PROPAGATION

Signal Power (dBm)

Large scale a!"#g c$%&$#e#'

S%all scale a!"#g c$%&$#e#'

LONG TERM FADING

LIN) BUDGET PLANNING AND INITIAL CELL ESTIMATES

WHY LIN) BUDGET ANALYSIS?

GAINS AND LOSSES

Rumper cable Main cable

CONNECTOR * COMBINER LOSS

Loss @= B-@> :-=

Fade Mar gin Calculat ion

%ell area probability

Fade Mar gin Calculat ion

ade margin applied 0tandard deviation of received signal 'ropagation constant

Fade Mar gin Calculat ion

Fade Mar gin Calculat ion

Ca2le3C$##ec'$r a#! C$%2"#er l$sses .L### /

M$PLUP 4 Pm 3 Gm 5 LBody 5 LBldg 5 M!ade 3 G'$ 3 GD 5 L### 3 ''e"eiver Sensitivity

LIN) BUDGET SHEET

Downlink (BTS to MS)

Uplink (MS to BTS)

BTS antenna gain Feeder loss

MS $x Sensiti%it& MS antenna gain

'!0 dBm 0 dBi

Di%ersit& gain BTS $x Sensiti%it&

Fading margin *enetration +oss ,ntenna-bod& loss

Fading margin *enetration +oss ,ntenna-bod& loss

Ma,5 all$6e! &a'7l$ss L"#4 2ala#ce .!$6#l"#4 - +&l"#4/

Ma,5 all$6e! &a'7l$ss

CELL SI8E-COUNT ESTIMATION

HATA9S EMPIRICAL FORMULA

INITIAL CELL COUNT

DRIVE TEST FOR MODEL TUNING

'redesign drive test

'ostdesign drive test

CABLE INTEGRITY TEST

TEST SITE SELECTION

TEST SITE SELECTION

BUILDING SITE SELECTION

BUILDING SITE SELECTION

TOWER SITE SELECTION

DRIVE TEST PLAN

DRIVE TEST PROCEDURE

DRIVE TEST OUTPUT

DRIVE TEST OUTPUT

Wal "s7 I4ega%" M$!el

single point signal so1r0e

COMP UTER M ODE LING

COMP UTER M ODE LING

COMP UTER M ODE LING

6al 7power +ea%wi#t/

COUPLING BETWEEN ANTENNAS

6ertical antenna pattern at @= downtilt &acklobe shoots over the hori(on

Sa!ety Margin .: Degrees

Main 'adiation Dire"tion -al! Power Beamwidth

downtilt angle (D)