The Gerund Types of Gerund 1) The nominal gerund [The students came slowly.] This upset her.

[The slow coming of the students] upset her. det. adj. prep. complement The nominal gerund has the main characteristics of nouns. It takes the definite determiner the . It is pre!modified "y adjecti#es. It is followed "y the preposition of and the o"ject. $) The verbal gerunds are distinguished "y the case of their su"jects. The su"ject of the gerund is in the Geniti#e case in the construction known as the possessi#e %ing complement or in the &ccusati#e case. The is also a su"ject!less gerund' called a ()* % ing complement. The meaning of ()* is either controlled "y an element from the main clause or it is free. The gerund has two #er"al categories+ aspect ,perfect) and #oice ,acti#e and passi#e) [-ohn s ha#ing paid the "ill] did not surprise me. % perfect aspect' acti#e #oice [The .ill ha#ing "een paid] we left. % perfect aspect' passi#e #oice /yntactic functions of the Gerund ! 0* I could a#oid [running into him]. Gerundial complement clauses ,G11) of all types can function as 0* for a transiti#e #er" in the main clause. ! /u"ject [Tom s coming with us] was "ad enough2 a surprise. &dj. predicati#e 2nominal pred. G11 can function as /u"ject for copulati#e predication in the main clause with adjecti#al and nominal predicati#e. ! (* /he insisted [on coming]. G11 can function as (* for a prepositional #". or adjecti#e in the main clause ! (repositional &ttri"ute

The idea [of me "eing in#ol#ed in this affair] is odd. G11 function as prepositional &ttri"ute for [3 a"stract] nouns with o"ligatory preposition in the main clause. ! (redicati#e [/eeing] is ["elie#ing]. G11 can function as (redicati#e after copulati#e #er"s in the main clause. ! &d#er"ial 4odifiers 5e got the money ["y cheating] ! &d#er"ial 4odifiers of 4anner The distinction "etween the (articiple and the Gerund 1. 6hen the participial clause has a su"ject' this su"ject is in the 7ominati#e case' while the su"ject of the gerundial clause is in the &ccusati#e or the 0ati#e case. e.g. [-ohn s coming late] "others me. % gerund ,0ati#e su"ject) [1onditions "eing fa#ora"le]' we went on a trip. % participle $. (articipial clauses are preceded "y conjunctions' while gerundial clauses are preceded "y prepositions. e.g. [*n arri#ing there] they found a dead man. % gerund [6hen arri#ing there] they found a dead man. % participle 8. (articipial clauses function as nominal or #er"al modifiers' while gerunds ha#e different syntactic functions ,0*' (*' /u"ject' (redicati#e) e.g. [The party "eing o#er]' e#ery"ody left. ! participle Relative clauses The syntactic process of relati#i9ation e.g. 1. [7( The athlete] won a medal. They are sponsoring [7( the athlete]. antecedent who2whom % relati#e pronoun $. :The athlete [that they are sponsoring whom] won a medal.

8. :The athlete [whomi that they are sponsoring ti] won a medal. ;. The athlete [whomi < they are sponsoring ti] won a medal The athlete [<i that they are sponsoring ti] won a medal. The athlete [<i < they are sponsoring ti] won a medal. The syntactic process of relati#i9ation is achie#ed "y following ; rules+ 1. the identical constituent from the $nd clause is replaced "y a suita"le rel. pronoun. $. the $nd clause is em"edded into the structure of the 1st clause immediately after the 7( functioning as antecedent. 8. the rel. pronoun mo#es to initial position in the relati#e clause ,)1)' "eing immediately followed "y the compementi9er that ;. deletion % one of the constituents ,either the compementi9er that or the rel. pronoun) is deleted and occasionally "oth. The wh!phrase The elements that can appear initially in a )1 are+ ! rel. pronouns+ who' what' which ! ad#er"s+ when' where' why ! the determiner whose followed "y a noun ! the compementi9er that Types of relati#e clauses )elati#e clauses can "e classified on semantic and syntactic criterion. =g. &ny "oy [who is la9y] must "e punished. ))1 -ohn' [who is la9y]' must "e punished. 7))1 >rom a semantic point of #iew there are two types of relati#e clauses. )estricti#e relati#e clauses are clauses which delimit or identify the antecedent.

)estricts the num"er of "oys to "e punished to only those who are specified or descri"ed in the relati#e clause. 7))1 ,also known as appositi#e relati#e clauses) add some additional information a"out an already identified antecedent. >rom a syntactic point of #iew' relati#e clauses are of two types+ ! relati#e clauses with an e?pressed antecedent. They are also called dependent relati#e clauses@ ! relati#e clauses without an e?pressed antecedent. They are also called independent relati#e clauses. =g. /omething [that lay on the ta"le] was the issue. A)1 [6hat lay on the ta"le] was the issue. A a"sent antecedent 7on )estricti#e )elati#e 1lauses B 7))1 )estricti#e )elati#e 1lauses B ))1 The distinction "etween ))1 % 7))1 =g. The students [who attended the seminars]))1 will pass the e?am. -ohn[' who attended the seminars']7))1 will pass the e?am. There are C major differences "etween ))1 and 7))1+ 1. there is a difference in function@ whereas the major function of the ))1 is to identify the referents' the 7))1 simply adds information a"out an already identified referent. $. at the phonological le#el' ))1s are linked to their antecedent "y unity of intonation. 7))1s are characteri9ed "y a fresh intonation contour. 7))1 are usually separated from the main clause "y a pair of commons. 8. eg. /he introduced -im to my mother' [who "egan to tell her a"out his prospects].

Aantecedent Dand heE % coordination

In a ))1' antecedent 3 a restricti#e relati#e clause form a single information unit' while an antecedent followed "y a 7))1 form $ distinct information units. ;. eg. :/andy [who is hard of hearing] ne#er goes to concerts. A))1 /andy' [who is hard of hearing]' ne#er goes to concerts. A7))1 *nly 7))1 can ha#e an antecedent e?pressed "y a proper noun. F.eg. & performer [who is dressing now] will appear shortly. ,antecedent) A))1 comple? 7( [& performer] will appear shortly' [who is dressing now]. A7( A)1 ,e?traposed )1) [-ohn' [who is dressing now]'] will appear shortly. A7( A7))1 : -ohn will appear shortly' who is dressing now. ))1 can "e e?tracted from the comple? 7( and mo#ed to final position while 7))1 can t. G. eg. 1ats [which2that scratch] are nasty. A))1 1ats' [which2:that scratch]' are nasty. A7)11 ))1 can "e introduced either "y a relati#e pronoun or "y the complementi9er DthatE while 7))1 only allow a relati#e pronoun in initial position. C. eg. The "ook is here. They are talking a"out the "ook. The "ook [a"out which they are talking] is here. H

The "ook [which they are talking a"out] is here. H ))1 The "ook [they are talking a"out] is here. H ))1 may occur without a connecting relati#e pronoun in which case they are called contact relati#e clauses. I. =g. 5e didn t seem to notice us' [which was a great relief for me]. A7))1 /ometimes 7))1 can ha#e clausal antecedents % the whole preceding clause function as an antecedent. TYPES OF QUESTIONS Yes/No questions are deri#ed from simple declarati#e sentences "y means of inflection mo#ement' in other words the au?iliary or the modal #" mo#es in pre!su"ject position e.g. truth. 6ill -ohn tell the truthJ In negati#e K27 Luestions the au?iliary appears in contracted form with the negator DnotE. e.g. 5asn t -ohn attended the courseJ Tag questions consist of a declarati#e clause followed "y a tagged K27 Luestion. e.g. won t heJ The tag contains a repetition of the au?iliary or the modal from the declarati#e clause and a pronoun referring to the su"ject of the declarati#e. e.g. /he can speak -apanese' can t sheJ -ohn will tell the truth' -ohn will tell the

If the declarati#e clause is affirmati#e then the tag is normally negati#e. If the declarati#e clause does not contain an au?iliary or a modal then the au?iliary DdoE is used in the tag Luestion. e.g. doesn t sheJ Types of clauses according to communicati#e function+ declarati#e' /he speaks -apanese'

6hat will -ohn tellJ The 0* is Luestioned in sentences that contain a simple or a comple? transiti#e #er". e.g. They accused -ohn of cheating 6ho did they accuse of cheatingJ Questioning the PO e.g. They depend [on their friends] 6hom do they depend onJ % preposition stranding ,informal =nglish) *n whom do they dependJ (ied!piping ,formal =nglish) There are $ constructions in =nglish for Luestioning the (*+ in formal =nglish the preposition mo#es together with the wh! word to the "eginning of the Luestion' in the so!called pied!piping construction' while in informal =nglish only the wh!word mo#es' lea#ing the preposition "ehind in the preposition stranding construction. Questioning the IO It is only possi"le in o"liLue o"ject constructions. The preposition DtoE either mo#es together with the wh!word to the "eginning of the Luestion in the so!called pied!piping construction or the preposition remains in the same position in the preposition stranding construction. e.g. -ohn ga#e a "ook [to 4ary] o"liLue o"ject construction To whom did -ohn gi#e a "ookJ pied!piping 6hom did -ohn gi#e a "ook toJ preposition stranding

e?clamati#e' imperati#e' interrogati#e. The re#ersed polarity is typical for tag Luestions and is neutral in tone. /imilar polarity in the tag and in the main clause indicated the speakerMs attitude ,irony' sincere' main clause. Wh- questions. Questioning the DO, the IO and the PO. 6h! Luestions are deri#ed from simple declarati#e sentences "y means of inflection mo#ement and wh!mo#ement. The au?iliary or the modal #" mo#es in pre! su"ject position with the wh!word preceding it. e.g. -ohn will tell the truth 6hat will -ohn tellJ 6h! Luestions are introduced "y+ a) interrogati#e pronouns ,what' who' which)@ ") interrogati#e ad#er"s ,where' how' why) Nuestioning the 0* Nuestions addressed to the 0* are formed "y replacing the [!human] 0* with DwhatE or the [3human] 0* with DwhoE and then the wh!word is mo#ed is pre!su"ject position together with the au?iliary or the modal #". e.g. -ohn will tell the truth interest or thoughtful consideration) towards the content of the