CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS

INTRODUCTION
CONTINUOUS-TIME AND DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
PERIODIC AND APERIODIC SIGNALS
ENERGY AND POWER SIGNALS
DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM SIGNALS
ODD AND EVEN SIGNALS
CAUSAL SIGNALS
BASIC OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS

INTRODUCTION
The signals can be grouped into classes. The classes of signals
which are relevant to linear systems are listed below.
- Continuous-time and discrete-time signals.
- Analog and digital signals.
- Periodic and aperiodic signals.
- Energy and Power signals.
- Deterministic signals and random signals.
- Odd and even signals.
- Causal signals.
A brief explanation for each class of signals is provided now.
This topic will be presented in greater detail for the subject
on Signals and Systems. Those undertaking the study of Circuit
Analysis need to know the nature of signals and hence this page
is presented.
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CONTINUOUS-TIME AND DISCRETE-TIME SIGNALS

We call a signal a continuous-time signal if it is defined for all
time t. An example of a continuous-time signal is shown in Fig.
1. Here t is the independent variable. Many of the signals
encountered are continuous-time signals. Let us take the case of
a thermo-couple. The voltage at the terminals of a thermo-
couple is a function of the temperature at the junction of the
thermo-couple, and it is a continuous-time signal.
On the other hand, if a signal is defined only at discrete values
of t, then it is a discrete-time signal. An example of a discrete-
time signal is shown in Fig. 1. The discrete values of a discrete-
time signal have fixed intervals, or in other words, they are
spaced uniformly. A discrete-time signal can be obtained from a
continuous-time signal by sampling it at a constant or uniform
rate. The scope of this text does not extend to finding the
response of an electrical circuit to a discrete-time signal.
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ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
There are differences between an analog signals and a
continuous-time signal. In Fig. 1, f(t) is a continuous-time
signal. Here t is the independent variable, and f(t) is defined for
all values of t or a continuum of values of t. We can call f(t) as
the dependent variable. If the amplitude of the dependent
variable can take on any value, then we have analog signal. Now
the question arises whether an analog signal should be
continuous. The amplitudes of many signals, such as voltage,
current, temperature, and pressure tend to be continuous, these
signals are analog, continuous-time signals. We can sample an
analog, continuous-time signal at a uniform rate and generate an
analog, discrete-time signal. The plots in Fig. 2 show an analog,
continuous-time signal and an analog, discrete-time signal.

The amplitude of an analog signal can be any value, whereas the
amplitude of a digital signal can be one of a finite number of
values. More often than not, a digital signal has only two values.
The plots in Fig. 3 show digital signals.

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PERIODIC AND APERIODIC SIGNALS
To illustrate what periodic and aperiodic signals are, a few
waveforms are presented below.

Fig. 4: A periodic sinusoidal signal

Fig. 5: A periodic square-wave signal

Fig. 5: An aperiodic exponential signal

A signal y(t) is said to be periodic over time T if equation (1.1)
is valid. The period T is a positive, constant value and it is the
smallest value time that renders the the waveform to be periodic
or repetitive. The smallest period for the periodicity of the
waveform is the fundamental period of y(t). The reciprocal of
fundamental period is the fundamental frequency. On the other
hand, a waveform that exhibits no periodicity is aperiodic. An
exponential signal is aperiodic.
By definition, a periodic signal is assumed to last for ever, from
.
Otherwise equation (1.1) will not be valid for all t. Another
property of a periodic function is expressed by equation (1.2).

The value of integral over a cycle period is the same for a
periodic waveform, irrespective of the value of the lower limit
of the integral. It is true because of the periodicity of waveform.
Since a periodic waveform lasts for ever, it is
an everlasting signal. An everlasting signal exists in theory, but
not in real world.
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ENERGY AND POWER SIGNALS
A signal with finite energy is an energy signal. An exponentially
decaying signal that exists only for t > 0 is an energy signal. On
the other hand, a signal that has a finite and nonzero power is a
power signal. The periodic signals are power signals, and since
these signals are everlasting, they have infinite energy. Since the
periodic signals have infinite energy, we calculate the power
delivered by them. Power by definition is the energy per second.
To summarize, a power signal has infinite energy and a finite
power, and and an energy signal has a finite energy and zero
power, where the average power is computed as energy over
infinite time. It is clear that a signal cannot be both a power
signal and an energy signal. It has to be either of the two. But it
is possible for a signal to be neither of the two. For instance, a
ramp signal is neither a power signal nor an energy signal. A
ramp signal has infinite power and infinite energy. Such a signal
exists in theory, but not in real world. If an everlasting
exponential signal is defined as exp(at), it is neither an energy
signal nor a power signal, as long as a is a positive or a negative
real value. If the value of a is either zero or imaginary, then the
signal is a power signal. If the value of a is zero, then the signal
is a dc signal, and if the value of a is imaginary, then the signal
is an alternating signal.
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DETERMINISTIC AND RANDOM SIGNALS
In network theory, the principal aim remains the analysis of the
response of a circuit to a single signal or to a group of signals.
Hence mathematical description of the signal itself becomes an
essential requirement. It is shown that this mathematical
description leads to an important classification of signals. It may
be possible to predict a signal accurately as a function of time
and then such a signal is called a deterministic signal. All past,
present, and future values of a deterministic signal are known
precisely without any ambiguity or uncertainty.
On the other hand, there are some signals which cannot be
predicted accurately by a mathematical expression. Such a
signal is called a random signal. A random signal can be
described only in terms of probability. For example, the output
of a noise generator is a random signal. In a car, the sparks
across a spark plug produce noise signals which may be picked
by an antenna at random. The scope of this text is restricted to
response of a circuit to deterministic signals.
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ODD AND EVEN SIGNALS

A continuous-time signal y(t) can be said to be an even signal, if
equation (1.3) is satisfied. If equation (1.4) is satisfied, then y(t)
can be said to be an odd signal. A continuous-time signal which
is neither even nor odd can be shown to be the sum of an even
part part and an odd part. More attention will be paid to this
aspect of signals, when we take up the topic of Fourier Series.
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CAUSAL SIGNALS
In practice, the input signals to a circuit start at t = 0. Signals
that start at t = 0 referred to as causal signals. The effect of
signals applied prior to t = 0 are represented as the initial
conditions in a circuit. In this text, we deal mostly with causal
signals.
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BASIC OPERATIONS ON SIGNALS
The operations performed on signals can be divided into two
groups.
- Operations on the signal itself.
- Operations on the independent variable.
Operations on the signal
- Amplitude Scaling
- Addition
- Differentiation of continuous-time signal
- Integration of continuous-time signal
Operations on the independent variable
- Time scaling
- Time shifting
- Time reversal /Folding / Reflection
Amplitude Scaling

Given a signal y
1
(t), it can be multiplied by a scalar constant to
yield y
2
(t), which has an amplitude equal to c times the
amplitude of y
1
(t).
Addition

Given signals y
1
(t) and y
2
(t), the sum of these signals yields
signal y
3
(t). Signal y
3
(t) is obtained by adding the amplitudes
of y
1
(t) and y
2
(t) at every instant.
Differentiation and Integration


Given a continuous-time signal, its derivative and integral can
be obtained as shown by equations (1.7) and (1.9). In a circuit,
the inductor voltage is proportional to the derivative of its
current, where the capacitor voltage is obtained by integrating its
current. Equations (1.8) and (1.10) how expressions for the
inductor voltage and the capacitor voltage can be obtained.
Time Scaling

An example is presented now to illustrate what time scaling is.
There are two waveform presented in Fig. 6. Here the operation
is performed on the independent variable t.

Equation (1.11) shows how the relationship between y(t)
and x(t). In equation (1.11), a is a positive factor. If a > 1, then
signal y(t) is compressed in time, as shown by the sketch in Fig.
6. On the other hand, if a < 1, then signal y(t) is expanded in
time. We can obtain expression for x(2t) as shown below.

We can substitute t in equation (1.12) by 2t, as shown by
equation (1.13). We get equation (1.14) from equation (1.13). It
can be seen that the span of y(t) is compressed in time domain.
Time shifting or Translation in Time Domain

The plots in Fig. 7 show x(t) and x(t - 1), where x(t) is shifted in
time by 1 second.


Equation (1.15) shows how the relationship between y(t)
and x(t). In equation (1.15), a is a positive factor. Given x(t) as
shown by equation (1.16), is obtained, as displayed by equations
(1.17) and (1.18). When a is a positive, the waveform is shifted
to the right, and the waveform is shifted to the left, when a is a
negative. More examples are presented in the pages to follow.
Time reversal /Folding / Reflection

The folded or the reflected signal of x(t) is obtained by folding
the signal or rotating the signal about the vertical axis. The
folded waveformy(t) looks like the reflection of x(t).


Equation (1.19) shows how the relationship between y(t)
and x(t). Given x(t) as shown by equation (1.20), equations
(1.21) and (1.22) show how an expression for y(t) can be
obtained.
SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
UNIT-STEP FUNCTION
RAMP FUNCTION
IMPULSE FUNCTION
SYNTHESIS OF WAVEFORMS
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
Singularity functions are discontinuous functions. A singularity
is a point at which a function does not possess a derivative. In
other words, a singularity function is discontinuous at its
singular points. Hence a function that is described by
polynomial in t is thus a singularity function. The commonly
used singularity functions are:
- Ramp Function,
- Step Function, and
- Impulse Function.
At first, we take up the study of a unit-step function.
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UNIT-STEP FUNCTION
The continuous-time unit-step function is defined as:

Equation (2.1) defines what a unit-step function. The value of a
unit-step function is one, for values of t > 0, and it is zero, for
values of t < 0. It is undefined at t = 0. The unit-step function
has a value between 0 and 1, at t = 0. The value of the unit-step
function changes suddenly, at t = 0. Because of the step change
in unit-step function at t = 0, the value of derivative of unit-step
function is infinite at t = 0. In other words, the unit-step function
is discontinuous at t = 0. It can be seen that the derivative of
unit-step function is zero at all instants, except t = 0. The
Laplace transform of the unit-step function is expressed by
equation (2.2). It can be seen that the unit-step function has a
pole at origin. A pole of a function is defined as a value at
which the value of the function is infinite. That is if s = 0, the
value of the Laplace transform of the unit-step function is
infinite.

The unit step function u(t) is represented as shown in Fig. 9. The
unit step function is used widely in network theory and control
theory. It can be seen that the unit step function has a
discontinuity at t = 0 and is continuous for all other values of t .
One way to remember the unit step function is to know how it
relates to its argument. The argument in equation (2.1) is t .
When the argument is positive, the unit step function is positive
and has unit value. It is zero when its argument is negative. In
Fig. 9, the region where t > 0 is shown by the area, with the gray
shade. In Fig. 9, the region where t < 0 is shown by the area,
without a shade. The pole-zero plot of the unit-step function is
also shown in Fig. 9. As stated earlier, the Laplace transform
function of the unit-step function has a single pole at the origin,
and the pole is marked by a in Fig. 9.
Reflection operation on the independent variable of the unit-
step function
On knowing how to interpret a unit-step function based on its
argument, it is easy to visualize how u(-t) would be. This
function, u(-t) is illustrated in Fig. 10.

The value of u(-t) is unity for values of t < 0. When t < 0, t has a
negative value, and then - t is positive. Hence the argument of
u(-t) is positive when t < 0, and u(-t) is equal to unity. On the
other hand, - t is negative when t > 0, and u(-t) is equal to zero
for positive values oft.
Another example using the unit step function is shown in Fig.
11. This function is called the signum function and it is written
as sgn(t).


The signum function is defined by equation (2.3). It can also be
expressed as shown by equations (2.4) and (2.5). As expressed
by equation (2.5), this function has a value of unity for t > 0,
since u(t) equals unity in this range. When t < 0, - t is positive
and u-(t) equals unity in this range. The plot in Fig. 11 shows
how the signum function appears as a function of time. The
signum function is often not used in network theory, but it is
used in communication and control theory.
Shifting operation on the independent variable of the unit-
step function
A shifted time function is displayed in Fig. 12a.

The shifted function can be expressed as shown below:

In a shifted unit step function, defined by equation (2.6), the step
change occurs at t = t, whereas the step change occurs at t = 0
for the unit step function defined by equation (2.1). It can be
seen that the shifted unit step function is obtained by shifting the
unit step function to the right by t seconds. It is seen from
equation (2.6) that when t > t, the argument of the shifted unit
step function is positive and then the function has unit value.
When the argument of the shifted unit step function is negative,
the function has zero value. It can be seen that the argument of
the shifted unit step function is negative for t < t.
The shifted function, displayed in Fig. 12a, can be reflected and
this function is displayed by the sketch in Fig. 12b. We can
express the shifted-reflected unit-step function as follows.

When t < t, ( t - t ) is negative, and hence we get equation
(2.6b). We can express equation (2.6b) in another way, as shown
by equation (2.6c).
Synthesis of a signal
It is possible to use singularity functions to generate or
synthesize different signals. An example is shown below to
show how a rectangular pulse signal can be visualized as the
combination of two step functions.

A rectangular pulse function of unit amplitude, illustrated in Fig.
13, is obtained as the combination of a unit step function and a
shifted step function with a magnitude of - 1.

When the two signals shown in Fig. 14 are added, we get the
rectangular pulse shown in Fig. 13. From Fig. 14, we get that

A system may receive a single rectangular pulse, as shown in
Fig. 13. If this pulse repeats itself after a fixed period, then the
resulting signal is a square-wave periodic signal.
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RAMP FUNCTION

The ramp function is illustrated in Fig. 15. It can be defined as
follows:

Equation (2.8) defines the ramp function. The ramp function has
zero value in the range defined by t <0. When t > 0, the ramp
function increases linearly with time. The Laplace transform
expression for the ramp function is displayed by equation (2.9).
This function has two poles at the origin in s-domain.
The unit-step function and the ramp function are related. We can
define the unit-step function, as the derivative of the ramp
function, as shown by equation (2.10). Alternatively, we can
state that the ramp function is the integral of the unit-step
function, as shown by equation (2.11).

Equation (2.9) presents the Laplace transform of the ramp
function. The Laplace transform of the unit-step function
defined by equation (2.1) can be obtained by multiplying the
Laplace transform of the ramp function by s. Since the unit step
function is the derivative of the ramp function, it can be seen
that multiplication by s in s-domain amounts to differentiation in
time-domain. Conversely, division of an expression by s in s-
domain amounts to integration of the corresponding time-
function. Since the ramp function is the integral of the unit-step
function, we can divide the Laplace transform expression of the
unit-step function, shown by equation (2.2) by s, and obtain the
Laplace transform expression of the ramp function, shown by
equation (2.9). From equation (2.9), it can be seen that the ramp
function has double poles at origin. In this case, the multiplicity
of poles at origin is two.
Unlike the unit step function, the ramp function is continuous
for all t, including t = 0. However in s-domain, this function has
singular points at the origin, as shown by equation (2.9).

The effect of operations on the independent variable of the ramp
function is shown by the sketches in Fig. 16. The plots of the
shifted ramp function and the reflected ramp function are
displayed.

It is possible to shift the ramp function and then reflect it, as
shown in Fig. 17. The ramp function is a signal generated by
some electronic circuits. With additional electronic circuitry, it
is possible to generate saw-tooth waveform displayed in Fig. 18.
Such a signal is used in a cathode-ray oscilloscope as the timing
signal. Such a signal is used in a TV also for horizontal and
vertical scanning.

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IMPULSE FUNCTION
The unit impulse function, designated o(t), is also called the
Delta dirac function. Its use in network theory, control theory
and signal theory is widespread and it is important because of its
properties and the insight it offers about the network to which it
is applied.

The impulse function is displayed, as shown in Fig. 19. The
impulse function is related to the unit-step function, as expressed
by equation (2.12). It is the integral of the impulse function.
Alternatively, the unit impulse function is defined as the
derivative of the unit step function, as expressed by equation
(2.13). Given that the Laplace transform of unit step function is
1/s and that differentiation in time-domain corresponds to
multiplication by s in s-domain, the Laplace transform of the
unit impulse function becomes 1, as expressed by equation
(2.14).

Integration in time-domain corresponds to dividing by s in the s-
domain. Since the unit step function is the integral of the unit
impulse function, equation (2.2) can be obtained by dividing the
expression in equation (2.14) by s. It can also be seen from
equation (2.14) that the impulse function has no pole or zero and
this lends importance to the response of a network to an impulse
input. The poles of a network's forced response to any input
other than an impulse signal reflect the poles of the excitation
signal. On the other hand, when the excitation signal is the
impulse function, then the impulse response exhibits only the
poles of the network and thus the impulse response gives more
information about the network.
Even though the unit impulse function is defined as the
derivative of the unit-step function as shown by equation (2.13),
it needs to be mentioned that equation (2.13) does not conform
to the normal definition of a function, since u(t) is discontinuous
at t = 0 and hence it is not strictly differentiable at t = 0.
However, a function , that is an approximation of the unit step
function, illustrated in Fig. 20, can be used to justify equation
(2.13).

Function u
A
(t) rises from zero to one in a short time interval of
length A. As A tends to zero, function u
A
(t) tends to be equal to
u(t). In practice, the unit-step function generated is similar to
u
A
(t) with a relatively short time interval of length A, but for
analysis it is idealized and it is treated to be u(t). The derivative
of u
A
(t) is displayed in Fig. 21.

From Fig. 21, it can be seen that the unit impulse function can
be defined as follows. Firstly the unit step function is defined as:

Equation (2.15) states that as A tends to zero, function u
A
(t)
tends to be equal to u(t). Equation (2.16) expresses o
A
(t) as the
derivative of u
A
(t). Equation (2.17) states that as A tends to zero,
function o
A
(t) becomes equal to o(t).

Using the concept of a shifted step function, function o
A
(t) can
be expressed by equation (2.18). Function o
A
(t) is displayed as a
pulse function in Fig. 22.

The impulse function can be defined as shown by equation
(21.9). We obtain equation (2.20) from Fig. 21.
The impulse function can be approximated in some other ways
too. The ideal impulse function is represented by a spike at the
origin as shown in Fig. 19. It has the following properties.

Even though the ideal impulse function is unrealizable in
practice, a pulse function as shown in Fig. 22 is often realizable,
where A is very small compared with the time constant of the
network to which the approximate impulse function is applied.
Sifting/Sampling Property
Given a continuous time-function f(t), sampling property is
defined as:

This property is also known as the sifting property. Since o(t - a)
= 0 when t a, the above integral can be expressed to be:

Sampling property shows how a function can be sampled at a
given instant.

Since the impulse function has value only at t = a, the value
of f(t) when t a is not important, we get equation (2.23).
Equation (2.23) shows we call this property as the sifting
property.
Time Scaling Property


Time-scaling property of an impulse function is explained now.
Given that a > 0, the time-scaling property is expressed by
equations (2.24a) and (2.24b). We can express that o(at)
approximates to o
A
(t) as A tends to zero. The graphical
representation of time-scaling is presented in Fig. 23. It can be
seen that the area shrinks to (1/a) due to time-scaling,
when a >1. When a < 1, the area expands. We can use the time-
scaling property and the sifting property as shown below.

When a function is sampled by a time-scaled and shifted
impulse function, as shown by equation (2.25a), we can obtain
the expression on the right-hand side as follows. By the use of
sifting property, we obtain equation (2.25b). Hence we obtain
equation (2.25c).
The impulse response is significant since it reveals the nature of
the system. The poles of impulse response are the poles of the
system. We can use convolution integral to obtain the response
of a system to any input. To apply the convolution integral, we
make use of the impulse response. The topic of convolution
integral is presented on another page.
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SYNTHESIS OF WAVEFORMS
It is possible to synthesize waveforms using singularity
functions. An example has already been presented in Figs. 13
and 14, wherein a pulse function has been generated as the sum
of step functions. Some more examples are presented below.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1

Express f(t) in Fig. 24a as the sum of singularity functions.
Solution:
It can be seen from Fig. 24a that

Here f
1
(t) is a ramp function and f
2
(t) is a shifted ramp function.
We can express function f(t) as follows:

This example shows how addition of a ramp signal and a shifted
ramp signal leads to a different function.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A saw tooth pulse is shown in Fig. 25a. Express it as the sum of
singularity functions.

Solution:
It can be seen from Fig. 25a that function f(t) can be described
by equation (2.30).

This saw tooth pulse function can be visualized to be the sum of
three singularity functions, as shown in Fig. 25. Equation (2.31)
expresses function f(t) as the sum of three singularity functions.
When t < 1, we have a ramp function representing function f(t).
At t = 1, value of function f(t) changes from 1 to 0. By adding a
negative shifted unit-step function to the ramp function, we can
bring the value of functionf(t) changes from 1 to 0. For t > 1,
value of function f(t) is zero. If we had only the sum the ramp
function and the negative shifted unit-step function, the resulting
function would continue to increase for t > 1. By adding a
negative shifted unit-ramp function to the sum of the ramp
function and the negative shifted unit-step function, we get the
single saw-tooth pulse.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3
A triangular pulse is shown in Fig. 26a. Express it as the sum of
singularity functions.

Solution:
It can be seen from Fig. 26a that function f(t) can be described
by equation (2.32), when 0 < t < 1.

When 1 < t <2, we need to form an equation for the line with a
negative slope. Equation (2.33) is an equation that represents a
line. The unknown constants can be evaluated from the values
the line has at t = 1 and t = 2. Then we get equation (2.34).

Equation (2.35) describes the triangular pulse. It is easy to see
that the triangular pulse is part of the ramp function when t < 1.
When t > 1, the slope of the triangular function is - 1. The ramp
function, that starts at t = 0, has a slope of one. We can add a
negative shifted ramp function starts at t = 1 to the ramp
function, that starts at t = 0. Let the slope of the shifted ramp
function starts at t = 1 be -2. Then the resultant function
obtained by adding the two ramp functions has a slope of -1 for
1 < t <2. For t > 2, the triangular pulse has zero value. Hence we
can add a shifted unit ramp function that starts at t = 2 to the
other tow ramp functions. Equation (2.36) expresses the
triangular pulse as the sum of three ramp functions.

In Fig. 26, a graphical representation of how to obtain the
triangular pulse is presented.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A pulse is shown in Fig. 27. Express it as the sum of singularity
functions.

SOLUTION:
The solution is shown in Fig. 28 and it is self-explanatory.

The equation that defines the pulse in Fig. 27 is presented
below.

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ENERGY & POWER SIGNALS
INTRODUCTION
ENERGY SIGNAL
POWER SIGNAL
EXAMPLES
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
A signal can be classified to be an energy signal or a power
signal. In this page, the aspects related to energy and power
signals are presented.
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ENERGY SIGNAL
Some signals qualify to be classified as energy signals, whereas
some other signals qualify to be classified as power signals.
Given a continuous-time signal f(t), the energy contained over a
finite time interval is defined as follows.

Equation (3.8) defines the energy contained in the signal over
time interval from T
1
till T
2
. On the other hand, equation (3.9)
defines thetotal energy contained in the signal. If the total
energy of a signal is a finite non-zero value, then that signal is
classified as an energy signal. Typically the signals which are
not periodic turns out to be energy signals. For example, a single
rectangular pulse and a decaying exponential signal are energy
signals.
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POWER SIGNAL
When a reference to power in a signal is made, it points to
the average power. Power is defined as energy per second. For a
continuous-time signal, we can obtain an expression for power
from equation (3.9).

Most of the periodic signals tend to be power signals. Given the
period of a cycle, the power of a periodic signal can be defined
by equation (3.11). Equation (3.11) can be used to find the
power of a dc signal also. The dc signal is also a power signal. If
power of a signal is a finite non-zero value and its energy is
infinite, then that signal is classified as a power signal. There are
some signals which can be classified neither as power signals
nor as energy signals. For example, a ramp signal defined from
zero till infinity is neither a power signal nor an energy signal,
since both power and energy of ramp signal is not bounded. But
in practice. such a signal cannot exist and hence such a signal is
not of any practical importance.
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EXAMPLES
Example 1:
Given an exponential signal as defined by equation (3.12), find
its energy.

Solution:
The solution is expressed by equation (3.13). An exponential
signal is an energy signal, since its energy is a finite, non-zero
value.
Example 2
Given a sinusoidal signal as defined by equation (3.14), find its
power.

Solution:
The solution is expressed by equation (3.15). A sinusoidal signal
is a power signal, since the its power over a cycle is a finite,
non-zero value. The energy associated with the sinusoidal signal
is infinite.
Example 3
Given a square-wave signal as defined by equation (3.15), find
its power.

Solution:
The solution is expressed by equation (3.18). A periodic square-
wave signal is a power signal, since the its power over a cycle is
a finite, non-zero value. The energy associated with the square-
wave signal is infinite.
EXPONENTIAL SIGNAL
INTRODUCTION
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
An exponential signal is an energy signal, as illustrated by an
example in the previous page. The base of natural logarithm is
the irrational number called e and it is equal to 2.718281.., and
an exponential signal occurs repeatedly in electrical engineering
and mathematics and is defined to be:

In equation (5.1), o is the neper frequency and it is preferable to
express equation (5.1) as follows, where t, the time constant
with the unit of second, equals 1/o. Then
The Laplace transform expression of the exponential function
has a pole at s = - o. It can be seen that a pole on the negative
real axis of s-plane corresponds to an exponential function. In
this case, the multiplicity of pole at s = - o is unity and it needs
to be mentioned that a practical system generating a signal has
no poles in the right-half of s-plane. The poles may lie on either
the je-axis or on the left-half of s-plane. The plot of equation
(5.2) is obtained with the help of a Matlab program and is shown
in Fig. 30. It is seen that


Fig. 30: An Exponential Function
An exponentially decaying waveform decreases to less than 1%
of its original value when the time elapsed equals five time
constants. The plot of derivative is shown in Fig. 31.

Fig. 31: Derivative of an Exponential Function

Figure 32 illustrates one of the properties of an exponential
waveform. In Fig. 32, f(t) is plotted as a function of (t/t). If a
tangent to the exponential curve is drawn at t = 0, the tangent
intersects the x-axis at t = t, after a time interval equaling its
time constant. If a tangent is drawn at t = t, then the tangent
intersects the x-axis at t = 2t, again after a time interval equaling
its time constant. The tangent drawn at any instant intersects
the x-axis after a time interval equaling its time constant. This
aspect can be understood from equation (5.3).

PERIODIC SIGNALS
INTRODUCTION
SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
NON-SINUSOIDAL PERIODIC WAVEFORM
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
A periodic signal is repetitive, meaning that it repeats itself
cycle after cycle. An ideal periodic signal is everlasting, but in
practice if the signal exists for a sufficiently long period, it
qualifies to be called a periodic signal. The most commonly
used periodic signal is the sinusoidal signal. In this page, we
take up for study both the sinusoidal signal and the non-
sinusoidal periodic signals.
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SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL

The topic of sinusoidal signal has already been introduced.
Hence the description is kept brief. The waveform of a
sinusoidal signal is shown in Fig. 33. This signal can be defined
by equation (6.1) shown below:

For the signal in Fig. 33, the period is T, E is its amplitude and
the fundamental frequency, f = 1/T Hz . The Laplace transform
expression has a complex pair of poles on the imaginary axis
of s-plane. A pair of poles on the imaginary system corresponds
to an undamped system such as an oscillator. Let equation (6.2)
represent a sinusoidal signal.

The signal defined by equation (6.2) repeats every T seconds or
2t radians. In equation (6.2), e is known as the angular
frequency, expressed in radians per second. It can be seen from
equation (6.1) that (e t) should have the unit of radians.
Since t has the unit of second, e is expressed in radians per
second. At any instant, the value of the signal can be related to
an angle, u. It is shown in Fig. 33 how this angle is measured for
a cosine wave. It is the angle corresponding to the time-period
that has elapsed after the last positive peak. In equation (6.2), the
parameter | is known as the phase angle and it is expressed in
radians. Since the cosine function is an even function,the value
of phase angle can be obtained as shown by equations (6.3) and
(6.4). The sine function is an odd function, and equation (6.4)
yields both the sign and the magnitude of phase angle correctly.
In general, a sinusoidal signal can be defined by equation (6.5).

We can express a sinusoidal function in another way, as shown
by equation (6.6). Equation (6.6) can be expressed as shown by
equation (6.7), which corresponds to the form expressed by
equation (6.2).
Equation (6.6) illustrates the additive property of of sinusoids.
When two sinusoidal signals at the same frequency are added,
the resulting signal has the same frequency, as shown by
equation (6.7).
Another property of a sinusoidal signal is that both its derivative
and its integral have the same frequency. A sinusoidal signal
supplies an alternating current since its value keeps alternating
from a positive to a negative value and vice versa and is hence
called an ac signal. For anac signal, various parameters such as
the effective or the root-mean square value, absolute average
value, form factor, crest factor are defined. Since these
parameters can be calculated for any periodic waveform, they
are applied to non-sinusoidal periodic signals in the next section.

Equation (6.8) presents the root mean square value of a
sinusoidal signal. The average of a signal is defined, as
expressed by equation (6.9). Since the average value of a
sinusoidal signal is zero, the absolute average of a sinusoidal
signal is obtained and it is expressed by equation (6.10).
It is necessary to know the importance of the absolute average
value. Some ammeters, voltmeters and multimeters actually read
only the absolute average value, but they are calibrated to show
the rms value by using the form factor, which is explained next.
The ratio of the effective or rms value of any periodic waveform
to its absolute average value is called its form factor. The form
factor for a sinusoidal waveform is:

A meter that reads the absolute average value displays the rms
value after internally multiplying the read value by 1.11. Such a
meter reads accurately the rms value of a sinusoidal signal only.
If it is used to read the rms value of a periodic signal that has a
form factor different from 1.11. its reading is erroneous.
Form factor gives an indication of the peakiness of the
waveform. Normally a peaky periodic signal would have a form
factor higher than 1.11. A measure of the peaky nature of a
signal is also obtained from its crest factor or peak factor. The
ratio of the maximum or the peak value of a periodic waveform
to its effective value is defined as the crest factor or the peak
factor. The crest factor of a sinusoidal signal is square-root of 2.
Usually the crest factor is calculated for a periodic waveform
that has zero dc value. The dc value of a periodic signal is its
average value over a full-cycle. A sinusoidal signal has zero dc
value.
It can be seen that a sinusoid is characterized by three
parameters; its amplitude A, its frequency f , and its phase
angle |.
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NON-SINUSOIDAL PERIODIC WAVEFORM
A periodical signal, f(t) with a period of T, repeats itself
every T seconds. A signal is periodic if

A square wave-signal, shown in Fig. 8.34, is a periodic signal.
Its average value, effective value, form factor and crest factor
can be found out as follows.

The average value of the waveform in Fig. 34 calculated over its
cycle period T is zero. Hence its absolute average value is
computed over its positive half-cycle, as shown by equation
(6.13).

The rms value of this signal is computed as shown in equation
(6.14). The form factor of this waveform is unity and the crest
factor of this waveform is also unity. The low values of both
form factor and crest factor indicate that the waveform has a
flat-top.
A term called duty cycle is often used in connection with
periodic signals. The duty cycle D is defined as the ratio of the
period for which the signal is positive to its cycle period. For the
signal in Fig. 35, the duty cycle D is defined to be:


The average value of the signal in Fig. 35 is obtained, as
expressed by equation (6.16).

The rms value of the signal in Fig. 35 is obtained, as expressed
by equation (6.17).

It is seen that

This relationship is significant. For example, let the values in
equation (6.18) reflect currents through a semiconductor device.
For a semiconductor device such as a diode, its rms rating is
fixed due to its limited power dissipation capability. Then the
average current it can carry falls as the duty cycle of the current
waveform reduces, given that its rms value remains fixed.
Using Fourier series, a non-sinusoidal periodic signal can be
expressed as the sum of a dc signal and sinusoidal signals at the
fundamental frequency and the harmonic frequencies. A
harmonic frequency is a multiple of the fundamental frequency.
The ratio of harmonic frequency to its fundamental frequency is
an integer. We take up the study of Fourier series in one of the
pages to follow.
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WORKED EXAMPLES
INTRODUCTION
GROUP ONE
GROUP TWO
GROUP THREE
SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
The examples are divided into three groups. Most of the
problems in first group deals with the rms and the average
values of some periodic signals. The problems in second are on
decomposing the given waveforms and developing expressions
using the singularity functions and operations on them. The
problems in third group deal with developing sketches of
signals, given their expressions in time domain.
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GROUP ONE
Example 1:
A sinusoidal signal has a period of 10 ms. At t = 0, the signal
has a value of 20 V. It reaches its first positive peak 2 ms later.
Determine the equation of the signal.
Solution:

Equation (7.1) presents the equation of a sinusoid. It is necessary
to determine the values of E and . The value of e can be
obtained from the period of the waveform, as shown by equation
(7.2). When the signal reaches its peak, the argument of the
cosine function has zero value, as shown by equation (7.3) and
the value of can be obtained, as shown. When the signal lags
the reference signal that has zero phase, the value of is
negative. If the value is less than t, then we can add
2t to such that - t < < t radians. Let t = 0 in equation (7.1).
Then we can obtain the value of E, as shown by equation (7.4).
Equation (7.5) presents the equation of the sinusoid that needs to
be determined.
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Example 2:
A sinusoidal signal has a period of 10 ms. At t = 0, the signal
has a value of 58.779 V. It reaches its first positive peak 8.5 ms
later. Determine the equation of the signal.
Solution:
The solution is presented below without any explanation, since it
is similar to the first example.

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Example 3:

Obtain the rms and the absolute average values of the periodic
waveforms in Fig. 36.
Solution:
The waveform of the square-wave shown on the left side of Fig.
36 has already been presented in the previous page. Its absolute
average and rms values can be obtained, as shown below by
equations (7.11a) and (7.11b).

The waveform of the square-wave shown on the right side of
Fig. 36 has already been presented in the previous page. Its
absolute average and rms values can be obtained, as shown
below by equations (7.12) and (7.13). The duty cycle of this
waveform is less than 1. The waveform on the left-side of Fig.
36 has a duty cycle of one. Hence the average value of
waveform, with D less than one, can be obtained by multiplying
the average value of waveform that has unity duty cycle by the
duty cycle. In the same way, the rms value of of waveform,
with D less than one, can be obtained by multiplying the the rms
value of of waveform that has unity duty cycle by the square
root of duty cycle. You can understand what is stated by
understanding equations (7.11b) and (7.13).

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Example 4:

Express the waveform in Fig. 37 by an equation. Obtain the rms
and the average values of the periodic waveform in Fig. 37.
Solution:

The waveform displayed in Fig. 37 is a periodic signal that
exists for t < 0 and for t 0 and hence equation (7.14) that
defines this waveform does not contain u(t) as part of it. The
average value and the rms value can be obtained as shown by
equations (7.15) and (7.16).
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Example 5:

Express the waveform in Fig. 38 by an equation. Obtain the rms
and the average values of the periodic waveform in Fig. 38.
Solution:

From the average and the rms values of the full-wave rectified
waveform, the average and the rms values of the half-wave
rectified waveform can be obtained. The duty cycle of the half-
wave rectified waveform is 0.5. Hence equations (7.18) and
(7.19) can be derived from equations (7.15) and (7.16)
respectively.
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Example 6:

Express the waveforms in Fig. 39 by suitable equations. Obtain
the rms and the average values of the periodic waveforms in Fig.
39.
Solution:
First, we deal with the waveform in Fig. 39a. We can
express f
1
(t) as the sum of two signals, g
1
(t) and g
2
(t), as shown
in Fig. 40.

We can express f
1
(t) as shown by equation (7.20). The average
value of this waveform can be obtained, as shown by equation
(7.21).

The rms value of f
1
(t) can be obtained as shown below by
equations (7.220, (7.23) and (7.24).

As shown in Fig. 40, f
1
(t) is the sum of two signals, g
1
(t)
and g
2
(t). Signal g
1
(t) expresses the average value of f
1
(t).
Signal g
2
(t) expresses the difference between f
1
(t) and its
average value. Equation (7.25) defines g
1
(t) and g
2
(t).

The average value of g
2
(t) is zero and the value of the product
of g
1
(t) and g
2
(t) integrated over a cycle period is zero. Then the
signals,g
1
(t) and g
2
(t), are said to be orthogonal. When two
signals are orthogonal, the rms value of the sum of these two
signals can be obtained as expressed by equation (7.27).
Equation (7.28) expressed the rms value of g
1
(t) and g
2
(t). Then
the rms value of f
1
(t) can be obtained, as shown by equation
(7.29). It can be verified that the two expressions shown for the
rms value of f
1
(t) are equal to each other. Expand the terms in
the first expression and then simplify. Then you get the second
expression, obtained earlier in equation (7.24).

We can extend what we have learned so far to obtain the rms
value of waveform in Fig. 39b. We know how we can determine
the average and the rms value of a waveform with D < 1, given
the average and the rms value of the same waveform with D = 1.
Secondly, we know how we can decompose a given waveform
into the sum of orthogonal signals and then obtain the rms value
of the given waveform.

We can decompose the signal in Fig. 39b, as shown in Fig. 41.

We can obtain equations (7.30) and (7.31) from equations (7.21)
and (7.29).

We can work out again. Equations (7.32) and (7.33) show how
we can obtain the rms value of f
2
(t).

We can obtain the average and the rms value of f
2
(t), staring
from the definition of average and rms values. Equation (7.34)
defines f
2
(t) and its average value is obtained, as shown by
equation (7.35).

The rms value of f
2
(t) can be obtained, as shown by equations
(7.36) and (7.37).
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GROUP TWO
Example 7 :

Express the waveform in Fig. 42 in time domain and s-domain.
Solution:
The solution is explained with the help of a sketch presented in
Fig. 43.

The expressions in in time domain and s-domain can be
obtained, as shown in equations (7.39). and (7.40).

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Example 8:

Express the function shown in Fig. 44 in terms of exponential
functions and unit step functions. Express the function in s-
domain also.
Solution:
The equations are presented below.

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Example 9 :

Express the function shown in Fig. 45 in terms of exponential
singularity functions. Express the function in s-domain also.
Solution:
The solution is explained with the help of a sketch presented in
Fig. 46.


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GROUP THREE
Example 10 :
Sketch the following functions:

Solution:

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Example 11 :
Sketch the following functions.

Solution:

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Example 12:
A periodic saw-tooth signal, f(t) with a period of T is defined as
follows:

Sketch the waveform. Find its average value and its rms value.
What is its form factor ?
Solution: