Associazione Studiosi Scienze Eterodosse

Monografie di Altra Scienza

n.10 Ottobre 2006

Nikola Tesla

Sommario
6 16 22 * .2 16 13 3 118 123 1 0 1 8 Andromeda Nikola Tesla %.E.#urton M.'aoletti +.Malgarini !"automobile di Nikola Tesla #re$etto &omo &onstruir una Turbina Tesla Tesla( )n Talento Scomodo ,l Sistema di Nikola Tesla -er Trasmettere Energia Senza +ili ,n Ogni 'arte della Terra AA.//. Mec0anical Oscillator T0e Eart02uake Mac0ine Tesla"s +l4ing Mac0ine E5-eriments 6it0 Alternate &urrents of 7ig0 'otential and 7ig0 +re2uenc4 !uke Tesla"s 9real: +l4ing Mac0ine !"Oscillatore di Tesla %.#.&arlson !",n$entore di Sogni Tesla Eart02uake Mac0ine

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&OMO &ONST;),; )NA T);#,NA TES!A

He aqu un gran motor que se ha relegado al olvido: La turbina Tesla. Constituye un trabajo muy sencillo para el modelista, pues no requiere tolerancias. Y unciona con aire o vapor
Por Walter E. Burton

Click en la imagen para ver ms grande y claro PARECE PERSEGU R!"S el #antasma de !ikola $esla. El a%o pasado descri&imos a'u( c)mo construir un modelo de la &o&ina de alta #recuencia de ese gran inventor *septiem&re de +,-./. A0ora 0e a'u( su #amosa tur&ina de vapor1 la cual siempre se menciona1 aun'ue rara ve2 puede verse. Estos dos modelos tienen varias cosas en com3n4 A pesar de 'ue son para #ines de diversi)n y e5perimentaci)n1 estn &asados en originales 'ue *+/ #ueron construidos por ra2ones prcticas6 *7/ introdu8eron principios revolucionarios6 y *9/ nunca se produ8eron para #ines comerciales. :a vista seccional a la i2'uierda muestra c)mo #uncion) en realidad un prototipo1 construido para una compa%(a de #uer2a el;ctrica. $en(a 7< discos con un espesor de =.> mil(metros y1 a pesar de 'ue apenas med(a -+ 5 ,+ cent(metros y 'ue ten(a una altura de s)lo -+ cent(metros1 logr) producir una potencia de 7== ca&allos a una velocidad de +-1=== rpm con un c0orro de vapor a una presi)n de >.> kilogramos por cent(metro cuadrado. :a trayectoria espiral del vapor lleg) a ser de casi < metros1 y la presi)n del vapor de escape alcan2) apenas =.=? kilogramo por cent(metro cuadrado@ prue&a de la e5traordinaria e#iciencia de la tur&ina.

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:a otra caracter(stica 'ue dio origen a un revuelo en a'uel entonces *antes de la Primera Guerra Bundial/ #ue la #acilidad con 'ue el motor pod(a invertirse. Simplemente se 0ac(a #luir el vapor a una to&era en el lado opuesto del e8e del rotor. :as tur&inas de norma en a'uellos tiempos s)lo se pod(an invertir mediante un complicado y engorroso procedimiento. :a tur&ina de $esla nunca lleg) a producirse comercialmente. Es posi&le 'ue #uera demasiado adelantada para sus tiempos. A0ora estn corriendo rumores de 'ue 0a vuelto a nacer el inter;s en ella6 el Cepartamento de Barina1 por e8emplo1 de los Estados Unidos la est sometiendo a serias consideraciones. Es posi&le 'ue todav(a se convierta en una importante unidad de #uer2a6 posi&lemente en relaci)n con las plantas at)micas de vapor.

:a manera en 'ue #unciona la tur&ina se muestra en este es'uema &asado en in#ormes de ingenier(a de +,++ so&re el motor 'ue $esla construy) para una compa%(a de #uer2a el;ctrica de !ueva Aork. Cuando el vapor proveniente de la to&era a la derec0a descri&e una trayectoria espiral entre los discos1 ;stos comien2an a girar

El principio de #uncionamiento 'ue estimul) todo este inter;s en +,++ puede demostrarse en nuestro modelo. El rotor $esla consiste en discos montados en posici)n paralela so&re un e8e y espaciados entre s( a una distancia e'uivalente a su espesor o ligeramente mayor. En la tur&ina de $esla1 estos discos eran de acero endurecido6 pero como usted 0ar #uncionar el modelo con presiones pe'ue%as solamente1 puede utili2ar aluminio1 el cual es #cil de la&rar. Un c0orro de aire *o vapor/ aplicado contra el &orde de este con8unto de rotor descri&e una trayectoria espiral por los espacios entre los discos1 a #in de encontrar las lum&reras de escape en el centro. El arrastre del gas contra las super#icies de los discos 0ace 'ue todo el rotor gire. !uestro modelo de 9< on2as *,77.7< g/ de peso y 9 +D7E *>.>, cm/ de altura se 0alla montado so&re una plata#orma de madera terciada de 9D.E *+,.=<El e8e se la&ra en tres pasos. En la #oto de arri&a1 la varilla mm/ 'ue mide < 5 >E *+.7? 5 7=.97 cm/. Si va a de 9D>E ya se 0a torneado en un e5tremo para luego #uncionar con aire1 puede construir la tur&ina deinvertirse por completo con o&8eto de tornear el otro casi cual'uier metal1 utili2ando una lata vac(a parae5tremo6 el e5tremo derec0o del centro de espesor mayor la ca8a *C/ y acero laminado en #r(o para el e8e *S/.se rosca despu;s. Foto a&a8o1 se cortan c(rculos en una Pero si proyecta utili2ar vapor1 la ca8a de&e ser decortadora de los discos de aluminio del rotor aluminio y el e8e de acero ino5ida&le. $odo el la&rado para un modelo de este tama%o se puede reali2ar con una 0erramienta para tra&a8os de metal1 tal como la Unimat 'ue se muestra en las #otos acompa%antes. :a ca8a cil(ndrica para nuestro modelo se cort) de un vie8o e5tinguidor de #uego 0ec0o de lat)n. Si el cilindro 'ue escoge usted tiene un tama%o e5cesivo y tiene 'ue 'uitarle un segmento @o si tiene usted 'ue construir un cilindro de lmina plana@una los e5tremos con una tira de metal remac0ada a trav;s de la 8unta y sellada con soldadura. Si construye usted la ca8a de aluminio1 el armado se puede e#ectuar mediante soportes remac0ados1 en ve2 de soldadura. Ce todos modos1 conviene 'ue una de las placas de e5tremo pueda desmontarse1 a #in de poder a8ustar el rotor ms adelante.

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:os e5tremos de la ca8a *i2'uierda/ y los discos del rotor *derec0a/ se recti#ican al dimetro e5acto con una #resa partidora. ! tese 'ue el dimetro e5terior mayor de los e5tremo e5ige pivotar el ca&e2al para de8ar el claro necesario. :os &ordes de los discos se redondean con una lima plana y luego se pulen con tela a&rasiva de grano #ino. A pesar de 'ue los e5tremos pueden montarse en el mandril1 el agu8ero central de los discos es demasiado pe'ue%o6 por lo tanto1 es necesario 0acer un r&ol de soporte *centro/ con el e5tremo roscado para dar ca&ida a un perno :as lum&reras de escape *i2'uierda/ se per#oran can una &roca de +D.E1 luego se escar(an a un dimetro de 9D>E. Una sencilla gu(a u&ica todos los agu8eros a la misma distancia del centro *el espaciamiento de +7= grados no es cr(tico/. :as ranuras para el c0orro de aire se cortaron *centro/ per#orando una serie de agu8eros con una &roca de gu(a y luego utili2ando la &roca como #resadora para eliminar el metal entre los agu8eros. !)tese la a&ra2adera de ngulo de 0ierro para asegurar la ca8a. A la derec0a1 puede verse c)mo se la&ran tapas de co8inetes de varillas de lat)n

El con8unto de la to&era se monta en la &ase con una a&ra2adera en #orma de U. Consiste en *#oto a&a8o/ un tu&o so&re el cual se desli2a el tu&o de cauc0o del suministro de aire6 una $ para el tu&o de co&re 'ue se suelda a un par de gri#os6 y las to&eras 'ue se sueldan en otros codos de tu&o. :as ranuras para las to&eras en las ca8as de aire y la del motor se liman a anc0o su#iciente para dar ca&ida a la unidad de ;stas

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:a ca8a se suspende entre dos montantes *parte U/ 'ue tam&i;n sostienen los co8inetes del rotor. :os montantes de&en 0acerse de material &astante r(gido1 tal como lat)n de cali&re +> *=.=.=9E/. Se utili2an cuatro cortos tornillos de 7@<- para #i8ar cada montante a la placa de e5tremo. En nuestro modelo1 estas pie2as se 0an pulido con una varilla de cauc0o a&rasivo asegurada en un taladro de &anco. :a canal entre el montante y la placa permite la salida del escape. Se utili2aron co8inetes de &olas Fa#nir !o. 99G< en el modelo 'ue se muestra6 estos co8inetes tienen un dimetro e5terior de +D7E *+.7? cm/1 un anc0o de <D97E *9.,? mm/ y una per#oraci)n de 9D+-E *..?- mm/. Si no 0ay disponi&les co8inetes similares1 tendr usted 'ue alterar las dimensiones a#ectadas@o la&rar co8inetes de &u8e de tipo s)lido1 empleando varilla de &ronce de 9D.E *+,.=< mm/ para co8inetes. Sea cual sea el tipo de co8inetes 'ue esco8a usted1 #(8elos a los montantes con un par de tornillos de 7@<- introducidos a trav;s de un aro de ret;n y dentro de agu8eros roscados en los montantes. :as arandelas de presi)n en el interior evitan 'ue los tornillos se a#lo8en a causa de las vi&raciones. !ote en la vista seccional de la pgina ?7 'ue los aros de retenci)n se 0allan re&a8ados para dar ca&ida a las tapas de los co8inetes1 pero 'ue no se 0allan a8ustados apretadamente contra los montantes. :a u&icaci)n de los co8inetes en relaci)n con el e8e del rotor se muestra en la #oto in#erior derec0a de la pgina ?<. Cespu;s de montar los co8inetes en los montantes *centrados so&re los agu8eros de <D+-E *?.,. mm/ 1 colo'ue el rotor en la ca8a1 tal como se muestra1 instale en su lugar la placa de e5tremo 'ue se 0a 'uitado y suspenda el e8e entre los co8inetes para u&icar los agu8eros de monta8e en las placas de e5tremo. Si el e8e no gira li&remente cuando se termina el armado1 cam&ie la alineaci)n de los co8inetes1 a#lo8ando o apretando los tornillos del aro de retenci)n o insertando cu%as entre los montantes y las placas de e5tremo. Recuerde tam&i;n 'ue los discos y arandelas de&en ser planos6 una manera de aplanarlos consiste en insertar cada uno de ellos entre placas de acero1 antes del armado1 y golpear la placa superior con un martillo. :as ca8as de aire 'ue se muestran arri&a se 0icieron de tu&o de lat)n de +D>E *9.+? mm/ para lmparas el;ctricas. El e5tremo se amuesc)1 se martill) 0acia adentro para #ormar una c3pula cerrada y luego se sell) con soldadura. Puede usted a0orrarse este paso si encuentra tro2os de tu&o de 7E *<.=> cm/ con un e5tremo cerrado. :a lum&rera de descarga de&e consistir en una ranura con un largo de apro5imadamente l +D>E *7.>- cm/ y un anc0o de +D97E *=1?< mm/ @o puede ser una serie de agu8eros de +D97E espaciados a corta distancia entre s(. A continuaci)n1 so&re cada lum&rera de descarga suelde una to&era 'ue se #orma atornillando y soldando placas entre s( con cu%as para #ormar una ranura1 tal como se muestra en el es'uema. :as ranuras en la ca8a *C/ 'ue dan ca&ida a estas to&eras se de&en cortar despu;s de terminar el armado de las to&eras. Se 0allan u&icadas en las posiciones de las += y las 7 0oras *imagine Hue las placas de e5tremo son es#eras de relo8/. :a direcci)n de la rotaci)n depende de la to&era 'ue se 0alla conectada1 por lo 'ue se sueldan gri#os en las l(neas de suministro. Para simpli#icar la unidad1 puede usted construir una sola to&era para un #uncionamiento en una sola direcci)n. Esta se puede soldar directamente a la ranura de la ca8a. Este modelo no es para #uncionar a altas velocidades Es #cil do&lar los montantes si se tienen &lo'ues de acero de tama%o adecuado. Antes de do&larlos1 con aire o vapor a alta presi)n. Al someterse a tales tensiones se producir(an pro&lemas con la resistencia de se per#oran agu8eros para #i8arlos a la &ase ya la los discos del rotor y de otras pie2as. Pero el modelo ca8a y para montar los co8inetes

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'ue se muestra 0a #uncionado e#icientemente durante meses enteros al conectarse directamente a un compresor de aire de +D. ca&allo de #uer2a6 a una presi)n compara&le1 #uncionar de manera similar con vapor.

El rotor se centra en la ca8a con cu%as de cart)n y luego se colocan los montantes1 con los co8inetes ya montados1 contra las pie2as de e5tremo y se les marcan los agu8eros de monta8e

L!"T# $% &#T%'!#L%"
(!%)#
Bontantes Ca8a E5tremos de ca8a Aro de soldadura6 a&ra2adera de #le8e de EteE de aire E8e Ciscos de rotor Arandelas de rotor $uerca $apas de co8inetes Aro de retenci)n de co8inete Co8inetes de &olas Remac0es $ornillos Bangas Ca8as de aire Placas de to&eras de aire Arandelas espaciadoras $u&o $e Gri#os Bangas para unir gri#os y tu&o Base olea pe'ue%a de lat)n o aluminio $@+

CL#*% C#+T!$#$
U C E 7I +I 7I + S C W BC R BB + +>II 7=II + 7 7 7 +7 > . 7 .I . +.E + 7

$%"C'!(C!,+
:at)n de cali&re +>1 de 7 ?D>E 5 9E Cilindro de 7 9D.E C. . 5 + 9D.E6 o lat)n de cali&re +> de + 9D.E 5 > 9D.E para #ormar cilindro :at)n de cali&re +>1 de 9E 5 9E :at)n de cali&re +>1 de +D.E J +7E para los dos Karilla de acero laminado en #r(o de 9D>E 5 .E *o una aleacion de acero ino5ida&le/ Ciscos de aluminio de cali&re +>1 dimetro de 7 +D7E Ciscos de aluminio de cali&re +>1 C.E. de +D7E Le5agonal1 de lat)n +D.E@7> Karilla de lat)n de 9D.E con longitud de +E para los dos Ciscos de lat)n de cali&re +> *o ms grueso/ con C.E. de + +D>E Fa#nir 99G< o e'uivalente Pasadores pe'ue%os de lat)n para placas o e'uivalentes $ornillos de m'. de lat)n1 con ca&e2a red. de 7@<- 5 +D.E6 cuatro tuercas correspondientes !o. 9 5 +D7 para tornillos de madera de ca&e2a redonda $u&o de co&re con C.E. de +D.E1 escariado con &roca espiral !o. +7 $u&o de lat)n +D>E1 longitud de . +D.E Pie2a de lat)n de cali&re +> de apro5imadamente + +D7E J + +D7E Baterial de &ronce para cu%as de =.==9E 5 +D.E 5 +E Co&re de +D.E Para dar ca&ida a tu&o anterior6 o 0aga una E$E o EAE soldando pie2as de tu&o entre s( Pe'ue%os1 de lat)n1 tal como se muestra en las #otos $u&o de co&re de apro5imadamente 9D.E con C. . de +D.E

+ 7 +

Badera natural o madera terciada de 9D.E 5 <E 5 >E Blo'ues de madera de +D7E 5 +D7E 5 7 +D7E Per#oraci)n de 9D+-E

!otas4 I $ama%o total de lmina de lat)n para pie2as C1 E1 U1 etc.4 < +D7E 5 +7E II$ama%o total de lmina de aluminio para discos1 arandelas4 ++ +D7E 5 +.E

Fuente4 Revista Becnica Popular @ Kolumen 9? @ Ciciem&re +,-< @ !3mero -

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Notas similares a esta o continuaci<n( 7A=A )NA +ANT>ST,&A #O#,NA TES!A &omenta esta nota en el foro.: Clic- #qu :. ?@ue m>s te gustaria leer en notas 0istoricasA.: Clic- #qu :. &omenta esta 4 otras notas en el foro.: Clic- #qu :.
&ini +ota Hist.rica Cantinero %lectr.nico
Es posi&le 'ue est;n tocando a su #in los d(as del cantinero. Cierta #irma de Alemania 0a desarrollado un &ar electr)nico 'ue suministra &e&idas con s)lo oprimir un &ot)n. El cliente escoge una de las &e&idas en la lista1 oprime el &ot)n correspondiente1 y la &e&ida cae1 totalmente me2clada1 dentro de un vaso colocado de antemano &a8o el tu&o de entrega. !o es necesario limitarse a la lista impresa1 ya 'ue puede usted oprimir cual'uier com&inaci)n de &otones para inventar su propia &e&ida. Adems1 como medida de seguridad1 la m'uina se niega a #uncionar a no ser 'ue la persona 'ue oprima el &ot)n tenga el pulso #irme. Esto elimina a a'uellos 'ue ya 0an oprimido un e5ceso de &otones.

Fuente4 Revista Becnica Popular @ Kolumen 9. @ Bar2o de +,-. @ !3mero 9. Bs Bini@!otas Listoricas a'u( Becnica Popular@Copyrig0t *c/ 7==- Learst Communications1 nc. All Rig0ts Reserved. dea original de Bi Becnica Popular por4 Ricardo Ca&rera "etting0aus Cr;ditos

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#'CH%,L,/#+$,...
T%"L#: 0+ T#L%+T, "C,&,$,
di Mauro Paoletti per Edicolaweb

Secondo le sacre scrittureB allCinizioB il mondo era immerso nelle tenebre 2uando Dio disse( ESia la luce. E la luce fuFE ,l fiore di loto si era sc0iuso e la luce a$e$a inondato lCintero uni$ersoG la di$initH si era ris$egliata. Oggi tutti noi ri-etiamo 2uel gesto 2uando entriamo in una stanza immersa nel buio e -remiamo lCinterruttore c0e -ermette alla corrente elettrica di correre lungo il filo fino alla lam-adina c0eB accendendosiB illumina lCambiente. Abbiamo il difetto di dare molte cose -er scontate a causa del loro uso 2uotidianoB come fosse sem-re stato cosIB ma a$ere la luceB do-o c0e il sole cala dietro lCorizzonte e le tenebre nascondono il mondo nel buio assolutoB J sem-re stato un antico -roblema dellCuomo. !a -allida luce lunare non era soddisfacente e il fuoco di difficile tras-orto e di bre$e durataG do$e$a essere mantenuto acceso e un solo falKB o una sola fiaccolaB non forni$ano luce a sufficienza. /enne adottato lCuso di una ciotola -iena dColio o di grassoB do$e uno sto--ino immerso nel li2uido forni$aB una $olta accesoB una luce -iL efficaceB tras-ortabile e duratura. &ol tem-o si giunse alla candela di sego o di ceraB -iL comoda e di basso costoG in uso fin dal 000 a.&.. !a s$olta im-ortante nel 18*2 2uando %illiam Murdock sco-rI c0eB bruciando il carboneB $eni$a -rodotto un gas. ,l gas sotto-osto a calore genera$a la luce. , lam-ioni a gas risc0iararono cosI alcune cittHG $eni$ano accesi la sera e s-enti allCalba. ,l gas -erK era molto -ericoloso -er le fre2uenti le fug0e do$ute allCusura e rottura delle tubazioni c0e ser$i$ano -er il suo tras-orto. Non tutte le abitazioni erano dotate delle tubazioni -er lCerogazione del gas e -er molti anni furono usate ancora le lam-ade a -etrolio. Nel 1831 molti fabbricati erano illuminati con gas combustibile. Nelle lam-ade $eni$ano messe delle reticelleB ideate da %elsbac0B c0e intensifica$ano la luce. Al$a Edison ricercando un sistema migliore e -iL sicuro a$$alendosi dellCin$enzione di S6anB consistente in am-olle -ri$e dellCaria do$e si accende$a una striscia di carta 2uando $eni$a attra$ersata dalla corrente elettricaB ideK altri ti-i di am-olleG usando di$ersi ti-i di gas e altri materiali filiformi al -osto della striscia di carta ottenne lam-ade -iL efficaci. @uando Edison a-rI la -rima centrale elettrica a corrente continua il buio $enne eliminato col sem-lice scatto di un interruttore. ,l nuo$o sistema dCilluminazione a$e$a molti limiti ma da 2uel momento lCuomo -otM dire( Esia fatta luceE ed ottenerla. Ma la lam-adina da sola non bastaB J necessario c0e $i sia la corrente elettricaB lCelettricitH. &ome e da do$e -ro$iene lCelettricitHA Distrattamente e -rofondamente inseriti nel sistema non lo c0iediamoB fa -arte delle cose ac2uisiteG J -iL facile c0iedersi -erc0M dCun tratto $iene a mancare -erc0M non -uKB non de$e... &ome facciamo senza la luceG senza elettricitHA Tutto si ferma. Non si -uK la$orareB il com-uter si s-egneG restiamo senza tele$isioneG di$enta difficoltoso anc0e -re-arare da mangiareG di$eniamo -rigionieri degli ascensoriG le comunicazioni si com-licanoG nelle strade cittadine il caosG un $ero incubo. 'er dare forma ad una -arte dellCincubo -ensiamo al frigoriferoB recente in$enzione c0e funziona grazie allCelettricitH. &0e fine farebbe la nostra s-esaA +ino a -oc0i decenni fa -er la conser$azione dei cibi si face$a uso del saleB delle s-ezie e del g0iaccio. Siamo elettro di-endentiB condizionati dallCelettricitHB -eraltro giH conosciuta in un remoto -assato. ,n EgittoB nel tem-io di 7ator a DenderaB lo testimoniano le 'ietre delle Ser-iB bassorilie$i c0e mostrano enormi bulbi tras-arenti con allCinterno sinuose ser-iB collegati attra$erso ca$i a treccia al EDNedE c0eB nel casoB assumerebbe la funzione di generatore. , bassorilie$i ricordano le lam-ade a luminescenza e le am-olle in atmosfera rarefattaB create dallCinglese %illiam &rookes nel 183*G lam-ade c0e -ermisero a ;oentgen di sco-rire i raggi O nel 18*1. +ra i bassorilie$i del tem-io -ossiamo $edere ra--resentato anc0e il -rocedimento dellCelettrolisi.

;icordiamo le -ile di #agdad sco-erte da Ponig. )n antico documento indiano conosciuto come Agast4a Sam0ita fornisce una serie di istruzioni -er costruire una batteria elettrica. &ronac0e antic0e di commercianti -arlano di un $illaggio -resso il monte %il0elminaB in Nuo$a =uineaB illuminato da globi di -ietra -osti su altissimi -ali c0e al tramonto inizia$ano a brillare di una strana luce biancaB simile a 2uella dei nostri neonB illuminando la notte. +atto curioso -erc0M sono abbastanza recenti es-erimenti -er ottenere una luminescenza da -annelli e oggetti -ercorsi da correnti deboli senza lCuso di filamenti e bulbi. Do-o c0e Talete di Mileto e 'linio il /ecc0io studiarono -er -rimi le -ro-rietH elettric0e dellCambraB lCuomo si dimenticK come tale energia si -ote$a rica$are e -iombK nel buio -er secoli. +u %illiam =ilbertB medico della regina ElisabettaB a risco-rire lCelettricitH strofinando -ro-rio lCambra sulla lana e sulla -ellicciaB accorgendosi di -oter attirare -iccoli oggetti leggeriB come la carta. &0iamK la strana forza EelettricaE dal nome greco dellCambra Elektron. Si tratta$a dellCelettricitH statica 91:. =li elettroni si trasferiscono da un materiale isolante allCaltroB 2uindi i $uoti lasciati dagli elettroni dellCambra $engono rim-iazzati dagli elettroni contenuti nella carta. !o s-ostamento si c0iama caricaB ma se 2uesta a$$iene in un conduttore la carica in mo$imento genera una corrente c0e fluisce nel conduttore e cessa di essere statica. =ilbert studiK lCelettricitH e il magnetismoB com-rese -erc0M lCago della bussola -unta sem-re $erso il nord. 92: Sco-rI c0e -ezzi di ambra carenti di elettroni si res-inge$ano mentre si attira$ano se gli elettroni erano in eccesso. #enNamin +ranklin denominK i due ti-i di elettricitH -ositi$aB se carente di elettroniB e negati$aB con elettroni in eccessoB enunciando c0e due caric0e uguali si res-ingono mentreB se di$erseB si attraggono. Nel 13.6 due studiosi dellC)ni$ersitH di !eida in$entarono un a--arecc0io -er raccogliere lCelettricitH staticaB un condensatore c0iamato Ebottiglia di !eidaE. /enne dedotto c0e maggiore era la 2uantitH di elettricitH accumulataB -iL lunga la scintilla -rodotta dagli elettroniG lCargomento era la tensione della carica. Nel 1381 August De &oulomb in$entK la bilancia di torsione -er misurare il cam-o elettrico dimostrando c0e la carica si distribuisce in modo uniforme so-ra una su-erficie sferica. &osa confermata anc0e da #eccaria con il suo -ozzo e da +arada4 con la sua gabbia. 7ans &0ristian Oersted s$ilu--K la teoria elettromagnetica e nel 1826 Am-Jre enunciK le leggi dellCelettromagnetismo in$entando lo strumento -er misurare il flusso della carica elettricaG =eorge O0m declamK la legge sulla resistenza elettricaG /olta diede forma alla -rima -ilaG +arada4 al -rimo generatore elettricoB la dinamo e lCalternatoreG nel 181* 'acinotti col suo anello trasformK lCenergia meccanica in energia elettrica continuaG nel 1866 7einric0 7ertz sco-rI le onde elettromagnetic0eG nel 1880 Al$a Edison costruI la -rima centrale bre$ettando un sistema di distribuzione. )n anno do-o Edison e =ra0am #ell crearono la EOriental Tele-0one &o.E. Nel 1882 Edison atti$K il -rimo sistema di distribuzione dell"energia al mondo. A 2uesto -unto com-are un -ersonaggio definito Edimenticato benefattore dellCumanitHE e c0e morI nellCanonimato in assoluta -o$ertH( Nikola Tesla. &olui c0e 0a in$entato la famosa #obina c0e -orta il suo nome -er -rodurre lCalta tensione necessaria al tubo catodico del tele$isoreB fornita da un generatore TeslaB attra$erso il trasformatore Tesla e tras-ortata da un sistema trifase Tesla. Nikola nac2ue il 10 luglio 1816 a SmilNan in &roaziaB secondo masc0io dei cin2ue figli del re$erendo ortodosso Milutin. StudiK al E;eal =4mnasiumE di &arlstadtB ingegneria al 'olitecnico di =raz e allC)ni$ersitH di 'raga. Do-o a$er la$orato nella societH telefonica di #uda-est tro$K la$oro a 'arigi nella E&ontinental EdisonE filiale della EEdison Electric !ig0tE. !a &ontinental non attra$ersa$a un felice -eriodo in seguito ad un incidente a$$enuto durante lCinaugurazione del nuo$o sistema di illuminazione a StrasburgoB c0e a$e$a messo in -ericolo la $ita dellCim-eratore tedesco =uglielmo ,. Edison -roduce$a solo dis-ositi$i a corrente continuaB dinamoB motori e sistemi di illuminazione. =li in$estimenti erano cos-icui. TeslaB con$into di $edere realizzati i suoi -rogetti sulla corrente alternataB -arla$a con c0iun2ue fosse dis-osto ad ascoltarlo eB durante una -artita a biliardoB il ca-ore-artoB tale &unning0amB gli -ro-ose di creare una societH con lui. Tesla non ca-i$a niente di mercato e commercio e 2uindi rifiutKG se in$ece a$esse accettato 2uellCofferta

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la sua $ita e la nostra sarebbero radicalmente cambiate. ,n seguito agli incresciosi fatti di StrasburgoB 2uale migliore ingegnere della &ontinentalB fu in$iato in 2uella cittH allo sco-o di realizzare un regolatore automatico delle dinamoB con la -romessa di un -remio di 21.000 dollari. ,nutile dire c0e riuscI nellCim-resa ma non ottenne il -remio -romesso. ,n 2uel -eriodoB nel tem-o liberoB costruI il -rimo motore a corrente alternata oltre ad un generatore a due tem-i -er alimentarlo. Al$a Edison a$e$a in$iato a 'arigi un amico consulente di cui si fida$aB &0arles #atc0ellorB il 2uale ascoltando le idee di Tesla considerK c0e era meglio a$erlo dalla -ro-ria -arte. Scrisse a Edison una frase rimasta celebre( E&onosco due grandi uominiB tu sei uno di loroG lCaltro J 2uesto gio$aneQE. Secondo #atc0ellorB TeslaB a$rebbe e$itato il costo di numerosi es-erimentiB dato c0e il gio$ane in$entore -re$ede$a tutte le conseguenze -rima di s-erimentare i congegni ideati. &on$inse Nikola c0e a Ne6 Rork a$rebbe coronato i suoi sogni e lo s-inse a -artire. Edison sta$a -er rice$ere lCaiuto desiderato -er le sue dinamo a $a-ore c0e non erano sufficienti ad accendere tutte le lam-ade dei clientiG non oltre .00. A$rebbe do$uto acco--iarle fra loroB ma non conosce$a la sincronizzazione degli im-ulsi elettrici. !Carri$o di Tesla fu -iL c0e o--ortuno. A--ena sbarcato aggiustK le bobine dellCOregonB -rima na$e con lCilluminazione elettricaB c0e in seguito ad un guasto a$e$ano lasciato lCimbarcazione al buio e si -resentK a Edison -ronto a -erfezionare i -rogetti dei generatori della sua centrale elettrica. Al$a gli -romise un com-enso di 10.000 dollari a la$oro com-iuto. ,n un anno sfornK ben $enti2uattro ti-i di$ersi di dinamo a corrente continuaB ca-aci di generare maggiore correnteB sem-lici da regolare ed acco--iareG il tutto assistito da un sistema c0e assicura$a la sincronia negli im-ulsi di corrente. Edison bre$ettK le bobine e le sostituIG ma non -remiK Tesla. @uando 2uesti si -resentK a reclamare il suo com-enso lCamericano gli disse( ETeslaB ma lei non ca-isce lC0umor americano...E ,l croato si licenziK. +ortunatamente -er luiB Edison non a$e$a il controllo dellCindustria americana dellCelettricitH e tro$K altri finanziatoriG ma solo -er -rodurre lam-ade ad arco destinate allCilluminazione -ubblica. Anc0e in 2uesto caso fu raggirato e il suo sogno do$ette attendere. 'er $endere motori a corrente alternataB occorre$a erogare energia alternata a mezzo di idonei ca$iB scatole di raccordoB trasformatoriB contatori -er le abitazioni. , suoi soci non dis-one$ano di ingenti ca-itali -er -ortare a$anti un tale -rogetto ed erano interessati solo alla -roduzione di lam-ade ad arco -iL redditizie. Tesla com-I una nuo$a im-resaB le lam-ade -rodotte allCe-oca da 'aul Sobloc0koff erano com-oste da due aste -arallele di carboneB se-arate da gesso e inserite in tubi di ottone collegati alla correnteG allCa-ice un filo di carbone c0e bruciando -roduce$a luce. Dura$ano solo no$anta minuti. Tesla do-o due anni fornI lam-ade ad a$$iamento automatico dotate di un meccanismo di alimentazione c0e -ermette$a di sostituire le aste di carbone 2uando si consuma$ano. ,l sistema $enne adottato -er lCilluminazione -ubblica e -er le fabbric0e. !Cim-ianto di Edison non a$rebbe mai funzionato ai $oltaggi di oggiG Tesla a$e$a sco-erto c0e si -ote$a trasformare il $oltaggio dellCelettricitH a corrente alternataB aumentandolo o diminuendolo a mezzo di un trasformatore. A$rebbe trasmesso corrente ad alto $oltaggio e bassa corrente attra$erso ca$i sottili. !Cim-ianto del croato a$rebbe messo in -ericolo coloro c0e a$e$ano in$estito nel sistema a corrente continua. @uando Edison fondK la EEdison Electric !ig0tE ottenne 2100 azioniG ai ca-italisti c0e finanziarono lCim-resa ne $ennero assegnate altre 100( la E%estern )nion Telegra-0EB il banc0iere S.'. Morgan ne face$ano -arte. Ma la societH non sta$a tenendo fede alle -romesse di $endita ed Edison non $ole$a c0e la cosa si risa-esse. Do$e$a costruire altre centraliB -er ridurre i costi ma i finanziatori non $ole$ano risc0iare altro denaro. ,noltre a$e$a una causa in corso contro %esting0ouse c0e -roduce$a lam-ade con bre$etto Edison senza -agare le ro4alt4. !COregon a$e$a fatto ric0iesta di risarcimento in seguito al guasto delle bobineB la moglie era gra$emente malata. @uando Tesla giunse a Ne6 RorkB Edison a$e$a il -roblema di in$iare la corrente oltre gli ottocento metri della sua centraleB i suoi -ro$enti erano ra--resentati solo dalla $endita di im-ianti dCilluminazione com-leti a -ri$ati o im-reseB 2uesto -erc0M non essendo es-erto nel cam-o dellCelettricitH non mette$a in -ratica la legge di O0m. )n filo tende a surriscaldarsi e fondersi se il carico J ele$ato eB -er la nota legge di O0mB maggiore J la

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corrente c0e -assa attra$erso il filoB maggiore sarH la caduta di tensione. @uindi si -uK a$ere un alto $oltaggio e -oca correnteB o--ure alta corrente e un basso $oltaggioG ossia la ca-acitH dellCelettricitH di correre lungo il filo e -ortare un numero sufficiente di elettroni c0e arri$ino alla lam-adina. Maggiore la lung0ezza del filoB maggiore de$e essere il $oltaggioB diminuendolo -oi 2uando la corrente entra nellCabitazioneB affinc0M non ra--resenti un -ericolo mortale. Tesla a$e$a tenuto conto di tutto 2uesto e sco-erto c0e la corrente ad alta fre2uenza non $iaggia allCinterno di un filoB ma al suo esterno. T il famoso effetto -elle o di Pel$inB -er 2uesto $engono utilizzati fili di acciaio ri$estiti di rame. !Cacciaio rende il filo resistente mentre il rame fornisce una bassa resistenza do$e scorre la corrente. , fulmini c0e col-iscono un aereo non mettono in -ericolo i -asseggeri al suo interno dato c0e la scarica corre sulla su-erficie della fusoliera. 'er 2uesto Tesla usa$a dare s-ettacolo facendosi -assare dalla corrente a 210.000 $olt. Nel frattem-o Tesla era stato abbandonato dai suoi finanziatori e costretto a guadagnarsi da $i$ere sca$ando fossi. Nel 1886 -resentK un bre$etto -er un motore elettromagnetico eB -arlando dellCin$enzione con il suo ca-os2uadraB ebbe lCoccasione di a$$icinare lCa$$ocato &0arles 'eckB il 2ualeB coin$olgendo lCamico Alfred #ro6n so$rintendente della E%estern )nion Telegra-0E a di$idere i risc0iB si offrI di fornire un finanziamento. Nac2ue la ETesla Electric &om-an4E. Tesla iniziK a la$orare al suo motore a corrente alternata. 'ote$a -rodurre un cam-o magnetico rotante iniettando due correnti alternate in una co--ia di bobine -oste ai lati o--osti dello statore. Si -ote$a modificare il $oltaggio e usare fili sottili -er -ortare lCelettricitH a lung0e distanzeG un trasformatore riduce$a e aumenta$a la corrente. +ece domanda allCufficio bre$etti e gli furono concessi ben 0 bre$etti di$ersi. !a comunitH scientifica lo in$itK a tenere una conferenza. Di$enne il -adre della moderna elettricitH. 'eck e #ro6n decisero di $endere il bre$etto a c0i a$esse offerto di -iL. !a conferenza tenuta allCEAmerican ,nstitute of Electrical EnginersE suscitK lCinteresse di =eorge %esting0ouseB ingegnere elettronicoB il cui -adre -ossede$a una fabbrica c0e -roduce$a materiale rotabile -er lo stato di Ne6 Rork. =eorge a$e$a in$entato lo scambio di rotaia e il freno ad aria com-ressaG secondo #ro6n era la -ersona giusta -er commercializzare il -rodotto di Tesla. Era inoltre la -ersona c0e $ole$a scalzare il sistema di Edison. %esting0ouse offrI a Tesla 21.000 dollari -iL 10.000 in azioni e ro4alt4 di 2B10 a &/. Era in corso la Eguerra delle correntiE. %esting0ouse senza -agare le ro4alt4 -roduce$a lam-ade Edison e 2uesto s-inse Edison a intra-rendere una cam-agna denigratoria delle tecnologie utilizzate dal concorrente. +ece stam-are o-uscoli do$e sottolineK il -ericolo deri$ante dallCuso dellCalto $oltaggio usato nei sistemi ad arco e dimostrKB ser$endosi di alcuni animali come ca$ieB 2uanto -ote$a essere -ericolosa la corrente alternata. !a cam-agna denigratoria -rodusse lCinteressamento dellCAssemblea !egislati$a c0e -romulgK lCuso della sedia elettrica al -osto dellCim-iccagioneB utilizzando alternatori %esting0ouse. !a cosa forse influenzK anc0e la sentenza del tribunaleG causa e ricorso furono $inti da Edison nonostante c0e %esting0ouse dimostrasse c0e Al$a non fosse es-erto di elettricitH. Ma Edison era in -iena crisiB non sa-e$a come -agare gli sti-endi ai suoi duemila di-endenti e come com-rare la materia -rima -er far fronte agli ordini c0e giunge$ano numerosiB -erc0M incassa$a solo do-o la consegna. !a EEdison ElectricE era stata creata -er riscuotere le ro4alt4 e i banc0ieri c0e la gesti$ano -ro-osero allo scienziato di com-rare le sue fabbric0e e formare una nuo$a societH c0e si c0iamK EEdison =eneral Electric &om-an4E. ,l -rocesso a$e$a messo in crisi anc0e %esting0ouse. &0arles &offin c0e dirige$a la ET0omson 7oustonE concluse un accordo con la EEdison =eneral ElectricE di$enendo -residente di una nuo$a societH c0eB eliminando il nome EdisonB si c0iamK E=eneral ElectricE. !a fusione fra la E)S Electric &om-an4E e la E&onsolidate Electric !ig0tE diede $ita alla E%esting0ouse Electric Manufacturing &om-an4E e i bre$etti di Tesla furono s$enduti ai banc0ieri. Tesla -arla$a di una distribuzione senza fili. Al di lH del ris-armio del rameB c0iun2ue -ote$a a$ere lCenergia elettrica gratuitamente attra$erso la collocazione di una sem-lice antennaG come -ote$ano le com-agnie rica$are -rofittiA !Cenergia elettrica $eni$a fornita a mezzo di un filoB se lCutente non -aga$aB i fili $eni$ano recisi e il banc0iere tutelato. &ome si -ote$a disconnettere gli utenti morosi se i fili non esiste$anoA !e idee del croato anda$ano contro gli interessi dei banc0ieri come Morgan. !CelettricitH

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do$e$a rimanere in mano alle com-agnieB non -ote$a essere distribuita gratuitamente. ,n 2uel -eriodo lCin$entore effettuK un giro in Euro-aG -rima !ondraB -oi 'arigiB infine al ca-ezzale della madre morente. ;itornK in America giusto in tem-o -er aiutare %esting0ouse c0e finalmente era riuscito a -rodurre una lam-ada senza $iolare i bre$etti della E=eneral ElectricE. ,l -rimo gennaio del 18* ben *6.620 lam-ade a incandescenzaB alimentate dai generatori TeslaB illuminarono i locali della Es-osizione )ni$ersale di &0icago dedicata a &olombo. %esting0ouse inoltre a$e$a sti-ulato un accordo con la E=eneral ElectricEB c0e a$e$a adottato la nuo$a tecnologiaB cedendo i diritti sui bre$etti di Tesla allo sco-o di -resentare un offerta congiunta e realizzare una centrale elettrica alle cascate del Niagara. !a realizzazione del -rogetto $enne affidata ad un ingegnere scozzese tale =eorge +orbesG la centrale a$rebbe utilizzato tre generatori Tesla da 1.000 ca$alli $a-ore. +orbes costruI un canale a monte -er -ortare lCac2ua alla centrale e alle turbine attra$erso un tubo di due metri di diametroG lCac2ua do-o a$er -ercorso un tunnel riafflui$a nel fiume -ro-rio sotto le cascate. !Ca-ertura a$$enne nel 18*1G era nata la ENiagara +alls 'o6er and &onduit &om-an4EB definita la -iL im-ortante o-era di ingegneria mai realizzata e Nikola Tesla di$enne il -iL eminente scienziato e rica$K 100.000 dollari oltre alla libertH di continuare i suoi es-erimenti. ,n 2uel -eriodo cominciK a studiare la $elocitH di in$ersioneB ossia la fre2uenza. &ostruI trasmettitori ca-aci di am-lificare i segnali elettrici -er giungere a fre2uenze e $oltaggi mai raggiuntiB le famose bobine di TeslaB c0e genera$ano scintille lung0e fino a .0 metri. Sco-rI c0e ogni oggetto -ossiede una naturale fre2uenza eB se sollecitato su tale fre2uenzaB inizia$a a $ibrare fino a raggiungere il -unto di rottura. Nei suoi es-erimenti utilizzando correnti di di$erse fre2uenze riuscI a -rodurre $oltaggi altissimi. &ostruI un $ibratore senza -arti mobili e lo collegK ad un condensatoreG insieme risuona$ano un milione di $olte al secondo. ,deK un sintonizzatore c0e di$enne la base di tutte le radio e tele$isoriG in$entK una lam-adina senza filiB togliendo lCaria da un tubo di $etroB c0e si illumina$a 2uando $eni$a messo a contatto con un cam-o elettrico ad alta fre2uenza. ,n 2uel -eriodo costruI le -rime lam-ade a fluorescenzaB i neonG inoltre un tubo c0e emette$a raggi EOEB il circuito di sintoniaB il tubo catodicoB il microsco-io elettronicoB e la famosa EbobinaE -er generare altissimi $oltaggi. ,deK luci fluorescenti senza fili con le 2uali illuminK il laboratorio. A$e$a installato un filo elettrico intorno alle -areti esterne do$e face$a -assare corrente elettrica ad alta fre2uenzaB attra$erso un alternatore s-ecialeG tale circuito radio diffonde$a la corrente c0e $eni$a raccolta in cuscinetti di filo collegati ai terminali -osti ad ogni lam-ada fluorescente c0e funziona$ano in tal modo con corrente senza fili. !a bobina altro non J c0e un trasformatore di risonanza c0e -ermette la -roduzione di corrente alternata usando sistemi -olifase c0e si basano sullCinduzione magnetica con il -assaggio di corrente in -iL fasi. Due bobine concentric0e di filo di rame a$$olto con centinaia di s-ireB un condensatore e uno s-interometro -roducono un cam-o magnetico rotante. Meccanismo alla base degli alti $oltaggi dei tubi catodici delle T/. ;endendosi conto c0e una $al$ola rile$a$a onde radio descrisse le caratteristic0e basilari dellCim-ianto radio -rima di Marconi( unCantennaB un collegamento a terraB un circuito -er la sintonizzazioneB un im-ianto di ricezioneB uno di trasmissioneB sintonizzati uno sulla risonanza dellCaltroB un detector dei segnali. Tutto -erc0M a$e$a sco-erto c0e il -assaggio della corrente ad alta fre2uenza attra$erso una bobina e un condensatore genera$a un effetto di risonanza a distanza senza bisogno di fili. Nel 18*3 -resentK al Madison S2uare =arden il -rimo sommergibile radiocomandato. ,n una gigantesca $asca gira$a una barca lunga un metro e mezzo dotata di luci colorate e una antennaG Tesla ne dirige$a a $oce i mo$imenti e lCimmersione. !a marina militare non com-rese lCim-ortanza di 2uella in$enzioneG sarebbe stata la -rima tor-ediniera silurante senza e2ui-aggio. A lui si attribuisce anc0e lCin$enzione del telegrafo -luricanale senza filiG altra in$enzione non com-resa. Due anni do-oB di nuo$o a corto di fondiB tro$K un finanziatore in &urtisB lCa$$ocato c0e si era occu-ato del suo -rimo bre$etto. !eonard &urtis si era ritirato a &olorado S-rings di$enendo direttore della E&olorado S-rings 'o6er &om-an4E. ,l sistema Tesla a$e$a sal$ato lCindustria mineraria locale e &urtis offrI al croato un lotto di terreno do$e costruire un laboratorio. Nel giugno del 18**B nel nuo$o laboratorio costruito a &olorado S-ringsB Tesla iniziK a studiare i fulminiB i loro effetti e come sfruttare le loro caric0e elettric0e. Oggi &olorado S-rings J noto -er la $icinanza del NO;AD il sistema di difesa missilistico situato sotto i

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monti &0e4enne. ,l fulmine -roduce$a un ti-o di onda radio ca-ace di -rodurre $oltaggi regolariB misurabili allontanandosi dalla fonteG tale effetto dimostra$a c0e la Terra e lCatmosfera erano caric0e elettricamente. !a sonda so$ietica Mir accertKB nel 1**3B c0e i tem-orali a--aiono sem-re su delle linee a distanze regolari nella -arte scura della Terra dimostrando la -ossibilitH della trasmissione dellCenergia elettrica senza lCuso dei fili. Tesla a$e$a sco-erto c0e -ote$a far risuonare elettricamente la Terra come una cam-anaB con un rintocco ogni due ore. Secondo lo scienziato la fre2uenza della risonanza elettrica terrestre era di dieci cicli al secondoG il $alore usato oggi J di 3B8 cicli. !o sco-o era studiare le onde radio a bassissima fre2uenza ca-aci di raggiungere 2ualsiasi luogoB sia sulla su-erficieB sia sotto il mare. !a struttura del laboratorio di &olorado era alta circa 60 metriG dodici metri misura$a la -arte inferioreB simile ad un granaioG al centro del ca-annone un traliccio e su di esso unCasta di rame c0e sostene$a una sferaB anc0Cessa di rame. !Casta scende$a so-ra ad unCenorme bobina situata al centroB sotto il tetto a-ertoG il -a$imento era di legno circondato da un recintoB sem-re di legnoB alto due metri e lungo il -erimetro scorre$a un grosso ca$o elettrico. !a recinzione era -ercorsa da a$$olgimenti di filo elettrico. AllCinterno della gabbia $ari oggetti di$ersi fra loroB allCesterno del recinto file di condensatori. ,l trasmettitore rice$e$a im-ulsi di corrente alternata a basso $oltaggio dalla $icina centrale e genera$a 10.000 6att. Nel corso degli es-erimenti si rese conto c0e di$erse $elocitH di $ibrazione -roduce$ano onde stazionarie di di$erso ti-oB 2uella c0e in gergo si c0iama Elung0ezza dConda del segnaleEB e c0eB cambiando la lung0ezza dellCasta e regolando la sintonizzazione della lung0ezza dCondaB -ote$a rica$are il massimo $oltaggio nella sfera di rame. ,l cellulare c0e usiamo tutti i giorni J dotato -ro-rio del ti-o di antenna di sintonizzazione in$entata da Tesla. @uando Tesla -rodusse con il suo a--arato il -rimo fulmine ottenne un lam-o di 60 metri e un $iolento tuono c0e $enne udito a .2 c0ilometri di distanza. !e 200 lam-ade degli a--arecc0i rice$enti c0e sCilluminarono furono la -ro$a c0e lCim-ianto senza fili funziona$a. ,l 20 marzo 1*00 de-ositK il bre$etto e nel 1*02 tutti gli altri bre$etti relati$i. Tesla dimostrK 2uindi c0e lCenergia elettrica -uK essere diffusa utilizzando la su-erficie terrestreB sfruttando la zona atmosferica do$e risiede la risonanza di Sc0umann eB c0iun2ueB sintonizzandosi con o--ortuni a--arecc0iB -uK ottenere corrente gratuitamente. !a Terra J in grado di assorbire elettricitH e -er 2uesto tutti gli strumenti elettrici scaricano a terra. !a corrente c0e lo scienziato iniettK nel suolo si -ro-agK come unConda radio alla $elocitH della luceB raggiunse lCaltra -arte e ritornK indietroG il secondo im-ulso si unI al -rimo rafforzandoloB e cosI fece il terzoB e il 2uartoB aumentando la -otenza smisuratamente. !Cobbietti$o di Tesla era sco-rire il limite della risonanzaB ma il so$raccarico bruciK il generatore della centrale c0e gli forni$a la corrente e mise al buio lCintera cittH di &olorado. A$e$a realizzato il suo sogno e tro$ato il sistema di -rodurre -lasma elettromagnetico -rima ancora c0e si coniasse il termine. !a miscela di ioni e elettroni sco-ertaB oggi $iene c0iamata E=as ionizzatoE ed J in grado di s-rigionare luce e calore. T il funzionamento del Sole. , bre$etti di Tesla sono stati menzionati nella costruzione di armi dotate di -roiettili al -lasma ca-aci di neutralizzare satelliti s-iaB c0e fanno -arte del -rogetto EScudo stellareE. Tesla era anc0e in grado di -rodurre la risonanza del cam-o elettrico terrestre e dominare di conseguenza il tem-o meteorologico. 'er ca-ire lCim-ortanza di 2uanto sco-erto dal Nikola -ensiamo alla fusione termonucleareB attra$erso la 2uale otteniamo energia -ulita ed economica in seguito alla trasformazione dellCidrogeno in elioG tale fusione a$$iene a tem-erature talmente ele$ate c0e non esiste un materiale resistente alla fusione. !Cunica cosa c0e -ermette ai materiali di resistere J lCutilizzo di una bolla di -lasma come 2uella c0e ideK Tesla -er generare il fulmine globulareG sco-erta c0e si J dimostrata im-ortante -er lo studio della 2uantistica. !anciando simili raggi J stato -ossibile stilare ma--e di /enere e della !una. ,n effetti il nostro -ianeta J circondato da una -articolare carica elettricaB c0e inizia a 80 km. dalla TerraB nota come ionosfera. +ra 2uesta e il suolo esiste una zona con un -otenziale costante di 220 $olt -er metro dentro il 2uale noi $i$iamo. @uindi il nostro cor-o 0a una data 2uantitH di elettricitH misurabileB ma J anc0e circondato e -enetrato da molti cam-i elettriciB magnetici e gra$itazionali generati dalla Terra

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e dagli altri -ianetiG cam-i elettromagnetici do$uti agli ultra$iolettiB cam-i generati da emittenti radioB a--arecc0i tele$isi$iB $ideoregistratoriB telefoni e cosI $ia. Oggi sa--iamo c0e il Sole con la sua energia e la sua atti$itH determina il clima sulla TerraB ne influenza l"ecosistema e di conseguenza l"esistenza degli esseri $i$enti su di essa. Sa--iamo c0e l"atti$itH solare si manifesta nelle macc0ie solari -rodotte dalla differente $elocitH di rotazione di due cam-i magnetici( 2uello -olare e 2uello e2uatoriale. @ueste eruzioni s-rigionano intensi cam-i magnetici c0e riducono il flusso di energia e -roducono -erturbazioni fisic0e sulla Terra. ,nfattiB attra$erso il E$ento solareEB gli elettroni e l"idrogeno ionizzato si -ro-agano o$un2ueB interferendo con il cam-o magnetico terrestreB contribuendo all"esistenza delle due fasce di /an AllenB o$e si accumulano le -articelle elettric0e c0e modificano gli effetti climatici. Esiste una zona nellCatmosfera carica di elettricitH fra la su-erficie e la ionosferaB conosciuta come Eca$itH S0umannEG in -ratica un grande condensatore c0e Tesla riuscI a far $ibrare con lCenergia elettrica. Nessuno a$rebbe -otuto esaurire lCenergia trasmessa in 2uel momento. Nel 1*00 %esting0ouse e la E=eneral ElectricE a$e$ano il mono-olio assoluto dellCerogazione di corrente alternata e si erano note$olmente arricc0ite con il suo commercio. @uando Tesla comunicK a %esting0ouse lCesito delle ricerc0e effettuate a &olorado S-ring e i suoi -rogetti -er il futuroB lCuomo dCaffari $ide nello scienziato un -ericolo -er i suoi affari e gli negK ogni ulteriore finanziamento nellCintento di fermarloG anzi intra-rese una serie di azioni c0e mira$ano a denigrarlo da$anti allCo-inione -ubblica in modo c0e le sue ricerc0e non fossero finanziate da altri. ,n 2uel tem-o Tesla -arlK della -ossibilitH di trasmettere calore al 'olo NordB di formare il g0iaccio ai tro-iciG in$iare fotografie e trasmettere musica in ogni angolo della TerraG distribuire elettricitH gratuita e illimitata o$un2ue. !e sue in$enzioni lo rende$ano un uomo credibile e -ericoloso. !a bobina -er -rodurre correnti ad alto $oltaggio e alta fre2uenzaB il trasmettitore dCam-lificazioneB -er generare la risonanza dei cam-i -rodotti con i fulmini con la carica della TerraB il sistema elettrico senza filiB -er trasmettere lCenergia elettricaB un sistema -er sintonizzare su una determinata lung0ezza dConda un rice$itoreB erano le in$enzioni c0e -ermette$ano la trasmissione della corrente senza fili. Tesla a$e$a sco-erto c0e la Terra ris-onde$a a $ibrazioni elettric0e di una determinata $elocitH e se $eni$ano -rodotte onde stazionarie intorno al globoB utilizzando il cam-o elettrico terrestreB era -ossibile trasmettere elettricitH senza dis-ersione di energia. Si -ote$ano giH realizzare in 2uegli anni alcune delle cose in uso oggi come la trasmissione di messaggi segreti di statoG la -ossibilitH di scambiare messaggi fra i cittadini in modo ra-ido e sicuroG telefonare in ogni luogo e a c0iun2ueB trasmettere le notizie dei 2uotidiani di tutto il mondoB oltre alla musicaB manoscrittiB fotoB disegni e documentiG sincronizzare gli orologi con -recisione astronomicaG creare un sistema monitorato di na$igazione -er determinare le rotte delle na$i. !Cunica cosa c0e ancora oggi non -ossiamo fareB anc0e se J stato dimostrato nellCultimo decennio c0e sia -ossibileB J trasmettere energia elettrica in 2ualun2ue luogo senza lCuso di filiB ma sa--iamo molto bene il -erc0M. &osa c0e Tesla non a$e$a com-reso a--ieno. Se a$esse la$orato come fece Marconi con i militari e il go$ernoB anzic0M -rocedere da soloB oggi sicuramente a$remmo un mondo note$olmente di$erso. Nikola -erK non conosce$a i meccanismi del mercatoB -er 2uesto rifiutK anc0e lCofferta di ac2uisto dei !lo4ds di !ondra -er un im-ianto senza fili da installare su un -anfilo. Da 2uel momento -erse notorietH e di$enne -er lCo-inione -ubblica uno scrittore di fantascienzaB folle e fuori dal mondoG -er 2uesto non $iene ricordato neanc0e oggi -er il grande uomo c0e J stato e -er 2uello c0e 0a fatto. =li unici c0e lo 0anno considerato seriamenteB -er 2uello c0e in effetti eraB sono stati Samuel &lemensB conosciuto come Mark T6ainB e S.'. Morgan. ,l -rimoB in 2ualitH di amico e a--assionato al tema dei suoi es-erimenti di$enne un assiduo fre2uentatore del laboratorio di Tesla al 1 di Sout0 +ift0 A$enue. Si racconta c0e ebbe lCoccasione di s-erimentare anc0e lCeffetto delle $ibrazioni meccanic0e -rodotte da un meccanismo consistente in una -iattaforma montata su cuscinetti elastici azionata da aria com-ressa. /ibrazioni ri$elatesi curati$e di -roblemi di digestione ed altri disturbi e con le 2uali &lemens curK la sua sti-si. @uando lCin$entore ancorK il meccanismo ad una colonna di ferro del suo laboratorioB con lCaumento della fre2uenza raggiunse un li$ello in grado di far $ibrare lCintero edificio con il -ericolo di -ro$ocare un crollo. ;inunciK cosI a -rocedere oltre.

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S.'. MorganB uomo c0ia$e della creazione della E=eneral ElectricEB -er interesse -ersonaleB consa-e$ole c0e il successo della societH si basa$a sui bre$etti di Tesla e c0e il controllo sui bre$etti da$a anc0e il diritto di so--rimerli o nasconderliB interessato ai la$ori dello scienziato -er moti$i economiciB offrI 110.000 dollari -er il 11U dei bre$etti s$ilu--ati sulla nuo$a tecnologia senza fili e rese -ubblico il finanziamento iniziale a difesa dei suoi interessi. ,l 2 luglio del 1*01 TeslaB ignaro delle $ere intenzioni di MorganB inizia$a a !ong ,sland i la$ori -er erigere una colossale torre di legno di 60 metri nota col nome di %ardencl4ffeB c0e sostene$a un elettrodo di rame di 1 metri di diametroB idoneo a raccogliere una carica elettrica. &once-ita e costruita come sistema -er le telecomunicazioni senza filiB era il mezzo -er dimostrare c0e era -ossibile distribuire lCenergia senza utilizzare i fili e continuare 2uanto iniziato a &olorado S-rings. Tesla dic0iarK di s$olgere es-erimenti tesi a imbrigliare lCenergia dei raggi cosmici e costruire un dis-ositi$o funzionante attra$erso lCutilizzo di tale energia. Aggiunse c0e i raggi cosmici ionizzano lCaria creando -articelle libere come ioni ed elettroniG le caric0e $engono catturate in un condensatore c0e funziona come scarico -er il circuito del motore. =li es-erimenti erano $olti ad utilizzare la Terra come conduttore trasformandola in un gigantesco trasmettitore elettricoB a-rendo la -ossibilitH di comunicare e trasmettere -otenza attra$erso la crosta terrestre. ,ntende$a conce-ire una stazione trasmittente in grado d"inserire energia elettromagnetica nella crosta fino a raggiungere la risonanza elettrica della Terra stessaB in modo da utilizzare il -ianeta -er intercettare energiaB usufruendo delle stazioni rice$enti dislocate o--ortunamente sul globo. !o scienziato sco-rIB trasmettendo fre2uenze estremamente basseB c0e -ote$a alterare le correnti nellCalta atmosfera e modificare il clima. ,noltreB utilizzando tali ondeB si -ote$a interagire con lCatti$itH bioelettrica del cer$ello e con la naturale $ibrazione delle molecole del cor-oB mani-olando la biofisica umana. 'resso &olorado S-rings a$e$a conce-ito un nuo$o sistema di es-lorazione geofisica utilizzando oscillatori meccanici in$entati in -recedenza. =li es-erimenti non furono -ortati a termine -erc0M si accorse c0e -ote$ano generare terremoti artificiali di inaudita -otenzaB modificando le naturali fre2uenze di cui sono dotati tutti i cor-i e sfruttando 2uella c0e c0iamK Efre2uenza risonanteEB a mezzo della 2uale un cor-o si mette a $ibrare fino alla rottura. Difatti se il trasmettitore a$esse in$iato una forte energia in un solo -unto si sarebbe $erificata una distruzione totale. MorganB $edendo nel -rogetto un -ericolo futuro -er i suoi interessiB negK allo scienziato altro denaroB ma nel frattem-o Tesla riuscI ad ottenere 10.000 dollari dal &anada -er trasmettere lCenergia -er 2uello StatoB costringendo Morgan a dic0iarare a-ertamente c0e non intende$a finanziare ulteriormente lo scienziato. 'er il mondoB se Morgan non risc0ia$a i ca-italiB il -rogetto non era affidabile e tutti si tirarono indietro. A 10 anni Tesla si ritro$K senza soldiB soloB come il giorno in cui era sbarcato a Ne6 RorkB mentre Morgan -ossede$a tutti i suoi bre$etti dellCelettricitH senza fili e %esting0ouse controlla$a lCenergia a corrente alternata. TeslaB non interessato ai soldiB -ieno di fiducia infantile $erso un mondo c0e non lo com-rende$a e lo dis-rezza$aB -rofondamente feritoB con$into di essere stato abbandonato dagli uomini e da DioB un uomo -ieno di orgoglio c0e non si era mai $oluto s-osare e 2uindi non a$e$a a$uto modo di -ro$are le gioie di una famigliaB si mise a scri$ere -er riuscire a sbarcare il lunario. Nella scrittura tro$K lo sfogo dei suoi risentimenti definendo il mondo E-usillanime e increduloB la cui cecitH costa cara a tuttiEG se la -rese con EunCumanitH non sufficientemente -rogredita in un mondo do$e unCidea o unCin$enzione $iene ostacolata e maltrattata dalla $olontH del denaroB dagli interessi egoisticiB dalla -edanteriaB dalla stu-iditH e dallCignoranzaG attaccata e re-ressaB sotto-osta ad amari -rocessi nella s-ietata lotta -er affermarsi sul mercatoE. Negli anni c0e seguironoB la sua fer$ida mente -artorI altri -rogetti. Due turbine senza -ale da 200 &/ c0e furono collaudate nella centrale di %aterside a Ne6 Rork e c0e non tro$arono consensi allCe-ocaG oggi le turbine a gas si basano sui -rogetti di Tesla. /engono attribuiti a Tesla 300 in$enzioniB fra le 2uali lCilluminazione elettricaB lCenergia elettrica a corrente alternataB il tac0imetroB il contagiri meccanicoB la diffusione radioB la lam-ada -er flas0 fotograficiB il motore rotanteB la turbina Tesla senza -aletteB 2uella -er lCaccensione dei motori elettriciB lCauto elettrica senza generatore di correnteB lCuso medico della risonanza magnetica 9 :B la -rima stazione di energia idroelettricaB la sismologia.

E ancoraB negli anni ottantaB uno studio sulla dis-ersione di energia in un -ulsar stellare dimostrK c0e le onde gra$itazionali esistono e la sua concezione sulla gra$itH riconsiderataG nel 18*6 lCalto-arlanteB reclamizzato solo $enti anni do-oB a causa della mancanza di un bre$ettoG lCin$enzione delle -orte logic0e utilizzate oggi nei com-uter e nella robotica c0e Tesla ado-erK nel battello radio comandato a comando $ocaleG lCiniettore elettrico -er auto. Nel 1*13 i -rinci-i relati$i ai li$elli di fre2uenza e -otenza c0e -ermisero nel 1* . le -rime a--arecc0iature ;adarB onde radio ad alta fre2uenza c0e rimbalzano sugli oggetti tornando indietro alla fonte generatrice. Nel 1*28 un a--arato di tras-orto aereo a decollo $erticale. 'arlK inoltre di una macc0ina E$olanteB -esanteB solida e stabileB in grado di muo$ersi a $olontH nellCaria in ogni direzione e in -erfetta sicurezzaB a $elocitH mai raggiunteB indi-endentemente dalle condizioni atmosferic0eG ca-ace di sostare nellCaria anc0e in -resenza di forti $enti... ma non J 2uesto il tem-o -er -arlarne.E Na$i c0e -ote$ano $olare utilizzando energia elettromagnetica trasmessa da trasmettitori simili a 2uelli conce-iti a &olorado S-rings. 'erfezionK un a--arecc0io -er in$iare energia nello s-azio interstellare c0e in -ratica era un -rototi-o del !aser e di un ordigno al -lasma c0e -roduce$a -articelle ad alta energia nella ionosfera. Nel 1*.0B in unCinter$ista sul ENe6 Rork TimesEB dic0iarK di -oter consegnare al go$erno il segreto della sua EteleforzaE con la 2uale si -ote$a distruggere il motore di un aereo( era il famoso Eraggio della morteE. ,l di-artimento della guerra la considerK la farneticazione di un -azzo. ,l go$erno Nugosla$o concesse a Tesla una -iccola -ensione di 3.200 dollari lCanno e lCoccasione di tro$are una dimora stabile -er gli ultimi anniB benc0M sembra c0e giro$agasse da un albergo allCaltro. !Cunico membro della famiglia c0e gli fu $icino fino alla fine fu il ni-ote Sa$a Posano$ic0. +ra la notte del 1 e 2uella dellC8 gennaio 1*. Tesla morI nella stanza dellC7otel Ne6 Rorker. ,l cada$ere $enne ritro$ato due giorni do-o. !a notte dellC8 il ni-ote ed altri due uomini ro$istarono nella sua stanza in cerca di un testamentoB mai tro$atoB e altri scritti conser$ati nel Museo a #elgrado. !C+#, c0e segui$a Sa$a confiscK tutto 2uanto rimane$a dello scienziato. )nCin$enzione risultK de-ositata nel 1* 2 -resso la cassaforte dellC0otel =ros$oner &lintonB ma lCalbergo rifiutK di consegnarla allC+#,. Tutto il suo la$oro fu dic0iarato To- Secret dallC+#,B dalla marina militare e dal $ice-residente. ,l 12 gennaio 1*. si s$olsero i funerali nella cattedrale St. So0n di Ne6 Rork. !a $icenda Tesla ci s-inge ad analizzare -iL da $icino alcune cose a lui collegate( Nel laboratorio a Menlo 'arkB nel Ne6 Serse4B T0omas Al$a EdisonB si dedicK allo studio della dinamo e -rodusse una lam-ada ad incandescenzaG nel 18*0 nac2ue la EEdison =eneral Electric &o.E. Nel 18*2 dalla fusione fra la ET0omson 7ouston &o.E guidata da &0arles &offin ebbe origine la E=eneral Electric &o.E. Nel 1*13 fu costituita la E=E Aircraft EnginersE -er la fabbricazione dei motori aeronauticiG nel 1* 0 il -rimo re-arto della E=E 'lasticsE in seguito agli es-erimenti condotti da Edison riguardo ai filamenti -lastici -er le lam-adine effettuati nel 18* . Nel 1*1* la =E formK la E;&AEB E;adio &or-oration of AmericaEB c0e nel tem-oB a causa della -otenza di trasmissione raggiunta si ri-artI in altre due societH( il net6ork rossoB la EN#&EB ENational #roadcasting &om-an4EB e il net6ork bluB la EA#&EB EAmerica #roadcasting &om-an4E. @uando sco--iK la seconda guerra mondiale lC;&A era di$enuta -arte integrante della struttura della difesa americanaB in seguito alla messa a -unto di un altimetro di alta -recisione -er le missioni di bombardamento ad alta 2uota. Sem-re dellC;&A il trasmettitore -ortatile indossato dagli agenti segreti dislocati in territorio nemicoB non rile$abile dai tedesc0iB con il 2uale comunicare direttamenteB senza usare codici cri-tatiB con il -ilota di un aereo c0e sor$ola$a la zona. ,l -residente era il generale Da$id SarnoffB nato a MinskB ;ussiaB nel 18*1B c0e a$e$a la$orato nella EMarconi %ireless &om-an4E. Sembra fosse il telegrafista c0e rice$ette lCS.O.S. dal Titanic nellCA-rile 1*12. ;eclutato in seguito nellCesercitoB di$enne direttore della Di$isione della guerra -sicologica col grado di generale di brigataB famoso -er le dic0iarazioni a fa$ore della guerra fredda. Si -arla della sua -resenza durante a$$istamenti definiti Enon con$enzionaliE 9)+O: a$$enuti nel 1*.6 in S$ezia e nel 1*66 so-ra la base militare di Andros nelle #a0amas. +ace$a -arte di una M2ui-e di es-erti militari e in lui $iene indicata la -ersona c0e ordinK il se2uestro dei filmati e intimKB allCo-eratore c0e li a$e$a eseguitiB il silenzio. Era considerato un es-erto in materia di )+OB cosa risultata molto utile nella conduzione della ;&A.

!e a--arecc0iature della base di Andros erano state fabbricate dallC;&AB di conseguenza il generale Sarnoff $iene indicato 2uale membro di una struttura co-erta c0e si ser$i$a dellC;&A -er sco-i EoccultiE oltre a 2uelli ufficiali. !a messa in onda di alcune trasmissioni ti-o EDark SkiesEB nelle 2uali si -arla liberamente del gru--o EMaNestic 12EB e di altre trasmissioni riguardanti gli )+OB come la famosa E=uerra dei MondiEB testimonierebbero c0e tale uso si J -rotratto nel tem-o e non sia a$$enuto -er caso. !a -rogettazione di radar e di altri strumenti molto sofisticati -er le forze armate e la commessa militare di oltre un miliardo di dollari negli anni sessanta a$e$a conferito allC;&A un -osto im-ortante nel meccanismo bellico statunitenseG i suoi affari non erano -iL solo radiofonici. Nel tem-o raggiunse un"in$idiabile -osizione nel -anorama economico nazionale e mondiale. ,l -rocuratore distrettuale =arrisonB c0e sostene$a lCi-otesi dellCassassinio di Penned4 da -arte dei sostenitori della guerra freddaB definI il gru--o ;&AVN#&B im-egnato in una intensa cam-agna dCinformazione ostile al -rocuratoreB come Ela lunga mano del =o$erno ,n$isibileE. Da segnalare infine c0e =uglielmo Marconi crede$a negli e5traterrestriB secondo le numerose dic0iarazioni rilasciate a riguardoG do-o gli es-erimenti eseguiti nel 1* sCincontrK con Da$id Sarnoff 2uando 2uesti era un -ersonaggio di rilie$o dellC,ntelligence statunitense. Nel 1** il di-artimento della difesa americano dic0iarK di a$er iniziato a costruire un centro ricerc0e nel cam-o delle alte fre2uenze a--licate alle aurore borealiB -er es-erimenti riguardo alla risonanza della Terra e dellCatmosfera. )n -rogetto da 0 milioni di dollari lCannoB c0e si ser$e di immense riser$e di gas e -etrolio a--artenenti alla societH A;&O e c0eB -er la sua straordinaria -otenza e -oli$alenzaB J considerato da molti lCarma ultima degli )SA. )n sistema tecnologico militare ca-ace di scannerizzare il sottosuolo alla ricerca di basi segrete sotterraneeB o silos di missiliB in grado di interrom-ere tutte le comunicazioni 7ertzB emettere onde E!+ in grado di influenzare il com-ortamento umanoB modificare il tem-o atmosfericoB -ro$ocare terremoti o tsunami e bloccare ogni meccanismo elettronico. )nCarma c0e agisce sulla ionosfera con conseguenze im-re$edibili e indescri$ibiliB -resentato dal 'entagono come un innocuo es-erimentoB unCinnocente ricerca sulla ionosfera al fine di migliorare le comunicazioni... Magda 7aal$oetB eurode-utata belgaB afferma c0e 2uesto ti-o di armamento im-lica conseguenze tecnologic0e disastrose e mette in -ericolo la democrazia delle Nazioni. !a sigla 7AA;' significa E7ig0 +re2uenc4 Acti$e Auroral ;esearc0 'roNectE( EMetodo ed a--arecc0iatura -er lCalterazione di una regione dellCatmosferaB ionosfera eVo magnetosfera terrestreE. !Carea interessata si tro$a a =akonaB in un terreno situato a Nord Est di Anc0orage in AlaskaB nel =olfo del -rinci-e =uglielmo di -ro-rietH del Di-artimento della Difesa )SAG consta di 60 antenne alte oltre 20 metri. Do--ie antenne a di-oli incrociatiB una co--ia -er la banda bassa da 2B8 a 3 Mega0ertz e unCaltra -er la banda alta da 3 a 10 Mega0ertzG c0e trasmettonoB a 10 c0ilometri di distanzaB un raggio di energia ad alta fre2uenza nella ionosferaG alimentate da sei turbine di 600 &/ c0e bruciano 2ualcosa come *1 tonnellate di diesel al giornoB -er generare oltre 1B1 miliardi di %att. )na zona scelta -er la sua $icinanza al 'olo e alla zona di concentrazione delle linee magnetic0e del nostro -ianetaG -er la -resenza di fonti energetic0e naturali situate nel sottosuolo e -er la distanza dai centri urbani. !a ,onosfera J costituita da -articelle ionizzate caric0e di energia allCaltezza media di .8 c0ilometri fino a 800 c0ilometri dalla su-erficie terrestreG un cuscino ad alta densitH energetica c0e J $itale -er il -ianeta e c0e -rotegge i suoi abitanti dagli effetti noci$i del sole. ,l sistema 7AA;' si basa sulle ricerc0e di #ernard EastlundB c0e 0a -reso s-unto dai la$ori di Nikola TeslaG ricerc0e c0e do$e$ano ser$ire ad Eastlund -er sco-rire $asti giacimenti di gas naturali c0e la com-agnia -etrolifera A;&O sta$a cercando in Alaska ed 0anno fruttato dodici bre$etti fra il 1*83 e il 1**.B la -ro-rietH dei 2uali J detenuta dalla societH A'T,WA;&OB un consorzio -etrolifero dietro al 2uale si celano la MarinaB lCA$iazioneB e il Di-artimento della Difesa degli Stati )niti. Anc0e il fisico nucleare Ed6ard TellerB noto -er essersi dedicato alla costruzione della bomba allCidrogeno ed 0a contribuito al sistema E=uerre StellariEB 0a collaborato al -rogetto. , bre$etti di Tesla riguarda$ano il metodo e il dis-ositi$o -er alterare uno strato dellCatmosfera terrestreB ionosfera e magnetosfera e creare un ciclotrone artificiale -er riscaldare una zona di -lasma e -rodurre uno scudo di -articelle relati$istic0e ad unCaltezza su-eriore della su-erficie terrestre. &ollegati al -rogetto $i sono oltre .00 bre$ettiB -er la maggior -arte armi offensi$e c0e sfruttano il sistema dCirraggiamento a fascio diretto dalla Terra $erso lo s-azio. Si -uK dirigere lCenergia ad alta fre2uenza $erso unCantenna rice$enteB o$un2ueB anc0e in centri urbani. Si -uK interferire con am-ie zone

dellCatmosfera -er abbattere 2ualsiasi ti-o di oggetto $olante. Anc0e la ;ussia si J dedicata ad una simile ricerca -rima della di$isione del suo territorio. /i sono altre installazioni simili in $arie -arti del -ianeta( ad AreciboB a +airbanks in AlaskaB a Tromso in Nor$egiaB a 'ine #us0 in Australia ed a Stee-lebus0 in ,ng0ilterra. Sicuramente se ne stanno costruendo altre. Si J sa-uto c0e lCim-ianto -ilota di =akona J in grado di irradiare 1.300.000.000 %att nellCatmosfera. ,l -rogetto 7AA;' ra--resenta lo s$ilu--o negati$o dellCin$enzione di Tesla. Egli odia$a la guerra eB a tal -ro-ositoB dic0iarK( ENon si -uK abolire la guerra mettendola fuori legge. Non $i si -uK -orre fine disarmando i forti. Ma si -uK fermarla rendendo tutti i -aesi in grado di difendersi. 7o a--ena sco-erto una nuo$a arma di difesa c0eB se $errH adottataB trasformerH com-letamente i ra--orti tra le nazioni. !e renderH tutteB grandi e -iccole c0e sianoB in$ulnerabili a 2ualsiasi attacco -ro$eniente da terraB dal mare o dallCaria. #isognerHB in -rimo luogoB costruire una grande officina -er fabbricare 2uestCarmaB ma 2uando sarH com-letataB sarH -ossibile distruggere uomini e macc0ine in un raggio di 20 Pm.E Nel 1* . Tesla descrisse in un articolo unCa--arecc0iatura simile al laserB affermando( E@uesto strumento -roietta -articelle c0e -ossono essere relati$amente grandi o microsco-ic0eB c0e -ermettono di trasmettere a gran distanza unCenergia milioni di $olte -iL forte di 2uella ottenibile con 2ualsiasi altro raggio. &osI una corrente -iL sottile di un filo -uK trasmettere migliaia di ca$alli $a-ore. E nulla le -uK resistere.E !e onde a bassa fre2uenzaB E!+B generate dal sistemaB -ossono influenzare le atti$itH cerebrali. Nel 1*12 il Dr. Sose DelgadoB -rofessore dell")ni$ersitH di RaleB sco-rI c0e si -ote$a modificare il com-ortamento emozionale del -ensiero. ,l Dr. ;obert #ecker dimostrK c0e tali onde -ote$ano -ro$ocare -auraB de-ressioneB desideri. Nel 1*30 Xbignieu #rezinskiB fondatore della commissione trilaterale Da$id ;ockfellerCs -ubblicK un libro sulla -ossibilitH di controllare il clima -er -rodurre -eriodi di -rolungata siccitH o inondazioni. Da segnalare c0e #rezinski era anc0e direttore della sicurezza nazionale del -residente &arter e fondatore della E+ederal Emergenc4 Management Agenc4E. &inesi e russi denunciano da tem-o la -ossibilitH c0e un -aeseB nello s-ecifico gli Stati )nitiB -ossa alterare le forze della natura scon$olgendo il regime delle -iogge. Dic0iarano di a$ere forti -reoccu-azioni -er gli es-erimenti americani in AlaskaB definendo il -rogetto 7AA;' unCarma geofisica con la 2uale condizionare il clima alterando attra$erso lCemissione di microonde la tem-eratura e lCumiditH. !CintensitH e la fre2uenza dei disastri c0e si sono registrati in 2uesti ultimi anni sarebbero da im-utare ai test del -rogetto 7AA;'B in 2uanto in tale -rogetto $errebbero usati metodi in grado di -ro$ocare terremoti e modificare le -reci-itazioniB la tem-eraturaB il li$ello del mareB la caratteristica della luce solare. Nel 2002 ben 220 de-utati della Duma firmarono un a--ello indirizzato allCON) -er c0iedere la messa al bando degli es-erimenti elettromagnetici dellC7AA;' ritenuti una nuo$a arma in grado di influenzare gli elementi naturali con le onde ad alta fre2uenza. ,l -rogetto J tuttora in o-era. Nel 1*1. 7arr4 =rindell Matt0e6s dic0iarK di a$er in$entato un raggio in$isibileB conosciuto come il Eraggio della morteEB ca-ace di bloccare 2ualsiasi motoreB ri-rendendo un $ecc0io un -rogetto di Tesla -er teletras-ortare energia elettrica. Durante una dimostrazione sarebbe riuscito a bloccare il motore a sco--io di una motoB a far es-lodere -ol$eri a distanza ed accendere una lam-ada senza fare uso di corrente elettrica. ,l Ministero dellCA$iazione inglese non fu con$into dalla -ro$aB in 2uanto il suo raggio di azione era atti$o entro diciotto metri. Nel 1*21 =rindell si recK in America e al suo ritorno in -atria dic0iarK di a$er $enduto il bre$etto agli )SA. Da 2uel momento lo scienziato $enne dimenticatoG morI nel 1*.1. !a sua tecnologia fu im-iegata -er -roiettare in cielo immagini -ubblicitarie. Non fu lCunico a costruire un sistema -er generare un raggio simileB in tale im-resa si cimentKB e sembra con esiti -ositi$iB anc0e =uglielmo Marconi. A con$alidare tale im-resaB -ur in modo indirettoB un testimone di tutto rilie$o( ;ac0ele Mussolini. Nel suo libro EMussolini -ri$atoEB descri$e cosa le accadde una mattina del 1* 6 mentre -ercorre$a con lCauto la ;omaWOstia( E)n giornoB alla fine di giugno del 1* 6B a -ranzoB a$e$o detto a #enito c0e nel -omeriggio mi sarei recata ad Ostia a controllare alcuni la$ori in una -ro-rietH agricola. Mio marito sorrise e mi

disse( Tro$ati sullCautostrada fra le tre e le tre e mezza. @ualcosa ti sor-renderH.E Secondo 2uanto ri-ortato nel libroB a metH strada lCauto si fermK e nonostante c0e lCautista facesse di tutto -er rimetterla in motoB la macc0ina non ne $olle sa-ere. Accadde lo stesso a tutte le auto c0e si tro$arono in zonaB sia 2uelle c0e $iaggiano $erso OstiaB sia 2uelle dirette $erso ;oma. ;ac0ele guardK lCorologio( erano le B10. AllCautista disse di as-ettare fino alle B 0. !Cuomo c0iese -erc0M as-ettare tantoB ma do-o a$er $isto inutili i suoi tentati$i di far ri-artire il motoreB alla fine si arrese. Alla B 1 ;ac0ele Mussolini disse allCautista di ri-ro$are a far ri-artire lCauto. ,nutile dirlo lCauto si rimise in moto. !a sera a cena narrK lCaccaduto a ta$ola e Mussolini confermK c0e era stato fatto un es-erimento segretissimo in 2uel -unto dellCautostrada. E)nCin$enzione di Marconi c0e -uK dare allC,talia una -otenza su-eriore a 2uella di tutti gli altri -aesi del mondo. Marconi sta continuando le ricerc0e.E Mussolini s-iegK alla moglie c0e Marconi utilizzando un raggio misterioso -ote$a interrom-ere il circuito elettrico dei motori di 2ualsiasi ti-o. 'urtro--o Marconi era de$otissimo alla c0iesaB causa lCannullamento del matrimonio dalla sacra rotaB e -a-a 'io O,B sa-uto della cosaB si allarmK e c0iese allo scienziato di non -roseguire le ricerc0e. Da Donna ;ac0ele sa--iamo c0e Marconi riferI tutto a Mussolini c0eB non $olendo inimicarsi il 'a-aB lasciK libertH di scelta allo studiosoB il 2uale sos-ese le ricerc0e ma non distrusse la documentazione e la sco-erta stessa. !Canno do-oB il 1* 3B Marconi morI. !a cosa J -iL c0e certaB dato c0e lo stesso duce lo confermerH a ,$anoe +ossatiB il 20 Marzo 1*.1B in una inter$ista. ET $ero sulla strada di OstiaB ad Acilia Marconi 0a fermato i motori delle automobiliB delle moto. !Ces-erimento fu ri-etuto sulla strada di AnzioG a Orbetello aerei radiocomandati furono incendiati a duemila metri di altezza.E Al giornalista Mussolini disse c0e Marconi ebbe degli scru-oli e c0iese consiglio al 'a-a c0e gli disse di nascondere la sco-erta. Disse anc0e c0e non si sentI di obbligarlo nella sceltaB -ur facendogli -resente c0e la sco-erta -ote$a essere fatta da altri e utilizzata contro lC,taliaB ma lo studioso morI im-ro$$isamente -oco tem-o do-o. /i sono inoltre due fatti da registrare. 'rimo( sembra c0e nel 1* * nella cittH di EssenB nellCora di -unta del trafficoB tutto 2uanto era elettrico e meccanico si bloccK -er dieci minuti( autoB camionB motoB orologi. , giornali non menzionarono lCaccaduto. Era stato sottratto ai fascisti il -rogetto del raggio della morteA Secondo( il segreto di Marconi lo conosce$a un certo 'ier !uigi ,g0inaB suo collaboratoreB un radiotecnico milanese c0e -er dieci anni fu aiutante dellCin$entoreG fu lui a sco-rire lCEatomo magneticoE c0e si tro$a in mezzo agli altri atomi e fornisce loro il mo$imento continuo. Di$idendolo sco-rI il Emono-olo magneticoE. ,solando gli atomi della materia dagli atomi magnetici i -rimi non 0anno la -ossibilitH di muo$ersi e la materia non si trasformaB 2uindi lCatomo magnetico -roduce anc0e le $ariazioni degli atomi della materia. Secondo 2uanto dic0iarato da ,g0ina il mono-olo J il -rinci-io -ositi$o o negati$o dellCenergia solare c0e giunge sulla TerraG $iene bloccata e riflessa di$enendo energia terrestre. DallCinterazione dellCenergia solare con 2uella terrestre si -roduce materia. ,g0ina a$e$a in$entato una macc0ina ca-ace di controllare le nu$ole con la 2uale libera$a il cielo dalla loro -resenza. 'er riuscire a fare 2uesto a$e$a se-olto 2uintali di -ol$ere di alluminio sotto il -rato del suo giardino trasformandolo in un mono-olo magnetico. Durante il 'rimo &ongresso ,nternazionale di Medicina )fficiale e Naturale di Milano $enne -roiettata una $ideocassetta del filmato inerente al dissol$imento dellCagglomerato nu$oloso sul cielo di ,molaB con la ricom-arsa del sereno nella zona interessata e trattata da ,g0ina con mono-oli magnetici. )na sco-erta c0e -ote$a risol$ere il -roblema delle siccitH e delle allu$ioni nel mondo. !Catomo magnetico J -iL -iccolo degli altri atomi e -ulsa -iL $elocemente. ,g0ina costruI unCa--arecc0iatura -er regolare le $ibrazioni atomic0e magnetic0e basata sullCenergia dellCatomo magneticoG con tale energia secondo lCin$entore si -ote$a guarire 2ualsiasi malattiaB fondere metalli a distanzaB -rodurre energia elettricaB in$estigare nel sotto suolo alla ricerca di giacimenti -etroliferi e falde ac2uifereB aumentare la -roduzione agricola. 9,l -rogetto 7aar-A: Da 2uanto dic0iarato da ,g0ina sembra c0e Marconi sia rimasto ucciso dal suo stesso es-erimento durante il 2uale a$e$a -ro$ocato lCinterruzione della circolazione del sangueG -erc0M come s-iegK il radiotecnico i mono-oli scom-ongono la materia sulla stessa materia. Se ne accorse 2uando $ide la salma e osser$K sotto la -elle alcuni Egnocc0etti neriE. , medici diagnosticarono la morte in seguito ad un attacco di

angina -ectoris. ,n merito a 2uesto Eraggio in$isibileEB o Edella morteEB negli anni "*0 giornali e T/ diffusero la notizia c0e la -olizia statunitense sarebbe stata dotata di un meccanismo ca-ace di bloccare il motore dellCauto usata dai mal$i$enti -er darsi alla fuga. Tutto 2uesto -orta a -ensare alla tecnologia in -ossesso degli )+OB dato c0e in molti casi di a$$istamenti i motori delle auto si bloccanoB la luce elettrica $iene a mancareB ogni meccanismo si ferma. +enomeni riscontrati anc0e nelle $icende riguardanti il famoso Triangolo delle #ermudaB fenomeni c0e interessano cam-i elettromagnetici. Sembra -erK c0e tale -rogetto sia stato abbandonato -erc0M in $irtL del suo am-io raggio dCazioneB fermerebbe anc0e i -acemakers e interrom-e la corrente nelle abitazioni circostanti al luogo di azione. !Ca--arato costruito da Tesla -roietta$a -articelleB grandi o microsco-ic0eB in modo da concentrarle in una -iccola area e in$iarle a grandi distanze utilizzando energie Etrilioni di $olteE -iL -otenti di 2uelle attualmente in uso. )n fascio -iL sottile di un ca-ello a cui niente resiste. )na tecnologia c0e -uK di$entare unCarma ca-ace di abbattere migliaia di aerei a .00 c0ilometri di distanzaB un acceleratore di -articelle oggi in uso nei laboratori nucleari e nello scudo s-aziale. Atto a -rodurre unCarma al -lasma. ,n $irtL di 2uestoB 2ualcuno lo 0a indicato come lCautore in$olontario dellCes-losione del 0 giugno 1*08 nella TunguskaB in Siberia. Esiste la strana coincidenza c0e lo stesso giorno in si manifestK il fenomeno in ;ussiaB lCin$entoreB sta$a eseguendo un es-erimento con lo sco-o di in$iare unConda di immensa energia e stabilire la comunicazione con una s-edizione articaB localizzata nella linea retta com-resa fra il laboratorio e il luogo dellCes-losione. Dato c0e il suo trasmettitore -ote$a generare una forza distrutti$a -ari a una bomba allCidrogeno di 10 megatoniB J stato fatto due -iL due. Non esistono -erK -ro$e a confermaB nonostante c0e lCes-losione della Tunguska non abbia lasciato crateri -rodotti da meteoriti o cometeB caduta di )+OG non ci furono segnalazioni in merito a tali fenomeni. !Cunico effetto -rodotto alcuni giorni do-oB una luce aurorale anomala c0e -otrebbe far -ensare allCuso di a--arecc0iature da -arte di TeslaG a--arecc0iature c0e oggi farebbero -arte del -rogetto 7AA;'. Nonostante 2uesto rimangono molti interrogati$i( do$e$a a$ere una -otenza di 0 megatoni e -er raggiungerla do$e$a coin$olgere -iL centraliB 2uindi non si -ote$a nascondere il fattoG inoltre risultano testimonianze contraddittorie riguardo alla traiettoria. !Cunico c0e -ote$a far luce sullCe$ento era -ro-rio TeslaB ma mantenne il riserbo -iL assoluto in merito ai -rogetti c0e -ote$ano -rodurre armi ad energia distrutti$a. A Tesla J legata una storia riguardo ad unCauto elettrica. Si racconta c0e nellCestate del 1* 1 le strade della cittadina di #uffalo fossero -ercorse da una 'ierce Arro6 c0e non -resenta$a emissione di fumi dal tubo di scarico in 2uanto a$rebbe a$uto uno motore elettrico e non combustione interna. Era guidata da tale 'etar Sa$o indicato come un gio$ane -arente di TeslaB un -ersonaggio c0e -arlando dello scienziato si riferi$a a lui come EzioE. Noi sa--iamo c0e il nome del ni-ote controllato dallC+#, era di$erso. Sembra c0e nei -rimi del no$ecento le auto elettric0e a$essero buone -ros-etti$eG in molti a$e$ano antici-ato $eicoli alimentati da batterie. !Cauto a benzina necessita$a di una $al$ola a farfallaB una mano$ella -er far girare il motoreB ac2ua -er un radiatoreB 2uando -ro-rio a 2uel tem-o $i erano -oc0e officine -er auto e un normale elettricista -ote$a eseguire la manutenzione del sem-lice motore a corrente continua. Nessun in2uinamentoB $elocitH contenuta e meno incidenti mortaliB costi ribassati anc0e a li$ello -roduzioneB non ci sarebbe stato bisogno di un accordo di P4oto c0e nessuno ris-ettaB non a$remmo a$utoB come lo abbiamo oggiB un -roblema con i -aesi islamici e non a$remmo alimentato e finanziato di conseguenza il terrorismo. , grandi magazzini im-iega$ano camion elettriciB cosI i medici e le donne -erc0M tali auto erano -iL facili da guidareB ma 2uesto solo in cittHG le strade americane $eni$ano -ercorse da $eicoli con motore a combustione internaB -iL $eloci e con maggiore autonomia. EDetroit ElectricEB E&olumbiaEB E#akerEB E;auc0 Y !angE e E%oodsE furono le -rinci-ali aziende tra 2uelle c0e -roduce$ano 2uesto ti-o di $eicoli elettrici. !e batterie erano -erK scarseB -esantiB ingombrantiB al -iomboB le auto a$e$ano -restazioni limitateB oltre gli 80 PmV0 la batteria si -ote$a deteriorare. ;ic0iede$ano molto tem-o -er la ricarica -er unCautonomia massima di 160 c0ilometri. @uindi 2uando lCaffidabilitH e la $elocitH delle auto a benzina migliorK le auto elettric0e s-arirono. 'etar Sa$o era stato nell"esercito austriaco ed era un es-erto -ilotaG inter$istato nel 1*63B raccontK lCe-isodio dellCauto elettrica c0e collaudK -er conto di Tesla. E!a %esting0ouse ElectricE e la E'ierceW

Arro6E a$e$ano -re-arato unCauto s-erimentale seguendo le indicazioni di Tesla con finanziamenti della EStudebacker &or-orationE. A$e$a un motore elettrico a corrente c0e -ote$a raggiungere 1.800 giri al minutoB senza s-azzoleB raffreddato da una $entola frontale e due terminali di alimentazione sotto il cruscotto. Sa$o racconta c0e Tesla solle$K il cofanoB fece 2ualc0e regolazioneB -osizionK 12 $al$ole termoionic0e in un dis-ositi$o allCinterno di una scatola di circa sessanta centimetri -er trenta e alta 2uindici. 'oi eseguI la connessione al motore. !Cauto -ercorse circa 80 c0ilometri attorno a #uffaloB raggiungendo i 1.1 kmV0 in -erfetto silenzio. A detta di Tesla il dis-ositi$o c0e alimenta$a lCauto era in grado di alimentarlo -er sem-re e soddisfare il fabbisogno energetico di un"abitazioneG lCin$entore affermK c0e sfrutta$a una Emisteriosa radiazione -ro$eniente dall"etereB dis-onibile in 2uantitH illimitataE. !Cauto a$e$a una batteria ricaricata da una antenna c0e entra$a in sintonia con la risonanza di Sc0umann intorno ai 3B8 7z. )na $aligia come 2uelle dei rice$itori a bassa fre2uenza rimodula$a la corrente alternata del cam-o magnetico terrestre in corrente continua necessaria alla batteria fornendo una 2uantitH illimitata di energia. &onsiderando tutto 2uesto non -ossiamo fare a meno di -ensare c0e la =rande 'iramide -otesse assumere la funzione di 2uella $aligettaB assorbendo dalla Terra energia elettrica -er distribuirla senza lCuso dei filiB sfruttando -ro-rio la risonanza di Sc0umann sulle fre2uenze di 0 7z riscontrata nella costruzione. =li es-erimenti durarono una settimanaB lCauto -ercorse $ari ti-i di strade alla $elocitH di 110 c0ilometri orariB do-odic0M $enne consegnata in tutta segretezza in una fattoria $icina a #uffalo e Tesla si -ortK $ia il suo dis-ositi$o. Nel 1* -er -roblemi amministrati$i la E'ierce Arro6E $enne li2uidata e la storia si ferma 2ui. Nel Ne6 Rork Dail4 Ne6s del 2 a-rile 1* . un articolo intitolato E,l sogno di Tesla di un"energia senza fili $icino alla realtHEB si -arla$a di un Ees-erimento -rogrammato -er s-ingere un"automobile utilizzando la trasmissione senza fili di energia elettricaE. Nello stesso -eriodo la E%esting0ouse &or-orationE -agK -er la sistemazione di Tesla al ENe6 Rorker 7otelE di Ne6 Rork B do$e $isse -er tutto il resto della sua $ita. Tesla $enne anc0e reclutato dalla %esting0ouse -er ricerc0e non ben s-ecificate sulle trasmissioni senza fili ed egli interru--e le sue dic0iarazioni -ubblic0e sui raggi cosmici. !eggende metro-olitaneB o studiati co$er - su in$enzioni c0e -ote$ano danneggiare il -otere di 2ualcunoA Su tutta la storia non $i sono molti riscontri. ;iguardo le auto allC,drogenoB oggi -arliamo di auto con motore a celle di combustibileB a idrogeno. )na nuo$a frontiera giH dis-onibile c0e $iene ostacolata esclusi$amente da -roblemi -olitici $isto c0e 2uelli economici -otranno essere risolti nel momento in cui si -asserH ad una -roduzione industriale con lCabbattimento dei relati$i costi. ,n soli cin2ue anniB massimo setteB si -otrebbe ricon$ertire lCintero -arco autoB azzerare il tasso dCin2uinamento mettendosi in regola con lCaccordo di P4oto e sganciarsi dal -etrolio e da tutti i -roblemi c0e dal suo uso deri$ano. ,ronia della sorte la cella a combustibile 9.:B o -ila a gasB fu ideata nel 18 * da %illiam =ro$eB un curioso a$$ocato del =alles con l"0obb4 della c0imica. Durante un es-erimento di elettrolisiB -rocedimento attra$erso il 2uale si -uK se-arare idrogeno e ossigeno dallCac2uaB si accorse c0eB nel momento in cui le batterie c0e alimenta$ano le celle elettrolitic0e $eni$ano escluseB il -rocesso ri-rende$a al contrarioG cioJ lCidrogeno e lCossigeno si riuni$ano generando elettricitH. !a comunitH scientifica -ur interessata inizialmente -referI o-tare -er la dinamoB sco-erta -oco tem-o do-o da %erner Siemens. 'assarono 120 anni -rima c0e la NASA adottasse le Efuell cellsE -er il -rogetto A-ollo e in$ogliasse il loro uso a li$ello industriale. ,nfattiB a -artire dagli anni C60B le -ile a combustibile sono state utilizzate -er tutte le missioni s-aziali sia A-olloB sia S0uttleB al fine di -rodurre ac2ua ed energia elettrica nello s-azio. !a cellaB in -raticaB si com-orta come un generatore di energia elettrica -rodotta attra$erso la reazione c0imica controllata tra idrogeno e ossigeno grazie a un catalizzatore di -latino. Si $erifica il consumo di un combustibileB nel caso idrogeno e ossigenoB con emissione di $a-ore ac2ueo. Non -iL camere di sco--ioB -istoniB combustione.

+ra i cin2ue ti-i di celle a combustibileB le -iL interessanti sono 2uelle ad acido fosforico e a membrana scambiatrice di -rotoni detta anc0e 'em. !e -rime usate negli im-ianti di -otenzaB le seconde nella locomozione dei $eicoli. !e -ile 'em sono state s$ilu--ate alla fine degli anni &in2uanta negli )saB dalla E=eneral ElectricEB e grazie alla collaborazione con la E#allard 'o6er S4stemsEB societH canadese di alta tecnologiaB e con lCinglese ESo0nson Matt0e4EB s-ecializzata in catalizzatoriB il costo del -latino in una cella 'em J sceso drasticamente. Oltre al settore dell"autotrazioneB i cam-i di a--licazione delle Efuel cellsE sono la -roduzione di energiaB a--arecc0iature -er telecomunicazioniB sistemi di alimentazione -er cellulariB -ersonal com-uter e fabbisogni domestici. ,l metodo -iL economico -er dis-orre di idrogeno J estrarlo dal gas naturale maB con tale -rocedimentoB noto come ESteam ;eformingEB $iene liberata come sotto-rodotto anidride carbonicaG un secondo sistema J -rodurlo -artendo dallCac2uaB se-arandolo dallCossigeno attra$erso lCelettrolisi. !a scelta $incente J ra--resentata dalle celle a combustibile alimentate da idrogeno se ottenuto dallCac2ua attra$erso lCenergia elettrica -rodotta da fonti rinno$abili. !Cac2ua generata dalle E+uel &ellE J cosI -ura c0e $iene be$uta dagli astronauti sullo S0uttle. ,n occasione della rassegna ,+AB la -iL grande +iera dellCElettronica del mondoB tenutasi a #erlino nel settembre del 2001B J stata -resentataB dalla Tos0iba una -iccolissima centraleB costituita da una mini cella a combustibile alimentata da unCalta concentrazione di metanolo 9**B1U: come combustibile. )no strumento idoneo e alternati$o -er ricaricare le batterie di NotebookB audio digitaliB d$d -ortatiliB telefoni cellulari. 'esa 8B1 grammi e -roduce 100 milli6att di energia in un com-atto c0e misura a--ena 225165.B1 mm. 'er il suo funzionamento necessita solo di 2 millilitri di combustibile -er assicurare 20 ore di autonomia in un ri-roduttore di M' audio. !e 'iramidi -ote$ano essere state immense celle a combustibile -er fornire energia al -o-olo c0e occu-a$a le terre tredicimila anni fa. Secondo Alan Alford la &amera della ;egina nella =rande 'iramide di =izaB sarebbe stata il -unto do$e si do$e$a tro$are la cella energetica idonea a -rodurre la se-arazione fra lCossigeno e lCidrogenoG il sarcofago nella camera del ;e il reci-iente do$e a$$eni$a la combustone controllata dellCidrogenoG le cin2ue stanze so-ra tale cameraB ossia il DedB il dis-ositi$o di raffreddamento. Alford i-otizza c0e nelle 23 nicc0ie allineate nella =rande =alleria e adesso $uoteB si tro$a$ano cristalli ca-aci di risuonare a di$erse fre2uenze e im-iegati -er comunicare. @uesto ci -orta a fantasticare ancora un -o" e a com-iere un $iaggio fino ad Atlantide. Secondo 2uanto ri-ortato riguardo alle dic0iarazioni del $eggente &a4ceB la ci$iltH Atlantidea dis-one$a di una a$anzata tecnologiaB com-rendente anc0e Ei raggi distrutti$iEG &a4ce -arlK di tele$isioneB aeromobiliB 2uando ancora non esiste$anoG dic0iarK c0e 2uel -o-olo era ca-ace di alterare la struttura atomica dei cristalli -er rica$are enormi 2uantitH di energiaB attra$erso un sistema c0e ricorda 2uelli descritti da Tesla. , cristalli sarebbero stati isolati in un edificio Efoderato di -ietra non conduttriceE. !a descrizione ricorda le torri di $etro gire$oli di cui dis-one$ano i T0uata de DananB -rotagonisti delle sag0e irlandesiB ri$estite a--unto di un materiale isolante a -rotezione delle radiazioni emanate dalle armi nemic0e. , documenti con le descrizioni -er costruire tali E-ietreE $errebbero custoditi in tre -osti di$ersi( nei tem-li di Atlantide sommersi a #iminiB in un tem-io in Egitto e nel tem-io di ,tlar nello Rucatan. &a4ce -arlK anc0e di +aser e MaserB l"energia deri$ante dalla luce -olarizzataB dicendo c0e -ro-rio il catti$o uso di tale energia scatenK forze incontrollabili c0e causarono la distruzione del continente. Nel 1*30 il Dottor ;a4 #ro6n durante unCimmersione con alcuni suoi amici nelle ac2ue del triangolo delle #ermudaB $icino alle isole #ariB #a0amasB $ideB a 2uaranta metri di -rofonditHB una $asta cittH sommersa e una -iramide con un"a-ertura sulla sua sommitH. Ecco la sua testimonianza( E!a costruzione era in -ietra lisciaB le giunzioni fra i blocc0i si distingue$ano a--ena. !"a-ertura era una s-ecie di -ozzo c0e immette$a in una stanza interna rettangolare. &om-letamente -ri$a di alg0e e coralli e stranamente ben illuminata senza c0e ci fosse nessuna luce diretta. /idi 2ualcosa c0e riluce$a. Dal soffitto -ende$a unCasta metallica con incastonata una -ietra rossa sfaccettata e affusolata in -unta. Sotto di essa un basamento in -ietra sono so-ra una -iastra sem-re di -ietraB sulla 2uale due mani di

bronzoB annerite da e$identi bruciatureB sorregge$ano una sfera di cristallo. Non riuscendo a smuo$ere lCasta e la -ietra rossaB afferrai il cristallo e $enni $ia. Mentre usci$o da 2uel luogo mi -ar$e di a$$ertire una -resenza. All"interno di 2uesto cristallo rotondo $i era una serie di forme -iramidaliB tre -er lCesattezza e tenendolo in mano si a$$erti$a una $ibrazione.E 'er$aso dal timore c0e la sfera gli fosse confiscata non ne 0a ri$elata lCesistenza fino al 1*31B nel corso di una conferenza a '0oeni5B nM il -unto esatto del suo ritro$amento e cosa ne J stato del cristallo. ,l -articolare delle mani metallic0e c0e sorreggono un cristalloB rammentano le mani degli isolatori c0e sostengono le Elam-adeE ra--resentate sulle -areti di Dendera. ,l fatto c0e siano state $iste annerite e bruciate significa c0e erano state sotto-oste ad un fortissimo caloreB 2uindi la -iramide catalizza$a una sorta dCenergia indirizzandolaB attra$erso lCastaB nella sfera di cristallo. !a -ietra rossa -ote$a essere un rubinoB -ietra solitamente usata nei laser -er concentrare e -roiettare lCenergia. ,n 2uanto alla sfera $i sono testimonianze c0e -arlano di fenomeni -aranormaliG di metalli c0e in contatto con essa si magnetizzano tem-oraneamenteG lCago della bussola girerebbe -rima in senso orario e -oi in senso o--osto. Si J -arlato di casi di guarigione do-o a$erla toccata. )n collegamento al tesc0io di cristalloA S-eculazioniA +atto c0e non si -uK negare. ,l cristallo della sfera testimonia lCesistenza di ci$iltH in -ossesso di una tecnologia a$anzatissima -erc0M -erfino gli es-erti dellC,stituto Smit0soniano di %as0ington 0anno dic0iarato c0eB solo do-o il 1*00 siamo entrati in -ossesso di una tecnologia con la 2uale -oter tagliare il 2uarzo e rica$arne una sfera -erfetta. Dal -assato saltiamo al futuro in 2uanto Tesla non era in accordo con Einstein riguardo alla cur$atura dello s-azio -er lui im-ossibile( ESe esistesse non si s-ieg0erebbe il moto dei cor-i come li osser$iamo. Solo un cam-o di forza -uK s-iegarlo e la sua assunzione dis-ensa la cur$atura s-aziale dellCesistere.E Tesla condi$ide$a la $isione della luce intesa come -articella e come ondaG la$ora$a ad un -rogetto relati$o ad una Ebarriera di luceE in grado di alterare tem-oB s-azioB gra$itH e materia. /oci dal sa-ore di leggenda abbinano il suo nome al E'rogetto +iladelfiaE riguardante la s-arizione di una na$e e il suo e2ui-aggio do-o a$erla es-osta ad un forte cam-o magnetico. @ualcosa c0e -otrebbe fornire la s-iegazione delle strane s-arizioni nel famoso triangolo delle #ermude. Oggetto dellCes-erimento il cacciator-ediniere Eldridge D13 c0e finI a$$olto da una strana nebbia luminescente e $erdastra a--ena i generatori magnetici furono messi in funzione. !a na$e s-arI da$anti agli occ0i degli osser$atori rimasti a bordo della SS +uruset0 e della SS Mala4B lasciando ben $isibile la sua im-ronta nellCac2uaB allCinterno di un cam-o di forza di forma sferica di circa cento metri dCam-iezza. !CEldridge fu $ista a--arire e scom-arire a Norfolk in /irginia e lCe2ui-aggio subI conseguenze scon$olgenti de$astanti. )omini c0e a--ari$ano e s-ari$ano in ogni luogo si tro$assero. !a storia $enne ri$elata da un non ben identificato &arl Allen in corris-ondenza e-istolare con il dottor Morris Sessu-B astronomo e ricercatoreB autore di un libro collegato alla storiaB ET0e case for t0e )foE. Sessu- morI in circostanze misteriose e sos-ette. !a $icenda J stata di$ulgata da Manson /alentin con il 2uale Sessu- era in contatto eB successi$amenteB da &0arles #erlitz c0e inter$istK /alentin. @ueste le $icende collegate a TeslaB un -ersonaggio scomodo allCe-oca e sicuramente lo sarebbe anc0e ai nostri tem-iB ma riconosciuto come lCin$entore del mondo c0e noi conosciamoG senza di lui non saremo giunti a 2uesto grado di s$ilu--o tecnologico. 110.000 documenti custoditi nel Museo a lui intestato a #elgrado testimoniano la sua grande conoscenza dellCelettromagnetismoB la sua ca-acitH di $isualizzare nella mente il -roblema e -assare alla soluzione senza do$er stilare disegni ed effettuare calcoli. !a sua mania di -erfezionismoB lCenorme serietHB le doti di elo2uenzaG lCamore -er la natura c0e lo s-inge$a a com-iere lung0e -asseggiate. A--are come un uomo c0e desidera$a una societH sana e giustaB retta da -rinci-i egualitariB Enon dominata dagli interessi egoistici di oscuri mano$ratori dellCeconomia e della -oliticaG indi$idui -ri$i di coscienza c0e -erseguono i -ro-ri interessi non tenendo conto dei danni -ro$ocati allCumanitH.E &onsa-e$ole c0e il mondo J go$ernato da -oc0i furbi e facoltosiB come lui li defini$aB nascosti nelle stanze del comandoB intenti a raggirare una massa di illusiB -o$eriB indifesi ignoranti. Sa-e$a come cambiare gli e2uilibri mondiali -onendo a Edis-osizione di tutti illimitate e smisurate sorgenti di

energie c0e a$rebbero diffuso il benessereB creato culturaB conoscenza e consa-e$olezzaG -ortando il mondo ad un autocontrolloG togliendo ai gru--i di -otere lCo--ortunitH di mani-olare la massa -er conseguire il loro egoistico interesseE. )to-ia. 'er 2ueste sue idee Tesla fu contrastato. NellCelite militare e industriale del tem-o figura$ano uomini come So0n ;ockefeller Sr.B Sulius ;osen6aldB 7enr4 +ordB 7ar$e4 +irestoneB 7erbert 7oo$erB il generale 'ers0ing 91:G ben consa-e$oli c0e le in$enzioni di Edison non a$e$ano un futuroB ma Edison era asser$ito al sistemaB TeslaB al contrarioB lo combatte$a. 'er 2uesto $ennero tagliati i fondi allCin$entoreG le sue in$enzioni non do$e$ano modificare lo status 2uo raggiuntoB non in 2uel momentoB il cambiamento ric0iede$a tem-o. ,l genio in$ece innesca salti 2uantici nello s$ilu--o tecnologico c0e costringono a cambiamenti re-entini degli e2uilibriG 2uindi c0i gestisce il -otere de$e bloccarli o rallentarli con ogni mezzo. !o fecero -assare -er -azzoG lo fu 2uando sco-rI le fre2uenza di risonanza della TerraG ma cin2uanta anni do-o S0umann disse c0e a$e$a ragione. !o dotarono di -oteri e5traterrestri 2uando -ilotK il battello col radiocomandoG ma i tedesc0i in guerra fecero lo stesso con i missili ed oggi si fa uso delle Esmart bombsE guidate da !aser e ='S. !CunitH di misura del flusso magnetico -orta il suo nomeB un onore concesso a -oc0iB a riconoscimento del suo enorme e indiscusso talentoG ma non fu -remiato con il -remio Nobel come a$rebbe meritatoG gli fu conferita solo la Edison Medal. !a cerimonia a$$enne il 18 maggio 1*13. NellCoccasioneB uno dei membri della EEnginering Societ4 #uildingE c0iuse il suo discorsoB nel 2uale elogia$a i meriti dellCin$entore croatoB dicendo( E alla fine Dio disse ESia Tesla e la luce fuE. Note: 1. !CelettricitH statica $aria dai 20.000 ai 10.000 $olt. ,l cor-o umano tende ad immagazzinare tale elettricitH naturalmente. 2. &onsiderando il -rinci-io dellCattrazione dei -oli o--ostiB 2ualsiasi magnete libero di ruotare tende a orientare il -ro-rio -olo sud $erso 2uello nord terrestreG ed J 2uello c0e fa lCago di una bussola -erc0M J un -iccolo magnete i cui -oli si orientano -arallelamente alle linee dello s-ettro magnetico terrestre. +enomeno -ossibile in 2uanto la Terra J una gigantesca calamita. 3. Tutte le macc0ine -er la risonanza magnetica nucleare sono calibrate con lCunitH di TeslaB da 2 a *. )n Tesla e2ui$ale a 1000 =auss 9unita di misura del flusso magnetico:. Estremamente im-ortante -er la diagnosi degli organi interni del cor-o umano s-ecie in caso di tumori e -rocessi degenerati$i del cer$ello e della colonna $ertebrale. 'iL forte J il cam-o magnetico -iL forte la 2uantitH dei segnali radiofonici tratti dagli atomi del cor-o e 2uindi -iL alta la 2ualitH delle immagini. , nuclei atomici mostrano la loro -resenza assorbendo o emettendo onde radio una $olta es-osti ad un cam-o magnetico sufficientemente forte. ,l segnale dellCidrogeno nel tessuto canceroso J di$erso da 2uello di un tessuto sano -erc0M i tumori contengono -iL ac2ua e 2uindi -iL atomi di idrogeno. !a -re-arazione allCesame J insolita in 2uanto J necessario lasciare fuori della stanza ogni oggetto metallico smontabileB com-rese -rotesi dentarieB acustic0e e di altro ti-o. 4. !a &ella a combustibile J come un -iccolo generatore c0e -roduce energia da combustibili 2uali lCidrogeno o lCalcool -er generare una reazione c0imica senza combustione o uso di -arti mobili come le turbine. 5. 'ers0img So0n Sose-0 generale statunitense 91860W1*.8: c0e durante la -rima guerra mondiale $enne nominato comandante ca-o delle forze nordamericane in Euro-a e c0e sotto la sua direzione costituirono uno dei -rinci-ali fattori della $ittoria alleata.

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Nikola Tesla: Mechanical Oscillator

L. n!erson: Tesla's Teleforce & Tele-Geodynamics Proposals ". #on! $ %. &a'mgartner: Nikola Tesla's Earthquake Machine (. O)Neill: Prodigal Genius: The ife and Times of Nicola Tesla M. Chene*: Tesla: Man !ut of Time Miscellanies N. Tesla: +, #atent - 514.1/0 ~ 1eci2rocating 3ngine N. Tesla: +, #atent - 514.055 ~ ,team 3ngine

Nikola Tesla)s Tele6orce $ Telegeo!*namics #ro2osals

Lelan! n!erson ,S#N( 0W*6 6012W8W8 ET6o im-ortant -a-ersB 0idden for more t0an 60 4earsB are -resented for t0e first time. T0e -rinci-les be0ind teleforce WW t0e -articleWbeam 6ea-onB and telegeod4namics WW t0e mec0anical eart0Wresonance conce-t for seismic e5-lorationB are full4 addressed. ,n addition to co-ies of t0e original documentsB t4-ed on Tesla"s official stationer4B t0is 6ork also includes t6o ;eader"s Aid sections t0at guide t0e reader t0roug0 t0e more tec0nical as-ects of eac0 -a-er. T0e -a-ers are follo6ed b4 &ommentar4 sections 60ic0 -ro$ide 0istorical background and functional e5-lanations of t0e t6o de$ices. Significant ne6s-a-er articles and 0eadline accounts are -ro$ided to document t0e first mention of t0ese -ro-osals. A large A--endi5 -ro$ides a 6ealt0 of related material and background informationB follo6ed b4 a #ibliogra-04 section and ,nde5. ET0is book contains t0e original te5ts of t6o uni2ue -ro-osals t0at Nikola Tesla offered uduring 0is later 4ears. ,n bot0 casesB t0e tec0nologies described trace t0eir roots back to an earlier and tremendousl4 -roducti$e decade in Tesla"s life beginning in t0e earl4 18*0s. At t0e time of t0e -ro-osals" un$eilingB EteleforceBE t0e -article beam conce-tB and Etelegeod4namicsBE t0e mec0anical eart0Wresonance conce-tB recei$ed significant -ress co$erage... EOn t0e occasion of 0is annual birt0da4 celebration inter$ie6 b4 t0e -ress on Sul4 10B 1* 1 in 0is suite at t0e 7otel Ne6 RorkerB Tesla announced a met0od of transmitting mec0anical energ4 accuratel4 6it0 minimal loss o$er an4 terrestrial distanceB including a related ne6 means of communication and a met0odB 0e claimedB 60ic0 6ould facilitate t0e unerring location of underground mineral de-osits. At t0at time 0e recalled t0e eart0Wtrembling E2uakeE t0at broug0t -olice and ambulances rus0ing to t0e scene of 0is 7ouston Street laborator4 60ile an e5-eriment 6as in -rogress 6it0 one of 0is mec0anical oscillators...E Excerpt(

1eacti7e 8orces O9taina9le 9* Tesla)s :sochrono's Oscillators ~ ET0ese are generated b4 TeleW=eoWD4namic transmitters 60ic0 are reci-rocating engines of e5treme sim-licit4 ada-ted to im-ress isoc0ronous $ibrations u-on t0e eart0B t0ereb4 causing t0e -ro-agation of corres-onding r04t0mical disturbances t0roug0 t0e same 60ic0 areB essentiall4B sound 6a$es like t0ose con$e4ed t0roug0 t0e air and et0er. . . . %it0 a mac0ine of t0is kind it 6ill be -racticableB in t0e differentiation of densities and aggregate states of subterranean strata and tracing t0eir outlines on t0e eart0"s surfaceB to reac0 a -recision a--ro5imating t0at 60ic0 is secured in t0e in$estigation of t0e internal structure of bodies b4 -enetrati$e ra4s. +or Nust as t0e $acuum tube -roNects ;oentgen s0ado6s on a fluorescent screenB so t0e transmitter -roduces on t0e eart0"s surface s0ado6s 60ic0 can be detected b4 acoustic de$ices or rendered $isible b4 o-tical instruments. T0e recei$er can be made so sensiti$e t0at -ros-ecting ma4 be accom-lis0ed 60ile riding in a car and 6it0out limit of distance from t0e transmitter.E Ta9le o6 Contents ,ntroduction Nikola Tesla"s Teleforce 'ro-osal ;eader"s Aid Ne6 Art of 'roNecting &oncentrated NonWDis-ersi$e Energ4 T0roug0 Natural Media. #4 Nikola Tesla &ommentar4 Ne6 Rork TimesB Se-tember 22B 1*.0B E"Deat0 ;a4" for 'lanesE Nikola Tesla"s Telegeod4namics 'ro-osal ;eader"s Aid ;elati$e Merits of t0e !ucas Met0od of 'ros-ecting b4 Detonations of E5-losi$e &om-ounds and of T0e Tesla Met0od of 'ros-ecting b4 ,soc0ronous Oscillations T0eoreticall4 &onsidered. #4 Nikola Tesla Tesla corres-ondence from =eorge Sc0erffB Sune 13B 1* 3 &ommentar4 Ne6 Rork TimesB Sul4 11B 1* 1B ETeslaB 3*B 'romises to Transmit +orceE A--endi5 Teleforce 'ro-osal 'ossibilities of Electrostatic =enerators. #4 Nikola Tesla Tesla &orres-ondence to S. '. MorganB Sr.B No$ember 2*B 1* . Telegeod4namics 'ro-osal Tesla corres-ondence from =eorge Sc0erffB A-ril 1*B 1*18 Address #efore T0e Ne6 Rork Electrical Societ4B EMec0anical and Electrical OscillatorsE b4 Nikola Tesla Electric =enerator Z ).S. 'atent No. 111B*16 ;eci-rocating Engine Z ).S. 'atent No. 11.B16* Steam Engine Z ).S. 'atent No. 113B*00 Mec0anical T0era-4 b4 Nikola Tesla Detroit +ree 'ressB San. 18B 18*6B ETesla"s 7ealt0 =i$erE #ibliogra-04 Teleforce Telegeod4namics After6ord #ibliogra-04

Nikola Tesla's Earthquake Machine

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"ale #on! $ %alter &a'mgartner

A$ailable from( 0tt-(VV666.tfcbooks.comV EMuc0 of t0e material -resented in t0is book is related to t0e construction of a class of mac0ine in$ented b4 Tesla and kno6n as t0e reci-rocating Mec0anical Oscillator. Serious students of Tesla"s 6ork ma4 recognize t0is mac0ine as t0e basis of 0is s4stem for -roducing electrical $ibrations of a $er4 constant -eriod. ,n 18*8 anot0er $ariation 6as used to create a small eart02uake in t0e neig0bor0ood surrounding 0is 7ouston Street lab. Tesla called t0is met0od of transmitting mec0anical energ4 Etelegeod4namics.E ,ncluded are mec0anical dra6ings t0at 6ill guide 4ou t0roug0 t0e construction of a 6orking model of t0e TeleW=eoW D4namic OscillatorB -lus a com-re0ensi$e descri-tion of t0e mac0ine in Tesla"s o6n 6ords.E

E5cer-t from(

Prodigal Genius: The ife and Times of Nicola Tesla

(ohn O)Neill Tele;<eo;"*namics ~ TeleW=eoWD4namics is t0e transmission of sonic or acoustic $ibrationsB 60ic0 can be -roduced 6it0 com-arati$el4 sim-le a--aratus. T0ere is of course muc0 sonic e2ui-ment a$ailable no6 for different a--licationsB but t0is 0as little or not0ing to do 6it0 Nikola Tesla"s oscillatorWgenerator. %0at Tesla -ro-osed re-resents a ne6 tec0nolog4 in sonic transmission e$en toda4. ,n Tesla"s oscillatorWgeneratorB a ;esonance effect can be obser$ed. Since resonance seems to be an e$er increasing effect 6it0 t0is oscillatorWgeneratorB it can be deduced t0at t0ere must be a great source of energ4 a$ailable t0roug0 it. %04 can a resonance be created in t0e oscillatorWgenerator 60en it cannot in a ordinar4 reci-rocating engineA %it0 t0e oscillatorWgeneratorB all go$erning mec0anisms are eliminated. On t0e ot0er 0andB consider t0e car engine. Starting 6it0 t0e c4linderB a reci-rocating motion is con$erted into rotar4 motion b4 a means of s0aftsB cranksB gearsB dri$etrainsB transmissionsB etc. T0ese -arts all consume 6ork b4 frictionB but t0e greatest loss occurs in t0e c0ange from reci-rocating to rotar4 motion. At eac0 -oint e$er4 $ar4ing inclination of t0e crank and -istons 6ork at a disad$antage and result in loss of efficienc4. ,n Tesla"s oscillatorWgeneratorB t0e -iston is entirel4 free to mo$e as t0e medium im-els it 6it0out 0a$ing to encounter and o$ercome t0e inertia of a mo$ing s4stem and in t0is res-ect t0e t6o t4-es of engines differ radicall4 and essentiall4. T0is t4-e of engineB under t0e influence of an a--lied force suc0 as t0e tension of com-ressed airB steamB or ot0er gases under -ressureB 4ields an oscillation of a constant -eriod. T0e obNecti$e of t0e Tesla oscillatorWgenerator is to -ro$ide a mec0anism ca-able of

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con$erting t0e energ4 of com-ressed gas or steam into mec0anical -o6er. Since t0e oscillatorWgenerator is denuded of all go$erning de$icesB friction is almost nonWe5istent. ,n ot0er 6ordsB t0e -iston floats freel4 in air and is ca-able of con$erting all -ressure into mec0anical energ4. Our obNecti$e in building t0e engine is to -ro$ide an oscillator 60ic0 under t0e influence of an a--lied force suc0 as t0e elastic tension of a gas under -ressure 6ill 4eild an oscillating mo$ement 60ic0 6it0in $er4 6ide limitsB 6ill be of constant -eriodB irres-ecti$e of $ariation of loadB frictional lossesB and ot0er factors 60ic0 in ordinar4 engines c0ange in t0e rate of reci-rocating. ,t is a 6ellWkno6n -rici-le t0at if a s-ring -ossessing a sensible inertia is broug0t under tensionB i.e.B being stretc0edB and t0en freedB it 6ill -erform $ibrations 60ic0 are isoc0ronous. As far as t0e -eriod in general is concernedB it 6ill de-end on t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ringB and its o6n inertia or t0at of t0e s4stem of 60ic0 it ma4 form an immediate -art. T0is is kno6n as Sim-le 7armonic Motion. T0is sim-le 0armonic motion in t0e form of isoc0ronous sound $ibrations can be im-ressed u-on t0e eart0B causing t0e -ro-agation of corres-onding r04t0mical disturbances t0roug0 t0e same 60ic0 -ass t0roug0 its remotest boundaries 6it0out attenuation so t0at t0e transmission is affected 6it0 an efficienc4 of one 0undred -ercent.

E5cer-t from(

Tesla: Man !ut of Time

Margaret Chene* 7e attac0ed an oscillator no larger t0an an alarm clock to a steel link 2" long and 2E t0ick. E+or a long time not0ing 0a--enedB but at last t0e great steel link began to trembleB increased its trembling until it dilated and contracted like a beating 0eartB and finall4 broke. Sledge0ammers could not 0a$e done itEB 0e told a re-orterB Ecro6bars could not 0a$e done itB but a fusillade of ta-sB no one of 60ic0 6ould 0a$e 0armed a bab4B did it.E 'leased 6it0 t0is beginningB 0e -ut t0e little oscillator in 0is coat -ocket. +inding a 0alfWbuilt steel building in t0e %all Street districtB 10 stories 0ig0 6it0 not0ing u- but t0e steel6orkB 0e clam-ed t0e oscillator to one of t0e beams. E,n a fe6 minutes , could feel t0e beam trembling. =raduall4 t0e trembling increased in intensit4 and e5tended t0roug0out t0e 60ole great mass of steel. +inall4 t0e structure began to creak and 6ea$eB and t0e steel6orkers came to t0e ground -anicWstrickenB belie$ing t0at t0ere 0ad been an eart02uake. #efore an4t0ing serious 0a--enedB , took off t0e oscillatorB -ut it in m4 -ocketB and 6ent a6a4. #ut if , 0ad ke-t on 10 minutes moreB , could 0a$e laid t0at building flat in t0e street. And 6it0 t0e same oscillator , could dro- #rookl4n #ridge in less t0an an 0our.E

Miscellanies
S-arlingB Earl( N. Y. World-Telegram 9Sul4 11B 1* 1:B ENikola TeslaB at 3*B )ses Eart0 to

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Transmit SignalsG E5-ects to 0a$e [100B000B000 %it0in T6o RearsE Z 7ere Tesla tells t0e stor4 of t0e eart02uake generated b4 t0e mec0anical oscillator in 0is NR& laborator4 in 18*8B 60ic0 broug0t t0e -olice t0ere to sto- 0im. T0e4 entered t0e lab Nust in time to see Tesla s6ing a slege0ammer and smas0 t0e tin4 de$iceB 60ic0 6as mounted on a girder( Nikola Tesla re$ealed t0at an eart02uake 60ic0 dre6 -olice and ambulances to t0e region of 0is laborator4 at .8 E. 7ouston St.B Ne6 RorkB in 18*8B 6as t0e result of a little mac0ine 0e 6as e5-erimenting 6it0 at t0e time 60ic0 E4ou could -ut in 4our o$ercoat -ocket.E T0e be6ildered ne6s-a-ermen -ounced u-on t0is as at least one t0ing t0e4 could understand and Et0e fat0er of modern electricit4E told 60at 0ad 0a--ened as follo6s( E, 6as e5-erimenting 6it0 $ibrations. , 0ad one of m4 mac0ines going and , 6anted to see if , could get it in tune 6it0 t0e $ibration of t0e building. , -ut it u- notc0 after notc0. T0ere 6as a -eculiar cracking sound. E, asked m4 assistants 60ere did t0e sound come from. T0e4 did not kno6. , -ut t0e mac0ine u- a fe6 more notc0es. T0ere 6as a louder cracking sound. , kne6 , 6as a--roac0ing t0e $ibration of t0e steel building. , -us0ed t0e mac0ine a little 0ig0er. ESuddenl4 all t0e 0ea$4 mac0iner4 in t0e -lace 6as fl4ing around. , grabbed a 0ammer and broke t0e mac0ine. T0e building 6ould 0a$e been about our ears in anot0er fe6 minutes. Outside in t0e street t0ere 6as -andemonium. ET0e -olice and ambulances arri$ed. , told m4 assistants to sa4 not0ing. %e told t0e -olice it must 0a$e been an eart02uake. T0at"s all t0e4 e$er kne6 about it.E Some s0re6d re-orter asked Dr. Tesla at t0is -oint 60at 0e 6ould need to destro4 t0e Em-ire State #uilding and t0e doctor re-lied( E/ibration 6ill do an4t0ing. ,t 6ould onl4 be necessar4 to ste- u- t0e $ibrations of t0e mac0ine to fit t0e natural $ibration of t0e building and t0e building 6ould come cras0ing do6n. T0at"s 604 soldiers break ste- crossing a bridge.E ,n anot0er inter$ie6B 0e boasted t0atB E%it0 t0is -rinci-le one could s-lit t0e eart0 in 0alf like an a--leE. Century MagazineB -. *21B +igure 2 9A-ril 18*1: Z ,n 18* Tesla constructed a -referred embodiment of t0e mec0anical oscillator 60ic0 0e described as a Edouble com-ound mec0anical and electrical oscillator for generating current of -erfectB constantB d4namo fre2uenc4 of 10 0orse-o6er.E Allan !. #enson( World Today 9+eb. 1*12:G ENikola TeslaB DreamerE Z An illustration for t0e article s0o6s an artist"s conce-tion of t0e -lanet s-litting in t6o. T0e ca-tion reads( ETesla claims t0at in a fe6 6eeks 0e could set t0e eart0"s crust into suc0 a state of $ibration t0at it 6ould rise and fall 0undreds of feet and -racticall4 destro4 ci$ilization. A continuation of t0is -rocess 6ouldB 0e sa4sB e$entuall4 s-lit t0e eart0 in t6o.E New York Sun 9Sul4 10B 1* 1:G ENe6 A--aratus Transmits Energ4 W Tesla Announces Met0od of ;emote &ontrolBE . N. Y. American 9Sul4 11B 1* 1:B Section 2G ETesla"s &ontrolled Eart0 @uakes 'o6er T0roug0 t0e Eart0B A Startling Disco$er4E. New York erald Tri!une 9Sul4 11B 1* 1:B --. 1B 8G ETeslaB at 3*B Disco$ers Ne6 Message %a$e W At #irt0da4 !unc0eon 7e Announces Mac0ine for 1W%a4 &ommunicationE

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New York Sun 9Sul4 11B 1* 1:G ENikola Tesla Describes Ne6 ,n$ention W Art of TeleW =eod4namicsE New York Time" 9Sul4 11B 1* 1:B -. 2 B col. 8G ETeslaB 3*B 'romises to Transmit +orce W Transmission of Energ4 O$er %orldBE

+, #atent - 514.1/0
1eci2rocating 3ngine Nikola Tesla

To all 60om it ma4 concern(

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#e it kno6n t0at ,B Nikola TeslaB a citizen of t0e )nited StatesB residing at Ne6 RorkB in t0e count4 and State of Ne6 RorkB 0a$e in$ented certain ne6 and useful ,m-ro$ements in ;eci-rocating EnginesB of 60ic0 t0e follo6ing is a s-ecificationB reference being 0ad to t0e dra6ing accom-an4ing and forming a -art of t0e same. ,n t0e in$ention 60ic0 forms t0e subNect of m4 -resent a--licationB m4 obNect 0as beenB -rimaril4 to -ro$ide an engineB 60ic0 under t0e influence of an a--lied force suc0 as t0e elastic tension of steam or gas under -ressure 6ill 4ield an oscillator4 mo$ement 60ic0B 6it0in $er4 6ide limitsB 6ill be of constant -eriodB irres-ecti$e of $ariations of loadB frictional losses and ot0er factors 60ic0 in all ordinar4 engines -roduce c0ange in t0e rate of reci-rocation. T0e furt0er obNects of t0e in$ention are to -ro$ide a mec0anismB ca-able of con$erting t0e energ4 of steam or gas under -ressure into mec0anical -o6er more economicall4 t0an t0e forms of engine 0eretofore usedB c0iefl4 b4 o$ercoming t0e losses 60ic0 result in t0ese b4 t0e combination 6it0 rotating -arts -ossessing great inertia of a reci-rocating s4stemG 60ic0 alsoB is better ada-ted for use at 0ig0er tem-eratures and -ressuresB and 60ic0 is ca-able of useful and -ractical a--lication to general industrial -ur-osesB -articularl4 in small units. T0e in$ention is based u-on certain 6ell kno6n mec0anical -rinci-les a statement of 60ic0 6ill assist in a better understanding of t0e nature and -ur-oses of t0e obNects soug0t and results obtained. 7eretoforeB 60ere t0e -ressure of steam or an4 gas 0as been utilized and a--lied for t0e -roduction of mec0anical motion it 0as been customar4 to connect 6it0 t0e reci-rocating or mo$ing -arts of t0e engine a fl4W60eel or some rotar4 s4stem e2ui$alent in its effect and -ossessing relati$el4 great mec0anical inertiaB u-on 60ic0 de-endence 6as mainl4 -laced for t0e maintenance of constant s-eed. T0isB 60ile securing in a measure t0is obNectB renders im-ossible t0e attainment of t0e result at 60ic0 , 0a$e arri$edB and is attended b4 disad$antages 60ic0 b4 m4 in$ention are entirel4 ob$iated. On t0e ot0er 0andB in certain casesB 60ere reci-rocating engines or tools 0a$e been used 6it0out a rotating s4stem of great inertiaB no attem-tB so far as , kno6B 0as been made to secure conditions 60ic0 6ould necessaril4 4ield suc0 results as , 0a$e reac0ed. ,t is a 6ell kno6n -rinci-le t0at if a s-ring -ossessing a sensible inertia be broug0t under tensionB as b4 being stretc0edB and t0en freed it 6ill -erform $ibrations 60ic0 are isoc0ronous andB as to -eriodB in t0e main de-endent u-on t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ringB and its o6n inertia or t0at of t0e s4stem of 60ic0 it ma4 form an immediate -art. T0is is kno6n to be true in all cases 60ere t0e force 60ic0 tends to bring t0e s-ring or mo$able s4stem into a gi$en -osition is -ro-ortionate to t0e dis-lacement. ,n carr4ing out m4 in$ention and for securing t0e obNects in general terms stated abo$eB , em-lo4 t0e energ4 of steam or gas under -ressureB acting t0roug0 -ro-er mec0anismB to maintain in oscillation a -istonB andB taking ad$antage of t0e la6 abo$e statedB , connect 6it0 said -istonB or cause to act u-on itB a s-ringB under suc0 conditions as to automaticall4 regulate t0e -eriod of t0e $ibrationB so t0at t0e alternate im-ulses of t0e -o6er im-elled -istonB and t0e natural $ibrations of t0e s-ring s0all al6a4s corres-ond in direction and coincide in time. %0ileB in t0e -ractice of t0e in$ention , ma4 em-lo4 an4 kind of s-ring or elastic bod4 of 60ic0 t0e la6 or -rinci-le of o-eration abo$e defined 0olds trueB , -refer to use an air s-ringB or generall4 s-eaking a confined bod4 or cus0ion of elastic fluidB as t0e mec0anical difficulties in t0e use of metallic s-rings are seriousB o6ing mainl4B to t0e tendenc4 to break. Moreo$erB instead of -ermitting t0e -iston to im-inge directl4 u-on suc0 cus0ions 6it0in its o6n c4linderB , -referB in order to a$oid t0e influence of t0e $ar4ing -ressure of t0e steam or

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gas t0at acts u-on t0e -iston and 60ic0 mig0t disturb t0e relations necessar4 for t0e maintenance of isoc0ronous $ibrationB and also to better utilize t0e 0eat generated b4 t0e com-ressionB to em-lo4 an inde-endent -lunder connected 6it0 t0e main -istonB and a c0amber or c4linder t0ereforeB containing air 60ic0 is normall4B at t0e same -ressure as t0e e5ternal atmos-0ereB for t0us a s-ring of -racticall4 constant rigidit4 is obtainedB but t0e air or gas 6it0in t0e c4linder ma4 be maintained at an4 -ressure. ,n order to describe t0e best manner of 60ic0 , am a6are in 60ic0 t0e in$ention is or ma4 be carried into effectB , refer no6 to t0e accom-an4ing dra6ing 60ic0 re-resents in central crossWsection an engine embod4ing m4 im-ro$ements. A is t0e main c4linder in 60ic0 6orks a -iston #. ,nlet -orts && -ass t0roug0 t0e sides of t0e c4linderB o-ening at t0e middle -ortion t0ereof and on o--osite sides. E50aust -orts DD e5tend t0roug0 t0e 6all of t0e c4linder and are formed 6it0 branc0es t0at o-en into t0e interior of t0e c4linder on eac0 side of t0e inlet -orts and on o--osite sides of t0e c4linder. T0e -iston # is formed 6it0 t6o circumferential groo$es E+B 60ic0 communicate t0roug0 o-enings = in t0e -iston 6it0 t0e c4linder on o--osite sides of said -iston res-ecti$el4. , do not consider as of s-ecial im-ortance t0e -articular construction and arrangement of t0e c4linderB t0e -iston and t0e -orts for controlling itB e5ce-t t0at it is desirable t0at all t0e -ortsB and more es-eciall4B t0e e50aust -orts s0ould be made $er4 muc0 larger t0an is usuall4 t0e caseB so t0at no force due to t0e action of t0e steam or com-ressed air 6ill tend to retard of affect t0e return of t0e -iston in eit0er direction. T0e -iston # is secured to a -iston rod 7B 60ic0 6orks in suitable stuffing bo5es in t0e 0eads of t0e c4linder A. T0is rod is -rolonged on one side and e5tends t0roug0 bearings / in a c4linder , suitabl4 mounted or su--orted in line 6it0 t0e firstB and 6it0in 60ic0 is a disk or -lunger S carried b4 t0e rod 7. T0e c4linder , is 6it0out -orts of an4 kind and is airWtig0t e5ce-t as a small leakage m4 occur t0roug0 t0e bearings /B 60ic0 e5-erience 0as s0o6n need not be fitted 6it0 an4 $er4 considerable accurac4. T0e c4linder , is surrounded b4 a Nacket P 60ic0 lea$es an o-en s-ace or c0amber around it. T0e bearings / in t0e c4linder ,B e5tend t0roug0 t0e Nacket P 60ic0 lea$es an o-en s-ace or c0amber around it. T0e bearings / in t0e c4linder ,B e5tend t0roug0 t0e Nacket P to t0e outside air and t0e c0amber bet6een t0e c4linder and Nacket is made steam or air tig0t as b4 suitable -acking. T0e main su--l4 line ! for steam or com-ressed air leads into t0is c0amberB and t0e t6o -i-es t0at lead to t0e c4linder A run from t0e said c0amberB oil cu-s M being con$enientl4 arranged to deli$er oil into t0e said -i-es for lubricating t0e -iston. ,n t0e -articular form of engine s0o6n t0e Nacket P 60ic0 contains t0e c4linder , is -ro$ided 6it0 a flange N b4 60ic0 it is scre6ed to t0e end of c4linder A. A small c0annel O is t0us formed 60ic0 0as air $ents ' in its sides and dri- -i-es @ leading out from it t0roug0 60ic0 t0e oil 60ic0 collects in it is carried off. To e5-lain no6 t0e o-eration of t0e de$ice abo$e described. ,n t0e -osition of t0e -arts s0o6nB or 60en t0e -iston is at t0e middle -oint of its strokeB t0e -lunger S is at t0e center of t0e c4linder , and t0e air on bot0 sides of t0e same is at t0e normal -ressure of t0e outside atmos-0ere. ,f a source of steam or com-ressed air be t0en connected to t0e inlet -orts && of t0e c4linder A and a mo$ement be im-arted to t0e -iston as b4 a sudden blo6B t0e latter is caused to reci-rocate in a manner 6ell understood. T0e mo$ement of t0e -iston in eit0er direction ceases 60en t0e force tending to im-el it and t0e momentum 60ic0 it 0as ac2uired

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are counterbalanced b4 t0e increasing -ressure of t0e steam or com-ressed air in t0at end of t0e c4linder to6ard 60ic0 it is mo$ing and as in its mo$ement t0e -iston 0as s0ut off at a gi$en -ointB t0e -ressure t0at im-elled it and establis0ed t0e -ressure t0at tends to return itB it is t0en im-elled in t0e o--osite directionB and t0is action is continued as long as t0e re2uisite -ressure is a--lied. T0e mo$ements of t0e -iston com-ress and rarif4 t0e air in t0e c4linder , at o--osite ends of t0e same alternatel4. A for6ard stroke com-resses t0e air a0ead of t0e -lunger S and tends to dri$e it for6ard. T0is action of t0e -lunger u-on t0e air contained in t0e o--osite ends of t0e c4linder is e5actl4 t0e same in -rinci-le as t0oug0 a -iston rod 6ere connected to t0e middle -oint of a coiled s-ringB t0e ends of 60ic0 are connected to fi5ed su--orts. &onse2uentl4 t0e t6o c0ambers ma4 be considered as a single s-ring. T0e com-ressions of t0e air in t0e c4linder , and t0e conse2uent loss of energ4 due mainl4 to t0e im-erfect elasticit4 of t0e airB gi$e rise to a $er4 considerable amount of 0eat. T0is 0eat , utilize b4 conducting t0e steam or com-ressed air to t0e engine c4linder t0roug0 t0e c0amber formed b4 t0e Nacket surrounding t0e airWs-ring c4linder. T0e 0eat t0us taken u- and used to raise t0e tem-erature of t0e steam or air acting u-on t0e -iston is a$ailed of to increase t0e efficienc4 of t0e engine. ,n an4 gi$en engine of t0is kind t0e normal -ressure 6ill -roduce a stroke of determined lengt0B and t0is 6ill be increased or diminis0ed according to t0e increase of -ressure abo$e or t0e reduction of -ressure belo6 t0e normal. ,n constructing t0e a--aratus , allo6 for a $ariation in t0e lengt0 of stroke b4 gi$ing to t0e confining c4linder , of t0e air s-ring -ro-erl4 determined dimensions. T0e greater t0e -ressure u-on t0e -istonB t0e 0ig0er 6ill be t0e degree of com-ression of t0e airWs-ringB and t0e conse2uent counteracting force u-on t0e -lunger. T0e rate or -eriod of reci-rocation of t0e -istonB 0o6e$erB is no more de-endent u-on t0e -ressure a--lied to dri$e itB t0an 6ould be t0e -eriod of oscillation of a -endulum -ermanentl4 maintained in $ibrationB u-on t0e force 60ic0 -eriodicall4 im-els itB t0e effect of $ariations in suc0 force being merel4 to -roduce corres-onding $ariations in t0e lengt0 of stroke or am-litude of $ibration res-ecti$el4. T0e -eriod is mainl4 determined b4 t0e rigidit4 of t0e air s-ring and t0e inertia of t0e mo$ing s4stemB and , ma4 t0erefore secure an4 -eriod of oscillation 6it0in $er4 6ide limits b4 -ro-erl4 -ortioning t0ese factorsB as b4 $ar4ing t0e dimensions of t0e air c0amber 60ic0 is e2ui$alent to $ar4ing t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ringB or b4 adNusting t0e 6eig0t of t0e mo$ing -arts. T0ese conditions are all readil4 determinableB and an engine constructed as 0erein described m4 be made to follo6 t0e -rinci-le of o-eration abo$e stated and maintain a -erfectl4 uniform -eriod t0roug0 $er4 muc0 6ider limits of -ressure t0an in ordinar4 use it is e$er likel4 to be subNected toB and it ma4 be successfull4 used as a -rime mo$er 60ere$er a constant rate of oscillation or s-eed is re2uiredB -ro$ided t0e limits 6it0in 60ic0 t0e forces tending to bring t0e mo$ing s4stem to a gi$en -osition are -ro-ortionate to t0e dis-lacementsB are not materiall4 e5ceeded. T0e -ressure of t0e air confined in t0e c4linder 60en t0e -lunger S is in its central -osition 6ill al6a4s be -racticall4 t0at of t0e surrounding atmos-0ereB for 60ile t0e c4linder is so constructed as not to -ermit suc0 sudden esca-e of air as to sensibl4 im-air or modif4 t0e action of t0e air s-ring t0ere 6ill be a slo6 leakage of air into or out of it around t0e -iston rod according to t0e -ressure t0ereinB so t0at t0e -ressure of t0e air on o--osite sides of t0e -lunger 6ill al6a4s tend to remain at t0at of t0e outside atmos-0ere. As an instance of t0e uses to 60ic0 t0is engine ma4 be a--lied , 0a$e s0o6n its -iston rod connected 6it0 a -a6l ; t0e oscillation of 60ic0 dri$es a train of 60eels. T0ese ma4 constitute t0e train of a clock or of an4 ot0er mec0anism. T0e -a6l ; is -i$oted at ;C and its bifurcated end engages 6it0 t0e teet0 of t0e ratc0et 60eel alternatel4 on o--osite sides of t0e sameB one end of t0e -a6l at eac0 0alf oscillation acting to -ro-el t0e 60eel for6ard t0roug0 t0e s-ace of one toot0 60en it is engaged and locked b4 t0e ot0er end on t0e last 0alf of t0e oscillation 60ic0 brings t0e first end of t0e oscillation into -osition to engage 6it0 anot0er toot0.

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Anot0er a--lication of t0e in$ention is to mo$e a conductor in a magnetic field for generating electric currentsB and in t0ese and similar uses it is ob$ious t0at t0e c0aracteristics of t0e engine render it es-eciall4 ada-ted for use in small sizes or units. 7a$ing no6 described m4 in$entionB 60at , claim is( \ &laims not included 0ere ]

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+, #atent - 514.055
,team 3ngine Nikola Tesla

To all 60om it ma4 concern( #e it kno6n t0at ,B Nikola TeslaB a citizen of t0e )nited StatesB residing at Ne6 RorkB in t0e count4 and State of Ne6 RorkB 0a$e in$ented certain ne6 and useful ,m-ro$ements in Steam EnginesB of 60ic0 t0e follo6ing is a s-ecificationB reference being 0ad to t0e dra6ing accom-an4ing and forming a -art of t0e same. 7eretoforeB enginesB o-erated b4 t0e a--lication of a force suc0 as t0e elastic tension of steam or a gas under -ressureB 0a$e been -ro$ided 6it0 a fl460eelB or some rotar4 s4stem e2ui$alent in its effect and -ossessing relati$el4 great mec0anical inertiaB 60ic0 6as relied u-on for maintaining a uniform s-eed. , 0a$e -roducedB 0o6e$erB an engine 60ic0 6it0out suc0 a--urtenances -roducesB under $er4 6ide $ariations of -ressureB loadB and ot0er disturbing causesB an oscillating mo$ement of constant -eriodB and 0a$e s0o6n and described t0e same in \ )S 'atent ^ 11.B16* ]. A descri-tion of t0e -rinci-le of t0e construction and mode of o-eration of t0is de$ice is necessar4 to an understanding of m4 -resent in$ention. %0en a s-ring 60ic0 -ossess a sensible inertia is broug0t under tension as b4 being stretc0ed and t0en freed it 6ill -erform $ibrations 60ic0 are isoc0ronous andB as to -eriodB in t0e main de-endent u-on t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ringB and its o6n inertia or t0at of t0e s4stem of 60ic0 it ma4 form an immediate -art. T0is is kno6n to be true in all cases 60ere t0e force 60ic0 tends to bring t0e s-ring or mo$able s4stem into a gi$en -osition is -ro-ortionate to t0e dis-lacement. ,n utilizing t0is -rinci-le for t0e -ur-ose of -roducing reci-rocating mo$ement of a constant -eriodB , em-lo4 t0e energ4 of steam or gas under -ressureB acting t0roug0 -ro-er mec0anismB to maintain in oscillation a -istonB and connect 6it0 it or cause to act u-on suc0 -iston a s-ringB -referabl4 an air s-ringB under suc0 conditions as to automaticall4 regulate t0e -eriod of t0e $ibrationB so t0at t0e alternate im-ulses of t0e -o6er im-elled -iston and t0e natural $ibrations of t0e s-ring s0all al6a4s corres-ond in direction and coincide in time. ,n suc0 an a--aratus it being essential t0at t0e inertia of t0e mo$ing s4stem and t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ring s0ould bear certain definite relationsB it is ob$ious t0at t0e

1.

-racticable amount of 6ork -erformed b4 t0e engineB 60en t0is in$ol$es t0e o$ercoming of inertia is a limitation to t0e a--licabilit4 of t0e engine. , t0erefore -ro-oseB in order to secure all t0e ad$antages of suc0 -erformances as t0is engine is ca-able ofB to utilize it as t0e means of controlling t0e admission and e50aust of steam or gas under -ressure in ot0er engines generall4B but more es-eciall4 t0ose forms of engine in 60ic0 t0e -iston is free to reci-rocateB or in ot0er 6ordsB is not connected 6it0 a fl460eel or ot0er like de$ice for regulating or controlling its s-eed. T0e dra6ings 0ereto anne5ed illustrate de$ices b4 means of 60ic0 t0e in$ention ma4 be carried outB +igure 1 being a central $ertical section of an engine embod4ing m4 in$entionB and +igure 2 a similar $ie6 of a modification of t0e same. ;eferring to +igure 1B A designates a c4linder containing a reci-rocating -iston # secured to a rod & e5tending t0roug0 on or bot0 c4linder 0eads. DDG are steam ducts communicating 6it0 t0e c4linder at or near its ends and E is t0e e50aust c0amber or -assage located bet6een t0e steam -orts. T0e -iston # is -ro$ided 6it0 t0e usual -assages ++C 60ic0 b4 t0e mo$ements of t0e -iston are broug0t alternatel4 into communication 6it0 t0e e50aust -ort. = designates a slide $al$e 60ic0 60en reci-rocated admits t0e steam or t0e gas b4 60ic0 t0e engine is dri$enB from t0e -i-e =C t0roug0 t0e ducts DDC to t0e ends of t0e c4linder. T0e -arts t0us described ma4 be considered as e5em-lif4ing an4 c4linderB -iston and slide $al$e 6it0 t0e -ro-er -orts controlled t0ereb4B but t0e slide $al$e instead of being de-endent for its mo$ement u-on t0e -iston # is connected in an4 manner so as to be reci-rocated b4 t0e -iston rod of a small engine of constant -eriodB constructed substantiall4 as follo6s( a is t0e c4linderB in 60ic0 6orks t0e -iston b. An inlet -i-e c -asses t0roug0 t0e side of t0e c4linder at t0e middle -ortion of t0e same. T0e c4linder e50austs t0roug0 -orts dd into a c0amber dC -ro$ided 6it0 an o-ening dE. t0e -iston b is -ro$ided 6it0 t6o circumferential groo$es eBf 60ic0 communicate t0roug0 o-enings g in t0e same 6it0 t0e c4linder c0ambers on o--osite sides of t0e -iston. T0e s-ecial construction of t0is de$ice ma4 be $aried considerabl4B but it is desirable t0at all t0e -ortsB and more -articularl4B t0e e50aust -orts be made larger t0an is usuall4 doneB so t0at no force due to t0e action of t0e steam or com-ressed air in t0e c0ambers 6ill tend to retard or accelerate t0e mo$ement of t0e -iston in eit0er direction. T0e -iston b is ecured to a rod 0 60ic0 e5tends t0roug0 t0e c4linder 0eadsB t0e lo6er end carr4ing t0e slide $al$e abo$e described and t0e u--er end 0a$ing secured to it a -lunger N in a c4linder , fi5ed to t0e c4linder a and in line 6it0 it. T0e c4linder , is 6it0out -orts of an4 kind and is airWtig0t e5ce-t t0at leakage ma4 occur around t0e -iston rod 60ic0 does not re2uire to be $er4 close fittingB and constitutes an ordinar4 form of air s-ring. ,f steam or a gas under -ressure be admitted t0roug0 t0e -ort c to eit0er side of t0e -iston bB t0e latterB as 6ill be understoodB ma4 be maintained in reci-rocationB and it is free to mo$eB in t0e sense t0at its mo$ement in eit0er direction ceases onl4 60en t0e force tending to im-el it and t0e momentum 60ic0 it 0as ac2uired are counterbalanced b4 t0e increasing -ressure of t0e steam in t0at end of t0e c4linder to6ard 60ic0 it is mo$ingB and as in its mo$ement t0e -iston 0as s0ut off at a gi$en -ointB t0e -ressure t0at im-elled it and establis0ed t0e -ressure t0at tends to return itB it is t0en im-elled in t0e o--osite directionB and t0is action is continued as long as t0e re2uisite -ressure is a--lied. T0e mo$ements of t0e -iston com-ress and rarif4 t0e air in t0e c4linder , at o--osite ends of t0e same alternatel4B and t0is results in t0e 0e2ating of t0e c4linder. #ut since a $ariation of t0e tem-erature of t0e air in t0e c0amber 6ould affect t0e rigidit4 of t0e air s-ringB , maintain t0e tem-erature uniform as b4 surrounding t0e c4linder , 6it0 a Nacket aC 60ic0 is o-en to t0e air and filled 6it0 6ater.

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,n suc0 an engine as t0at Nust described t0e normal -ressure 6ill -roduce a stroke of determined lengt0B 60ic0 ma4 be increased or diminis0ed according to t0e increase of -ressure abo$e or t0e reduction of -ressure belo6 t0e normal and due allo6ance is made in constructing t0e engine for a $ariation in t0e lengt0 of stroke or am-litude of $ibration res-ecti$el4. T0e -eriod is mainl4 determined b4 t0e rigidit4 of t0e air s-ring and t0e inertia of t0e mo$ing s4stem and , ma4 t0erefore secure an4 -eriod of oscillation 6it0in $er4 6ide limits b4 -ro-erl4 adNusting t0ese factorsB as b4 $ar4ing t0e dimensions of t0e air c0amber 60ic0 ma4 be e2ui$alent to $ar4ing t0e rigidit4 of t0e s-ringB or b4 adNusting t0e 6eig0t of t0e mo$ing -arts. T0is latter is readil4 accom-lis0ed b4 making -ro$ision for t0e attac0ment to t0e -iston rod of one or more 6eig0ts 0C. Since t0e onl4 6ork 60ic0 t0e small engine 0as to -erform is t0e reci-rocation of t0e $al$e attac0ed to t0e -iston rodB its load is substantiall4 uniform and its -eriod b4 reason of its construction 6ill be constant. %0ate$er ma4 be t0e load on t0e main engine t0erefore t0e steam is admitted to t0e c4linder at defined inter$alsB and t0us an4 tendenc4 to a c0ange of t0e -eriod of $ibration in t0e main engine is o$ercome. T0e control of t0e main engine b4 t0e engine of constant -eriod ma4 be effected in ot0er 6a4s WWW of 60ic0 +igure 2 6ill ser$e as an illustration. ,n t0is case t0e -iston of t0e controlling engine constitutes t0e slide $al$e of t0e main engineB so t0at t0e latter ma4 be considered as o-erated b4 t0e e50aust of t0e former. ,n t0e figure , 0a$e s0o6n t6o c4linders AAC -laced end to end 6it0 a -iston # and #C in eac0. T0e c4linder of t0e controlling engine is formed b4 or in t0e casing intermediate to t0e t6o main c4linders but in all ot0er essential res-ects t0e construction and mode of o-eration of t0e controlling engine remains as described in connection 6it0 +igure 1. T0e e50aust -orts ddB 0o6e$erB constitute t0e inlet -orts of t0e c4linders AAC and t0e e50aust of t0e latter is effected t0roug0 t0e -orts mBm 60ic0 are controlled b4 t0e -istons # and #C res-ecti$el4. T0e inlet -ort for t0e admission of t0e steam to t0e controlling engine is similar to t0at in +igure 1 and is indicated b4 t0e dotted circle at t0e center of t0e -iston b. An engine of t0e kind described -ossess man4 and im-ortant ad$antages. A muc0 more -erfect regulation and uniformit4 of action is securedB 60ile t0e engine is sim-le and its 6eig0ts for a gi$en ca-acit4 is $er4 greatl4 reduced. T0e reci-rocating mo$ement of t0e -iston ma4 be con$erted into rotar4 motion or it ma4 be utilized and a--lied in an4 ot0er manner desiredB eit0er directl4 or indirectl4. ,n \ )S 'atent ^ 11.B16* ] , 0a$e s0o6n and described t6o reci-rocating engines combined in suc0 manner t0at t0e mo$ement or o-eration of one is de-endent u-on and controlled b4 t0e ot0er. ,n t0e -resent caseB 0o6e$erB t0e controlling engine is not designed nor ada-ted to -erform ot0er 6ork t0an t0e regulation of t0e -eriod of t0e ot0erB and it is moreo$er an engine of defined c0aracter 60ic0 0as t0e ca-abilit4 of an oscillating mo$ement of constant -eriod. %0at , claim is( \ &laims not included 0ere ] To2 ~ Home ~ Catalog ~ Links rexresearch.com

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Nikola Tesla's Inventions

The Earthquake Machine
Apart from his work on electricity Tesla also e perimented with mechanical oscillations and invented devices that could produce mechanical oscillations of desired frequency! These devices became famous as "earthquake machines"# because of their ability to resonate with a buildin$ or a lar$e construction and produce earthquake% like effects! &esonance# either electrical or mechanical# is a fundamental principle in Tesla's work! Mechanical resonance is a well known physical phenomenon! Each construction has an oscillation frequency 'also called resonant frequency(# which is the frequency the construction freely vibrates and depends on physical parameters! An e ternal vibration produces driven oscillations# and when the e ternal source frequency equals the resonant frequency the oscillation amplitude becomes ma imum# usually resultin$ to a collapse! Tesla himself described an incident of e perimentin$ with one such device in )**+# when he tuned to the buildin$'s frequency and a crackin$ sound was heard! As he chan$ed the frequency the sound became more intense until everythin$ in his laboratory started "flyin$ around" and people nearby were terrified! ,hen he reali-ed what was happenin$# and that the police was on the way# he destroyed the device with a hammer! .ater on# Tesla claimed that with such a device he could split the planet# or on the other hand relieve the stress is tectonic plates and thus avoid earthquakes! There are two related patents re$istered by Tesla/ Patent No! 0))#1)2 '3an! 4# )*15( titled "Electric 6enerator" and Patent No! 0)5#)21 '7eb! 2# )*15( titled "&eciprocatin$ En$ine"! Related interesting web sites

The 8ollapse of the Tacoma Narrows 9rid$e by &achel Martin! A brid$e that collapsed in )15: probably due to resonance with a li$ht bree-e!

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+l4ing Mac0ine _ 'art 2B '0otos _ #iogra-04 _ )S -atents _ Tesla"s Ele. &ar 9+E/N:

Tesla's "lying Machine

#Not t$e airplane% t$e &lying mac$ine%# re"ponded 'r. Te"la.

# Tesla force field generator the 6l*ing sto7e

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E, am no6 -lanning aerial machines de$oid of sustaining -lanesB aileronsB -ro-ellersB and ot0er e5ternal attac0mentsB 60ic0 6ill be ca-able of immense s-eedsE W Tesla"s autobiogra-04 ETo a %esting0ouse managerB Tesla 6rote "Rou s0ould not be at all sur-risedB if some da4 4ou see me fl4 from Ne6 Rork to &olorado S-rings in a contri$ance 60ic0 6ill resemble a gas sto7e and 6eig0 as muc0. ... and couldB if necessar4 enter and de-art t0roug0 a 6indo6."E W TES!A( Man Out of TimeB -g.1*8 Tesla intended t0e 6orld to 0a$e a freeB 6irelessB source of -o6er EM4 -o6er generator 6ill be of t0e sim-lest kind WW Nust a big mass of steelB co--er and aluminum com-rising a stationar4 and rotating -artB -eculiarl4 assembled.E According to museum officials at T0e Nikola Tesla museum in #elgradeB E0e left sketc0es of inter-lanetar4 s0i-s. T0is informationB 0o6e$erB 0as not been made a$ailable to 6estern sc0olars.E -g. 20

Nikola Tesla
666.TeslaSociet4.com Tesla Memorial Societ4 of N.R. a s0ort biogra-04 -age Tesla"s Autobogra-04 onWline

$o% Tesla intended to po%er his flying machine

1*

=Not the air2lane. the 6l*ing machine.= res-onded Dr. Tesla.E No6 4ou 0a$e struck t0e -oint in 60ic0 , am most dee-l4 interestedWWt0e obNect to6ard 60ic0 , 0a$e been de$oting m4 energies for more t0an t6ent4 4earsWWt0e dream of m4 life. ,t 6as in seeking t0e means of making t0e -erfect fl4ing mac0ine t0at , de$elo-ed t0is engine.E ET6ent4 4ears ago , belie$ed t0at , 6ould be t0e first man to fl4G t0at , 6as on t0e track of accom-lis0ing 60at no one else 6as an460ere near reac0ing. , 6as 6orking entirel4 in electricit4 t0en and did not realize t0at t0e gasoline engine 6as a--roac0ing a -erfection t0at 6as going to make t0e air-lane feasible. T0ere is not0ing ne6 about t0e air-lane but its engineB 4ou kno6. %0at , 6as 6orking on t6ent4 4ears ago 6as t0e 6ireless transmission of electric -o6er. M* i!ea >as a 6l*ing machine 2ro2elle! 9* an electric motor. >ith 2o>er s'22lie! 6rom stations on the earth. , 0a$e not accom-lis0ed t0is as 4etB but am confident t0at , 6ill in time. \7o6e$er] %0en , found t0at , 0ad been antici-ated as to t0e fl4ing mac0ineB b4 men 6orking in a different fieldB , began to stud4 t0e -roblem from ot0er anglesB to regard it as a mec0anical rat0er t0an an electrical -roblem. , felt certain t0ere must be some means of obtaining -o6er t0at 6as better t0an an4 no6 in useB and b4 $igorous use of m4 gra4 matter for a number of 4ears , gras-ed t0e -ossibilities of t0e -rinci-le of t0e $iscosit4 and ad0esion of fluids and concei$ed t0e mec0anism of m4 engine.E E%it0 a t0ousand 0orse -o6er engineB 6eig0ing onl4 one 0undred -oundsB imagine t0e -ossibilities in automobilesB locomoti$es and steams0i-s. ,n t0e s-ace no6 occu-ied b4 t0e engines of t0e !usitania t6ent4Wfi$e times 0er 80B000 0orse -o6er could be de$elo-edB 6ere it -ossible to -ro$ide boiler ca-acit4 sufficient to furnis0 t0e necessar4 steam.E
T0ere is t0e ErubE. some source of -o6er needed to dri$e it.

=The 6l*ing machine o6 the 6't're ;; m* 6l*ing machine ;; >ill 9e hea7ier than air. 9't it >ill not 9e an air2lane. :t >ill ha7e no >ings. :t >ill 9e s'9stantial. soli!. sta9le. Rou cannot 0a$e a stable air-lane. T0e g*rosco2e can ne$er be successfull4 a--lied to t0e air-laneB for it 6ould gi$e a stabilit4 t0at 6ould result in t0e mac0ine being torn to -ieces b4 t0e 6indB Nust as t0e un-rotected air-lane on t0e ground is torn to -ieces b4 a 0ig0 6ind. M4 fl4ing mac0ine 6ill 0a$e neit0er 6ings nor -ro-ellers. Rou mig0t see it on t0e ground and 4ou 6ould ne$er guess t0at it 6as a fl4ing mac0ine. Ret it 6ill be able to mo$e at 6ill t0roug0 t0e air in an4 direction 6it0 -erfect safet4B 0ig0er s-eeds t0an 0a$e 4et been reac0edB regardless of 6eat0er and obli$ious of "0oles in t0e air" or do6n6ard currents. ,t 6ill ascend in suc0 currents if desired. ,t can remain absolutel4 stationar4 in t0e air e$en in a 6ind for great lengt0 of time. ,ts lifting -o6er 6ill not de-end u-on an4 suc0 delicate de$ices as t0e bird 0as to em-lo4B but u-on -ositi$e mec0anical action.E ERou 6ill get stabilit4 t0roug0 g*rosco2es?E , asked.E Thro'gh g*rosco2ic action o6 m* engine. assisted b4 some de$ices , am not 4et -re-ared to talk aboutBE 0e re-lied. Dr. Tesla smiled an inscrutable smile. = ll : ha7e to sa* on that 2oint is that m* airshi2 >ill ha7e neither gas 9ag. >ings nor 2ro2ellers.= 0e said. E,t is t0e c0ild of m4 dreamsB t0e -roduct of 4ears of intense and -ainful toil and researc0. , am not going to talk about it an4 furt0er. #ut 60ate$er m4 airs0i- ma4 beB 0ere at least is an engine that >ill !o things that no other engine e7er has !one. and t0at is somet0ing tangible.E from t0e book Tesla)s 3ngine WW A Ne6 Dimension +or 'o6er and from E'A;T ,E of t0e Tesla Turbine And 'umat htt2:@@>>>.6rank.germano.com@teslat'r9ine.htm

60

see 0tt-(VV666.frank.germano.comVfl4ing`mac0ine.0tm

cha2ter 25: =8l*ing ,to7e= ; Margaret Chene*

EAt t0e tremendousl4 0ig0 s-eeds at 60ic0 t0e turbine o-eratedB a$eraging 1B000 r-mB t0e centrifugal force 6as so great t0at it stretc0ed t0e metal... E%0en t0e manager of %esting0ouse"s rail6a4 and lig0ting di$ision 6rote asking for details on t0e turbineB Tesla re-lid confidentl4 t0at it 6as su-erior to an4t0ing in t0e com-etition in terms of e5treme lig0tness and 0ig0 -erformance. ,ndeedB 0e saidB 0e 6as -lanning to use it in a bo5like fli$$er air-lane.E -g. 1*8

%e kno6 t0at Tesla in$ented man4 t0ings 60ic0 no one else 0as been able to du-licate since. 7e s-oke of e$en more 60ic0 0e intended to do but ne$er got around to. T0ere are man4 books 6ritten b4 -eo-le claiming to 0a$e some of t0isB and or ot0erB information. 9AndB t0ere i" a 6ealt0 of it locked
u- 60ere no one can get to it W in #elgradeB in t0e +#,B in t0e )S militar4 WW it is 0ard to kno6. T0e4 are all $er4 secreti$e about it.:

Te"la% Man o& My"tery is one of t0ose books. Along 6it0 general info. on Tesla and a fe6 fablesB t0ere is one diagram and enoug0 information about itB for us to du-licate t0e de$ice. T0e4 call it t0e ETesla s-ace Dri$eE. ,t ma4 be t0e 0eart of 60at Tesla said 6ould look like fl4ing on Ea gas sto$eE and is E-eculiarl4 assembled.E 9abo$e: ,o. here it is:

The Tesla ,2ace "ri7e

The 8l*ing ,to7e ; erial Machine
2age 31

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Diagram from 2age 31 of Te"la% Man o& My"tery a 1**2 &0a-ter .( ET0e Tesla S-ace Dri$eE

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ET0e first ste- in de$elo-ing t0is s4stem is to cause a counterWclock6ise 9sense c0osen arbitraril4: acceleration of t0e center of mass of t0e four eccentrics 9refer to diagram: in a circular orbit about t0e O a5is. E... t0ere is a common -oint about 60ic0 t0e center of mass of t0e eccentrics and t0e center of mass of t0e de$ice as a 60ole g4rate.E -g. 2 ET0e reaction to t0is angular acceleration is a linear acceleration along t0e s4stem a5is 9O: and directed out6ard from t0e -age. ... t0is s4stem functions in accordance 6it0 t0e rig0tW0and rule.
... \ ,t 6ill ] 6obble noticeabl4 at lo6 t0rust le$els. T0is effect fades outB 0o6e$erB as t0e t0rust is increased.E

-g. .W 1

M4 first obser$ation is t0at it is a set of . s-inning 6eig0ts arranged on a frame E-eculiarl4 assembledE as Tesla said. (ntere"ting) W ,t is so sim-le 9eas4 Y c0ea-F: to buildB and 4etB it does somet0ing '0enomenalF T0e obNect is not s-inning nor do an4 one of t0e s-inning 6eig0ts matc0 t0e orbit of t0e obNect 9frame: and 4etB t0e mass of t0e obNect i" in orbit. !ike electrons in orbit in a stationar4 coil W an area in 60ic0 Tesla is alread4 famous. ,nstead of acceleration b4 t0e left 0and ruleB no6 it is b4 t0e rig0t 0and rule. E$en t0at makes sense. No one seriousl4 interested in a ne6B c0ea-B source of -ro-ulsion need 2uestion or dis-ute an4t0ingB Nust build it and see if 4ou can get it to rise u- W if 4ou can get t0e s-inning 6eig0tsB eccentric"% going fast enoug0.

, 0a$e 0eard of 2 -eo-le 6orking on t0isG one in &alif. 9San Sose:B and t0e ot0er in Australia 9Melbourne:. %0at t0e4 ma4 not kno6 is t0e 6eig0t and s-eed needed to ac0ie$e success W see belo6. , found t0e mac0ine eas4 to build butB Nust guessing at t0e rotational s-eed needed for t0e 6eig0ts 9EeccentricsE: did"t 6ork for me andB Nust a--l4ing 60ate$er motors are 0and4 0asn"t 6orked for me 4et eit0er. 9 motors A and # abo$eB of course : , tried or . before , finall4 got to t0e current air motors and , am not sure about t0em: +rom t0e information 6e can -ut toget0er on TeslaB it looks like 0e intended to use a turbineB in some 6a4B to dri$e it. A turbine t0at mig0t 6eig0 100 lbs and -roduce 1B000 0-. %ellB on m4 most recent frameB , -ut 1V2 0- air motors and t0at ma4 be Nust barel4 enoug0B if , am luck4. , 0o-e t0at if , reduce t0e 6eig0tsB t0e same motors 6ill be able to increase in s-eed enoug0 to reac0 t0e ne6 re2uired s-eed 60ic0 6ill no6 be 0ig0er. Ot0er6iseB , 6ill 0a$e to find stronger motors. !ike , sa4B guessing is not $er4 0el-ful.
&ollecti$el4B t0e center of orbit of t0e four EeccentricsE defines a circle for 60ic0 t0e center -oint is t0e center of mass for t0e frame t0e eccentrics are built on. T0e

direct a--roac0 is to build t0e de$ice s4mmetricall4 about t0e center -oint( 6it0 a to- as 6ell as a bottom. Not0ing is mounted on t0e base. T0e . eccentrics must be able to s-in. T0e4 are mounted abo$e t0e base. E$er4t0ing is mounted bet6een t0e to- and base -lates( E...t0ere is a common -oint...E 60ic0 6on"t e5ist unless t0e unit is s4metrical. ,t needs a to- -late to kee- it as rigid and as lig0t 6eig0t as -ossible as 6ell as s4metrical. , belie$e 60oe$er 6rote t0is c0a-ter in t0is bookB did not 0a$e a clear -icture of Tesla"s intentionsB directionsB for t0e building of t0is de$iceW motor andB 60o but Tesla 6ould t0ink of t0is no$elB -0enomenalB assembl4. An issue not mentioned is t0e s-eed re2uirement 9of t0e eccentrics:. T0e s-eed needed makes t0ings difficult. A significant motor 9al6a4s a -air: 6ill be re2uired. , started out using a 1B000 r-mB ele. motorB u-graded to a 1V.t0 0- 10B000 r-m ele. motorB t0enB lastl4B to a 1V20- 22B000r-m air motor. ,t 6as not till t0e 2nd set of motors t0at , figured out t0e re2uired s-eed and onl4 6it0 t0e last motors t0at , realized Nust 0o6 far s0ort , 6as from -roducing enoug0 -o6er to get t0ere. 7o6e$erB Nust for demonstration -ur-osesB , ma4 not 0a$e been too far s0ort. T0e air motors 6ere lig0tW6eig0t enoug0 and -o6erful enoug0 to see a reaction occurring 9more t0an EnormalE $ibrations: at onl4 00 to .00 r-m: butB no for6ardB u-B motion. None of t0e motors 6ould get t0e s4stem Eu- to s-eedE 60ic0 , t0oug0t 6as in t0e neig0bor0ood of 2B000 to 10B000 r-m W de-ending on t0e amount of 6eig0t , -ut on t0e eccentrics 9see belo6:. #ecause t0e motors did not 0a$e t0e -o6er to 0andle t0e inertia and 6eig0t of t0e eccentrics. , started looking at some 04draulic motorsB one of 60ic0B , belie$eB onl4 6eig0ed 2 or -ounds and de$elo-ed 21 0-. T0at , belie$e 6ill be more t0an enoug0 to demonstrate t0e s4stem butB a t0at timeB m4 Nob situation c0angedB , mo$ed from '0oeni5 to Oma0aB and all m4 e5-erimenting came to a 0alt. , no6 li$e in +loridaB near +ort !auderdaleB and am getting restarted. T0en as no6B , belie$e Tesla kne6 t0at turbine blades 6ould be needed W not angled to catc0 or create an4 air or 6ind W but -arallel and flat so as to -ass t0roug0 t0e air 6it0 t0e least resistance -ossible.

E%e recentl4 recei$ed a set of -lans from a former -u-il b of Nikola Tesla 60o belie$es t0at a s-ace s0i-B ... can actuall4 be constructed. E7e bases 0is -lansB 0e told usB u-on e5isting files 0e secretl4 obtained s0ortl4 before Tesla"s deat0B and before t0ese could be seized b4 t0e aut0orities. 7e and Tesla 0ad been $er4 close friends and 0ad 6orked toget0er on a number of -roNects.E -g. 0

b #lo4ce D. +itzgerald is $irtuall4 t0e onl4 -erson t0at t0is could refer to. 7e 6as
t0e one of t6o 60o 6orked 6it0 Tesla dail4 during t0e fe6 6eeks before 0is deat0. 7e studied Tesla"s -a-ersB carr4ing t0em 0ome to stud4 e$er4 nig0t and took t0em back t0e ne5t da4. 7e 0ad ne$er met Tesla before and 0e 6as t0e one 60o called t0e aut0orities u-on Tesla"s deat0 and t0en tried to $ie6 t0e sealed -a-ers t6o 4ears later. See TES*A+ Man ,ut o& Time b4 Margaret &0ene4G -ages 230W233. #lo4ce must no6 be 30c 9or more: 4ears old and among t0e fe6 sur$i$ing to 0a$e studied under Tesla W o$er 10 4ears ago. Surel4 0e did not 6ant 0is name gi$en out because 0e is an old man and 6ants to be left alone.

6.

,n an4 caseB an4t0ing t0at 0as been dormant for 10 4ears is not likel4 to c0ange no6B unless it c0anges 0ands. ,t is likel4 t0at 0e realizes it 6ill go 6it0 0im to 0is gra$e if 0e does not Egi$e it to t0e -ublicE before it is too lateB 60ic0 0e 0as Nust done. ,f 0e no longer felt an4 reason to 0ide an4t0ingB t0enB 60at is not mentionedB is not kno6n.

T3,L )s :NA3NT:ON
3x2lanation o6 ... >hat it :,. >hat it "O3,. ho> it %O1B,:
&* <reg ,mith

8O1C3 8:3L" <3N31 TO1 @ MOTO1 The Tesla "ri7e

T0is de$ice con$erts inertial energ4 into centrifugal acceleration 60ic0B according to t0e rig0tW0and ruleB generates linear acceleration. T0e -rinci-al is t0e same for t0e 6a4 t0at t0e centrifugal acceleration of electronsB in a coilB e5ert linear acceleration on a metal rod -laced in t0e center of t0e coil. 7ereB t0e acceleration is e5erted on t0e frame. An electric motor is t0e result of electrons in orbitG t0is 9-rotonian: motor is t0e result of -rotonsB entire atomsB t0e entire de$iceB in orbit. T0e rotation 9r-m: necessar4 to generate acceleration de-ends u-on( 1. t0e mass of t0e entire de$ice 2. t0e mass of t0e . rotating inertial loadsB 9. masses:B . t0e radius of t0ose . loads 9aka . eccentricsB . masses: .. andB gra$it4

1. ,f t0e mass of t0e . inertial loads totals 1V10t0 t0e total mass of t0e entire de$iceB t0en t0e radius of rotation of t0e center of mass of t0e s4stem 9t0e entire de$ice: is 1V20t0 t0at of t0e radius of an4 one of t0e rotating loads. 9not 1V10t0. T0is is Nust geometr4 butB , o$erlooked it for a time: 9onl4 2 of . 6eig0ts going left to rig0t and onl4 2 of . going front to back: 2. ,t is t0e rotation of t0e entire s4stem 9de$ice: t0at must get u- enoug0 centrifugal acceleration to defeat gra$it4. . E5am-les of t0at acceleration are( On a 10 inc0 radiusB somet0ing greater t0an 26.1 r-m. 928c r-m:

61
T0is can be obser$ed 6it0 a 6eig0t on a string. %it0 a 10E stringB Nust s6inging t0e 6eig0t back and fort0 like a -endulumB gi$es t0e "ame rate of oscillation 6it0 $er4 littleB almost noB arc as it does 6it0 significantl4 more W about 26.1 c4cles -er minute 9c-m:. Since t0ere is no energ4 being a--lied to t0e -endulum and it 6ill e$entuall4 come to a restB it is intuiti$e t0at if t0ere is an4 9constant: energ4 entered into t0e s4stem to maintain s-inB it 6illB be s-inning at a rate greater t0an 26.1 r-mB in t0is e5am-leB at sea le$elB in sout0 +lorida 960ere , 6as:. in m4 continued e5-erimentingB , found it took about 28 r-m actuall4B to kee- it s-inning around B not Nust back and fort0. Pee-ing in mind t0at t0ese results 6ill $ar4B t0oug0 onl4 $er4 slig0tl4B 6it0 altitude and latitudeB , 6ill sa4 t0at , first -erformed t0is test in '0oeni5B Arizona and most recentl4 at sea le$el W li$ing near t0e beac0 9Atlantic ocean: in 'om-ano #eac0B +lorida. 9if 4ou are enoug0 closer to t0e -oles or at a 0ig0 altitude 9&oloradoA: do t0is same e5-eriment and com-are: if a 10E radius re2uires more t0an 26.1 r-m 9 Y 26.1 5 26.1 d 302 9300: : t0en a 21E radius re2uires more t0an 1.00ef r-m d more t0an 3... r-m 91.02: orB in m4 910E: e5-erimentingB about 28 r-m 9 Y 28 5 28 d 38. : 9 38. 5 2 d 1168 : and about a .0 r-m minimum at 21E 9.0d *.3 5 *.3 d 1136 : 9 *.6 5 *.6 d 1168 : and about a .00 r-m minimum at .21E 9 .00 5 .00 d 1600 : 9 *6 5 *6 d 116B800 : and about a *00 r-m minimum at .01E 9 *00d 881 O 881 d 38.B000 : and about a 621 r-m minimum at .1E 9 626 O 626 d *2B000 : and about a 2B000 r-m minimum at .01E 9 1B*3* O 1B*3* d B*20B000 : and about a 2B800 r-m minimum at .001E 9 2800 O 2800 d 3B8.0B000 : E5am-le s4stem( ,f t0e mass of t0e . inertial loads totals about 20 ozB t0e total mass of t0e entire de$ice 9including t0e mo$ing 6eig0ts: about 10 lbsB and t0e center of mass of eac0 of t0e . masses is out about .E from its s0aftB t0en t0e net radius for t0e s4stem is 1V.E and t0e needed s-eed is about .00c r-m.

910V16:V10 5 .E d 1V80 5 . d 1V20 d .21E

T0is e5am-le is about 60at , 0a$e 0ad 6it0 m4 most recent frame and 1V2 0- air motors. SoB , onl4 needed about .00c r-m ,n an4 caseB , t0oug0t 6e 6ere close to .00 and ma4be 6e 6ere. A friend said ESomet0ing is 0a--ening 0ereE 60en it started s0aking more t0an 6e t0oug0t it s0ould 0a$e W as it got uas muc0 s-eed as 6e could gi$e it. ,f t0e same 1V2 0- motors can get u- o$er 621r-m 9.12 Wg .1: b4 cutting t0e arms do6n from .E to 2EB or if 6e can get more air -ressure into t0e 2 air motorsB 60ic0 6e 0ad trouble 6it0B to get more -o6er out of t0emB t0en ma4be 6e could get it off t0e ground 6it0 t0e e2ui-ment 6e 0a$e no6.

Anot0er e5am-le s4stem( ,f t0e mass of t0e . inertial loads totals about 8 ozB t0e total mass of t0e entire de$ice about 10 lbsB and t0e center of mass of eac0 of t0e . masses is out about 2E from its s0aftB t0en t0e net radius for t0e s4stem is 1V20E and t0e needed s-eed is about *00c r-m.
Note( t0e force e5erted b4 eac0 mass on eac0 s0aft 9in -ounds: is( t0e rotating mass 9in -ounds: times t0e radius in inc0es times t0e ;'M"s s2uared 9 r-m 5 r-m : times 0.000028. d EOE -ounds of force e5erted on eac0 s0aft.

m4 best dra6ingB Eblue-rintEB of t0e +orce +ield Motor W =reg

66

+ig.1

63
, admitB , left out t0e motors in t0is diagram 9see 1st diagram abo$e:B since t0ere is no design s-ecificiation for t0em. T0e4 can be an4t0ing 4ou can get a0old of. T0e onl4 re2uirement is t0at t0e4 be able to get 4our 6eig0ts u- to 4our needed s-eed.

Some information 0ere is tem-oraril4 sus-ended 60ile being en0anced. 'lease c0eck back in fe6 6eeks.

T0ird modelB 6it0 10B000 r-m ele. motors( Se-t. .t0B 1** T0e s0afts and -illo6 blocks are alsoB no6B aluminum allo4.

T0is model 6as fine butB t0e frame 6as Nust a little flims4 9 t0e to- 6as remo$ed for t0e -ur-ose of t0e -0oto :

%atc0 2 t0at are o--osite eac0 ot0erB t0en t0e ot0er t6o.

68

-0otogra-0ed on +ri.B Marc0 2.t0B 2006

t0e frame is rigid and t0e motors are $er4 lig0t 6eig0t

6*

, made t0e frame taller to accomodate longer arms andB slo6er s-eed re2uirements butB t0at 6as not necessar4. T0ere is an increased strengt0 and reduced stress benefit to t0e double arms.

30

T0e radius of t0e eart0 $aries from about 6 13 9-olar: to 6 38 9e2uatorial: km. T0e acceleration of gra$it4 can be found b4 using a -endulum orB more -recisel4B b4 laser timing of an obNect falling freel4 in a $acuum. T0e result is about *.8 mVse2. ,t $aries 6it0 latitude and ele$ation 9andB -er0a-sB 6it0

31

densit4 of local rocks e5( &olorado $s. +lorida:. +or small am-litude oscillationsB t0e -eriod of t0e -endulum is -ro-ortional to t0e s2uare root of t0e lengt0 9radius: and is in$ersel4 -ro-ortional to t0e s2uare root of t0e acceleration of gra$it4.

Ne>ton)s la> o6 'ni7ersal gra7itation About fift4 4ears after Pe-ler announced t0e la6s no6 named after 0imB ,saac Ne6ton s0o6ed t0at e$er4 -article in t0e )ni$erse attracts e$er4 ot0er 6it0 a force 60ic0 is -ro-ortional to t0e -roducts of t0eir masses and in$ersel4 -ro-ortional to t0e s2uare of t0eir se-aration. 7ence( ,f + is t0e force due to gra$it4B g t0e acceleration due to gra$it4B = t0e )ni$ersal =ra$itational &onstant 96.63510W11 N.m2Vkg2:B m t0e mass and r t0e distance bet6een t6o obNects. T0en + d = m 1 m 2 V r2 cceleration !'e to gra7it* o'tsi!e the 3arth ,t can be s0o6n t0at t0e acceleration due to gra$it4 outside of a s-0erical s0ell of uniform densit4 is t0e same as it 6ould be if t0e entire mass of t0e s0ell 6ere to be concentrated at its center. )sing t0is 6e can e5-ress t0e acceleration due to gra$it4 9g": at a radius 9r: outside t0e eart0 in terms of t0e Eart0"s radius 9re: and t0e acceleration due to gra$it4 at t0e Eart0"s surface 9g: g" d 9re2 V r2: g cceleration !'e to gra7it* insi!e the 3arth 7ere let r re-resent t0e radius of t0e -oint inside t0e eart0. T0e formula for finding out t0e acceleration due to gra$it4 at t0is -oint becomes( g" d 9 r V re :g ,n bot0 t0e abo$e formulasB as e5-ectedB g" becomes e2ual to g 60en r d re.

a satellite orbiting at an altitude of 22B 00 miles 6ould re2uire e5actl4 2. 0ours to orbit t0e Eart0

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Eart0"s E2uatorial radius d *6 miles so t0e difference in gra$it4 at 22B 00 c *6 9r: miles is *6 2 V 26B26 2 d 11B301B 6* V 68*B3.1B000 d .02236*2 d 2. U of our gra$it4 d 1V.. of our gra$it4 0ere at t0e surface One must get u- at least about .000 mi. Nust to get to 60ere t0e gra$it4 is 1V.t0 of our surface gra$it4. Or about *B000 mi abo$e t0e surface to get to 1V10t0 our gra$it4.

7ere is a Sul4 1.t0 200 de-iction of man4 of our satelites in orbit. T0e ring being t0ose at t0e 22B 00 miB geostationar4B distance.

h E5periments Mit0 Alternate Currents o# Lig0 Potential and Lig0 Fre'uency N

:ecture delivered &e#ore t0e .E.E.1 :ondon1 Fe&ruary1 +>,7. cannot #ind Mords to e5press 0oM deeply #eel t0e 0onor o# addressing some o# t0e #oremost t0inkers o# t0e present time1 and so many a&le scienti#ic men1 engineers and electricians1 o# t0e country greatest in scienti#ic ac0ievements. $0e results M0ic0 0ave t0e 0onor to present &e#ore suc0 a gat0ering cannot call my oMn. $0ere are among you not a #eM M0o can lay &etter claim t0an mysel# on any #eature o# merit M0ic0 t0is Mork may contain. need not mention many names M0ic0 are Morld@knoMn @@ names o# t0ose among you M0o are recogni2ed as t0e leaders in t0is enc0anting science6 &ut one1 at least1 must mention @@ a name M0ic0 could not &c omitted in a demonstration o# t0is kind. t is a name associated Mit0 t0e most &eauti#ul invention ever made4 it is CrookesO W0en Mas at college1 a good time ago6 read1 in a translation *#or t0en Mas not #amiliar Mit0 you magni#icent language/1 t0e description o# 0is e5periments on radiant matter. read it only once in my li#e @@ t0at time @@ yet every detail a&out t0at c0arming Mork can remem&er t0is day. FeM are t0e &ooks1 let me say1 M0ic0 can make suc0 an impression upon t0e mind o# a student. But i#1 on t0e present occasion1 mention t0is name as one o# many your institution can &oast o#1 it is &ecause 0ave more t0an one reason to do so. For M0at 0ave to tell you and to s0oM you t0is evening concerns1 in a large measure1 t0at same vague Morld M0ic0 Pro#essor Crookes 0as so a&ly e5plored6 and1 more t0an t0is1 M0en trace &ack t0e mental process M0ic0 led me to t0ese advances @@ M0ic0 even &y mysel# cannot &e considered tri#ling1 since t0ey are so appreciated &y you @@ &elieve t0at t0eir real origin1 t0at M0ic0 started me to Mork in t0is direction1 and &roug0t me to t0em1 a#ter a long period o# constant t0oug0t1 Mas t0at #ascinating little &ook M0ic0 read many years ago. And noM t0at 0ave made a #ee&le e##ort to e5press my 0omage and acknoMledge my inde&tedness to 0im and ot0ers among you1 Mill make a second e##ort1 M0ic0 0ope you Mill not #ind so #ee&le as t0e #irst1 to entertain you. Give me leave to introduce t0e su&8ect in a #eM Mords. A s0ort time ago 0ad t0e 0onor to &ring &e#ore our American nstitute o# Electrical Engineers some results t0en arrived at &y me in a novel line o# Mork. need not assure you t0at t0e many evidences M0ic0 0ave received t0at Englis0 scienti#ic men and engineers Mere interested in t0is Mork 0ave &een #or me a great reMard and encouragement. Mill not dMell upon t0e e5periments already descri&ed1 e5cept Mit0 t0e vieM o# completing1 or more clearly e5pressing1 some ideas advanced &y me &e#ore1 and also Mit0 t0e vieM o# rendering t0e study 0ere presented sel#@contained1 and my remarks on t0e su&8ect o# t0is eveningPs lecture consistent. $0is investigation1 t0en1 it goes Mit0out saying1 deals Mit0 alternating currents1 and1 to &e more precise1 Mit0 alternating currents o# 0ig0 potential and 0ig0 #re'uency. Qust in 0oM muc0 a very 0ig0 #re'uency is essential #or t0e production o# t0e results presented is a 'uestion M0ic01 even Mit0 my present e5perience1 Mould em&arrass me to ansMer. Some o# t0e e5periments may &e per#ormed Mit0 loM #re'uencies6 &ut very 0ig0 #re'uencies are desira&le1 not only on account o# t0e many e##ects secured &y t0eir use1 &ut also as a convenient means o# o&taining1 in t0e induction apparatus employed1 t0e 0ig0 potentials1 M0ic0 in t0eir turn are necessary to t0e demonstration o# most o# t0e e5periments 0ere contemplated. "# t0e various &ranc0es o# electrical investigation1 per0aps t0e most interesting and immediately t0e most promising is t0at dealing Mit0 alternating currents. $0e progress in t0is &ranc0 o# applied science 0as &een so great in recent years t0at it 8usti#ies t0e most sanguine 0opes. Lardly 0ave Me &ecome #amiliar Mit0 one #act1 M0en novel e5periences are met Mit0 and neM avenues o# researc0 are opened. Even at t0is 0our possi&ilities not dreamed o# &e#ore are1 &y t0e use o# t0ese currents1 partly reali2ed. As n nature all is e&& and tide1 all is Mave motion1 so it seems t0at in all &ranc0es o# industry alternating currents @@ electric Mave motion @@ Mill 0ave t0e sMay. "ne reason1 per0aps1 M0y t0is &rand o# science is &eing so rapidly developed is to &e #ound in t0e interest M0ic0 is attac0ed to its e5perimental study. We Mind a simple ring o# iron Mit0 coils6 Me esta&lis0 t0e connections to t0e generator1 and Mit0 Monder and delig0t Me note t0e e##ects o# strange #orces M0ic0 Me &ring into play1 M0ic0 alloM us to trans#orm1 to transmit and direct energy at Mill. We arrange t0e circuits properly1 and Me see t0e mass o# iron and Mires &e0ave as t0oug0 it Mere endoMed Mit0 li#e1 spinning a 0eavy armature1 t0roug0 invisi&le connections1 Mit0 great speed and poMer Mit0 t0e energy possi&ly conveyed #rom a great distance. We o&serve 0oM t0e energy o# an alternating current traversing t0e Mire mani#ests itsel# @@ not so muc0 in t0e Mire as in t0e surrounding space @@ in t0e most surprising manner1 taking t0e #orms o# 0eat1 lig0t1 mec0anical energy1 and1 most surprising o# all1 even c0emical a##inity. All t0ese o&servations #ascinate us1 and #ill us Mit0 an intense desire to knoM more a&out t0e nature o# t0ese p0enomena. Eac0 day Me go to our Mork in t0e 0ope o# discovering @@ in t0e 0ope t0at some

3. one1 no matter M0o1 may #ind a solution o# one o# t0e pending great pro&lems1 @@ and eac0 succeeding day Me return to our task Mit0 reneMed ardor6 and even i# Me are unsuccess#ul1 our Mork 0as not &een in vain1 #or in t0ese strivings1 in t0ese e##orts1 Me 0ave 0ours o# untold pleasure1 and Me 0ave directed our energies to t0e &ene#it o# mankind. We may take @@ at random1 i# you c0oose @@ any o# t0e many e5periments M0ic0 may &e per#ormed Mit0 alternating currents6 a #eM o# M0ic0 only1 and &y no means t0e mast striking1 #orm t0e su&8ect o# t0is eveningPs demonstration6 t0ey are all e'ually interesting1 e'ually inciting to t0oug0t. Lere is a simple glass tu&e #rom M0ic0 t0e air 0as &een partially e50austed. take 0old o# it6 &ring my &ody in contact Mit0 a Mire conveying alternating currents o# 0ig0 potential1 and t0e tu&e in my 0and is &rilliantly lig0ted. n M0atever position may put it1 M0erever may move it in space1 as #ar as can reac01 its so#t1 pleasing lig0t persists Mit0 undiminis0ed &rig0tness. Lere is an e50austed &ul& suspended #rom a single Mire. Standing on an insulated support1 grasp it1 and a platinum &utton mounted in it is &roug0t to vivid incandescence. Lere1 attac0ed to a leading Mire is anot0er &ul&1 M0ic01 as touc0 its metallic socket1 is #illed Mit0 magni#icent colors o# p0osp0orescent lig0t. Lere still anot0er1 M0ic0 &y my #ingersP touc0 casts a s0adoM@@ t0e Crookes s0adoM1 o# t0e stem inside o# it. Lere1 again1 insulated as stand on t0is plat#orm1 &ring my &ody in contact Mit0 one o# t0e terminals o# t0e secondary o# t0is induction coil @@ Mit0 t0e end o# s Mire many miles long @@ and you see streams o# lig0t &reak #ort0 #rom its distant end1 M0ic0 is set in violent vi&ration. Lere1 once more1 attac0 t0ese tMo plates o# Mire gau2e to t0e terminals o# t0e coil1 set t0em a distance apart1 and set t0e coil to Mork. Aou may see a small spark pass &etMeen t0e plates. insert a t0ick plate o# one o# t0e &est dielectrics &etMeen t0em1 and instead o# rendering altoget0er impossi&le1 as Me are used to e5pect1 aid t0e passage o# t0e disc0arge1 M0ic01 as insert t0e plate1 merely c0anges in appearance and assumes t0e #orm o# luminous streams. s t0ere1 ask1 can t0ere &e1 a more interesting study t0an t0at o# alternating currentsR n all t0ese investigations1 in all t0ese e5periments1 M0ic0 ate so very1 very interesting1 #or many years past @@ ever since t0e greatest e5perimenter M0o lectured in t0is 0all discovered its principle @@ Me 0ave 0ad a steady companion1 an appliance #amiliar to every one1 a playt0ing once1 a t0ing o# momentous importance noM @@ t0e induction coil. $0ere is no dearer appliance to t0e electrician. From t0e a&lest among you1 dare say1 doMn to t0e ine5perienced student1 to your lecturer1 Me all 0ave passed many delig0t#ul 0ours in e5perimenting Mit0 t0e induction coil. We 0ave Matc0ed its play1 and t0oug0t and pondered over t0e &eauti#ul p0enomena M0ic0 it disclosed to our ravis0ed eyes. So Mell knoMn is t0is apparatus1 so #amiliar are t0ese p0enomena to every one1 t0at my courage nearly #ails me M0en t0ink t0at 0ave ventured to address so a&le an audience1 t0at 0ave ventured to entertain you Mit0 t0at same old su&8ect. Lere in reality is t0e same apparatus1 and 0ere are t0e same p0enomena1 only t0e apparatus is operated someM0at di##erently1 t0e p0enomena are presented in n di##erent aspect. Some o# t0e results Me #ind as e5pected1 ot0ers surprise us1 &ut all captivate our attention1 #or in scienti#ic investigation eac0 novel result ac0ieved may &e t0e centre o# a neM departure1 eac0 novel #act learned may lead to important developments. Usually in operating an induction #oil Me 0ave set up a vi&ration o# moderate #re'uency in t0e primary1 eit0er &y means o# an interrupter or &reak1 or &y t0e use o# an alternator. Earlier Englis0 investigators1 to mention only SpottisMoode and Q. E. L. Gordon1 0ave used a rapid &reak in connection Mit0 t0e coil. "ur knoMledge and e5perience o# to@day ena&les us to see clearly M0y t0ese coils under t0e conditions o# t0e tests did not disclose any remarka&le p0enomena1 and M0y a&le e5perimenters #ailed to perceive many o# t0e curious e##ects M0ic0 0ave since &een o&served. n t0e e5periments suc0 as per#ormed t0is evening1 Me operate t0e coil eit0er #rom a specially constructed alternator capa&le o# giving many t0ousands o# reversals o# current per second1 or1 &y disruptively disc0arging a condenser t0roug0 t0e primary1 Me set up a vi&ration in t0e secondary circuit o# a #re'uency o# many 0undred t0ousand or millions per second1 i# Me so desire6 and in using eit0er o# t0ese means Me enter a #ield as yet une5plored. t is impossi&le to pursue an investigation in any novel line Mit0out #inally making some interesting o&servation or learning some use#ul #act. $0at t0is statement is applica&le to t0e su&8ect o# t0is lecture t0e many curious and une5pected p0enomena M0ic0 Me o&serve a##ord a convincing proo#. By May o# illustration1 take #or instance t0e most o&vious p0enomena1 t0ose o# t0e disc0arge o# t0e induction coil. Lere is a coil M0ic0 is operated &y currents vi&rating Mit0 e5treme rapidity1 o&tained &y disruptively disc0arging a :eyden 8ar. t Mould not surprise a student Mere t0e lecturer to say t0at t0e secondary o# t0is coil consists o# a small lengt0 o# comparatively stout Mire6 it Mould not surprise 0im Mere t0e lecturer to state t0at1 in spite o# t0is1 t0e coil is capa&le o# giving any potential M0ic0 t0e &est insulation o# t0e turns is a&le to Mit0stand6 &ut alt0oug0 0e

31 may &e prepared1 and even &e indi##erent as to t0e anticipated result1 yet t0e aspect o# t0e disc0arge o# t0e coil Mill surprise and interest 0im. Every one is #amiliar Mit0 t0e disc0arge o# an ordinary coil6 it need not &e reproduced 0ere. But1 &y May o# contrast1 0ere is a #orm o# disc0arge o# a coil1 t0e primary current o# M0ic0 is vi&rating several 0undred t0ousand times per second. $0e disc0arge o# an ordinary coil appears as a simple line or &and o# lig0t. $0e disc0arge o# t0is coil appears in t0e #orm o# poMer#ul &rus0es and luminous streams issuing #rom all points o# t0e tMo straig0t Mires attac0ed to t0e terminals o# t0e secondary *Fig. +./ !oM compare t0is p0enomenon M0ic0 you 0ave 8ust Mitnessed Mit0 t0e disc0arge o# a Lolt2 or Wims0urst mac0ine @@ t0at ot0er interesting appliance1 so dear to t0e e5perimenter. W0at a di##erence t0ere is &etMeen t0ese p0enomenaO And yet1 0ad made t0e necessary arrangements @@ M0ic0 could 0ave &een made easily1 Mere it not t0at t0ey Mould inter#ere Mit0 ot0er e5periments @@ could 0ave produced Mit0 t0is coil sparks M0ic01 0ad t0e coil 0idden #rom your vieM and only tMo kno&s e5posed1 even t0e keenest o&server among you Mould #ind it di##icult1 i# not impossi&le1 to distinguis0 #rom t0ose o# an in#luence or #riction mac0ine. $0is may &e done in many Mays @@ #or instance1 &y operating t0e induction coil M0ic0 c0arges t0e condenser #rom an alternating@current mac0ine o# very loM #re'uency1 and pre#era&ly ad8usting t0e disc0arge circuit so t0at t0ere are no oscillations set up in it. We t0en o&tain in t0e secondary circuit1 i# t0e kno&s are o# t0e re'uired si2e and properly set1 a more or less rapid succession o# sparks o# great intensity and small 'uantity1 M0ic0 possess t0e same &rilliancy1 and are accompanied &y t0e same s0arp crackling sound1 as t0ose o&tained #rom a #riction or in#luence mac0ine.

Anot0er May is to pass t0roug0 tMo primary circuits1 0aving a common secondary1 tMo currents o# a slig0tly di##erent period1 M0ic0 produce in t0e secondary circuit sparks occurring at comparatively long intervals. But1 even Mit0 t0e means at 0and t0is evening1 may succeed in imitating t0e spark o# a Lolt2 mac0ine. For t0is purpose esta&lis0 &etMeen t0e terminals o# t0e coil M0ic0 c0arges t0e condenser a long1 unsteady arc1 M0ic0 is periodically interrupted &y t0e upMard current o# air produced &y it. $o increase t0e current o# air place on eac0 side o# t0e arc1 and close to it1 a large plate o# mica. $0e condenser c0arged #rom t0is coil disc0arge into t0e primary circuit o# a second coil t0roug0 a small air gap1 M0ic0 is necessary to produce a sudden rus0 o# current t0roug0 t0e primary. $0e sc0eme o# connections in t0e present e5periment is indicated in Fig. 7. G is an ordinarily constructed alternator1 supplying t0e primary P o# an induction coil1 t0e secondary S o# M0ic0 c0arges t0e condensers or 8ars C C. $0e terminals o# t0e secondary are connected to t0e inside coatings o# t0e 8ars1 t0e outer coatings &eing connected to t0e ends o# t0e primary p p o# a second induction coil. $0is primary p p 0as a small air gap a &. $0e secondary s o# t0is coil is provided Mit0 kno&s or sp0eres G G o# t0e proper si2e and set at a distance suita&le #or t0e e5periment. A long arc is esta&lis0ed &etMeen t0e terminals A B o# t0e #irst induction coil. B B are t0e mica plates. Eac0 time t0e arc is &roken &etMeen A and B t0e 8ars are 'uickly c0arged and

36

disc0arged t0roug0 t0e Primary p p1 producing a snapping spark &etMeen t0e kno&s G G. Upon t0e arc #orming &etMeen A and B t0e potential #alls1 and t0e 8ars cannot &e c0arged to suc0 0ig0 potential as to &reak t0roug0 t0e air gap a & until t0e arc is again &roken &y t0e draug0t. n t0is manner sudden impulses1 at long intervals1 are produced in t0e primary P P1 M0ic0 in t0e secondary s give n corresponding num&er o# impulses o# great intensity. # t0e secondary kno&s or sp0eres G G are o# t0e proper si2e1 t0e sparks s0oM muc0 resem&lance to t0ose o# a Lolt2 mac0ine. But t0ese tMo e##ects1 M0ic0 to t0e eye appear so very di##erent1 are only tMo o# t0e many disc0arge p0enomena. We only need to c0ange t0e conditions o# t0e test1 and again Me make ot0er o&servations o# interest. W0en1 instead o# operating t0e induction coil as in t0e last tMo e5periments1 Me operate it #rom a 0ig0 #re'uency alternator1 as in t0e ne5t e5periment1 a systematic study o# t0e p0enomena is rendered mudS+ more easy. n suc0 case1 in varying t0e strengt0 and #re'uency o# t0e currents t0roug0 t0e primary1 Me may o&serve #ive distinct #orms o# disc0arge1 M0ic0 0ave descri&ed in my #ormer paper on t0e su&8ectI &e#ore t0e American nstitute o# Electrical Engineers1 Bay 7=1 +>,+. t Mould take too muc0 time1 and it Mould lead us too #ar #rom t0e su&8ect presented t0is evening1 to reproduce all t0ese #orms1 &ut it seems to me desira&le to s0oM you one o# t0em. t is a &rus0 disc0arge1 M0ic0 is interesting in more t0an one respect. KieMed #rom a near position it resem&les muc0 a 8et o# gas escaping under great pressure. We knoM t0at t0e p0enomenon is due to t0e agitation o# t0e molecules near t0e terminal1 and Me anticipate t0at some 0eat must &e developed &y t0e impact o# t0e molecules against t0e terminal or against eac0 ot0er. ndeed1 Me #ind t0at t0e &rus0 is 0ot1 and only a little t0oug0t leads us to t0e conclusion t0at1 could Me &ut reac0 su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uencies1 Me could produce a &rus0 M0ic0 Mould give intense lig0t and 0eat1 and M0ic0 Mould resem&le in every particular an ordinary #lame1 save1 per0aps1 t0at &ot0 p0enomena mig0t not &e due to t0e same agent @@ save1 per0aps1 t0at c0emical a##inity mig0t not &e electrical in its nature. As t0e production o# 0eat and lig0t is 0ere due to t0e impact o# t0e molecules1 or atoms o# air1 or somet0ing else &esides1 and1 as Me can augment t0e energy simply &y raising t0e potential1 Me mig0t1 even Mit0 #re'uencies o&tained #rom a dynamo mac0ine1 intensi#y t0e action to suc0 a degree as to &ring t0e terminal to melting 0eat. But Mit0 suc0 loM #re'uencies Me Mould 0ave to deal alMays Mit0 somet0ing o# t0e nature o# an electric current. # approac0 a conducting o&8ect to t0e &rus01 a t0in little spark passes1 yet1 even Mit0 t0e #re'uencies used t0is evening1 t0e tendency to spark is not very great. So1 #or instance1 i# 0old a metallic sp0ere at some distance a&ove t0e terminal you may see t0e M0ole space &etMeen t0e terminal and sp0ere illuminated &y t0e streams Mit0out t0e spark passing6 and Mit0 t0e muc0 0ig0er #re'uencies o&taina&le &y t0e disruptive disc0arge o# a condenser1 Mere it not #or t0e sudden impulses1 M0ic0 are comparatively #eM in num&er1 sparking Mould not occur even at very small distances. LoMever1 Mit0 incompara&ly 0ig0er #re'uencies1 M0ic0 Me may yet #ind means to produce e##iciently1 and provided t0at electric impulses o# suc0 0ig0 #re'uencies could &e transmitted t0roug0 a conductor1 t0e electrical c0aracteristics o# t0e &rus0 disc0arge Mould completely vanis0 @@ no spark Mould pass1 no s0ock Mould &e #elt @@ yet Me Mould still 0ave to deal Mit0 an electric p0enomenon1 &ut in t0e &road1 modern interpretation o# t0e Mord. n my #irst paper &e#ore re#erred to 0ave pointed out t0e curious properties o# t0e

33 &rus01 and descri&ed t0e &est manner o# producing it1 &ut 0ave t0oug0t it Mort0 M0ile to endeavor to e5press mysel# more clearly in regard to t0is p0enomenon1 &ecause o# its a&sor&ing interest. I See $0e Electrical World1 Quly ++1 +>,+. W0en a coil is operated Mit0 currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency1 &eauti#ul &rus0 e##ects may &e produced1 even i# t0e coil &e o# comparatively small dimensions. $0e e5perimenter may vary t0em in many Mays1 and1 i# it Mere not0ing else1 t0ey a##ord a pleasing sig0t. W0at adds to t0eir interest is t0at t0ey may &e produced Mit0 one single terminal as Mell as Mit0 tMo @@ in #act1 o#ten &etter Mit0 one t0an Mit0 tMo.

But o# all t0e disc0arge p0enomena o&served1 t0e most pleasing to t0e eye1 and t0e most instructive1 are t0ose o&served Mit0 a coil M0ic0 is operated &y means o# t0e disruptive disc0arge o# a condenser. $0e poMer o# t0e &rus0es1 t0e a&undance o# t0e sparks1 M0en t0e conditions are patiently ad8usted1 is o#ten ama2ing. Wit0 even a very small coil1 i# it &e so Mell insulated as to stand a di##erence o# potential o# several t0ousand volts per turn1 t0e sparks may &e so a&undant t0at t0e M0ole coil may appear a complete mass o# #ire. Curiously enoug0 t0e sparks1 M0en t0e terminals o# t0e coil are set at a considera&le distance1 seem to dart in every possi&le direction as t0oug0 t0e terminals Mere per#ectly independent o# eac0 ot0er. As t0e sparks Mould soon destroy t0e insulation it is necessary to prevent t0em. $0is is &est done &y immersing t0e coil in a good li'uid insulator1 suc0 as &oiled@out oil. mmersion in a li'uid may &e considered almost an a&solute necessity #or t0e continued and success#ul Morking o# suc0 a coil. t is1 o# course1 out o# t0e 'uestion1 in an e5perimental lecture1 Mit0 only a #eM minutes at disposal #or t0e per#ormance o# eac0 e5periment1 to s0oM t0ese disc0arge p0enomena to advantage1 as to produce eac0 p0enomenon at its &est a very care#ul ad8ustment is re'uired. But even i# imper#ectly produced1 as t0ey are likely to &e t0is evening1 t0ey are su##iciently striking to interest an intelligent audience. Be#ore s0oMing some o# t0ese curious e##ects must1 #or t0e sake o# completeness1 give a s0ort description o# t0e coil and ot0er apparatus used in t0e e5periments Mit0 t0e disruptive disc0arge t0is evening. t is contained in a &o5 B *Fig. 9/ o# t0ick &oards o# 0ard Mood1 coveted on t0e outside Mit0 2inc s0eet T1 M0ic0 is care#ully soldered all around. t mig0t &e advisa&le1 in a strictly scienti#ic investigation1 M0en accuracy is o# great importance1 Uo do aMay Mit0 t0e metal covet1 as it mig0t introduce many errors1 principally on account o# its comple5 action upon t0e coil1 as a condenser o# very small capacity and as an electrostatic and electromagnetic screen. W0en t0e coil is used #or suc0 e5periments as are 0ere contemplated1 t0e employment o# t0e metal cover o##ers some practical advantages1 &ut t0ese are not o# su##icient importance to &e dMelt upon.

38

$0e coil s0ould &e placed symmetrically to t0e metal cover1 and t0e space &etMeen s0ould1 o# course1 not &e too small1 certainly not less t0an1 say1 #ive centimeters1 &ut muc0 more i# possi&le6 especially t0e tMo sides o# t0e 2inc &o51 M0ic0 are at rig0t angles to t0e a5is o# t0e coil1 s0ould &e su##iciently remote #rom t0e latter1 as ot0erMise t0ey mig0t impair its action and &e a source o# loss. $0e coil consists o# tMo spools o# 0ard ru&&er R R 0eld apart at a distance o# += centimetres &y &olts c and nuts n1 likeMise o# 0ard ru&&er. Eac0 spool comprises a tu&e $ o# appro5imately > centimetres inside diameter1 and 9 millimetres t0ick1 upon M0ic0 are screMed tMo #langes F F1 7. centimetres s'uare1 t0e space &etMeen t0e #langes &eing a&out 9 centimetres. $0e secondary1 S S1 o# t0e &est gutta perc0a@covered Mire1 0as 7- layers1 += turns in eac01 giving #or eac0 0al# a total o# 7-= turns. $0e tMo 0alves are Mound oppositely and connected in series1 t0e connection &etMeen &ot0 &eing made over t0e primary. $0is disposition &esides &eing convenient1 0as t0e advantage t0at M0en t0e coil is Mell &alanced @@ t0at is1 M0en &ot0 o# its terminals $+ $+ are connected to &odies or devices o# e'ual capacity @@ t0ere is not muc0 danger o# &reaking t0roug0 to t0e primary1 and t0e insulation &etMeen t0e primary and t0e secondary need not &e t0ick. n using t0e coil it is advisa&le to attac0 to &ot0 terminals devices o# nearly e'ual capacity1 as1 M0en t0e capacity o# t0e terminals is not e'ual1 sparks Mill &e apt to pass to t0e primary. $o avoid t0is1 t0e middle point o# t0e secondary may &e connected to t0e primary1 &ut t0is is not alMays practica&le. $0e primary P P is Mound in tMo parts1 and oppositely1 upon a Mooden spool W1 and t0e #our ends are led out o# t0e oil t0roug0 0ard ru&&er tu&es t t. $0e ends o# t0e secondary $+ $+ are also led out o# t0e oil t0roug0 ru&&er tu&es tl tl o# great t0ickness. $0e primary and secondary layers are insulated &y cotton clot01 t0e t0ickness o# t0e insulation1 o# course1 &earing some proportion to t0e di##erence o# potential &etMeen t0e turns o# t0e di##erent layers. Eac0 0al# o# t0e primary 0as #our layers1 7. turns in eac01 t0is giving a total o# ,- turns. W0en &ot0 t0e parts are connected in series1 t0is gives a ratio o# conversion o# a&out +47.?1 and Mit0 t0e primaries in multiple1 +4<1. &ut in operating Mit0 very rapidly alternating currents t0is ratio does not convey even an appro5imate idea o# t0e ratio o# t0e E.B.Fs. in t0e primary and secondary circuits. $0e coil is 0eld in position in t0e oil on Mooden supports1 t0ere &eing a&out < centimetres t0ickness o# oil all round. W0ere t0e oil is not specially needed1 t0e space is #illed Mit0 pieces o# Mood1 and #or t0is purpose principally t0e Mooden &o5 B surrounding t0e M0ole is used. $0e construction 0ere s0oMn is1 o# course1 not t0e &est on general principles1 &ut &elieve it is a good and convenient one #or t0e production o# e##ects in M0ic0 are e5cessive potential and a very small current are needed. n connection Mit0 t0e coil use eit0er t0e ordinary #orm o# disc0arger or a modi#ied #orm. n t0e #ormer 0ave introduced tMo c0anges M0ic0 secure some advantages1 and M0ic0 are o&vious. # t0ey are mentioned1 it is only in t0e 0ope t0at some e5perimenter may #ind t0em o# use. "ne o# t0e c0anges is t0at t0e ad8usta&le kno&s A and B *Fig. ./1 o# t0e disc0arger are 0eld in 8aMs o# &rass1 Q Q1 &y spring pressure1 t0is alloMing o# turning t0em successively into di##erent positions1 and so doing aMay Mit0 t0e tedious process or #re'uent polis0ing up. $0e ot0er c0ange consists in t0e employment o# a strong electromagnet ! S1 M0ic0 is placed Mit0 its a5is at rig0t angles to t0e line 8oining t0e kno&s A and B1 and produces a strong magnetic #ield &etMeen t0em. $0e pole pieces o# t0e magnet are mova&le and properly #ormed so as to protrude &etMeen t0e &rass kno&s1 in order to make t0e #ield

3*

as intense as possi&le6 &ut to prevent t0e disc0arge #rom 8umping to t0c magnet t0e pole pieces are protected &y a layer o# mica1 B B1 o# su##icient t0ickness. sl sl and s7 s7 are screMs #or #astening t0e Mires. "n eac0 side one o# t0e screMs is #or large and t0e ot0er #or small Mires. : : are screMs #or #i5ing in position t0e rods R R1 M0ic0 support t0e kno&s. n anot0er arrangement Mit0 t0e magnet take t0e disc0arge &etMeen t0e rounded pole pieces t0emselves1 M0ic0 in suc0 case are insulated and pre#era&ly provided Mit0 polis0ed &rass caps. $0e employment o# an intense magnetic #ield is o# advantage principally M0en t0e induction coil or trans#ormer M0ic0 c0arges t0e condenser is operated &y currents o# very loM #re'uency. n suc0 a case t0e num&er o# t0e #undamental disc0arges &etMeen t0e kno&s may &e so small as to render t0e currents produced in t0e secondary unsuita&le #or many e5periments. $0e intense magnetic #ield t0an serves to &loM out t0e arc &etMeen t0e kno&s as soon as it is #ormed1 and t0e #undamental disc0arges occur in 'uicker succession. nstead o# t0e magnet1 a draug0t or &last o# air may &e employed Mit0 some advantage. n t0is case t0e arc is pre#era&ly esta&lis0ed &etMeen t0e kno&s A B1 in Fig. 7 *t0e kno&s a & &eing generally 8oined1 or entirely done aMay Mit0/1 as in t0is disposition t0e arc is long and unsteady1 and is easily a##ected &y t0e draug0t. W0en a magnet is employed to &reak t0e arc1 it is &etter to c0oose t0e connection indicated diagrammatically in Fig <1 as in t0is case t0e currents #orming t0e arc are muc0 more poMer#ul1 and t0e magnetic #ield e5ercises a greater in#luence. $0e use o# t0e magnet permits1 0oMever1 o# t0e arc &eing replaced &y a vacuum tu&e1 &ut 0ave encountered great di##iculties in Morking Mit0 an e50austed tu&e. $0e ot0er #orm o# disc0arger used in t0ese and similar e5periments is indicated in Figs. - and ?. t consists o# a num&er o# &rass pieces c c *Fig. -/1 eac0 o# M0ic0 comprises a sp0erical middle portion m Mit0 an e5tension e &eloM @@ M0ic0 is merely used to #asten t0e piece in a lat0e M0en polis0ing up t0e disc0arging sur#ace @@ and a column a&ove1 M0ic0 consists o# a knurled #lange # surmounted &y a t0readed stem carrying a nut n1 &y means o# M0ic0 a Mire is #astened to t0e column. $0e #lange #

conveniently serves #or 0olding t0e &rass piece M0en #astening t0e Mire1 and also #or turning it in any position M0en it &ecomes necessary to present a #res0 disc0arging sur#ace. $Mo stout strips o# 0ard ru&&er R R1 Mit0 planed grooves g g *Fig. ?/ to #it t0e middle portion o# t0e pieces c c1 serve to clamp t0e latter and 0old t0em #irmly in position &y means o# tMo &olts C C *o# M0ic0 only one is s0oMn/ passing t0roug0 t0e ends o# t0e strips. n t0e use o# t0is kind o# disc0arger 0ave #ound t0ree principal advantages over t0e ordinary #orm. First1 t0e dielectric strengt0 o# a given total Midt0 o# air space is greater M0en a great many small air gaps are used instead o# one1 M0ic0 permits o# Morking Mit0 a smaller lengt0 o# air gap1 and t0at means smaller loss and less deterioration o# t0e metal6 secondly &y reason o# splitting t0e arc up into smaller arcs1 t0e Polis0ed sur#aces are made to last muc0 longer6 and1 t0irdly1 t0e apparatus a##ords some gauge in t0e e5periments. usually set t0e pieces &y putting &etMeen t0em s0eets o# uni#orm t0ickness at a certain very small distance M0ic0 is knoMn #rom t0e e5periments o# Sir William $0omson to re'uire a certain electromotive #orce to &e &ridged &y t0e spark. t s0ould1 o# course1 &e remem&ered t0at t0e sparking distance is muc0 diminis0ed as t0e #re'uency is increased. By taking any num&er o# spaces t0e e5perimenter 0as a roug0 idea o# t0e electromotive #orce1 and 0e #inds it easier to repeat an e5periment1 as 0e 0as not t0e trou&le o# setting t0e kno&s again and again. Wit0 t0is kind o# disc0arger 0ave &een a&le to maintain an oscillating motion Mit0out any spark &eing visi&le Mit0 t0e naked eye

80 &etMeen t0e kno&s1 and t0ey Mould not s0oM a very apprecia&le rise in temperature. $0is #orm o# disc0arge also lends itsel# to many arrangements o# condensers and circuits M0ic0 are o#ten very convenient and timesaving. 0ave used it pre#era&ly in a disposition similar to t0at indicated in Fig. 71 M0en t0e currents #orming t0e arcs are small. may 0ere mention t0at 0ave also used disc0argers Mit0 single or multiple air gaps1 in M0ic0 t0e disc0arge sur#aces Mere rotated Mit0 great speed. !o particular advantage Mas1 0oMever1 gained &y t0is met0od1 e5cept in cases M0ere t0e currents #rom t0e condenser Mere large and t0e keeping cool o# t0e sur#aces Mas necessary1 and in cases M0en1 t0e disc0arge not &eing oscillating o# itsel#1 t0e arc as soon as esta&lis0ed Mas &roken &y t0e air current1 t0us starting t0e vi&ration at intervals in rapid succession. 0ave also used mec0anical interrupters in many Mays. $o avoid t0e di##iculties Mit0 #rictional contacts1 t0e Pre#erred plan adopted Mas to esta&lis0 t0e arc and rotate t0roug0 it at great speed a rim o# mica provided Mit0 many 0oles and #astened to a steel plate. t is understood1 o# course1 t0at t0e employment o# a magnet1 air current1 or ot0er interrupter1 produces an e##ect Mort0 noticing1 unless t0e sel#@induction1 capacity and resistance are so related t0at t0ere are oscillations set up upon eac0 interruption. Mill noM endeavor to s0oM you some o# t0e most noteMort0y o# t0ese disc0arge p0enomena.

0ave stretc0ed across t0e room tMo ordinary cotton covered Mires1 eac0 a&out ? metres in lengt0. $0ey are supported on insulating cords at a distance o# a&out 9= centimetres. attac0 noM to eac0 o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil one o# t0e Mires and set t0e coil in action. Upon turning t0e lig0ts o## in t0e room you see t0e Mires strongly illuminated &y t0e streams issuing a&undantly #rom t0eir M0ole sur#ace in spite o# t0e cotton covering1 M0ic0 may even &e very t0ick. W0en t0e e5periment is per#ormed under good conditions1 t0e lig0t #rom t0e Mires is su##iciently intense to alloM distinguis0ing t0e o&8ects in a room. $o produce t0e &est result it is1 o# course1 necessary to ad8ust care#ully t0e capacity o# t0e 8ars1 t0e arc &etMeen t0e kno&s and t0e lengt0 o# t0e Mires. By e5perience is t0at calculation o# t0e lengt0 o# t0e Mires leads1 in suc0 case1 to no result M0atever. $0e e5perimenter Mill do &est to take t0e Mires at t0e start very long1 and t0en ad8ust &y cutting o## #irst long pieces1 and t0en smaller and smaller ones as 0e approac0es t0e rig0t lengt0. A convenient May is to use an oil condenser o# very small capacity1 consisting o# tMo small ad8usta&le metal plates1 in connection Mit0 t0is and similar e5periments. n suc0 case take Mires rat0er s0ort and set at t0e &eginning t0e condenser plates at ma5imum distance. # t0e streams #or t0e Mires increase &y approac0 o# t0e plates1 t0e lengt0 o# t0e Mires is a&out rig0t6 i# t0ey diminis0 t0e Mires are too long #or t0at #re'uency and potential. W0en a condenser is used in connection Mit0 e5periments Mit0 suc0 a coil1 it s0ould &e an oil condenser &y all means1 as in using an air condenser considera&le energy mig0t &e Masted. $0e Mires leading to t0e plates in t0e oil s0ould &e very t0in1 0eavily coated Mit0 some insulating compound1 and provided Mit0 n conducting covering @@ t0is pre#era&ly e5tending under t0e sur#ace o# t0e oil. $0e conducting cover s0ould not &e too near t0e terminals1 or ends1 o# t0e Mire1 as a spark Mould &e apt to 8ump #rom t0e Mire to it. $0e conducting coating is used to diminis0 t0e air losses1 in virtue o# its action as an electrostatic screen. As to t0e si2e o# t0e vessel containing t0e oil and t0e site o# t0e plates1 t0e e5perimenter gains at once an idea #rom a roug0 trial. $0e si2e o# t0e plates in oil is1 0oMever1 calcula&le1 as t0e dielectric losses are very small. n t0e preceding e5periment it is o# considera&le interest to knoM M0at relation t0e 'uantity o# t0e lig0t emitted &ears to t0e #re'uency and potential o# t0e electric impulses. By opinion is t0at t0e 0eat as Mell as lig0t e##ects produced s0ould &e proportionate1 under ot0erMise e'ual conditions o# test1 to t0e product o# #re'uency and s'uare o# potential1 &ut t0e e5perimental veri#ication o# t0e laM1 M0atever it may &e1 Mould &e e5ceedingly di##icult. "ne t0ing is certain1 at any rate1 and t0at is1 t0at in augmenting t0e potential and #re'uency Me rapidly intensi#y t0e streams6 and1 t0oug0 it may &e very sanguine1 it is surely not altoget0er 0opeless to e5pect t0at Me may succeed in producing a practical illuminant on t0ese lines. We Mould t0en &e simply using &urners or #lames1 in M0ic0 t0ere Mould &e no c0emical process1 no consumption o# material1 &ut merely a trans#er o# energy1 and M0ic0

81 Mould1 in all pro&a&ility emit more lig0t and less 0eat t0an ordinary #lames. $0e luminous intensity o# t0e streams is1 o# course1 considera&ly increased M0en t0ey are #ocused upon a small sur#ace. $0is may &e s0oMn &y t0e #olloMing e5periment4

attac0 to one o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil a Mire M *Fig. >/1 &ent in a circle o# a&out 9= centimetres in diameter1 and to t0e ot0er terminal #asten a small &rass sp0ere s1 t0e sur#ace o# t0e Mire &eing pre#era&ly e'ual to t0e sur#ace o# t0e sp0ere1 and t0e centre o# t0e latter &eing in a line at rig0t angles to t0e plane o# t0e Mire circle and passing t0roug0 its centre. W0en t0e disc0arge is esta&lis0ed under proper conditions1 a luminous 0olloM cone is #ormed1 and in t0e dark one@0al# o# t0e &rass sp0ere is strongly illuminated1 as s0oMn in t0e cut. By some arti#ice or ot0er1 it is easy to concentrate t0e streams upon small sur#aces and to produce very strong lig0t e##ects. $Mo t0in Mires may t0us &e rendered intensely luminous. n order to intensi#y t0e streams1 t0e Mires s0ould &e very t0in and s0ort6 &ut as in t0is case t0eir capacity Mould &e generally too small #or t0e coil @ at least1 #or suc0 a one as t0e present @@ it is necessary to augment t0e capacity to t0e re'uired value1 M0ile1 al t0e same time1 t0e sur#ace o# t0e Mires remains very small. $0is may &e done in many Mays. Lere1 #or instance1 0ave tMo plates R R1 o# 0ard ru&&er *Fig. ,/1 upon M0ic0 0ave glued tMo very t0in Mires M M1 so as to #orm a name. $0e Mires may &e &are or covered Mit0 t0e &est insulation @@ it is immaterial #or t0e success o# t0e e5periment. Well@insulated Mires1 i# anyt0ing1 are pre#era&le. "n t0e &ack o# eac0 plate1 indicated &y t0e s0aded portion1 is a tin#oil coating t t. $0e plates are placed in line at a su##icient distance to prevent a spark passing #rom one to t0e ot0er Mire. $0e tMo tin#oil coatings 0ave 8oined &y a conductor C1 and t0e tMo Mires presently connect to t0e terminals o# t0e coil. t is noM easy1 &y varying t0e strengt0 and #re'uency o# t0e currents t0roug0 t0e primary1 to #ind a point at M0ic0 t0e capacity o# t0e system is &est suited to t0e conditions1 and t0e Mires &ecome so strongly luminous t0at1 M0en t0e lig0t in t0e room is turned o## t0e name #ormed &y t0em appears in &rilliant letters. t is per0aps pre#era&le to per#orm t0is e5periment Mit0 a coil operated #rom an alternator o# 0ig0 #re'uency1 as t0en1 oMing to t0e 0armonic rise and #all1 t0e streams are very uni#orm1 t0oug0 t0ey are less a&undant t0an M0en produced Mit0 suc0 a coil as t0e present. $0is e5periment1 0oMever1 may &e per#ormed Mit0 loM #re'uencies1 &ut muc0 less satis#actorily.

82 W0en tMo Mires1 attac0ed to t0e terminals o# t0e coil1 are set at t0e proper distance1 t0e streams &etMeen t0em may &e so intense as to produce a continuous luminous s0eet. $o s0oM t0is p0enomenon 0ave 0ere tMo circles1 C and c *Fig. +=/1 o# rat0er stout Mire1 one &eing a&out >= centimetres and t0e ot0er 9= centimetres in diameter. $o eac0 o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil attac0 one o# t0e circles. $0e supporting Mires are so &ent t0at t0e circles may &e placed in t0e same plane1 coinciding as nearly as possi&le. W0en t0e lig0t in t0e room is turned o## and t0e coil set to Mork1 you see t0e M0ole space &etMeen t0e Mires uni#ormly #illed Mit0 streams1 #orming a luminous disc1 M0ic0 could &e seen #rom a considera&le distance1 suc0 is t0e intensity o# t0e streams. $0e outer circle could 0ave &een muc0 larger t0an t0e present one6 in #act1 Mit0 t0is coil 0ave used muc0 larger circles1 and 0ave &een a&le to produce a strongly luminous s0eet1 covering an area o# more t0an one s'uare metre1 M0ic0 is a remarka&le e##ect Mit0 t0is very small coil. $o avoid uncertainty1 t0e circle 0as &een taken smaller1 and t0e area is 0oM a&out =1.9 s'uare metre.

$0e #re'uency o# t0e vi&ration1 and t0e 'uickness o# succession o# t0e sparks &etMeen t0e kno&s1 a##ect to a marked degree t0e appearance o# t0e streams. W0en t0e #re'uency is very loM1 t0e air gives May in more or less t0e same manner1 as &y a steady di##erence o# potential1 and t0e streams consist o# distinct t0reads1 generally mingled Mit0 t0in sparks1 M0ic0 pro&a&ly correspond to t0e successive disc0arges occurring &etMeen t0e kno&s. But M0en t0e #re'uency is e5tremely 0ig01 and t0e arc o# t0e disc0arge produces a very loud &ut smoot0 sound @@ s0oMing &ot0 t0at oscillation takes place and t0at t0e sparks succeed eac0 ot0er Mit0 great rapidity @@ t0en t0e luminous streams #ormed are per#ectly uni#orm. $o reac0 t0is result very small coils and 8ars o# small capacity s0ould &e used. take tMo tu&es o# t0ick Bo0emian glass1 a&out < centimetres in diameter and 7= centimetres long. n eac0 o# t0e tu&es slip a primary o# very t0ick copper Mire. "n t0e top o# eac0 tu&e Mind a secondary o# muc0 t0inner gutta@perc0a covered Mire. $0e tMo secondaries connect in series1 t0e primaries pre#era&ly in multiple arc. $0e tu&es are t0en placed in a large glass vessel1 at a distance o# l= to +< centimetres #rom eac0 ot0er1 on insulating supports1 and t0e vessel is #illed Mit0 &oiled out oil1 t0e oil reac0ing a&out an inc0 a&ove t0e tu&es. $0e #ree ends o# t0e secondary are li#ted out o# t0e oil and placed parallel to eac0 ot0er at a distance o# a&out += centimetres. $0e ends M0ic0 are scraped s0ould &e dipped in t0e oil. $Mo #our@pint 8ars 8oined in series may &e used to disc0arge t0roug0 t0e primary. W0en t0e necessary ad8ustments in t0e lengt0 and distance o# t0e Mires a&ove t0e oil and in t0e arc o# disc0arge are made1 a luminous s0eet is produced &etMeen t0e Mires1 M0ic0 is per#ectly smoot0 and te5tureless1 like t0e ordinary disc0arge t0roug0 a moderately e50austed tu&e. 0ave purposely dMelt upon t0is apparently insigni#icant e5periment. n trials o# t0is kind t0e e5perimenter arrives at t0e startling conclusion t0at1 to pass ordinary luminous disc0arges t0roug0 gases1 no particular degree o# e50austion is needed1 &ut t0at t0e gas may &e at ordinary or even greater pressure. $o accomplis0 t0is1 a very 0ig0 #re'uency is essential6 a 0ig0 potential is likeMise re'uired1 &ut t0is is a merely incidental necessity. $0ese e5periments teac0 us t0at1 in endeavoring to discover novel met0ods o# producing lig0t &y t0e agitation o# atoms1 or molecules1 o# a gas1 Me need not limit our researc0 to t0e vacuum tu&e1 &ut may look #orMard 'uite seriously to t0e possi&ility o# o&taining t0e lig0t e##ects Mit0out t0e use o# any vessel M0atever1 Mit0 air at ordinary pressure. Suc0 disc0arges o# very 0ig0 #re'uency1 M0ic0 render luminous t0e air at ordinary pressures1 Me 0ave pro&a&ly o#ten occasion to Mitness in !ature. 0ave no dou&t t0at i#1 as many &elieve1 t0e aurora &orealis is produced &y sudden cosmic distur&ances1 suc0 as eruptions at t0e sunPs sur#ace1 M0ic0 set t0e electrostatic c0arge o# t0e eart0 in an e5tremely rapid vi&ration t0e red gloM o&served is not con#ined to t0e upper rare#ied strata o# t0e air1 &ut t0e disc0arge traverses1 &y reason o# its very 0ig0 #re'uency1 also t0e dense @ atmosp0ere in t0e #orm o# a gloM1 suc0 as Me ordinarily produce in a slig0tly e50austed tu&e. # t0e #re'uency Mere very loM or even more so1 i# t0e c0arge Mere not at all vi&rating1 t0e dense air Mould &reak doMn as in a lig0tning disc0arge. ndications o# suc0 &reaking doMn o# t0e loMer dense strata o# t0e air 0ave &een repeatedly o&served at t0e occurrence o# t0is marvelous

8 p0enomenon6 &ut i# it does occur6 it can only &e attri&uted to t0c #undamental distur&ances1 M0ic0 are #eM in num&er1 #or t0e vi&ration produced &y t0em Mould &e #ar too rapid to alloM a disruptive &reak. t is t0e original and irregular impulses M0ic0 a##ect t0e instruments6 t0e superimposed vi&rations pro&a&ly pass unnoticed.

W0en an ordinary loM #re'uency disc0arge is passed t0roug0 moderately rare#ied air1 t0e air assumes a purplis0 0ue. # &y some means or ot0er Me increase t0e intensity o# t0e molecular1 or atomic1 vi&ration1 t0e gas c0anges to a M0ite color. A similar c0ange occurs at ordinary pressures Mit0 electric impulses o# very 0ig0 #re'uency. # t0e molecules o# t0e air around a Mire are moderately agitated1 t0e &rus0 #ormed is reddis0 or violet6 i# t0e vi&ration is rendered su##iciently intense1 t0e streams &ecome M0ite. We may accomplis0 t0is in various Mays. n t0e e5periment &e#ore s0oMn Mit0 t0e tMo Mires across t0e room1 0ave endeavored to secure t0e result &y pus0ing to a 0ig0 value &ot0 t0e #re'uency and potential6 in t0e e5periment Mit0 t0e t0in Mires glued on t0e ru&&er plate 0ave concentrated t0e action upon a very small sur#ace @@ in ot0er Mords1 0ave Morked Mit0 a great electric density. A most curious #orm o# disc0arge is o&served Mit0 suc0 a coil M0en t0e #re'uency and potential are pus0ed to t0e e5treme limit. $o per#orm t0e e5periment1 every part o# t0e coil s0ould &e 0eavily insulated1 and only tMo small sp0eres @@ or1 &etter still1 tMo s0arp@edged metal discs *d d1 Fig. ++/ o# no mote t0an a #eM centimetres in diameter @@ s0ould &e e5posed to t0e air. $0e coil 0ere used immersed in oil1 and t0e ends o# t0e secondary reac0ing out o# t0e oil are covered Mit0 an airtig0t cover o# 0ard ru&&er o# great t0ickness. All cracks1 i# t0ere are any1 s0ould &e care#ully stopped up1 so t0at t0e &rus0 disc0arge cannot #orm anyM0ere e5cept on t0e small sp0eres or plates M0ic0 are e5posed to t0e air. n t0is case1 since t0ere are no large plates or ot0er &odies o# capacity attac0ed to t0e terminals1 t0e coil is capa&le o# an e5tremely rapid vi&ration. $0e potential may &e raised &y increasing1 as #ar as t0e e5perimenter 8udges proper1 t0e rate o# c0ange o# t0e primary current. Wit0 a coil not Midely di##ering #rom t0e present1 it is &est to connect t0e tMo primaries in multiple arc6 &ut i# t0e secondary s0ould 0ave a muc0 greater num&er o# turns t0e primaries s0ould pre#era&ly &e used in series1 as ot0erMise t0e vi&ration mig0t &e too #ast #or t0e secondary. t occurs under t0ese conditions t0at misty M0ite streams &reak #ort0 #rom t0e edges o# t0e discs and spread out p0antom@like into space. Wit0 t0is coil1 M0en #airly Mell produced1 t0ey are a&out 7< to 9= centimetres long. W0en t0e 0and is 0eld against t0em no sensation is produced1 and a spark1 causing a s0ock1 8umps #rom t0e terminal only upon t0e 0and &eing &roug0t muc0 nearer. # t0e oscillation o# t0e primary current is rendered intermittent &y some means or ot0er1 t0ere is a corresponding t0ro&&ing o# t0e streams1 and noM t0e 0and or ot0er conducting o&8ect may &e &roug0t in still greater pro5imity to t0e terminal Mit0out a spark &eing caused to 8ump.

8.

Among t0e many &eauti#ul p0enomena M0ic0 may &e produced Mit0 suc0 a coil 0ave 0ere selected only t0ose M0ic0 appear to possess some #eatures o# novelty1 and lead us to some conclusions o# interest. "ne Mill not #ind it at all di##icult to produce in t0e la&oratory1 &y means o# it1 many ot0er p0enomena M0ic0 appeal to t0e eye even more t0an t0ese 0ere s0oMn1 &ut present no particular #eature o# novelty. Early e5perimenters descri&e t0e display o# sparks produced &y an ordinary large induction coil upon an insulating plate separating t0e terminals. Huite recently Siemens per#ormed some e5periments in M0ic0 #ine e##ects Mere o&tained1 M0ic0 Mere seen &y many Mit0 interest. !o dou&t large coils1 even i# operated Mit0 currents o# loM #re'uencies1 are capa&le o# producing &eauti#ul e##ects. But t0e largest coil ever made could not1 &y #ar1 e'ual t0e magni#icent display o# streams and sparks o&tained #rom suc0 a disruptive disc0arge coil M0en properly ad8usted. $o give an idea1 a coil suc0 as t0e present one Mill cover easily a plate o# + metre in diameter completely Mit0 t0e streams. $0e &est May to per#orm suc0 e5periments is to take a very t0in ru&&er or a glass plate and glue on one side o# it a narroM ring o# tin#oil o# very large diameter1 and on t0e ot0er a circular Mas0er1 t0e centre o# t0e latter coinciding Mit0 t0at o# t0e ring1 and t0e sur#aces o# &ot0 &eing pre#era&ly e'ual1 so as to keep t0e coil Mell &alanced. $0e Mas0er and ring s0ould &e connected to t0e terminals &y 0eavily insulated t0in Mires. t is easy in o&serving t0e e##ect o# t0e capacity to produce a s0eet o# uni#orm streams1 or a #ine netMork o# t0in silvery t0reads1 or a mass o# loud &rilliant sparks1 M0ic0 completely cover t0e plate. Since 0ave advanced t0e idea o# t0e conversion &y means o# t0e disruptive disc0arge1 in my paper &e#ore t0e American nstitute o# Electrical Engineers at t0e &eginning o# t0e past year1 t0e interest e5cited in it 0as &een considera&le. t a##ords us a means #or producing any potentials &y t0e aid o# ine5pensive coils operated #rom ordinary systems o# distri&ution1 and @@ M0at is per0aps more appreciated@@ it ena&les us to convert currents o# any #re'uency into currents o# any ot0er loMer or 0ig0er #re'uency. But its c0ie# value Mill per0aps &e #ound in t0e 0elp M0ic0 it Mill a##ord us in t0e investigations o# t0e p0enomena o# p0osp0orescence1 M0ic0 a disruptive disc0arge coil is capa&le o# e5citing in innumera&le cases M0ere ordinary coils1 even t0e largest1 Mould utterly #ail. Considering its pro&a&le uses #or many practical purposes1 and its possi&le introduction into la&oratories #or scienti#ic researc01 a #eM additional remarks as to t0e construction o# suc0 a coil Mill per0aps not &e #ound super#luous. t is1 o# course1 a&solutely necessary to employ in suc0 a coil Mires provided Mit0 t0e &est insulation. Good coils may &e produced &y employing Mires covered Mit0 several layers o# cotton1 &oiling t0e coil a long time in pure Ma51 and cooling under moderate pressure. $0e advantage o# suc0 a coil is t0at it can &e easily 0andled1 &ut it cannot pro&a&ly give as satis#actory results as a coil immersed in pure oil. Besides1 it seems t0at t0e presence o# a large &ody o# Ma5 a##ects t0e coil disadvantageously1 M0ereas t0is does not seem to &e t0e case Mit0 oil. Per0aps it is &ecause t0e dielectric losses in t0e li'uid are smaller.

81 0ave tried at #irst silk and cotton covered Mires Mit0 oil immersion6 &ut 0ave &een gradually led to use gutta@ perc0a covered Mires1 M0ic0 proved most satis#actory. Gutta@perc0a insulation adds1 o# course1 to t0e capacity o# t0e coil1 and t0is1 especially i# t0e coil &e large1 is a great disadvantage M0en e5treme #re'uencies are desired6 &ut1 on t0e ot0er 0and1 gutta@perc0a Mill Mit0stand muc0 more t0an an e'ual t0ickness o# oil1 and t0is advantage s0ould &e secured at any price. "nce t0e coil 0as &een immersed1 it s0ould never &e taken out o# t0e oil #or more t0an a #eM 0ours1 else t0e gutta@perc0a Mill crack up and t0e coil Mill not &e Mort0 0al# as muc0 as &e#ore. Gutta@ perc0a is pro&a&ly sloMly attacked &y t0e oil1 &ut a#ter an immersion o# eig0t to nine mont0s 0ave #ound no ill e##ects. 0ave o&tained in commerce tMo kinds o# gutta@perc0a Mire4 in one t0e insulation sticks tig0tly to t0e metal1 in t0e ot0er it does not. Unless a special met0od is #olloMed to e5pel all air1 it is muc0 sa#er to use t0e #irst kind. Mind t0e coil Mit0in an oil tank so t0at all interstices are #illed up Mit0 t0e oil. BetMeen t0e layers use clot0 &oiled out t0oroug0ly in oil1 calculating t0e t0ickness according to t0e di##erence o# potential &etMeen t0e turns. $0ere seems not to &e a very great di##erence M0atever kind o# oil is used6 use para##in or linseed oil. $o e5clude more per#ectly t0e air1 an e5cellent May to proceed1 and easily practica&le Mit0 small coils1 is t0e #olloMing4 Construct a &o5 o# 0ard Mood o# very t0ick &oards M0ic0 0ave &een #or a long time &oiled in oil. $0e &oards s0ould &e so 8oined as to sa#ely Mit0stand t0e e5ternal air pressure. $0e coil &eing placed and #astened in position Mit0in t0e &o51 t0e latter is closed Mit0 a strong lid1 and covered Mit0 closely #itting metal s0eets1 t0e 8oints o# M0ic0 are soldered very care#ully. "n t0e top tMo small 0oles are drilled1 passing t0roug0 t0e metal s0eet and t0e Mood1 and in t0ese 0oles tMo small glass tu&es are inserted and t0e 8oints made air@tig0t. "ne o# t0e tu&es is connected to a vacuum pump and t0e ot0er Mit0 a vessel containing a su##icient 'uantity o# &oiled@out oil. $0e latter tu&e 0as a very small 0ole at t0e &ottom1 and is provided Mit0 a stopcock. W0en a #airly good vacuum 0as &een o&tained1 t0e stopcock is opened and t0e oil sloMly #ed in. Proceeding in t0is manner1 it is impossi&le t0at any &ig &u&&les1 M0ic0 are t0e principal danger1 s0ould remain &etMeen t0e turns. $0e air is most completely e5cluded1 pro&a&ly &etter t0an &y &oiling out1 M0ic01 0oMever1 M0en gutta@perc0a coated Mires are used1 is not practica&le. For t0e primaries use ordinary line Mire Mit0 t0ick cotton coating. Strands o# very t0in insulated Mires properly interlaced Mould1 o# course1 &e t0e &est to employ #or t0e primaries1 &ut t0ey are not to &e 0ad. n an e5perimental coil t0e si2e o# t0e Mires is not o# great importance. n t0e coil 0ere used t0e primary is !o1 +7 and t0e secondary !o. 7. BroMn V S0arpe gauge Mire6 &ut t0e sections may&e varied considera&ly. Mould only imply di##erent ad8ustments6 t0e results aimed at Mould not &e materially a##ected. 0ave dMelt at some lengt0 upon t0e various #orms o# &rus0 disc0arge &ecause1 in studying t0em1 Me not only o&serve p0enomena M0ic0 please our eye1 &ut also a##ord us #ood #or t0oug0t1 and lead us to conclusions o# practical importance. n t0e use o# alternating currents o# very 0ig0 tension1 too muc0 precaution cannot &e taken to prevent t0e &rus0 disc0arge. n a main conveying suc0 currents1 in an induction coil or trans#ormer1 or in a condenser1 t0e &rus0 disc0arge is a source o# great danger to t0e insulation. n a condenser especially t0e gaseous matter must &e most care#ully e5pelled1 #or in it t0e c0arged sur#aces are near eac0 ot0er1 and i# t0e potentials are 0ig01 8ust as sure as a Meig0t Mill #all i# let go1 so t0e insulation Mill give May i# a single gaseous &u&&le o# some site &e present1 M0ereas1 i# all gaseous matter Mere care#ully e5cluded1 t0e condenser Mould sa#ely Mit0stand a muc0 0ig0er di##erence o# potential. A main conveying alternating currents o# very 0ig0 tension may &e in8ured merely &y a &loM0ole or small crack in t0e insulation1 t0e more so as a &loM0ole is apt to contain gas at loM pressure6 and as it appears almost impossi&le to completely o&viate suc0 little imper#ections1 am led to &elieve t0at in our #uture distri&ution o# electrical energy &y currents o# very 0ig0 tension li'uid insulation Mill &e used. $0e cost is a great draM&ack1 &ut i# Me employ an oil as an insulator t0e distri&ution o# electrical energy Mit0 somet0ing like +==1=== volts1 and even more1 &ecome1 at least Mit0 0ig0er #re'uencies1 so easy t0at t0ey could &e 0ardly called engineering #eats. Wit0 oil insulation and alternate current motors transmissions o# poMer can &e e##ected Mit0 sa#ety and upon an industrial &asis at distances o# as muc0 as a t0ousand miles. A peculiar property o# oils1 and li'uid insulation in general1 M0en su&8ected to rapidly c0anging electric stresses1 is to disperse any gaseous &u&&les M0idS+ may &e present1 and di##use t0em t0roug0 its mass1 generally long &e#ore any in8urious &reak can occur. $0is #eature may &e easily o&served Mit0 an ordinary induction coil &y taking t0e primary out1 plugging up t0e end o# t0e tu&e upon M0ic0 t0e secondary is Mound1 and #ining it Mit0 some #airly transparent insulator1 suc0 as para##in oil. A primary o# s diameter somet0ing like si5 millimetres smaller t0an t0e inside o# t0e tu&e may &e inserted in t0e oil. W0en t0e coil is set to Mork one may see1 looking #rom t0e top t0roug0 t0e oil1 many luminous points @@ air &u&&les M0ic0 are caug0t &y inserting t0e primary1 and M0ic0 ate rendered luminous in conse'uence o# t0e violent &om&ardment. $0e occluded air1 &y its impact against t0e oil1 &eats it6 t0e oil &egins to circulate1 carrying some o# t0e air along Mit0 it1 until t0e &u&&les are dispersed and t0e luminous points disappear. n t0is manner1 unless large &u&&les are occluded in suc0 May t0at circulation is rendered impossi&le1 a damaging &reak is averted1 t0e only e##ect &eing a moderate Marming up o# t0e oil. #1 instead o# t0e li'uid1 a solid insulation1 no matter 0oM t0ick1 Mere used1 a &reaking t0roug0 and in8ury o# t0e apparatus Mould &e inevita&le. $0e e5clusion o# gaseous matter #rom any apparatus in M0ic0 t0e dielectric is su&8ected to more or less rapidly

86 c0anging electric #orces is1 0oMever1 not only desira&le in order to avoid a possi&le in8ury o# t0e apparatus1 &ut also on account o# economy. n a condenser1 #or instance1 as long as only a solid or only a li'uid dielectric is used1 t0e loss is small6 &ut i# a gas under ordinary or small pressure &e present t0e loss may &e very great. W0atever t0e nature o# t0e #orce acting in t0e dielectric may &e1 it seems t0at in a solid or li'uid t0e molecular displacement produced &y t0e #orce is small4 0ence t0e product o# #orce and displacement is insigni#icant1 unless t0e #orce &e very great6 &ut in a gas t0e displacement1 and1 t0ere#ore1 t0is product is considera&le6 t0e molecules are #ree to move1 t0ey reac0 0ig0 speeds1 and t0e energy o# t0eir impact is lost in 0eat or ot0erMise. # t0e gas &e strongly compressed1 t0e displacement due to t0e #orce is made smaller1 and t0e losses are reduced. n most o# t0e succeeding e5periments pre#er1 c0ie#ly on account o# t0e regular and positive action1 to employ t0e alternator &e#ore re#erred to. $0is is one o# t0e several mac0ines constructed &y me #or t0e purposes o# t0ese investigations. t 0as 9>. pole pro8ections1 and is capa&le o# giving currents o# a #re'uency o# a&out +=1=== per second. $0is mac0ine 0as &een illustrated and &rie#ly descri&ed in my #irst paper &e#ore t0e American nstitute o# Electrical Engineers1 Bay 7=1 +>9+1 to M0ic0 0ave already re#erred. A more detailed description1 su##icient to ena&le any engineer to &uild a similar mac0ine1 Mill &e #ound in several electrical 8ournals o# t0at period. $0e induction coils operated #rom t0e mac0ine are rat0er small1 containing #rom <1=== to +<1=== turns in t0e secondary. $0ey are immersed in &oiled@out linseed oil1 contained in Mooden &o5es covered Mit0 2inc s0eet. 0ave #ound it advantageous to reverse t0e usual position o# t0e Mires1 and to Mind1 in t0ese coils1 t0e primaries on t0e top6 t0is alloMing t0e use o# a muc0 &igger primary1 M0ic01 o# course1 reduces t0e danger o# over0eating and increases t0e output o# t0e coil. make t0e primary on eac0 side at least one centimetre s0orter t0an t0e secondary1 to prevent t0e &reaking t0roug0 on t0e ends1 M0ic0 Mould surely occur unless t0e insulation on t0e top o# t0e secondary &e very t0ick1 and t0is1 o# course1 Mould &e disadvantageous. W0en t0e primary is made mova&le1 M0ic0 is necessary in some e5periments1 and many times convenient #or t0e purposes o# ad8ustment1 cover t0e secondary Mit0 Ma51 and turn it o## in a lat0e to a diameter slig0tly smaller t0an t0e inside o# t0e primary coil. $0e latter provide Mit0 a 0andle reac0ing out o# t0e oil1 M0ic0 serves to s0i#t it in any position along t0e secondary. Mill noM venture to make1 in regard to t0e general manipulation o# induction coils1 a #eM o&servations &earing upon points M0ic0 0ave not &een #ully appreciated in earlier e5periments Mit0 suc0 coils1 and are even noM o#ten overlooked. $0e secondary o# t0e coil possesses usually suc0 a 0ig0 sel#@induction t0at t0e current t0roug0 t0e Mire is inapprecia&le1 and may &e so even M0en t0e terminals ate 8oined &y a conductor o# small resistance. # capacity is added to t0e terminals1 t0e sel#@induction is counteracted1 and a stronger current is made to #loM t0roug0 t0e secondary1 t0oug0 its terminals are insulated #rom eac0 ot0er. $o one entirely unac'uainted Mit0 t0e properties o# alternating currents not0ing Mill look more pu22ling. $0is #eature Mas illustrated in t0e e5periment per#ormed at t0e &eginning Mit0 t0e top plates o# Mire gau2e attac0ed to t0e terminals and t0e ru&&er plate. W0en t0e plates o# Mire gau2e Mere close toget0er1 and a small arc passed &etMeen t0em1 t0e arc prevented a strong current #rom passing t0roug0 t0e secondary1 &ecause it did aMay Mit0 t0e capacity on t0e terminals6 M0en t0e ru&&er plate Mas inserted &etMeen1 t0e capacity o# t0e condenser #ormed counteracted t0e sel#@induction o# t0e secondary1 a stronger current passed noM1 t0e coil per#ormed more Mork1 and t0e disc0arge Mas &y #ar more poMer#ul. $0e #irst t0ing1 t0en1 in operating t0e induction coil is to com&ine capacity Mit0 t0e secondary to overcome t0e sel#@ induction. # t0e #re'uencies and potentials are very 0ig0 gaseous matter s0ould &e care#ully kept aMay #rom t0e c0arged sur#aces. # :eyden 8ars are used1 t0ey s0ould &e immersed in oil1 as ot0erMise considera&le dissipation may occur i# t0e 8ars are greatly strained. W0en 0ig0 #re'uencies are used1 it is o# e'ual importance to com&ine a condenser Mit0 t0e primary. "ne may use a condenser connected to t0e ends o# t0e primary or to t0e terminals o# t0e alternator1 &ut t0e latter is not to &e recommended1 as t0e mac0ine mig0t &e in8ured. $0e &est May is undou&tedly to use t0e condenser in series Mit0 t0e primary and Mit0 t0e alternator1 and to ad8ust its capacity so as to annul t0e sel#@induction o# &ot0 t0e latter. $0e condenser s0ould &e ad8usta&le &y very small steps1 and #or a #iner ad8ustment a small oil condenser Mit0 mova&le plates may &e used conveniently. t0ink it &est at t0is 8uncture to &ring &e#ore you a p0enomenon1 o&served &y me some time ago1 M0ic0 to t0e purely scienti#ic investigator may per0aps appear more interesting t0an any o# t0e results M0ic0 0ave t0e privilege to present to you t0is evening. t may &e 'uite properly ranked among t0e &rus0 p0enomena @@ in #act1 it is a &rus01 #ormed at1 or near1 a single terminal in 0ig0 vacuum. n &ul&s provided Mit0 a conducting terminal1 t0oug0 it &e o# aluminium1 t0e &rus0 0as &ut an ep0emeral e5istence1 and cannot1 un#ortunately1 &e inde#initely preserved in its most sensitive state1 even in a &ul& devoid o# any conducting electrode. n studying one p0enomenon1 &y all means a &ul& 0aving no leading@in Mire s0ould &e used. 0ave #ound it &est to use &ul&s constructed as indicated in Figs. +7 and +9.

83

n Fig. +7 t0e &ul& comprises an incandescent lamp glo&e :1 in t0e neck o# M0ic0 is sealed a &arometer tu&e -1 t0e end o# M0ic0 is &loMn out to #orm a small sp0ere s. $0is sp0ere s0ould &e sealed as closely as possi&le in t0e centre o# t0e large glo&e. Be#ore sealing1 a t0in tu&e t1 o# aluminium s0eet1 may &e slipped in t0e &arometer tu&e1 &ut it is not important to employ it. $0e small 0olloM sp0ere s is #illed Mit0 some conducting poMder1 and a Mire M is cemented in t0e neck #or t0e purpose o# connecting t0e conducting poMder Mit0 t0e generator. $0e construction s0oMn in Fig. +9 Mas c0osen in order to remove #rom t0e &rus0 any conducting &ody M0ic0 mig0t possi&ly a##ect it. $0e &ul& consists in t0is case o# a lamp glo&e :1 M0ic0 0as a neck n1 provided Mit0 a tu&e & and small sp0ere s1 sealed to it1 so t0at tMo entirely independent compartments are #ormed1 as indicated in t0e draMing. W0en t0e &ul& is in use1 t0e neck n is provided Mit0 a tin#oil coating1 M0ic0 is connected to t0e generator and acts inductively upon t0e moderately rare#ied and 0ig0ly conducting gas enclosed in t0e neck. From t0ere t0e current passes t0roug0 t0e tu&e & into t0e small sp0ere s1 to act &y induction upon t0e gas contained in t0e glo&e :. t is o# advantage to make t0e tu&e t very t0ick1 t0e 0ole t0roug0 it very small1 and to &loM t0e sp0ere s very t0in. t is o# t0e greatest importance t0at t0e sp0ere Q &e placed in t0e centre o# t0e glo&e :.

Figs. +.1 +< and +- indicate di##erent #orms1 or stages1 o# t0e &rus0. Fig. +. s0oMs t0e &rus0 as it #irst appears in a &ul& provided Mit0 a conducting terminal4 &ut1 as in suc0 a &ul& it very soon disappears @@ o#ten a#ter a #eM minutes @@ Mill con#ine mysel# to t0e description o# t0e p0enomenon as seen in a &ul& Mit0out conducting electrode. t is o&served under t0e #olloMing conditions4 W0en t0e glo&e : *Figs. +7 and +9/ is e50austed to a very 0ig0 degree1 generally t0e &ul& is not e5cited upon connecting t0e Mire M *Fig. +7/ or t0e tin#oil coating o# t0e &ul& *Fig. +9/ to t0e terminal o# t0e induction coil. $o e5cite it1 it is usually su##icient to grasp t0e glo&e : Mit0 t0e 0and. An intense p0osp0orescence t0en spreads at

88 #irst over t0e glo&e1 &ut soon gives place to a M0ite1 misty lig0t. S0ortly a#terMard one may notice t0at t0e luminosity is unevenly distri&uted in t0e glo&e1 and a#ter passing t0e current #or some time t0e &ul& appears as in Fig. +<. From t0is stage t0e p0enomenon Mill gradually pass to t0at indicated in Fig. +-1 a#ter some minutes1 0ours1 days or Meeks1 according as t0e &ul& is Morked. Warming t0e &ul& or increasing t0e potential 0astens t0e transit. W0en t0e &rus0 assumes t0e #orm indicated in Fig. +-1 it may &e &roug0t to a state o# e5treme sensitiveness to electrostatic and magnetic in#luence. $0e &ul& 0anging straig0t doMn #rom a Mire1 and all o&8ects &eing remote #rom it1 t0e approac0 o# t0e o&server at a #eM paces #rom t0e &ul& Mill cause t0e &rus0 to #ly to t0e opposite side1 and i# 0e Malks around t0e &ul& it Mill alMays keep on t0e opposite side. t may &egin to spin around t0e terminal long &e#ore it reac0es t0at sensitive stage. W0en it &egins to turn around principally1 &ut also &e#ore1 it is a##ected &y a magnet and at a certain stage it is suscepti&le to magnetic in#luence to an astonis0ing degree. A small permanent magnet1 Mit0 its poles at a distance o# no more t0an tMo centimetres1 Mill a##ect it visi&ly at a distance o# tMo metres1 sloMing doMn or accelerating t0e rotation according to 0oM it is 0eld relatively to t0e &rus0. t0ink 0ave o&served t0at at t0e stage M0en it is most sensitive to magnetic1 it is not most sensitive to electrostatic1 in#luence. By e5planation is1 t0at t0e electrostatic attraction &etMeen t0e &rus0 and t0e glass o# t0e &ul&1 M0ic0 retards t0e rotation1 groMs muc0 'uicker t0an t0e magnetic in#luence M0en t0e intensity o# t0e stream is increased. W0en t0e &ul& 0angs Mit0 t0e glo&e : doMn1 t0e rotation is alMays clockMise. n t0e sout0ern 0emisp0ere it Mould occur in t0e opposite direction and on t0e e'uator t0e &rus0 s0ould not turn at all. $0e rotation may &e reversed &y a magnet kept at some distance. $0e &rus0 rotates &est1 seemingly1 M0en it is at rig0t angles to t0e lines o# #orce o# t0e eart0. t very likely rotates1 M0en at its ma5imum speed1 in sync0ronism Mit0 t0e alternations1 say +=1=== times a second. $0e rotation can &e sloMed doMn or accelerated &y t0e approac0 or receding o# t0e o&server or any conducting &ody1 &ut it cannot &e reversed &y putting t0e &ul& in any position. W0en it is in t0e state o# t0e 0ig0est sensitiveness and t0e potential or #re'uency &e varied t0e sensitiveness is rapidly diminis0ed. C0anging eit0er o# t0ese &ut little Mill generally stop t0e rotation. $0e sensitiveness is likeMise a##ected &y t0e variations o# temperature. $o attain great sensitiveness it is necessary to 0ave t0e small sp0ere s in t0e centre o# t0e glo&e :1 as ot0erMise t0e electrostatic action o# t0e glass o# t0e glo&e Mill tend to stop t0e rotation. $0e sp0ere s s0ould &e small and o# uni#orm t0ickness6 any dissymmetry o# course 0as t0e e##ect to diminis0 t0e sensitiveness. $0e #act t0at t0e &rus0 rotates in a de#inite direction in a permanent magnetic #ield seems to s0oM t0at in alternating currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency t0e positive and negative impulses are not e'ual1 &ut t0at one alMays preponderates over t0e ot0er.

"# course1 t0is rotation in one direction may &e due to t0e action o# tMo elements o# t0e same current upon eac0 ot0er1 or to t0e action o# t0e #ield produced &y one o# t0e elements upon t0e ot0er1 as in a series motor1 Mit0out necessarily one impulse &eing stronger t0an t0e ot0er. $0e #act t0at t0e &rus0 turns1 as #ar as could o&serve1 in any position1 Mould speak #or t0is vieM. n suc0 case it Mould turn at any point o# t0e eart0Ps sur#ace. But1 on t0e ot0er 0and1 it is t0en 0ard to e5plain M0y a permanent magnet s0ould reverse t0e rotation1 and one must assume t0e preponderance o# impulses o# one kind. As to t0e causes o# t0e #ormation o# t0e &rus0 or stream1 t0ink it is due to t0c electrostatic action o# t0e glo&e and t0e dissymmetry o# t0e parts. # t0e small &ul& s and t0e glo&e : Mere per#ect concentric sp0eres1 and t0e glass t0roug0out o# t0e same t0ickness and 'uality1 t0ink t0e &rus0 Mould not #orm1 as t0e tendency to pass Mould &e e'ual on all sides. $0at t0e #ormation o# t0e stream is due to an irregularity is apparent #rom t0e #act t0at it 0as t0e tendency to remain in one position1 and rotation occurs most generally only M0en it is &roug0t out o# t0is position &y electrostatic or magnetic in#luence. W0en in an e5tremely sensitive state it rests in one position1 most curious

8* e5periments may &e per#ormed Mit0 it. For instance1 t0e e5perimenter may1 try selecting a proper position1 approac0 t0e 0and at a certain considera&le distance to t0e &ul&1 and 0e may cause t0e &rus0 to pass o## &y merely sti##ening t0e muscles o# t0e arm. W0en it &egins to rotate sloMly1 and t0e 0ands are 0eld at a proper distance1 it is impossi&le to make even t0e slig0test motion Mit0out producing a visi&le e##ect upon t0e &rus0. A metal plate connected to t0e ot0er terminal o# t0e coil a##ects it at a great distance1 sloMing doMn t0e rotation o#ten to one turn a second. am #irmly convinced t0at suc0 a &rus01 M0en Me learn 0oM to produce it properly1 Mill prove a valua&le aid in t0e investigationP o# t0e nature o# t0e #orces acting in 7n electrostatic or magnetic #ield. # t0ere is any motion M0ic0 is measura&le going on in t0e space1 suc0 a &rus0 oug0t to reveal it. t is1 so to speak1 a &eam o# lig0t1 #rictionless1 devoid o# inertia. t0ink t0at it may #ind practical applications in telegrap0y. Wit0 suc0 a &rus0 it Mould &e possi&le to send dispatc0es across t0e Atlantic1 #or instance1 Mit0 any speed1 since its sensitiveness may &e so great t0at t0e slig0test c0anges Mill a##ect it. # it Mere possi&le to make t0e stream more intense and very narroM1 its de#lections could &e easily p0otograp0ed. 0ave &een interested to #ind M0et0er t0ere is a rotation o# t0e stream itsel#1 or M0et0er t0ere is simply a stress traveling around in t0e &ul&. For t0is purpose mounted a lig0t mica #an so t0at its vanes Mere in t0e pat0 o# t0e &rus0. # t0e stream itsel# Mas rotating t0e #an Mould &e spun around. could produce no distinct rotation o# t0e #an1 alt0oug0 tried t0e e5periment repeatedly6 &ut as t0e #an e5erted a noticea&le in#luence on t0e stream1 and t0e apparent rotation o# t0e latter Mas1 in t0is case1 never 'uite satis#actory1 t0e e5periment did not appear to &e conclusive. 0ave &een una&le to produce t0e p0enomenon Mit0 t0e disruptive disc0arge coil1 alt0oug0 every ot0er o# t0ese p0enomena can &e tell produced &y it @@ many1 in #act1 muc0 &etter t0an Mit0 coils operated #rom an alternator. t may &e possi&le to produce t0e &rus0 &y impulses o# one direction1 or even &y a steady potential1 in M0ic0 case it Mould &e still more sensitive to magnetic in#luence. n operating an induction coil Mit0 rapidly alternating currents1 Me reali2e Mit0 astonis0ment1 #or t0e #irst time1 t0e great importance o# t0e relation o# capacity1 sel#@induction and #re'uency as regards t0e general result. $0e e##ects o# capacity are t0e most striking1 #or in t0ese e5periments1 since t0e sel#@induction and #re'uency &ot0 are 0ig01 t0e critical capacity is very small1 and need &e &ut slig0tly varied to produce a very considera&le c0ange. $0e e5perimenter may &ring 0is &ody in contact Mit0 t0e terminals o# t0e secondary o# t0e coil1 or attac0 to one or &ot0 terminals insulated &odies o# very small &ulk1 suc0 as &ul&s1 and 0e may produce a considera&le rise or #all o# potential1 and greatly a##ect t0e #loM o# t0e current t0roug0 t0e primary. n t0e e5periment &e#ore s0oMn1 in M0ic0 a &rus0 appears at a Mire attac0ed to one terminal1 and t0e Mire is vi&rated M0en t0e e5perimenter &rings 0is insulated &ody in contact Mit0 t0e ot0er terminal o# t0e coil1 t0e sudden rise o# potential Mas made evident. may s0oM you t0e &e0avior o# t0e coil in anot0er manner M0ic0 possesses a #eature o# some interest. 0ave 0ere a little lig0t #an o# aluminium s0eet1 #astened to a needle and arranged to rotate #reely in a metal piece screMed to one o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil. W0en t0e coil is set to Mork1 t0e molecules o# t0e air are r0yt0micallv attracted and repelled. As t0e #orce Mit0 M0ic0 t0ey are repelled is greater t0an t0at Mit0 M0ic0 t0ey are attracted1 it results t0at t0ere is repulsion e5erted on t0e sur#aces o# t0e #an. # t0e #an Mere made simply o# a metal s0eet1 t0e repulsion Mould &e e'ual on t0e opposite sides1 and Mould produce no e##ect. But i# one o# t0e opposite sur#aces is screened1 or i#1 generally speaking1 t0e &om&ardment on t0is side is Meakened in some Mag or ot0er1 t0ere remains t0e repulsion e5erted upon t0e ot0er1 and t0e #an is set in rotation. $0e screening is &est e##ected &y #astening upon one o# t0e opposing sides o# t0e #an insulated conducting coatings1 or1 i# t0e #an is made in t0e s0ape o# an ordinary propeller screM. &y #astening on one side1 and close to it1 an insulated metal plate. $0e static screen may 0oMever1 &e omitted and simply a t0ickness o# insulating material #astened to one o# t0e sides o# t0e #an. $o s0oM t0e &e0avior o# t0e coil1 t0e #an may &e placed upon t0e terminal and it Mill readily rotate M0en t0e coil is operated &y currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency. Wit0 a steady potential1 o# course1 and even Mit0 alternating currents o# very loM #re'uency1 it Mould not turn1 &ecause o# t0e very sloM e5c0ange o# air and1 conse'uently1 smaller &om&ardment6 &ut in t0e latter case it mig0t turn i# t0e potential Mere e5cessive. Wit0 a pin M0eel1 'uite t0e opposite rule 0olds good6 it rotates &est Mit0 a steady potential1 and t0e e##ort is t0e smaller t0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency. !oM1 it is very easy to ad8ust t0e conditions so t0at t0e potential is normally not su##icient to turn t0e #an1 &ut t0at &y connecting t0e ot0er terminal o# t0e coil Mit0 an insulated &ody it rises to a muc0 greater value1 so as to rotate t0e #an1 and it is likeMise possi&le to stop t0e rotation &y connecting to t0e terminal a &ody o# di##erent si2e1 t0ere&y diminis0ing t0e potential. nstead o# using t0e #an in t0is e5periment1 Me may use t0e EelectricE radiometer Mit0 similar e##ect. But in t0is case it Mill &e #ound t0at t0e vanes Mill rotate only at 0ig0 e50austion or at ordinary pressures6 t0ey Mill not rotate at moderate pressures1 M0en t0e air is 0ig0ly conducting. $0is curious o&servation Mas made con8ointly &y Pro#essor Crookes and mysel#. attri&ute t0e result to t0e 0ig0 conductivity o# t0e air1 t0e molecules o# M0ic0 t0en do not act as independent carriers o# electric c0arges1 &ut act all toget0er as a single conducting &ody. n suc0 case1 o#

*0 course1 i# t0ere is any repulsion at all o# t0e molecules #rom t0e vanes1 it must &e very small. t is possi&le1 0oMever1 t0at t0e result is in part due to t0e #act t0at t0e greater part o# t0e disc0arge passes #rom t0e leading@in Mire t0roug0 t0e 0ig0ly conducting gas1 instead o# passing o## #rom t0e conducting vanes. n trying t0e preceding e5periment Mit0 t0e electric radiometer t0e potential s0ould not e5ceed a certain limit1 as t0en t0e electrostatic attraction &etMeen t0e vanes and t0e glass o# t0e &ul& may &e so great as to stop t0e rotation. A most curious #eature o# alternate currents o# 0ig0 #re'uencies and potentials is t0at t0ey ena&le us to per#orm many e5periments &y t0e use o# one Mire only. n many respects t0is #eature is o# great interest. n a type o# alternate current motor invented &y me some years ago produced rotation &y inducing1 &y means o# a single alternating current passed t0roug0 a motor circuit1 in t0e mass or ot0er circuits o# t0e motor1 secondary currents1 M0ic01 8ointly Mit0 t0e primary or inducing current1 created n moving #ield o# #orce. A simple &ut crude #orm o# suc0 a motor is o&tained &y Minding upon an iron core a primary1 and close to it a secondary coil1 8oining t0e ends o# t0e latter and placing a #reely mova&le metal disc Mit0in t0e in#luence o# t0e #ield produced &y &ot0. $0e iron core is employed #or o&vious reasons1 &ut it is not essential to t0e operation. $o improve t0e motor1 t0e iron core is made to encircle t0e armature. Again to improve1 t0e secondary coil is made to overlap partly t0e primary1 so t0at it cannot #ree itsel# #rom a strong inductive action o# t0c latter1 repel its lines as it may. "nce more to improve1 t0e proper di##erence o# p0ase is o&tained &etMeen t0e primary and secondary currents &y a condenser1 sel#@induction1 resistance or e'uivalent Mindings. 0ad discovered1 0oMever1 t0at rotation is produced &y means o# a single coil and cote6 my e5planation o# t0e p0enomenon1 and leading t0oug0t in trying t0e e5periment1 &eing t0at t0ere must &e a true time lag in t0e magneti2ation o# t0e core. remem&er t0e pleasure 0ad M0en1 in t0e Mritings o# Pro#essor Ayrton1 M0ic0 came later to my 0and1 #ound t0e idea o# t0e time lag advocated. W0et0er t0ere is a true time lag1 M0et0er t0e retardation is due to eddy currents circulating in minute pat0s1 must remain an open 'uestion1 &ut t0e #act is t0at a coil Mound upon an iron core and traversed &y an alternating current creates a moving #ield o# #orce1 capa&le o# setting an armature4 in rotation@ t is o# some interest1 in con8unction Mit0 t0e 0istorical Arago e5periment1 to mention t0at in lag or p0ase motors 0ave produced rotation in t0e opposite direction to t0e moving #ield1 M0ic0 means t0at in t0at e5periment t0e magnet may not rotate1 or may even rotate in t0e opposite direction to t0e moving disc. Lere1 t0en1 is a motor *diagrammatically illustrated in Fig. +?/1 comprising a coil and iron core1 and a #reely mova&le copper disc in pro5imity to t0e latter. $o demonstrate a novel and interesting #eature1 0ave1 #or a reason M0ic0 Mill e5plain1 selected t0is type o# motor. W0en t0e ends o# t0e coil are connected to t0e terminals o# an alternator t0e disc is set in rotation. But it is not t0is e5periment1 noM Mell knoMn1 M0ic0 desire to per#orm. W0at Mis0 to s0oM you is t0at t0is motor rotates Mit0 one single connection &etMeen it and t0e generator6 t0at is to say1 one terminal o# t0e motor is connected to one terminal o# t0e generator @@ in t0is case t0e secondary o# a 0ig0@tension induction coil @@ t0e ot0er terminals o# motor and generator &eing insulated in space. $o produce rotation it is generally *&ut not a&solutely/ necessary to connect t0e #ree end o# t0e motor coil to an insulated &ody o# some si2e. $0e e5perimenterPs &ody is more t0an su##icient. # 0e touc0es t0e #ree terminal Mit0 an o&8ect 0eld in t0e

*1

0and1 a current passes t0roug0 t0e coil and t0e copper disc is set in rotation. # an e50austed tu&e is put in series Mit0 t0e coil1 t0e tu&e lig0ts &rilliantly1 s0oMing t0e passage o# a strong current. nstead o# t0e e5perimenterPs &ody1 a small metal s0eet suspended on a cord may &e used Mit0 t0e same result. n t0is case t0e plate acts as a condenser in series Mit0 t0e coil. t counteracts t0e sel#@induction o# t0e latter and alloMs a strong current to pass. n suc0 a com&ination1 t0e greater t0e sel#@induction o# t0e coil t0e smaller need &e t0e plate1 and t0is means t0at a loMer #re'uency1 or eventually a loMer potential1 is re'uired to operate t0e motor. A single coil Mound upon a core 0as a 0ig0 sel#@induction6 #or t0is reason principally1 t0is type o# motor Mas c0osen to per#orm t0e e5periment. Were a secondary closed coil Mound upon t0e core1 it Mould tend to diminis0 t0e sel#@induction1 and t0en it Mould &e necessary to employ a muc0 0ig0er #re'uency and potential. !eit0er Mould &e advisa&le1 #or a 0ig0er potential Mould endanger t0e insulation o# t0e small primary coil1 and a 0ig0er #re'uency Mould result in a materially diminis0ed tor'ue. t s0ould &e remarked t0at M0en suc0 a motor Mit0 a closed secondary is used1 it is not at all easy to o&tain rotation Mit0 e5cessive #re'uencies1 as t0e secondary cuts o## almost completely t0e lines o# t0e primary @@ and t0is1 o# course1 t0e more1 t0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency @@ and alloMs t0e passage o# &ut a minute current. n suc0 a case1 unless t0e secondary is closed t0roug0 a condenser1 it is almost essential1 in order to produce rotation1 to make t0e primary and secondary coils overlap eac0 ot0er more or less. But t0ere is an additional #eature o# interest a&out t0is motor1 namely1 it is not necessary to 0ave even a single connection &etMeen t0e motor and generator1 e5cept1 per0aps1 t0roug0 t0e ground6 #or not only is an insulated plate capa&le o# giving o## energy into space1 &ut it likeMise capa&le o# deriving it #rom an alternating electrostatic #ield1 t0oug0 in t0e latter case t0e availa&le energy is muc0 smaller. n t0is instance one o# t0e motor terminals is connected to t0e insulated plate or &ody located Mit0in t0e alternating electrostatic #ield1 and t0e ot0er terminal pre#era&ly to t0e ground. t is 'uite possi&le1 0oMever1 t0at suc0 Eno@MireE motors1 as t0ey mig0t &e called1 could &e operated &y conduction t0roug0 t0e rare#ied air at considera&le distances. Alternate currents1 especially o# 0ig0 #re'uencies1 pass Mit0 astonis0ing #reedom t0roug0 even slig0tly rare#ied gases. $0e upper strata o# t0e air are rare#ied. $o reac0 a num&er o# miles out into space re'uires t0e overcoming o# di##iculties o# a merely mec0anical nature. $0ere is no dou&t t0at Mit0 t0e enormous potentials o&taina&le &y t0e Use o# 0ig0 #re'uencies and oil insulation luminous disc0arges mig0t &e passed t0roug0 many miles o# rare#ied air1 and t0at1 &y t0us directing t0e energy o# many 0undreds or t0ousands o# 0orse@poMer1 motors or lamps mig0t &e operated at considera&le distances #rom stationary sources. But suc0 sc0emes are mentioned merely as possi&ilities. We s0all 0ave no need to transmit poMer at all. Ere many generations pass1 our mac0inery Mill &e driven &y a poMer o&taina&le at any point o# t0e universe. $0is idea is not novel. Ben 0ave &een led to it long ago &y instinct or reason6 it 0as &een e5pressed in many Mays1 and in many places1 in t0e 0istory o# old and neM. We #ind it in t0e delig0t#ul myt0 o# Ant0eus1 M0o derives poMer #rom t0e eart06 Me #ind it among t0e su&tile speculations o# one o# your splendid mat0ematicians and in many 0ints and statements o# t0inkers o# t0e present time. $0roug0out space t0ere is energy. s t0is energy static or kineticO # static our 0opes are in vain6 i# kinetic @@ and t0is Me knoM it is1 #or certain @ t0en it is a mere 'uestion o# time M0en men Mill succeed in attac0ing t0eir mac0inery to t0e very M0eelMork o# nature. "# all1 living

*2 or dead1 Crookes came nearest to doing it. Lis radiometer Mill turn in t0e lig0t o# day and in t0e darkness o# t0e nig0t6 it Mill turn everyM0ere M0ere t0ere is 0eat1 and 0eat is everyM0ere. But1 un#ortunately1 t0is &eauti#ul little mac0ine1 M0ile it goes doMn to posterity as t0e most interesting1 must likeMise &e put on record as t0e most ine##icient mac0ine ever inventedO $0e preceding e5periment is only one o# many e'ually interesting e5periments M0ic0 may &e per#ormed &y t0e use o# only one Mire Mit0 alternate currents o# 0ig0 potential and #re'uency. We may connect an insulated line to a source o# suc0 currents1 Me may pass an inapprecia&le current over t0e line1 and on any point o# t0e same Me are a&le to o&tain a 0eavy current1 capa&le o# #using a t0ick copper Mire. "r Me may1 &y t0e 0elp o# some arti#ice1 decompose a solutic.n in any electrolytic cell &y connecting only one pole o# t0e cell to t0e line or source o# energy. "r Me may1 &y attac0ing to t0e line1 or only &ringing into its vicinity1 lig0t up an incandescent lamp1 an e50austed tu&e1 or U p0osp0orescent &ul&. LoMever impractica&le t0is plan o# Morking may appear in many cases1 it certainly seems practica&le1 and even recommenda&le1 in t0e production o# lig0t. A per#ected lamp Mould re'uire &ut little energy1 and i# Mires Mere used at all Me oug0t to &e a&le to supply t0at energy Mit0out a return Mire. t is noM a #act t0at a &ody may &e rendered incandescent or p0osp0orescent &/ &ringing it eit0er in single contact or merely in t0e vicinity o# a source o# electric impulses o# t0e proper c0aracter1 and t0at in t0is manner a 'uantity o# lig0t su##icient to a##ord a practical illuminant may &e produced. t is1 t0ere#ore1 to say t0e least1 Mort0 M0ile to attempt to determine t0e &est conditions and to invent t0e &est appliances #or attaining t0is o&8ect. Some e5periences 0ave already &een gained in t0is direction1 and Mill dMell on t0em &rie#ly1 in t0e 0ope t0at t0ey mig0t prove use#ul. $0e 0eating o# a conducting &ody inclosed in a &ul&1 and connected to a source o# rapidly alternating electric impulses1 is dependent on so many t0ings o# a di##erent nature1 t0at it Mould &e di##icult to give a generally applica&le rule under M0ic0 t0is ma5imum 0eating occurs. As regards t0e si2e o# t0e vessel1 0ave lately #ound t0at at ordinary or only slig0tly di##ering atmosp0eric pressures1 M0en air is a good insulator1 and 0ence practically t0e same amount o# energy &y a certain potential and #re'uency is given o## #rom t0e &ody1 M0et0er t0e &ul& &e small or large1 t0e &ody is &roug0t to a 0ig0er temperature i# inclosed in a small &ul&1 &ecause o# t0e &etter con#inement o# 0eat in t0is case. At loMer pressures1 M0en air &ecomes more or less conducting1 or i# t0e air &e su##iciently Marmed as to &ecome conducting1 t0e &ody is rendered more intensely incandescent in a large &ul&1 o&viously &ecause1 under ot0erMise e'ual conditions o# test1 more energy may &e given o## #rom t0e &ody M0en t0e &ul& is large. At very 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion1 M0en t0e matter in t0e &ul& &ecomes EradiantE1 a large &ul& 0as still an advantage1 &ut a comparatively slig0t one1 over t0e small &ul&. Finally1 at e5cessively 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion1 M0ic0 cannot &e reac0ed e5cept &y t0e employment o# special means1 t0ere seems to &e1 &eyond a certain and rat0er small si2e o# vessel1 no percepti&le di##erence in t0e 0eating. $0ese o&servations Mere t0e result o# a num&er o# e5periments1 o# M0ic0 one1 s0oMing t0e e##ect o# t0e si2e o# t0e &ul& at a 0ig0 degree o# e50austion may &e descri&ed and s0oMn 0ere1 as it presents a #eature o# interest. $0ree sp0erical &ul&s o# 7 inc0es1 9 inc0es and . inc0es diameter Mere taken1 and in t0e centre o# eac0 Mas mounted an e'ual lengt0 o# an ordinary incandescent lamp #ilament o# uni#orm t0ickness. n eac0 &ul& t0e piece o# #ilament Mas #astened to t0e leading@in Mire o# platinum1 contained in a glass stem sealed in t0e &ul&6 care &eing taken1 o# course1 to make everyt0ing as nearly alike as possi&le. "n eac0 glass stem in t0e inside o# t0e &ul& Mas slipped a 0ig0ly polis0ed tu&e made o# aluminiun s0eet1 M0ic0 #itted t0e stem and Mas 0eld on it &y spring pressure. $0e #unction o# t0is aluminium tu&e Mill &e e5plained su&se'uently. n eac0 &ul& an e'ual lengt0 o# #ilament protruded a&ove t0e metal tu&e. t is su##icient to say noM t0at under t0ese conditions e'ual lengt0s o# #ilament o# t0e same t0ickness @@ in ot0er Mords1 &odies o# e'ual &ulk @@@ Mere &roug0t to incandescence. $0e t0ree &ul&s Mere sealed to a glass tu&e1 M0ic0 Mas connected to a Sprengel pump. W0en a 0ig0 vacuum 0ad &een reac0ed1 t0e glass tu&e carrying t0e &ul&s Mas sealed o##. A current Mas t0en turned on successively on eac0 &ul&1 and it Mas #ound t0at t0e #ilaments came to a&out t0e same &rig0tness1 and1 i# anyt0ing1 t0e smallest &ul&1 M0ic0 Mas placed midMay &etMeen t0e tMo larger ones1 may 0ave &een slig0tly &rig0ter. $0is result Mas e5pected1 #or M0en eit0er o# t0e &ul&s Mas connected to t0e coil t0e luminosity spread t0roug0 t0e ot0er tMo1 0ence t0e t0ree &ul&s constituted really one vessel. W0en all t0e t0ree &ul&s Mere connected in multiple arc to t0e coil1 in t0e largest o# t0em t0e #ilament gloMed &rig0test1 in t0e ne5t smaller it Mas a little less &rig0t1 and in t0e smallest it only came to redness. $0e &ul&s Mere t0en sealed o## and separately tried. $0e &rig0tness o# t0e #ilaments Mas noM suc0 as mould 0ave &een e5pected on t0e supposition t0at t0e energy given o## Mas proportionate to t0e sur#ace o# t0e &ul&1 t0is sur#ace in eac0 case representing one o# t0e coatings o# a condenser. Accordingly1 t0ere Mas less di##erence &etMeen t0e largest and t0e middle sited t0an &etMeen t0e latter and t0e smallest &ul&. An interesting o&servation Mas made in t0is e5periment. $0e t0ree &ul&s Mere suspended #rom a straig0t &are Mire connected to a terminal o# t0e coil1 t0e largest &ul& &eing placed at t0e end o# t0e Mire1 at some distance #rom it t0e smallest &ul&1 and an e'ual distance #rom t0e latter t0e middle@si2ed one. $0e car&ons gloMed t0en to &ot0 t0e larger &ul&s a&out as e5pected1 &ut t0e smallest did not get its s0are &y #ar. $0is o&servation led me to e5c0ange

* t0c position o# t0e &ul&s1 and t0en o&served t0at M0ic0ever o# t0e &ul&s Mas in t0e middle it Mas &y #ar less &rig0t t0an it Mas in any ot0er position. $0is mysti#ying result Mas1 o# course1 #ound to &e due to t0e electrostatic action &etMeen t0e &ul&s. W0en t0ey Mere placed at a considera&le distance1 or M0en t0ey Mere attac0ed to t0e corners o# an e'uilateral triangle o# copper Mire1 t0ey gloMed a&out in t0e order determined &y t0eir sur#aces. As to t0e s0ape o# t0e vessel1 it is also o# some importance1 especially at 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion. "# all t0e possi&le constructions1 it seems t0at a sp0erical glo&e Mit0 t0e re#ractory &ody mounted in its centre is t0e &est to employ. n e5perience it 0as &een demonstrated t0at in suc0 a glo&e a re#ractory &ody o# a given &ulk is more easily &roug0t to incandescence t0an M0en ot0erMise s0aped &ul&s are used. $0ere is also an advantage in giving to t0e incandescent &ody t0e s0ape o# a sp0ere1 #or sel#@evident reasons. n any case t0e &ody s0ould &e mounted in t0e centre1 M0ere t0e atoms re&ounding #rom t0e glass collide. $0is o&8ect is &est attained in t0e sp0erical &ul&6 &ut it is also attained in a cylindrical vessel Mit0 one or tMo straig0t #ilaments coinciding Mit0 its a5is1 and possi&ly also in para&olical or sp0erical &ul&s Mit0 t0e re#ractory &ody or &odies placed in t0e #ocus or #oci o# t0e same6 t0oug0 t0e latter is not pro&a&le1 as t0e electri#ied atoms s0ould in all cases re&ound normally #rom t0e sur#ace t0ey strike1 unless t0e speed Mere e5cessive1 in M0ic0 case t0ey Mould pro&a&ly #olloM t0e general laM o# re#lection. !o matter M0at s0ape t0e vessel may 0ave1 i# t0e e50austion &e loM1 a #ilament mounted in t0e glo&e is &roug0t to t0e same degree o# incandescence in all parts6 &ut i# t0e e50austion &e 0ig0 and t0e &ul& &e sp0erical or pear@s0aped1 as usual1 #ocal points #orm and t0e #ilament is 0eated to a 0ig0er degree at or near suc0 points. $o illustrate t0e e##ect1 0ave 0ere tMo small &ul&s M0ic0 are alike1 only one is e50austed to a loM and t0e ot0er to a very 0ig0 degree. W0en connected to t0e coil1 t0e #ilament in t0e #ormer gloMs uni#ormly t0roug0out all its lengt06 M0ereas in t0e latter1 t0at portion o# t0e #ilament M0ic0 is in t0e centre o# t0e &ul& gloMs #ar more intensely t0an t0e rest. A curious point is t0at t0e p0enomenon occurs even i# tMo #ilament4 are mounted in a &ul&1 eac0 &eing connected to one terminal o# t0e coil1 and1 M0at is still more curious1 i# t0ey &e very near toget0er1 provided t0e vacuum &e very 0ig0. noted in e5periments Mit0 suc0 &ul&s t0at t0e #ilaments Mould give May usually at a certain point1 and in t0e #irst trials attri&uted it to a de#ect in t0e car&on. But M0en t0at p0enomenon occurred many times in succession recogni2ed its real cause. n order to &ring a re#ractory &ody inclosed in a &ul& to incandescence1 it is desira&le1 on account o# economy1 t0at all t0e energy supplied to t0e &ul& #rom t0e source s0ould reac0 Mit0out lass t0e &ody to &e 0eated6 #rom t0ere1 and #rom noM0ere else1 it s0ould &e radiated. t is1 o# course1 out o# t0e 'uestion to reac0 t0is t0eoretical result1 &ut it is possi&le &y a proper construction o# t0e illuminating device to appro5imate it more or less. For many reasons1 t0e re#ractory &ody is placed in t0e centre o# t0e &ul& and it is usually supported on a glass stem containing t0e leading@in Mire. As t0e potential o# t0is Mire is alternated1 t0e rare#ied gas surrounding t0e stem is acted upon inductively1 and t0e glass stem is violently &om&arded and 0eated. n t0is manner &y #ar t0e greater portion o# t0e energy supplied to t0e &ul& @@ especially M0en e5ceedingly 0ig0 #re'uencies are used @@ may &e lost #or t0e purpose contemplated. $o o&viate t0is loss1 or at least to reduce it to a minimum1 usually screen t0e rare#ied gas surrounding t0e stem #rom t0e inductive action o# t0e leading@in Mire &y providing6 t0e stem Mit0 a tu&e or coating o# conducting material. t seems &eyond dou&t t0at t0e &est among metals to employ #or t0is purpose is aluminium1 on account o# its many remarka&le properties. ts only #ault is t0at it is easily #usi&le and1 t0ere#ore1 its distance #rom t0e incandescing4 &ody s0ould &e properly estimated. Usually1 a t0in tu&e1 o# a diameter someM0at smaller t0an t0at o# t0e glass stem1 is made o# t0e #inest aluminium s0eet1 and slipped on t0e stem. $0e tu&e is conveniently prepared &y Mrapping around a rod #astened in a lat0e a piece o# aluminium s0eet o# t0e proper si2e1 grasping t0e s0eet #irmly Mit0 clean c0amois leat0er or &lotting paper1 and spinning t0e rod very #ast. $0e s0eet is Mound tig0tly around t0e rod1 and a 0ig0ly polis0ed tu&e o# one or t0ree layers o# t0e s0eet is o&tained. W0en slipped on t0e stem1 t0e pressure is generally su##icient to prevent it #rom slipping o##1 &ut1 #or sa#ety1 t0e loMer edge o# t0e s0eet may &e turned inside. $0e upper inside corner o# t0e s0eet @@ t0at is1 t0e one M0ic0 is nearest to t0e re#ractory incandescent &ody @@ s0ould &e cut out diagonally1 as it o#ten 0appens t0at1 in conse'uence o# t0e intense 0eat1 t0is corner turns toMard t0e inside and comes very near to1 or in contact Mit01 t0e Mire1 or #ilament1 supporting t0e re#ractory &ody. $0e greater part o# t0e energy supplied to t0e &ul& is t0en used up in 0eating t0e metal tu&e1 and t0e &ul& is rendered useless #or t0e purpose. $0e aluminium s0eet s0ould pro8ect a&ove t0e glass stem more or less @@ one inc0 or so @@ or else1 i# t0e glass &e too close to t0e incandescing &ody1 it may &e strongly 0eated and &ecome more or less conducting1 M0ereupon it may &e ruptured1 or may1 &y its conductivity1 esta&lis0 a good electrical connection &etMeen t0e metal tu&e and t0e leadin'@in Mire1 in M0ic0 case1 again1 most o# t0e energy Mill &e lost in 0eating t0e #ormer. Per0aps t0e &est May is to make t0e top o# t0e glass tu&e #or a&out an inc01 o# a muc0 smaller diameter. $o still #urt0er reduce t0e danger arising #rom t0e 0eating o# t0e glass stem1 and also Mit0 t0e vieM o# preventing an electrical connection &etMeen t0e metal tu&e and t0e electrode1 pre#era&ly Mrap6 t0e stem Mit0 several layers o# t0in mica M0ic0 e5tends at least as #ar as t0e metal tu&e. n some &ul&s 0ave also used an outside insulating cover. $0e preceding remarks are only made to aid t0e e5perimenter in t0e #irst trials1 #or t0e di##iculties M0ic0 0e encounters 0e may soon #ind means to overcome in 0is oMn May. $o illustrate t0e e##ect o# t0e screen1 and t0e advantage o# using it1 0ave 0ere tMo &ul&s o# t0e same si2e1 Mit0

*. t0eir stems1 leading@in Mires and incandescent lamp #ilaments tied to t0e latter1 as nearly alike as possi&le. $0e stem o# one &ul& is provided Mit0 an aluminium tu&e1 t0e stem o# t0e ot0er 0as none. "riginally t0e tMo &ul&s Mere 8oined &y a tu&e M0ic0 Mas connected to a Sprengel pump. W0en a 0ig0 vacuum 0ad &een reac0ed1 #irst t0e connecting tu&e1 and t0en t0e &ul&s1 Mere sealed o##6 t0ey are t0ere#ore o# t0e same degree o# e50austion. W0en t0ey are separately connected to t0e coil giving a certain potential1 t0e car&on #ilament in t0e &ul& provided Mit0 t0e aluminium screen in rendered 0ig0ly incandescent1 M0ile t0e #ilament in t0e ot0er &ul& may1 Mit0 t0e same potential1 not even come to redness1 alt0oug0 in reality t0e latter &ul& takes generally more energy t0an t0e #ormer. W0en t0ey are &ot0 connected toget0er to t0e terminal1 t0e di##erence is even more apparent1 s0oMing t0e importance o# t0e screening. $0e metal tu&e placed in t0e stem containing t0e leading@in Mire per#orms really tMo distinct #unctions4 First1 it acts more or less as an electrostatic screen1 t0us economi2ing t0e energy supplied to t0e &ul&6 and1 second1 to M0atever e5tent it may #ail to act electrostatically1 it acts mec0anically1 preventing t0e &om&ardment1 and conse'uently intense 0eating and possi&le deterioration o# t0e slender support o# t0e re#ractory incandescent &ody1 or o# t0e glass stem containing t0e leading@in Mire. say slender support1 #or it is evident t0at in order to con#ine t0e 0eat more completely to t0e incandescing &ody its support s0ould &e very t0in1 so as to carry aMay t0e smallest possi&le amount o# 0eat &y conduction. "# all t0e supports used 0ave #ound an ordinary incandescent lamp #ilament to &e t0e &est1 principally &ecause among conductors it can Mit0stand t0e 0ig0est degrees o# 0eat. $0e e##ectiveness o# t0e metal tu&e as an electrostatic screen depends largely on t0e degree o# e50austion. At e5cessively 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion @@ M0ic0 are reac0ed &y using great care and special means in connection Mit0 t0e Sprengel pump @@ M0en t0e matter in t0e glo&e is in t0e ultra@radiant state1 it acts most per#ectly. $0e s0adoM o# t0e upper edge o# t0e tu&e is t0en s0arply de#ined upon t0e &ul&. At a someM0at loMer degree o# e50austion1 M0ic0 is a&out t0e ordinary Enon@ strikingE vacuum1 and generally as long as t0e matter moves predominantly in straig0t lines1 t0e screen still does Mell. n elucidation o# t0e preceding remark it is necessary to state t0at M0at is a Enon@strikingE vacuum #or a coil operated1 as ordinarily1 &y impulses1 or currents1 o# loM #re'uency1 is not1 &y #ar1 so M0en t0e coil is operated &y currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency. n suc0 case t0e disc0arge may pass Mit0 great #reedom t0roug0 t0e rare#ied gas t0roug0 M0ic0 a loM@#re'uency disc0arge may not pass1 even t0oug0 t0e potential &e muc0 0ig0er. At ordinary atmosp0eric pressures 8ust t0e reverse rule 0olds good4 t0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency1 t0e less t0e spark disc0arge is a&le to 8ump &etMeen t0e terminals1 especially i# t0ey are kno&s or sp0eres o# some site. Finally1 at very loM degrees o# e50austion1 M0en t0e gas is Mell conducting1 t0e metal tu&e not only does not act as an electrostatic screen1 &ut even is a draM&ack1 aiding to a considera&le e5tent t0e dissipation o# t0e energy laterally #rom t0e leading@in Mire. $0is1 o# course1 is to &e e5pected. n t0is case1 namely1 t0e metal tu&e is in good electrical connection Mit0 @t0e leading@in Mire1 and most o# t0e &om&ardment is directed upon t0e tu&e. As long as t0e electrical connection is not good1 t0e conducting tu&e is alMays o# some advantage #or alt0oug0 it may not greatly economi2e energy1 still it protects t0e support o# t0e re#ractory &utton1 and is a means #or concentrating more energy upon t0e same. $o M0atever e5tent t0e aluminium tu&e per#orms t0e #unction o# a screen1 its use#ulness is t0ere#ore limited to very 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion M0en it is insulated #rom t0e electrode @ t0at is1 M0en t0e gas as a M0ole is non@ conducting1 and t0e molecules1 or atoms1 act as independent carriers o# electric c0arges. n addition to acting as a more or less e##ective screen1 in t0e true meaning o# t0e Mord1 t0e conducting tu&e or coating may also act1 &y reason o# its conductivity1 as a sort o# e'uali2er or dampener o# t0e &om&ardment against t0e stem. $o &e e5plicit1 assume t0e action as #olloMs4 Suppose a r0yt0mical &om&ardment to occur against t0e conducting tu&e &y reason o# its imper#ect action as a screen1 it certainly must 0appen t0at some molecules1 or atoms1 strike t0e tu&e sooner t0an ot0ers. $0ose M0ic0 come #irst in contact Mit0 it give up t0eir super#luous c0arge1 and t0e tu&e is electri#ied1 t0e electri#ication instantly spreading over its sur#ace. But t0is must diminis01 t0e energy lost in t0e &om&ardment #or tMo reasons4 #irst1 t0e c0arge given up &y t0e atoms spreads over a great area1 and 0ence t0e electric density at any point is small1 and t0e atoms are re&elled Mit0 less energy t0an t0ey Mould &e i# t0ey Mould strike against a good insulator6 secondly1 as t0e tu&e is electri#ied &y t0e atoms M0ic0 #irst come in contact Mit0 it1 t0e progress o# t0e #olloMing atoms against t0e tu&e is more or less c0ecked &y1 t0e repulsion M0ic0 t0e electri#ied tu&e must e5ert upon t0e similarly electri#ied atoms. $0is repulsion may per0aps &e su##icient to prevent a large portion o# t0e atoms #rom striking t0e tu&e1 &ut at any rate it must diminis0 t0e energy o# t0eir impact. t is clear t0at M0en t0e e50austion is very loM1 and t0e rare#ied gas Mell conducting1 neit0er o# t0e a&ove e##ects can occur1 and1 on t0e ot0er 0and1 t0e #eMer t0e atoms1 Mit0 t0e greater #reedom t0ey move6 in ot0er Mords1 t0e 0ig0er t0e degree o# e50austion1 up to a limit1 t0e more telling Mill &e &ot0 t0e e##ects4 W0at 0ave 8ust said may a##ord an e5planation o# t0e p0enomenon o&served &y Pro#. Crookes1 namely1 t0at a disc0arge t0roug0 a &ul& is esta&lis0ed Mit0 muc0 greater #acility M0en an insulator t0an M0en a conductor is present in t0e same. n my opinion1 t0e conductor acts as a dampener o# t0e motion o# t0e atoms in t0e tMo Mays pointed out6 0ence1 to cause a visi&le disc0arge to pass t0roug0 t0e &ul&1 a muc0 0ig0er potential is needed i# a conductor1 especially o# many sur#aces1 &e present.

*1

For t0e sake o# clearness o# some o# t0e remarks &e#ore made1 must noM re#er to Figs. +>1 +,1 and 7=1 M0ic0 illustrate various arrangements Mit0 a type o# &ul& most generally used. Fig. l> is a section t0oug0 a sp0erical &ul& :1 Mit0 t0e glass stem s1 containing t0e leading@in Mire M1 M0ic0 0as a lamp #ilament + #astened to it1 serving to support t0e re#ractory &utton m in t0e centre. B is a s0eet o# t0in mica Mound in several layers around t0e stem s1 and a is t0e aluminium tu&e. Fig. l, illustrates suc0 a &ul& in a someM0at more advanced stage o# per#ection. A metallic tu&e S is #astened &y means o# some cement to t0e neck o# t0e tu&e. n t0e tu&e is screMed a plug P1 o# insulating material1 in t0e centre o# M0ic0 is #astened a metallic terminal t1 #or t0e connection to t0e lead@in Mire M. $0is terminal must &e Mell insulated #rom t0e metal tu&e S1 t0ere#ore1 i# t0e cement used is conducting and most generally it is su##iciently so @@ t0e space &etMeen t0e plug P and t0e neck o# t0e &ul& s0ould &e #illed Mit0 some good insulating material1 as mica poMder.

Fig. 7= s0oMs a &ul& made #or e5perimental purposes. n t0is &ul& t0e aluminium tu&e is provided Mit0 an e5ternal connection1 M0ic0 serves to investigate t0e e##ect o# t0e tu&e under various conditions. t is re#erred to c0ie#ly to suggest a line o# e5periment #olloMed. Since t0e &om&ardment against t0e stem containing t0e leading@in Mire is due to t0e inductive action o# t0e latter upon t0e rare#ied gas1 it is o# advantage to reduce t0is action as #ar as practica&le &y employing a very t0in Mire1 surrounded &y a very t0ick insulation o# glass or ot0er material1 and &y making t0e Mire passing t0roug0 t0e rare#ied gas as s0ort as practica&le. $o com&ine t0ese #eatures employ a large tu&e $ *Fig. 7+/1 M0ic0 protrudes

*6 into t0e &ul& to some distance1 and carries on t0e top a very s0ort glass stem s1 into M0ic0 is sealed t0e leading@in Mire M1 and protect t0e top o# t0e glass stem against t0e 0eat &y a small1 aluminium tu&e a and a layer o# mica underneat0 t0e same1 as usual. $0e Mire M1 passing t0roug0 t0e large tu&e to t0e outside o# t0e &ul&1 s0ould &e Mell insulated @@ Mit0 a glass tu&e1 #or instance @@ and t0e space &etMeen oug0t to &e #illed out Mit0 some e5cellent insulator. Among many insulating poMders 0ave tried1 0ave #ound t0at mica poMder is t0e &est to employ. # t0is precaution is not taken1 t0e tu&e $1 protruding into t0e &ul&1 Mill surely &e cracked in conse'uence oU t0e 0eating &y t0e &rus0es M0ic0 are apt to #orm in t0e upper part o# t0e tu&e1 near t0e e50austed glo&e1 especially i# t0e vacuum &e e5cellent1 and t0ere#ore t0e potential necessary to operate t0e lamp very 0ig0.

Fig. 77 illustrates a similar arrangement1 Mit0 a large tu&e $ protruding into t0e part o# t0e &ul& containing t0e re#ractory &utton m. n t0is case t0e Mire leading #rom t0e outside into t0e &ul& is omitted1 t0e energy re'uired &eing supplied t0roug0 condenser coatings C C. $0e insulating packing P s0ould in t0is construction &e tig0tly #itting to t0e glass1 and rat0er Mide1 or ot0erMise t0e disc0arge mig0t avoid passing t0roug0 t0e Mire M1 M0ic0 connects t0e inside condenser coating to t0e incandescent &utton m. $0e molecular &om&ardment against t0e glass stem in t0e &ul& is a source o# great trou&le. As illustration Mill cite a p0enomenon only too #re'uently and unMillingly o&served. A &ul&1 pre#era&ly a large one1 may &e taken1 and a good conducting &ody1 suc0 as a piece o# car&on1 may &e mounted in it upon a platinum Mire sealed in t0c glass stem. $0e &ul& may &e e50austed to a #airly 0ig0 degree1 nearly to t0e point M0en p0osp0orescence &egins to appear. W0en t0e &ul& is connected Mit0 t0e coil1 t0e piece o# car&on1 i# small1 may &ecome 0ig0ly incandescent at #irst1 &ut its &rig0tness immediately diminis0es1 and t0en t0e disc0arge may &reak t0roug0 t0e glass someM0ere in t0e middle o# t0e stem1 in t0e #orm o# &rig0t sparks1 in spite o# t0e #act t0at t0e platinum Mire is in good electrical connection Mit0 t0e rare#ied gas t0roug0 t0e piece o# car&on or metal at t0e top. $0e #irst sparks are singularly &rig0t1 recalling t0ose draMn #rom a clear sur#ace o# mercury. But1 as t0ey 0eat t0e glass rapidly1 t0ey1 o# course1 lose t0eir &rig0tness1 and cease M0en t0e glass at t0e ruptured place &ecomes incandescent1 or generally su##iciently 0ot to conduct. W0en o&served #or t0e #irst time t0e p0enomenon must appear very curious1 and s0oMs in a striking manner 0oM radically di##erent alternate currents1 or impulses1 o# 0ig0 #re'uency &e0ave1 as compared Mit0 steady currents1 or currents o# loM #re'uency. Wit0 suc0 currents @ namely1 t0e latter @@ t0e p0enomenon Mould o# course not occur. W0en #re'uencies suc0 as are o&tained &y mec0anical means are used1 t0ink t0at t0e rupture o# t0e glass is more or less t0e conse'uence o# t0e &om&ardment1 M0ic0 Marms it up and impairs its insulating poMer6 &ut Mit0 #re'uencies o&taina&le Mit0 condensers 0ave no dou&t t0at t0e glass may give May Mit0out previous 0eating. Alt0oug0 t0is appears most singular at #irst1 it is in reality M0at Me mig0t e5pect to occur. $0e energy supplied to t0e Mire leading into t0e &ul& is given o## partly &y direct action t0roug0 t0e car&on &utton1 and party &y inductive action t0roug0 t0e glass surrounding t0e Mire. $0e case is t0us analogous to t0at in M0ic0 a condenser s0unted &y a conductor o# loM resistance is connected to a source o# alternating currents. As long as t0e #re'uencies are loM1 t0e conductor gets t0e most1 and t0e condenser is per#ectly sa#e6 &ut M0en t0e #re'uency &ecomes e5cessive1 t0e role o# t0e conductor may &ecome 'uite insigni#icant. n t0e latter case t0e di##erence o# potential at t0e terminals o# t0e condenser may &ecome so great as to rupture t0e dielectric1 notMit0standing t0e #act t0at t0e terminals are 8oined &y a conductor o# loM resistance. t is1 o# course1 not necessary1 M0en it is desired to produce t0e incandescence o# a &ody inclosed in a &ul& &y means o# t0ese currents1 t0at t0e &ody s0ould &e a conductor1 #or even a per#ect non@conductor may &e 'uite as readily 0eated. For t0is purpose it is su##icient to surround a conducting electrode Mit0 a non@conducting material1

*3 as1 #or instance1 in t0e &ul& descri&ed &e#ore in Fig. 7+1 in M0ic0 a t0in incandescent lamp #ilament is coated Mit0 a non@conductor1 and supports a &utton o# t0e same material on t0e top. At t0e start t0e &om&ardment goes on &y inductive action t0roug0 t0e non@conductor1 until t0e same is su##iciently 0eated to &ecome conducting1 t0en t0e &om&ardment continues in t0e ordinary May. A di##erent arrangement used in some o# t0e &ul&s constructed is illustrated in Fig. 79. n t0is instance a non@ conductor m is mounted in a piece o# common arc lig0t car&on so as to pro8ect some small distance a&ove t0e latter. $0e car&on piece is connected to t0e leading@in Mire passing t0roug0 a glass stem1 M0ic0 is Mrapped Mit0 several layers o# mica. An aluminium tu&e a is employed as usual #or screening. t is so arranged t0at it reac0es very nearly as 0ig0 as t0e car&on and only t0e non@conductor m pro8ects a little a&ove it. $0e &om&ardment goes at #irst against t0e upper sur#ace o# car&on1 t0e loMer parts &eing protected &y t0e aluminium tu&e. As soon1 0oMever1 as t0e non@conductor m is 0eated it is rendered good conducting1 and t0en it &ecomes t0e centre o# t0e &om&ardment1 &eing most e5posed to t0e same.

0ave also constructed during t0ese e5periments many suc0 single@Mire &ul&s Mit0 or Mit0out internal electrode1 in M0ic0 t0e radiant matter Mas pro8ected against1 or #ocused upon1 t0e &ody to &e rendered incandescent. Fig. 7. illustrates one o# t0e &ul&s used. t consists o# a sp0erical glo&e :1 provided Mit0 a long neck n1 on t0e top1 #or increasing t0e action in some cases &y t0e application o# an e5ternal conducting coating. $0e glo&e : is &loMn out on t0e &ottom into a very small &ul& &1 M0ic0 serves to 0old it #irmly in a socket S o# insulating material into M0ic0 it is cemented. A #ine lamp #ilament #1 supported on a Mire M1 passes t0roug0 t0e centre o# #ilament is rendered incandescent n t0e middle portion1 M0ere t0e &om&ardment proceeding #rom t0e loMer inside sur#ace o# t0e glo&e is most intense. $0e loMer portion o# t0e glo&e1 as #ar as t0e socket S reac0es1 is rendered conducting1 eit0er &y g tin#oil coating or ot0erMise1 and t0e e5ternal electrode is connected to a terminal o# t0e coil. $0e arrangement diagrammatically indicated in Fig. 7. Mas #ound to &e an in#erior one M0en it Mas desired to render incandescent a #ilament or &utton supported in t0e centre o# t0e glo&e1 &ut it Mas convenient M0en t0e o&8ect Mas to e5cite p0osp0orescence. n many e5periments in M0ic0 &odies o# a di##erent kind Mere mounted in t0e &ul& as1 #or instance1 indicated in Fig. 791 some o&servations o# interest Mere made.

*8 t Mas #ound1 among ot0er t0ings1 t0at in suc0 cases1 no matter M0ere t0e &om&ardment &egan1 8ust as soon as a 0ig0 temperature Mas reac0ed t0ere Mas generally one o# t0e &odies M0ic0 seemed to take most o# t0e &om&ardment upon itsel#1 t0e ot0er1 or ot0ers1 &eing t0ere&y relieved. $0is 'uality appeared to depend principally on t0e point o# #usion1 and on t0e #acility Mit0 M0ic0 t0e &ody Mas evaporated1 or1 generally speaking1 disintegrated@@ meaning &y t0e latter term not only t0e t0roMing o## o# atoms1 &ut likeMise o# larger lumps. $0e o&servation made Mas in accordance Mit0 generally accepted notions. n a 0ig0ly e50austed &ul& electricity is carried o## #rom t0e electrode &y independent carriers1 M0ic0 are partly t0e atoms1 or molecules1 o# t0e residual atmosp0ere1 and partly t0e atoms1 molecules1 or lumps t0roMn o## #rom t0e electrode. # t0e electrode is composed o# &odies o# di##erent c0aracter1 and i# one o# t0ese is more easily disintegrated t0an t0e ot0ers1 most o# t0e electricity supplied is carried o## #rom t0at &ody1 M0ic0 is t0en &roug0t to a 0ig0er temperature t0an t0e ot0ers1 and t0is t0e more1 as upon an increase o# t0e temperature t0e &ody is still more easily disintegrated. t seems to me 'uite pro&a&le t0at a similar process takes place in t0e &ul& even Mit0 a 0omogenous electrode1 and t0ink it to &e t0e principal cause o# t0e disintegration. $0ere is &ound to &e some irregularity1 even i# t0e sur#ace is 0ig0ly polis0ed1 M0ic01 o# course1 is impossi&le Mit0 most o# t0e re#ractory &odies employed as electrodes. Assume t0at a point o# t0e electrode gets 0otter1 instantly most o# t0e disc0arge passes t0roug0 t0at point1 and a minute patc0 is pro&a&ly #used and evaporated. t is noM possi&le t0at in conse'uence o# t0e violent disintegration t0e spot attacked sinks in temperature1 or t0at a counter #orce is created1 as in an arc6 at any rate1 t0e local tearing o## meets Mit0 t0e limitations incident to t0e e5periment1 M0ere upon t0e same process occurs on anot0er place. $o t0e eye t0e electrode appears uni#ormly &rilliant1 &ut t0ere are upon it points constantly s0i#ting and Mandering around1 o# a temperature #ar a&ove t0e mean1 and t0is materially 0astens t0e process o# deterioration. $0at some suc0 t0ing occurs1 at least M0en t0e electrode is at a loMer temperature1 su##icient e5perimental evidence can &e o&tained in t0e #olloMing manner4 E50aust a &ul& to a very 0ig0 degree1 so t0at Mit0 a #airly 0ig0 potential t0e disc0arge cannot pass @@ t0at is1 not a luminous one1 #or a Meak invisi&le disc0arge occurs alMays1 in all pro&a&ility. !oM raise sloMly and care#ully t0e potential1 leaving t0e primary current on no mote t0an #or an instant. At a certain point1 tMo1 t0ree1 or 0al# a do2en p0osp0orescent spots mill appear on t0e glo&e. $0ese places o# t0e glass are evidently mote violently &om&arded t0an ot0ers1 t0is &eing due to t0e unevenly distri&uted electric density1 necessitated1 o# course1 &y s0arp pro8ections1 or1 generally speaking1 irregularities o# t0e electrode. +9ut t0e luminous patc0es are constantly c0anging in position1 M0ic0 is especially Mell o&serva&le i# one manages to produce very #eM1 and t0is indicates t0at t0e con#iguration o# t0e electrode is rapidly c0anging. From e5periences o# t0is kind am led to in#er t0at1 in order to &e most dura&le1 t0e re#ractory &utton in t0e &ul& s0ould &e in t0e #orm o# a sp0ere Mit0 a 0ig0ly polis0ed sur#ace. Suc0 a small sp0ere could &e manu#actured #rom a diamond or some ot0er crystal1 &ut a &etter May Mould &e to #use1 &y t0e employment o# e5treme degrees o# temperature1 some o5ide @ as1 #or instance1 2irconia @@ into a small drop1 and t0en keep it in t0e &ul& at a temperature someM0at &eloM its point o# #usion. nteresting and use#ul results can no dou&t &e reac0ed in t0e direction o# e5treme degrees o# 0eat. LoM can suc0 0ig0 temperatures &e arrived atO LoM are t0e 0ig0est degrees o# 0eat reac0ed in natureO By t0e impact o# stars1 &y 0ig0 speeds and collisions. n a collision any rate o# 0eat generation may &e attained. n a c0emical process Me are limited. W0en o5ygen and 0ydrogen com&ine1 t0ey #all1 metap0orically speaking1 #rom a de#inite 0eig0t. We cannot go very #ar Mit0 a &last1 nor &y con#ining 0eat in a #urnace1 &ut in an e50austed &ul& Me can concentrate any amount o# energy upon a minute &utton. :eaving practica&ility out o# consideration1 t0is1 t0en1 Mould &e t0e means M0ic01 in my opinion1 Mould ena&le us to reac0 t0e 0ig0est temperature. But a great di##iculty M0en proceeding in t0is May is encountered1 namely1 in most cases t0e &ody is carried o## &e#ore it can #use and #orm a drop. $0is di##iculty e5ists principally Mit0 an o5ide suc0 as 2irconia1 &ecause it cannot &e compressed in so 0ard a cake t0at it Mould not &e carried o## 'uickly. endeavored repeatedly to #use 2irconia1 placing it in a cup or arc lig0t car&on as indicated in Fig. 79. t gloMed Mit0 a most intense lig0t1 and t0e stream o# t0e particles pro8ected out o# t0e car&on cup Mas o# a vivid M0ite6 &ut M0et0er it Mas compressed in a cake oU made into a paste Mit0 car&on1 it Mas carried o## &e#ore it could &e #used. $0e car&on cup containing t0e 2irconia 0ad to &e mounted very loM in t0e neck o# a large &ul&1 as t0e 0eating o# t0e glass &y t0e pro8ected particles o# t0e o5ide Mas so rapid t0at in t0e #irst trial t0e &ul& Mas cracked almost in an instant M0en t0e current Mas turned on. $0e 0eating o# t0e glass &y t0e pro8ected particles Mas #ound to &e alMays greater M0en t0e car&on cup contained a &ody M0ic0 Mas rapidly carried o## @@ presume &ecause in suc0 cases1 Mit0 t0e same potential1 0ig0er speeds Mere reac0ed1 and also &ecause1 per unit o# time1 more matter Mas pro8ected @@ t0at is1 more particles Mould strike t0e glass. $0e &e#ore mentioned di##iculty did not e5ist1 0oMever1 M0en t0e &ody mounted in t0e car&on cup o##ered great resistance to deterioration. For instance1 M0en an o5ide Mas #irst #used in an o5ygen &last and t0en mounted in t0e &ul&1 it melted very readily into a drop. Generally during t0e process o# #usion magni#icent lig0t e##ects Mere noted1 o# M0ic0 it Mould &e di##icult to give an ade'uate idea. Fig. 79 is intended to illustrate t0e e##ect o&served Mit0 a ru&y drop. At #irst one may see a narroM #unnel o# M0ite lig0t pro8ected against t0e top o# t0e glo&e1 M0ere it produces an irregularly outlined p0osp0orescent patc0. W0en t0e point o# t0e ru&y #uses t0e p0osp0orescence &ecomes very poMer#ul6 &ut as t0e atoms are pro8ected Mit0 muc0 greater speed #rom t0e sur#ace o# t0e drop1 soon t0e glass gets 0ot and EtiredE1 and

** noM only t0e outer edge o# t0e patc0 gloMs. n t0is manner an intensely p0osp0orescent1 s0arply de#ined line1 corresponding to t0e outline o# t0e drop1 is produced1 M0ic0 spreads sloMly4 over t0e glo&e as t0e drop gets larger. W0en t0e mass &egins to &oil1 small &u&&les and cavities are #ormed1 M0ic0 cause dark colored spots to sMeep across t0e glo&e. $0e &ul& may &e turned doMnMard Mit0out #ear o# t0e drop #alling o##1 as t0e mass possesses considera&le viscosity. may mention 0ere anot0er #eature o# some interest1 M0ic0 &elieve to 0ave noted in t0e course o# t0ese e5periments1 t0oug0 t0e o&servations do not amount to a certitude. t appeared t0at under t0e molecular impact caused &y t0e rapidly alternating potential t0e &ody Mas #used and maintained in t0at state at a loMer temperature in a 0ig0ly e50austed &ul& t0an Mas t0e case at normal pressure and application o# 0eat in t0e ordinary May @@ t0at is1 at least1 8udging #rom t0e 'uantity o# t0e lig0t emitted. "ne o# t0e e5periments per#ormed may &e mentioned 0ere &y May o# illustration. A small piece o# pumice stone Mas stuck on a platinum Mire1 and #irst melted to it in a gas &urner. $0e Mire Mas ne5t placed &etMeen tMo pieces o# c0arcoal and a &urner applied so as to produce an intense 0eat1 su##icient to melt doMn t0e pumice stone into a small glass@like &utton. $0e platinum Mire 0ad to &e taken o# su##icient t0ickness to prevent its melting in t0e #ire. W0ile in t0e c0arcoal #ire1 or M0en 0eld in a &urner to get a &etter idea o# t0e degree o# 0eat1 t0e &utton gloMed Mit0 great &rilliancy. $0e Mire Mit0 t0e &utton Mas t0en mounted in a &ul&1 and upon e50austing t0e same to a 0ig0 degree1 t0e current Mas turned on sloMly so as to prevent t0e cracking o# t0e &utton. $0e &utton Mas 0eated to t0e point o# #usion1 and M0en it melted it did not1 apparently1 gloM Mit0 t0e same &rilliancy as &e#ore1 and t0is Mould indicate a loMer temperature. :eaving out o# consideration t0e o&serverPs possi&le1 and even pro&a&le1 error1 t0e 'uestion is1 can a &ody under t0ese conditions &e &roug0t #rom a solid to a li'uid state Mit0 evolution o# less lig0tO W0en t0e potential o# a &ody is rapidly alternated it is certain t0at t0e structure is 8arred. W0en t0e potential is very 0ig01 alt0oug0 t0e vi&rations may &e #eM @@ say 7=1=== per second @@ t0e e##ect upon t0e structure may &e considera&le. Suppose1 #or e5ample1 t0at a ru&y is melted into a drop &y a steady application o# energy. W0en it #orms a drop it Mill emit visi&le and invisi&le Maves1 M0ic0 Mill &e in a de#inite ratio1 and to t0e eye t0e drop Mill appear to &e o# a certain &rilliancy. !e5t1 suppose Me diminis0 to any degree Me c0oose t0e energy steadily supplied1 and1 instead1 supply energy M0ic0 rises and #alls according to a certain laM. !oM1 M0en t0e drop is #ormed1 t0ere Mill &e emitted #rom it t0ree di##erent kinds o# vi&rations @@ t0e ordinary visi&le1 and tMo kinds o# invisi&le Maves4 t0at is1 t0e ordinary dark Maves o# all lengt0s1 and1 in addition1 Maves o# a Mell@de#ined c0aracter. $0e latter Mould not e5ist &y a steady supply o# t0e energy6 still t0ey 0elp to 8ar and loosen t0e structure. # t0is really &e t0e case1 t0en t0e ru&y drop Mill emit relatively less visi&le and more invisi&le Maves t0an &e#ore. $0us it Mould seem t0at M0en a platinum Mire1 #or instance1 is #used &y currents alternating Mit0 e5treme rapidity1 it emits at t0e point o# #usion less lig0t and more invisi&le radiation t0an it does M0en melted &y a steady current1 t0oug0 t0e total energy used up in t0e process o# #usion is t0e same in &ot0 cases1 "r1 to cite anot0er e5ample1 a lamp #ilament is not capa&le o# Mit0standing as long Mit0 currents o# e5treme #re'uency as it does Mit0 steady currents1 assuming t0at it &e Morked at t0e same luminous intensity. $0is means t0at #or rapidly alternating currents t0e #ilament s0ould &e s0orter and t0icker. $0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency @@ t0at is1 t0e greater t0e departure #rom t0e steady #loM @@ t0e Morse it Mould &e #or t0e #ilament. But i# t0e trut0 o# t0is remark Mere demonstrated1 it Mould &e erroneous to conclude t0at suc0 a re#ractory &utton as used in t0ese &ul&s Mould &e deteriorated 'uicker &y currents o# e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uency t0an &y steady or loM #re'uency currents. From e5perience may say t0at 8ust t0e opposite 0olds good4 t0e &utton Mit0stands t0e &om&ardment &etter Mit0 currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency. But t0is is due to t0e #act t0at a 0ig0 #re'uency disc0arge passes t0roug0 a rare#ied gas Mit0 muc0 greater #reedom t0an a steady or loM #re'uency disc0arge1 and t0is Mill say t0at Mit0 t0e #ormer Me can Mork Mit0 a loMer potential or Mit0 a less violent impact. As long1 t0en1 as t0e gas is o# no conse'uence1 a steady or loM #re'uency current is &etter6 &ut as soon as t0e action o# t0e gas is desired and important1 0ig0 #re'uencies are pre#era&le. n t0e course o# t0ese e5periments a great many trials Mere made Mit0 all kinds o# car&on &uttons. Electrodes made o# ordinary car&on &uttons Mere decidedly more dura&le M0en t0e &uttons Mere o&tained &y t0e application o# enormous pressure. Electrodes prepared &y depositing car&on in Mell knoMn Mays did not s0oM up Mell6 t0ey &lackened t0e glo&e very 'uickly. From many e5periencies conclude t0at lamp #ilaments o&tained in t0is manner can &e advantageously used only Mit0 loM potentials and loM #re'uency currents. Some kinds o# car&on Mit0stand so Mell t0at1 in order to &ring t0em to t0e point o# #usion1 it is necessary to employ very small &uttons. n t0is case t0e o&servation is rendered very di##icult on account o# t0e intense 0eat produced. !evert0eless t0ere can &e no dou&t t0at all kinds o# car&on are #used under t0e molecular &om&ardment1 &ut t0e li'uid state must &e one o# great insta&ility. "# all t0e &odies tried t0ere Mere tMo M0ic0 Mit0stood &est @@ diamond and car&orundum. $0ese tMo s0oMed up a&out e'ually1 &ut t0e latter Mas pre#era&le1 #or many reasons. As it is more t0an likely t0at t0is &ody is not yet generally knoMn1 Mill venture to call your attention to it. t 0as &een recently produced &y Br. E. G. Ac0eson1 o# Bononga0ela City1 Pa.1 U. S. A. t is intended to replace ordinary diamond poMder #or polis0ing precious stones1 etc.1 and 0ave &een in#ormed t0at it accomplis0es t0is o&8ect 'uite success#ully. do not knoM M0y t0e name Ecar&orundumE 0as &een given to it1 unless t0ere is somet0ing in t0e process o# its manu#acture M0ic0 8usti#ies t0is selection. $0roug0 t0e kindness o# t0e inventor1 o&tained a s0ort M0ile ago some samples M0ic0 desired to test in regard to t0eir 'ualities o# p0osp0orescence and capa&ility o# Mit0standing 0ig0 degrees o# 0eat.

100 Car&orundum can &e o&tained in tMo #orms @ in t0e #orm o# EcrystalsE and o# poMder. $0e #ormer appear to t0e naked eye dark colored1 &ut are very &rilliant6 t0e latter is o# neatly t0e same color as ordinary diamond poMder1 &ut very muc0 #iner. W0en vieMed under a microscope t0e samples o# crystals given to me did not appear to 0ave any de#inite #orm1 &ut rat0er resem&led pieces o# &roken up egg coal o# #ine 'uality. $0e ma8ority Mere opa'ue1 &ut t0ere Mere some M0ic0 Mere transparent and colored. $0e crystals are a kind o# car&on containing some impurities6 t0ey are e5tremely 0ard1 and Mit0stand #or a long time even an o5ygen &last. W0en t0e &last is directed against t0em t0ey at #irst #orm a cake o# some compactness1 pro&a&ly in conse'uence o# t0e #usion o# impurities t0ey contain. $0e mass Mit0stands #or a very long time t0e &last Mit0out #urt0er #usion6 &ut a sloM carrying o##1 or &urning1 occurs1 and1 #inally1 a small 'uantity o# a glass@like residue is le#t1 M0ic01 suppose1 is melted alumina. W0en compressed strongly t0ey conduct very Mell1 &ut not as Mell as ordinary car&on. $0e poMder1 M0ic0 is o&tained #rom t0e crystals in some May1 is practically non@conducting. t a##ords a magni#icent polis0ing material #or stones. $0e time 0as &een too s0ort to make a satis#actory study o# t0e properties o# t0is product1 &ut enoug0 e5perience 0as &een gained in a #eM Meeks 0ave e5perimented upon it to say t0at it does possess some remarka&le properties in many respects. t Mit0stands e5cessively 0ig0 degrees o# 0eat1 it is little deteriorated &y molecular &om&ardment1 and it does not &lacken t0e glo&e as ordinary car&on does. $0e only di##iculty M0ic0 0ave #ound in its use in connection Mit0 t0ese e5periments Mas to #ind some &inding material M0ic0 Mould resist t0e 0eat and t0e e##ect o# t0e &om&ardment as success#ully as car&orundum itsel# does. 0ave 0ere a num&er o# &ul&s M0ic0 0ave provided Mit0 &uttons o# car&orundum. $o make suc0 a &utton o# car&orundum crystals proceed in t0e #olloMing manner4 take an ordinary lamp #ilament and dip its point in tar1 or some ot0er t0ick su&stance or paint M0ic0 may &e readily car&oni2ed. ne5t pass t0e point o# t0e #ilament t0roug0 t0e crystals1 and t0en 0old it vertically over a 0ot plate. $0e tar so#tens and #orms a drop on t0e point o# t0e #ilament1 t0e crystals ad0ering to t0e sur#ace o# t0e drop. By regulating t0e distance #rom t0e plate t0e tar is sloMly dried out and t0e &utton &ecomes solid. t0en once more dip t0e &utton in tar and 0old it again over a plate until t0e tar is evaporated1 leaving only a 0ard mass M0ic0 #irmly &inds t0e crystals. W0en a larger &utton is re'uired repeat t0e process several times1 and generally also cover t0e #ilament a certain distance &eloM t0e &utton Mit0 crystals. $0e &utton &eing mounted in a &ul&1 M0en a good vacuum 0as &een reac0ed1 #irst a Meak and t0en a strong disc0arge is passed t0roug0 t0e &ul& to car&oni2e t0e tar and e5pel all gases1 and later it is &roug0t to a very intense incandescence. W0en t0e poMder is used 0ave #ound it &est to proceed as #olloMs4 make a t0ick paint o# car&orundum and tar1 and pass a lamp #ilament t0roug0 t0e paint. $aking t0en most o# t0e paint o## &y ru&&ing t0e #ilament against a piece o# c0amois leat0er1 0old it over a 0ot plate until t0e tar evaporates and t0e coating &ecomes #irm. repeat t0is process as many times as it is necessary to o&tain a certain t0ickness o# coating. "n t0e point o# t0e coated #ilament #orm a &utton in t0e same manner. $0ere is no dou&t t0at suc0 a &utton @@ properly prepared under great pressure @@ o# car&orundum1 especially o# poMder o# t0e &est 'uality1 Mill Mit0stand t0e e##ect o# t0e &om&ardment #ully as Mell as anyt0ing Me knoM. $0e di##iculty is t0at t0e &inding material gives May1 and t0e car&orundum is sloMly t0roMn o## a#ter some time. As it does not seem to &lacken t0e glo&e in t0e least1 it mig0t &e #ound use#ul #or coating t0e #ilaments o# ordinary ncandescent lamps1 and t0ink t0at it is even possi&le to produce t0in t0reads or sticks o# car&orundum M0ic0 Mill replace t0e ordinary #ilaments in an incandescent lamp. A car&orundum coating seems to &e more dura&le t0an ot0er coatings1 not only &ecause t0e car&orundum can Mit0stand 0ig0 degrees o# 0eat1 &ut also &ecause it seems to unite Mit0 t0e car&on &etter t0an any ot0er material 0ave tried. A coating o# 2irconia or any ot0er o5ide1 #or instance1 is #ar more 'uickly destroyed. prepared &uttons o# diamond dust in t0e same manner as o# car&orundum1 and t0ese came in dura&ility nearest to t0ose prepared o# car&orundum1 &ut t0e &inding paste gave May muc0 more 'uickly in t0e diamond &uttons4 t0is1 0oMever1 attri&uted to t0e site and irregularity o# t0e grains o# t0e diamond. t Mas o# interest to #ind M0et0er car&orundum possesses t0e 'uality o# p0osp0orescence. "ne is1 o# course1 prepared to encounter tMo di##iculties4 #irst1 as regards t0e roug0 product1 t0e EcrystalsE1 t0ey are good conducting1 and it is a #act t0at conductors do not p0osp0oresce6 second1 t0e poMder1 &eing e5ceedingly #ine1 Mould not &e apt to e50i&it very prominently t0is 'uality1 since Me knoM t0at M0en crystals1 even suc0 as diamond or ru&y1 are #inely poMdered1 t0ey lose t0e property o# p0osp0orescence to a considera&le degree. $0e 'uestion presents itsel# 0ere1 can a conductor p0osp0oresceR W0at is t0ere in suc0 a &ody as a metal1 #or instance1 t0at Mould deprive it o# t0e 'uality o# p0osp0orescence1 unless it is t0at property M0ic0 c0aracteri2es it as a conductorR For it is a #act t0at most o# t0e p0osp0orescent &odies lose t0at 'uality M0en t0ey are su##iciently 0eated to &ecome more or less conducting. $0en1 i# a metal &e in a large measure1 or per0aps entirely deprived o# t0at property1 it s0ould &e capa&le o# p0osp0orescence. $0ere#ore it is 'uite possi&le t0at at some e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uency1 M0en &e0aving practically as a non@conductor1 a metal o# any ot0er conductor mig0t e50i&it t0e 'uality o# p0osp0orescence1 even t0oug0 it &e entirely incapa&le o# p0osp0orescing under t0e impact o# a loM@#re'uency disc0arge. $0ere is1 0oMever1 anot0er possi&le May 0oM a conductor mig0t at least appear to p0osp0oresce. Considera&le dou&t still e5ists as to M0at really is p0osp0orescence1 and as to M0et0er t0e various p0enomena

101 comprised under t0is 0ead are due to t0e same causes. Suppose t0at in an e50austed &ul&1 under t0e molecular impact1 t0e sur#ace o# a piece o# metal or ot0er conductor is rendered strongly luminous1 &ut at t0e same time it is #ound t0at it remains comparatively cool1 Mould not t0is luminosity &e called p0osp0orescenceO !oM suc0 a result1 t0eoretically at least1 is possi&le1 #or it is a mere 'uestion o# potential o# speed. Assume t0e potential o# t0e electrode1 and conse'uently t0e speed o# t0e pro8ected atoms1 to &e su##iciently 0ig01 t0e sur#ace o# t0e metal piece against M0ic0 t0e atoms are pro8ected Mould &e rendered 0ig0ly incandescent1 since t0e process o# 0eat generation Mould &e incompati&ly #aster t0an t0at o# radiating or conducting aMay #rom t0e sur#ace o# t0e collision. n t0e eye o# t0e o&server a single impact o# t0e atoms Mould cause an instantaneous #las01 &ut i# t0e impact Mere repeated Mit0 su##icient rapidity t0ey Mould produce a continuous impression upon 0is retina. $o 0im t0en t0e sur#ace o# t0e metal Mould appear continuously incandescent and o# constant luminous intensity1 M0ile in reality t0e lig0t Mould &e eit0er intermittent or at least c0anging periodically in intensity. $0e metal piece Mould rise in temperature until e'uili&rium Mas attained @@ t0at is1 until t0e energy continuously radiated Mould e'ual t0at intermittently supplied. But t0e supplied energy mig0t under suc0 conditions not &e su##icient to &ring t0e &ody to any more t0an a very moderate mean temperature1 especially i# t0e #re'uency o# t0e atomic impacts &e very loM @@ 8ust enoug0 t0at t0e #luctuation o# t0e intensity o# t0e lig0t emitted could not &e detected &y t0e eye. $0e &ody Mould noM1 oMing to t0e manner in M0ic0 t0e energy is supplied1 emit a strong lig0t1 and yet &e at a comparatively very loM mean temperature. LoM could t0e o&server call t0e luminosity t0us producedO Even i# t0e analysis o# t0e lig0t Mould teac0 0im somet0ing de#inite1 still 0e Mould pro&a&ly rank it under t0e p0enomena o# p0osp0orescence. t is conceiva&le t0at in suc0 a May &ot0 conducting and nonconducting &odies may &e maintained at a certain@luminous intensity1 &ut t0e energy re'uired Mould very greatly vary Mit0 t0e nature and properties o# t0e &odies. $0ese and some #oregoing remarks o# a speculative nature Mere made merely to &ring out curious #eatures o# alternate currents or electric impulses. By t0eir 0elp Me may cause a &ody to emit more lig0t1 M0ile at a certain mean temperature1 t0an it Mould emit i# &roug0t to t0at temperature &y a steady supply6 and1 again1 Me may &ring a &ody to t0e point o# #usion1 and cause it to emit less lig0t t0an M0en #used &y t0e application o# energy in ordinary Mays. t all depends on 0oM Me supply t0e energy1 and M0at kind o# vi&rations Me set up4 in one case t0e vi&rations are more1 in t0e ot0er less1 adapted to a##ect our sense o# vision. Some e##ects1 M0ic0 0ad not o&served &e#ore1 o&tained Mit0 car&orundum in t0e #irst trials1 attri&uted to p0osp0orescence1 &ut in su&se'uent e5periments it appeared t0at it Mas devoid o# t0at 'uality. $0e crystals possess a noteMort0y #eature. n a &ul& provided Mit0 a single electrode in t0e s0ape o# a small circular metal disc1 #or instance1 at a certain degree o# e50austion t0e electrode is covered Mit0 a milky #ilm1 M0ic0 is separated &y a dark space #rom t0e gloM #illing t0e &ul&. W0en t0e metal disc is covered Mit0 car&orundum crystals1 t0e #ilm is #ar more intense1 and snoM@M0ite. $0is #ound later to &e merely an e##ect o# t0e &rig0t sur#ace o# t0e crystals1 #or M0en an aluminium electrode Mas 0ig0ly polis0ed it e50i&ited more or less t0e same p0enomenon. made a num&er o# e5periments Mit0 t0e samples o# crystals o&tained1 principally &ecause it Mould 0ave &een o# special interest to #ind t0at t0ey are capa&le o# p0osp0orescence1 on account o# t0eir &eing conducting. could not produce p0osp0orescence distinctly1 &ut must remark t0at a decisive opinion cannot &e #ormed until ot0er e5perimenters 0ave gone over t0e same ground. $0e poMder &e0aved in some e5periments as t0oug0 it contained alumina1 &ut it did not e50i&it Mit0 su##icient distinctness t0e red o# t0e latter. ts dead color &rig0tens considera&ly under t0e molecular impact1 &ut am noM convinced it does not p0osp0oresce. Still1 t0e tests Mit0 t0e poMder are not conducive1 &ecause poMdered car&orundum pro&a&ly does not &e0ave like a p0osp0orescent sulp0ide1 #or e5ample1 M0ic0 could &e #inely poMdered Mit0out impairing t0e p0osp0orescence1 &ut rat0er like poMdered ru&y or diamond1 and t0ere#ore it Mould &e necessary1 in order to make a decisive test1 to o&tain it in a large lump and polis0 up t0e sur#ace. # t0e car&orundum proves use#ul in connection Mit0 t0ese and similar e5periments1 its c0ie# value Mill &e #ound in t0e production o# coatings1 t0in conductors1 &uttons1 or ot0er electrodes capa&le o# Mit0standing e5tremely 0ig0 degrees o# 0eat. $0e production o# a small electrode capa&le o# Mit0standing enormous temperatures regard as o# t0e greatest importance in t0e manu#acture o# lig0t. t Mould ena&le us to o&tain1 &y means o# currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uencies1 certainly 7= times1 i# not more1 t0e 'uantity o# lig0t M0ic0 is o&tained in t0e present incandescent lamp &y t0e same e5penditure o# energy. $0is estimate may appeal@ to many e5aggerated1 &ut in reality t0ink it is #ar #rom &eing so. As t0is statement mig0t &e misunderstood t0ink it necessary to e5pose clearly t0e pro&lem Mit0 M0ic0 in t0is line o# Mork Me are con#ronted1 and t0e manner in M0ic01 in my opinion1 a solution Mill &e arrived at.

102 Any one M0o &egins a study o# t0e pro&lem Mill &e apt to t0ink t0at M0at is Manted in a lamp Mit0 an electrode is a very 0ig0 degree o# incandescence o# t0e electrode. $0ere 0e Mill &e mistaken. $0e 0ig0 incandescence o# t0e &utton is a necessary evil1 &ut M0at is really Manted is t0e 0ig0 incandescence o# t0e gas surrounding t0ee &utton. n ot0er Mords1 t0e pro&lem in suc0 a lamp is to &ring a mass o# gas to t0e 0ig0est possi&le incandescence. $0e 0ig0er t0e incandescence1 t0e 'uicker t0e mean vi&ration1 t0e greater is t0e economy o# t0e lig0t production. But to maintain a mass o# gas at a 0ig0 degree o# incandescence in a glass vessel1 it Mill alMays &e necessary to keep t0e incandescent mass aMay #rom t0e glass6 t0at is1 to con#ine it as muc0 as possi&le to t0e central portion o# t0e glo&e. n one o# t0e e5periments t0is evening a &rus0 Mas produced at t0e end o# a Mire. $0is &rus0 Mas a #lame1 a source o# 0eat and lig0t. t did not emit muc0 percepti&le 0eat1 nor did it gloM Mit0 an intense lig0t6 &ut is it t0e less a #lame &ecause it does not scorc0 my 0andO s it t0e less a #lame &ecause it does not 0urt my eye &y its &rilliancyO $0e pro&lem is precisely to produce in t0e &ul& suc0 a #lame1 muc0 smaller in site1 &ut incompara&ly more poMer#ul. Were t0ere means at 0and #or producing electric impulses o# a su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uency1 and #or transmitting t0em1 t0e &ul& could &e done aMay Mit01 unless it Mere used to protect t0e electrode1 or to economi2e t0e energy &y con#ining t0e 0eat. But as suc0 means are not at disposal1 it &ecomes necessary to place $0e terminal in a &ul& and rare#y t0e air in t0e same. $0is is done merely to ena&le t0e apparatus to per#orm t0e Mork M0ic0 it is not capa&le o# per#orming at ordinary air pressure. n t0e &ul& Me are a&le to intensi#y t0e action to any degree @@ so #ar t0at t0e &rus0 emits a poMer#ul lig0t. $0e intensity o# t0e lig0t emitted depends principally on t0e #re'uency and potential o# t0e impulses1 and on t0e electric density on t0e sur#ace o# t0e electrode. t is o# t0e greatest importance to employ t0e smallest possi&le &utton1 in order to pus0 t0e density very #ar. Under t0e violent impact o# t0e molecules o# t0e gas surrounding it1 t0e small electrode is o# course &roug0t to an e5tremely 0ig0 temperature1 &ut around it is a mass o# 0ig0ly incandescent gas1 a #lame p0otosp0ere1 many 0undred times t0e volume o# t0e electrode. Wit0 a diamond1 car&orundum or 2ircon &utton t0e p0otosp0ere can &e as muc0 as one t0ousand times t0e volume o# t0e &utton. Wit0out muc0 re#lecting one Mould t0ink t0at in pus0ing so #ar t0e incandescence o# t0e electrode it Mould &e instantly volatili2ed. But a#ter a care#ul consideration 0e Mould #ind t0at1 t0eoretically1 it s0ould not occur1 and in t0is #act @@ M0ic01 0oMever1 is e5perimentally demonstrated @@ lies principally t0e #uture value o# suc0 a lamp. At #irst1 M0en t0e &om&ardment &egins1 most o# t0e Mork is per#ormed on t0e sur#ace o# t0e &utton1 &ut M0en a 0ig0ly conducting p0otosp0ere is #ormed t0e &utton is comparatively relieved. $0e 0ig0er t0e incandescence o# t0e p0otosp0ere t0e more it approac0es in conductivity to t0at o# t0e electrode1 and t0e more1 t0ere#ore1 t0e solid and t0e gas #orm one conducting &ody. $0e conse'uence is t0at t0e #urt0er is #orced t0e incandescence t0e more Mork1 comparatively1 is per#ormed on t0e gas1 and t0e S9s on t0e electrode. $0e #ormation o# a poMer#ul p0otosp0ere is conse'uently t0e very means #or protecting t0e electrode. $0is protectic.n1 o# course1 is a relative one1 and it s0ould not &e t0oug0t t0at &y pus0ing t0e incandescence 0ig0er t0e electrode is actually less deteriorated. Still1 t0eoretically1 Mit0 e5treme #re'uencies1 t0is result must &e reac0ed1 &ut pro&a&ly at a temperature too 0ig0 #or most o# t0e re#ractory &odies knoMn. Given1 t0en1 an electrode M0ic0 can Mit0stand to a very 0ig0 limit t0e e##ect o# t0e &om&ardment and outMard strain1 it Mould &e sa#e no matter 0oM muc0 it is #orced &eyond t0at limit. n an incandescent lamp 'uite di##erent considerations apply. $0ere t0e gas is not at all concerned4 t0e M0ole o# t0e Mork is per#ormed on t0e #ilament6 and t0e li#e o# t0e lamp diminis0es so rapidly Mit0 t0e increase o# t0e degree o# incandescence t0e economical reasons compel us to Mork it at a loM incandescence. But i# an incandescent lamp is operated Mit0 currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency1 t0e action o# t0e gas cannot &e neglected1 and t0e rules #or t0e most economical Morking must &e considera&ly modi#ied. n order to &ring suc0 a lamp Mit0 one or tMo electrodes to a great per#ection1 it is necessary to employ impulses o# very 0ig0 #re'uency. $0e 0ig0 #re'uency secures1 among ot0ers1 tMo c0ie# advantages1 M0ic0 0ave a most important &earing upon t0e economy o# t0e lig0t production. First1 t0e deterioration o# t0e electrode is reduced &y reason o# t0e #act t0at Me employ a great many small impacts1 instead o# a #eM violent ones1 M0ic0 s0atter 'uickly t0e structure6 secondly1 t0e #ormation o# a large p0otosp0ere is #acilitated. n order to reduce t0e deterioration o# t0e electrode to t0e minimum1 it is desira&le t0at t0e vi&ration &e 0armonic1 #or any suddenness 0astens t0e process o# destruction. An electrode lasts muc0 longer M0en kept at incandescence &y currents1 or impulses1 o&tained #rom a 0ig0@#re'uency alternator1 M0ic0 rise and #all more or less 0armonically1 t0an &y impulses o&tained #rom a disruptive disc0arge coil. n t0e latter case t0ere is no dou&t t0at most o# t0e damage is done &y t0e #undamental sudden disc0arges. "ne o# t0e elements o# loss in suc0 a lamp is t0e &om&ardment o# t0e glo&e. As t0e potential is very 0ig01 t0e molecules are pro8ected Mit0 great speed6 t0ey strike t0e glass1 and usually e5cite a strong p0osp0orescence. $0e e##ect produced is very pretty &ut #or economical reasons it Mould &e per0aps pre#era&le to prevent1 or at least reduce to t0e minimum1 t0e &om&ardment against t0e glo&e1 as in suc0 case it is1 as a result1 not t0e o&8ect to e5cite p0osp0orescence1 and as some loss o# energy results #rom t0e &om&ardment. $0is loss in t0e &ul& is principally dependent on t0e potential o# t0e impulses and on t0e electric density on t0e sur#ace o# t0e electrode. n employing very 0ig0 #re'uencies t0e loss o# energy &y t0e &om&ardment is greatly reduced1 #or1 #irst1 t0e potential needed to per#orm a given amount o# Mork is muc0 smaller6 and1 secondly1 &y producing a 0ig0ly

10 conducting p0otosp0ere around t0e electrode1 t0e same result is o&tained as t0oug0 t0e electrode Mere muc0 larger1 M0ic0 is e'uivalent to a smaller electric density. But &e it &y t0e diminution o# t0e ma5imum potential or o# t0e density1 t0e gain is e##ected in t0e same manner1 namely1 &y avoiding violent s0ocks1 M0ic0 strain t0e glass muc0 &eyond its limit o# elasticity. # t0e #re'uency could &e &roug0t 0ig0 enoug01 t0e loss due to t0e imper#ect elasticity o# t0e glass Mould &e entirely ne-ligi&le. $0e loss due to &om&ardment o# t0e glo&e may1 0oMever1 &e reduced &y using tMo electrodes instead o# one. n suc0 case eac0 o# t0e electrodes may &e connected to one o# t0e terminals6 or else1 i# it is pre#era&le to use only one Mire1 one electrode may &e connected to one terminal and t0e ot0er to t0e ground or to an insulated &ody o# some sur#ace1 as1 #or instance1 a s0ade on t0e lamp. n t0e latter case1 unless some 8udgement is used1 one o# t0e electrodes mig0t gloM more intensely t0an t0e ot0er. But on t0e M0ole #ind it pre#era&le M0en using suc0 0ig0 #re'uencies to employ only one electrode and one connecting Mire. am convinced t0at t0e illuminating device o# t0e near #uture Mill not re'uire #or its operation more t0an one lead1 and1 at any rate1 it Mill 0ave no leading@in Mire1 since t0e energy re'uired can &e as Mell transmitted t0roug0 t0e glass. n e5perimental &ul&s t0e leading@in Mire is most generally used on account o# convenience1 as in employing condenser coatings in t0e manner indicated in Fig. 771 #or e5ample1 t0ere is some di##iculty in #itting t0e parts1 &ut t0ese di##iculties Mould not e5ist i# a great many &ul&s Mere manu#actured6 ot0erMise t0e energy can &e conveyed t0roug0 t0e glass as Mell as t0roug0 a Mire1 and Mit0 t0ese 0ig0 #re'uencies t0e losses are very small. Suc0 illuminating deices Mill necessarily involve t0e use o# very 0ig0 potentials1 and t0is1 in t0e eyes o# practical men1 mig0t &e an o&8ectiona&le #eature. Aet1 in reality1 0ig0 potentials are not o&8ectiona&le @@ certainly not in t0e least as #ar as t0e sa#ety o# t0e devices is concerned. $0ere are tMo Mays o# rendering an electric appliance sa#e. "ne is to use loM potentials1 t0e ot0er is to determine t0e dimensions o# t0e apparatus so t0at it is sa#e no matter 0oM 0ig0 a potential is used. "# t0e tMo t0e latter seems to me t0e &etter May1 #or t0en t0e sa#ety is a&solute1 una##ected &y any possi&le com&ination o# circumstances M0ic0 mig0t render even a loM@potential appliance dangerous to li#e and property. But t0e practical conditions re'uire not only t0e 8udicious determination o# t0e dimensions o# t0e apparatus6 t0ey likeMise necessitate t0e employment o# energy o# t0e proper kind. t is easy1 #or instance1 to construct a trans#ormer capa&le o# giving1 M0en operated #rom an ordinary alternate current mac0ine o# loM tension1 say <=1=== volts1 M0ic0 mi'0t &e re'uired to lig0t a 0ig0ly e50austed p0osp0orescent tu&e1 so t0at1 in spite o# t0e 0ig0 potential1 it is per#ectly sa#e1 t0e s0ock #rom it producing no inconvenience. Still1 suc0 a trans#ormer Mould &e e5pensive1 and in itsel# ine##icient6 and1 &esides1 M0at energy Mas o&tained #rom it Mould not &e economically used #or t0e production o# lig0t. $0e economy demands t0e employment o# energy in t0e #orm o# e5tremely rapid vi&rations. $0e pro&lem o# producing lig0t 0as &een likened to t0at o# maintaining a certain 0ig0@pitc0 note &y means o# a &ell. t s0ould &e said a &arely audi&le note6 and even t0ese Mords Mould not e5press it1 so Monder#ul is t0e sensitiveness o# t0e eye. We may deliver poMer#ul &loMs at long intervals1 Maste a good deal o# energy1 and still not get M0at Me Mant6 or Me may keep up t0e note &y delivering #re'uent gentle taps1 and get nearer to t0e o&8ect soug0t &y t0e e5penditure o# mudS+ less energy. n t0e production o# lig0t1 as #ar as t0e illuminating device is concerned1 t0ere can &e only one rule @@ t0at is1 to use as 0ig0 #re'uencies as can &e o&tained6 &ut t0e means #or t0e production and conveyance o# impulses o# suc0 c0aracter impose1 at present at least1 great limitations. "nce it is decided to use very 0ig0 #re'uencies1 t0e return Mire &ecomes unnecessary1 and all t0e appliances are simpli#ied. By t0e use o# o&vious means t0e same result is o&tained as t0oug0 t0e return Mire Mere used. t is su##icient #or t0is purpose to &ring in contact Mit0 t0e &ul&1 or merely in t0e vicinity o# t0e same1 an insulated &ody o# some sur#ace. $0e sur#ace need1 o# course1 &e t0e smaller1 t0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency and potential used1 and necessarily1 also1 t0e 0ig0er t0e economy o# t0e lamp or ot0er device. $0is plan o# Morking 0as &een resorted to on several occasions t0is evening. So1 #or instance1 M0en t0e incandescence o# a &utton Mas produced &y grasping t0e &ul& Mit0 t0e 0and1 t0e &ody o# t0e e5perimenter merely served to intensi#y t0e action. $0e &ul& used Mas similar to t0at illustrated in Fig. +91 and t0e coil Mas e5cited to a small potential1 not su##icient to &ring t0e &utton to incandescence M0en t0e &ul& Mas 0anging #rom t0e Mire6 and incidentally1 in order to per#orm t0e e5periment in a more suita&le manner1 t0e &utton Mas taken so large t0at a percepti&le time 0ad to elapse &e#ore1

10.

upon grasping t0e &ul&1 it could &e rendered incandescent. $0e contact Mit0 t0e &ul& Mas1 o# course1 'uite unnecessary. t is easy1 &y using a rat0er large &ul& Mit0 an e5ceedingly small electrode1 to ad8ust t0e conditions so t0at t0e latter is &roug0t to &rig0t incandescence &y t0e mere approac0 o# t0e e5perimenter Mit0in a #eM #eet o# t0e &ul&1 and t0at t0e incandescence su&sides upon 0is receding. n anot0er e5periment1 M0en p0osp0orescence Mas e5cited1 a similar &ul& Mas used. Lere again1 originally1 t0e potential Mas not su##icient to e5cite p0osp0orescence until t0e action Mas intensi#ied @@ in t0is case1 0oMever1 to present a di##erent #eature1 &y touc0ing t0e socket Mit0 a metallic o&8ect 0eld in t0e 0and. $0e electrode in t0e &ul& Mas a car&on &utton so large t0at it could not &e &roug0t to incandescence1 and t0ere&y spoil t0e e##ect produced &y p0osp0orescence. Again1 in anot0er o# t0e early e5periments1 a &ul& Mas used as illustrated in Fig. +7. n t0is instance1 &y touc0ing t0e &ul& Mit0 one or tMo #ingers1 one or tMo s0adoMs o# t0e stem inside Mere pro8ected against t0e glass1 t0e touc0 o# t0e #inger producing t0c same result as t0e application o# an e5ternal negative electrode under ordinary circumstances. n all t0ese e5periments t0e action Mas intensi#ied &y augmenting t0e capacity at t0e end o# t0e lead connected to t0e terminal. As a rule1 it is not necessary to resort to suc0 means1 and Mould &e 'uite unnecessary Mit0 still 0ig0er #re'uencies6 &ut M0en it is desired1 t0e &ul&1 or tu&e1 can &e easily adapted to t0e purpose. n Fig. 7.1 #or e5ample1 an e5perimental &ul& : is s0oMn1 M0ic0 is provided Mit0 a neck n on t0e top #or t0e application o# an e5ternal tin#oil coating1 M0ic0 may &e connected to a &ody o# larger sur#ace. Sum a lamp as illustrated in Fig. 7< may also &e lig0ted &y connecting t0e tin#oil coating on t0e neck n to t0e terminal1 and t0e leading@in Mire M to an insulated plate. # t0e &u+< stands in a socket uprig0t1 as s0oMn in t0e cut1 a s0ade o# conducting material may &e slipped in t0e neck n1 and t0e action t0us magni#ied.

A more per#ected arrangement used in some o# t0ese &ul&s is illustrated in Fig. 7-. n t0is case t0e construction o# t0e &ul& is as s0oMn and descri&ed &e#ore1 M0ere re#erence Mas made to Fig. +9. A 2inc s0eet T1 Mit0 a tu&ular

101 e5tension $1 is slipped over t0e metallic socket S. $0e &ul& 0ang9 doMnMard #rom t0e terminal t1 t0e 2inc s0eet T1 per#orming t0e dou&le o##ice o# intensi#ier and re#lector. $0e re#lector is separated #rom t0e terminal t &y an e5tension o# t0e insulating plug P. A similar disposition Mit0 a p0osp0orescent tu&e is illustrated in Fig. 7?. $0e tu&e $ is prepared #rom tMo s0ort tu&es o# a di##erent diameter1 M0ic0 are sealed on t0e ends. "n t0e loMer end is placed an outside conducting coating C1 M0ic0 connects to t0e Mire M. $0e Mire 0as a 0ook on t0e upper end #or suspension1 and passes t0roug0 t0e centre o# t0e inside tu&e1 M0ic0 is #illed Mit0 some good and tig0tly packed insulator. "n t0e outside o# t0e upper end o# t0e tu&e $ is anot0er conducting coating C+1 upon M0ic0 is slipped a metallic re#lector T1 M0ic0 s0ould &e separated &y a t0ick insulation #rom t0e end o# Mire M. $0e economical use o# suc0 a re#lector or intensi#ier Mould re'uire t0at all energy supplied to an air condenser s0ould &e recovera&le1 or1 in ot0er Mords1 t0at t0ere s0ould not &e any losses1 neit0er in t0e gaseous medium nor t0roug0 its action elseM0ere. $0is is #ar #rom &eing so1 &ut1 #ortunately1 t0e losses may &e reduced to anyt0ing desired. A #eM remarks are necessary on t0is su&8ect1 in order to make t0e e5periences gat0ered in t0e course o# t0ese investigations per#ectly clear. Suppose a small 0eli5 Mit0 many Mell insulated turns1 as in e5periment Fig. +?1 0ad one o# its ends connected to one o# t0e terminals o# t0e induction coil1 and t0e ot0er to a metal plate1 or1 #or t0e sake o# simplicity1 a sp0ere1 insulated in space. W0en t0e coil is set to Mork1 t0e potential o# t0e sp0ere is alternated1 and t0e small 0eli5 noM &e0aves as t0oug0 its #ree end Mere connected to t0e ot0er terminal o# t0e induction coil. # an iron can &e 0eld Mit0in t0e small 0eli5 it is 'uickly &roug0t to a 0ig0 temperature1 indicating t0e passage o# a strong current t0roug0 t0e 0eli5 0oM does t0e insulated sp0ere act in t0is caseO t can &e a condenser1 storing and returning t0e energy supplied to it1 or it can &e a mere sink o# energy1 and t0e conditions o# t0e e5periment determine M0et0er it is more one or t0e ot0er. $0e sp0ere &eing c0arged to a 0ig0 potential1 it acts inductively upon t0e surrounding air1 or M0atever gaseous medium t0ere mig0t &e. $0e molecules1 or atoms1 M0ic0 are near t0e sp0ere are o# course more attracted1 and move t0roug0 a greater distance t0an t0e #art0er ones. W0en t0e nearest molecules strike t0e sp0ere t0ey are repelled1 and collisions occur at all distances Mit0in t0e inductive action o# t0e sp0ere. t is noM clear t0at1 i# t0e potential &e steady1 &ut little loss o# energy can &e caused in t0is May1 #or t0e molecules M0ic0 are nearest to t0e sp0ere1 0aving 0ad an additional c0arge imparted to t0em &y contact1 are not Attracted until t0ey 0ave parted1 i# not Mit0 all1 at least Mit0 most o# t0e additional c0arge1 M0ic0 can &e accomplis0ed only a#ter a great many collisions. From t0e #act t0at Mit0 a steady potential t0ere is &ut little loss in dry air1 one must come to suc0 a conclusion. W0en t0e potential o# t0e sp0ere1 instead o# &eing steady1 is alternating1 t0e conditions are entirely di##erent. n t0is case a r0yt0mical &om&ardment occurs1 no matter M0et0er t0e molecules a#ter coming in contact Mit0 t0e sp0ere lose t0e imparted c0arge or not6 M0at is more1 i# t0e c0arge is not lost1 t0e impacts are only t0e more violent. Still i# t0e #re'uency o# t0e impulses &e very small1 t0e loss caused 0g t0e impacts and collisions Mould not &e serious unless t0e potential Mere e5cessive. But M0en e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uencies and more or less 0ig0 potentials are used1 t0e loss may &e very great. $0e total energy lost per unit o# time is proportionate to t0e product o# t0e num&er o# impacts per second1 or t0e #re'uency and t0e energy lost@in eac0 impact. But t0e energy o# an impact must &e proportionate to t0e s'uare o# t0e electric density o# t0e sp0ere1 since t0e c0arge imparted to t0e molecule is proportionate to t0at density. conclude #rom t0is t0at t0e total energy lost must &e proportionate to t0e product o# t0e #re'uency and t0e s'uare o# t0e electric density6 &ut t0is laM needs e5perimental con#irmation. Assuming t0e preceding considerations to &e true1 t0en1 &y rapidly alternating t0e potential o# a &ody immersed in an insulating gaseous medium1 any amount o# energy may &e dissipated into space. Bost o# t0at energy t0en1 &elieve1 is not dissipated in t0e #orm o# long et0er Maves1 propagated to considera&le distance1 as is t0oug0t most generally1 &ut is consumed @@ in t0e case o# an insulated sp0ere1 #or e5ample @@ in impact and collisional losses @@ t0at is1 0eat vi&rations @@ on t0e sur#ace and in t0e vicinity o# t0e sp0ere. $o reduce t0e dissipation it is necessary to Mork Mit0 a small electric density t0e smaller t0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency. But since1 on t0e assumption &e#ore made1 t0e loss is diminis0ed Mit0 t0e s'uare o# t0e density1 and since currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uencies involve considera&le Maste M0en transmitted t0roug0 conductors1 it #olloMs t0at1 on t0e M0ole1 it is &etter to employ one Mire t0an tMo. $0ere#ore1 i# motors1 lamps1 or devices o# any kind are per#ected1 capa&le o# &eing advantageously operated &y currents o# e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uency1 economical reasons Mill make it advisa&le to use only one Mire1 especially i# t0e distances are great. W0en energy is a&sor&ed in a condenser t0e same &e0aves as t0oug0 its capacity Mere increased. A&sorption alMays e5ists more or less1 &ut generally it is small and o# no conse'uence as long as t0e #re'uencies are not very great. n using e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uencies1 and1 necessarily in suc0 case1 also 0ig0 potentials1 t0e a&sorption @@ or1 M0at is 0ere meant more particularly &y t0is term1 t0e loss o# energy due to t0e presence o# a gaseous medium @@ is an important #actor to &e considered1 as t0e energy a&sor&ed it t0e air condenser may &e any #raction o# t0e supplied energy. $0is Mould seem to make it very di##icult to tell #rom t0e measured or computed capacity o# an air condenser its actual capacity or vi&ration period1 especially i# t0e condenser is o# very small sur#ace and is c0arged to a very 0ig0 potential. As many important results are dependent upon t0e correctness o# t0e estimation o# t0e vi&ration period1 t0is su&8ect demands t0e most care#ul scrutiny o# ot0er investigators. $o reduce t0e pro&a&le error as muc0 as possi&le in e5periments o# t0e kind alluded to1 it is advisa&le to use sp0eres or plates o# large sur#ace1 so as to make t0e density e5ceedingly small. "t0erMise1 M0en it is practica&le1 an oil condenser

106 s0ould &e used in pre#erence. n oil or ot0er li'uid dielectrics t0ere are seemingly no suc0 losses as in gaseous media. t &eing impossi&le to e5clude entirely t0e gas in condensers Mit0 solid dielectrics1 suc0 condensers s0ould &e immersed in oil1 #or economical reasons i# not0ing else6 t0ey can t0en &e strained to t0e utmost and Mill remain cool. n :eyden 8ars t0e loss due to air is comparatively small1 as t0e tin#oil coatings are large1 close toget0er1 and t0e c0arged sur#aces not directly e5posed6 &ut M0en t0e potentials are very 0ig01 t0e loss may &e more or less considera&le at1 or near1 t0e upper edge o# t0e #oil1 M0ere t0e air is principally acted upon. # t0e 8ar &e immersed in &oiled@out oil1 it Mill &e capa&le o# per#orming #our times t0e amount o# Mork M0ic0 it can #or any lengt0 o# time M0en used in t0e ordinary May1 and t0e loss Mill &e inapprecia&le. t s0ould not &e t0oug0t t0at t0e loss in 0eat in an air condenser is necessarily associated Mit0 t0e #ormation o# visi&le streams or &rus0es. # a small electrode1 inclosed in an une50austed &ul&1 is connected to one o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil1 streams can 0e seen to issue #rom t0e electrode and t0e air in t0e &ul& is 0eated6 i#1 instead o# a small electrode1 a large sp0ere is inclosed in t0e &ul&1 no streams are o&served1 still t0e air is 0eated. !or s0ould it &e t0oug0t t0at t0e temperature o# an air condenser Mould give even an appro5imate idea o# t0e loss in 0eat incurred1 as in suc0 case 0eat must &e given o## muc0 more 'uickly1 since t0ere is1 in addition to t0e ordinary radiation1 a very active carrying aMay o# 0eat &y independent carriers going on1 and since not only t0e apparatus1 &ut t0e air at some distance #rom it is 0eated in conse'uence o# t0e collisions M0ic0 must occur. "Ming to t0is1 in e5periments Mit0 suc0 a coil1 a rise o# temperature can &e distinctly o&served only M0en t0e &ody connected to t0e coil is very small. But Mit0 appartus on a larger scale1 even a &ody o# considera&le &ulk Mould &e 0eated1 as1 #or instance1 t0e &ody o# a person6 and t0ink t0at skilled p0ysicians mig0t make o&servations o# utility in suc0 e5periments1 M0ic01 i# t0e apparatus Mere 8udiciously designed1 Mould not present t0e slig0test danger. A 'uestion o# some interest1 principally to meteorologists1 presents itsel# 0ere. LoM does t0e eart0 &e0aveO $0e eart0 is an air condenser1 &ut is it a per#ect4 or a very imper#ect one @@ a mere sink o# energyO $0ere can &e little dou&t t0at to suc0 small distur&ance as mig0t &e caused in an e5periment t0e eart0 &e0aves as an almost per#ect condenser. But it mig0t &e di##erent M0en its c0arge is set in vi&ration &y some sudden distur&ance occurring in t0e 0eavens. n suc0 case1 as &e#ore stated1 pro&a&ly only little o# t0e energy o# t0e vi&rations set up Mould &e lost into space in t0e #orm o# long et0er radiations1 &ut most o# t0e energy1 t0ink1 Mould spend itsel# in molecular impacts and collisions1 and pass o## into space in t0e #orm o# s0ort 0eat1 and possi&ly lig0t1 Maves. As &ot0 t0e #re'uency o# t0e vi&rations o# t0e c0arge and t0e potential are in all pro&a&ility e5cessive1 t0e energy converted into 0eat may &e considera&le. Since t0e density must &e unevenly distri&uted1 eit0er in conse'uence o# t0e irregularity o# t0e eart0Ps sur#ace1 or on account o# t0e condition o# t0e atmosp0ere in various places1 t0e e##ect produced Mould accordingly vary #rom place to place. Considera&le variations in t0e temperature and pressure o# t0e atmosp0ere may in t0is manner &e caused at any point o# t0e sur#ace o# t0e eart0. $0e variations may &e gradual or very sudden1 according to t0e nature o# t0e general distur&ance1 and may produce rain and storms1 or locally modi#y t0e Meat0er in any May. From t0e remarks &e#ore made one may see M0at an important #actor o# loss t0e air in t0e neig0&or0ood o# a c0arged sur#ace &ecomes M0en t0e electric density is great and t0e #re'uency o# t0e impulses e5cessive. But t0e action as e5plained implies t0at t0e air is insulating @@ t0at is1 t0at it is composed o# independent carriers immersed in an insulating medium. $0is is t0e case only M0en t0e air is at somet0ing like ordinary or greater1 or at e5tremely small1 pressure. W0en t0e air is slig0tly rare#ied and conducting1 t0en true conduction losses occur also. n suc0 case1 o# course1 considera&le energy may &e dissipated into space even Mit0 a steady potential1 or Mit0 impulses o# loM #re'uency1 i# t0e density is very great. W0en t0e gas is at very loM pressure1 an electrode is 0eated more &ecause 0ig0er speeds can &e reac0ed. # t0e gas around t0e electrode is strongly compressed1 t0e displacements1 and conse'uently t0e speeds1 are very small1 and t0e 0eating is insigni#icant. But i# in suc0 case t0e #re'uency could &e su##iciently increased1 t0e electrode Mould &e &roug0t to a 0ig0 temperature as Mell as i# t0e gas Mere at very loM pressure6 in #act1 e50austing t0e &ul& is only necessary &ecause Me cannot produce *and possi&ly not convey/ currents o# t0e re'uired #re'uency.

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Returning to t0e su&8ect o# electrode lamps1 it is o&viously o# advantage in suc0 a lamp to con#ine as muc0 as possi&le t0e 0eat to t0e electrode &y preventing t0e circulation o# t0e gas in t0e &ul&. # a very small &ul& &e taken1 it Mould con#ine t0e 0eat &etter t0an a large one1 &ut it mig0t not &e o# su##icient capacity to &e operated #rom t0e coil1 or1 i# so1 t0e glass mig0t get too 0ot. A simple May to improve in t0is direction is to employ a glo&e o# t0e re'uired site1 &ut to place a small &ul&1 t0e diameter o# M0ic0 is properly estimated1 over t0e re#ractory &utton contained in t0e glo&e. $0is arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 7>. $0e glo&e : 0as in t0is case a large neck n1 alloMing t0e small &ul& & to slip t0roug0. "t0erMise t0e construction is t0e same as s0oMn in Fig. +>1 #or e5ample. $0e small &ul& is conveniently supported upon t0e stem s1 carrying t0e re#ractory &utton m. n tu&e a &y several layers o# mica B1 in order to prevent t0e cracking o# t0e neck &y t0e rapid 0eating o# t0e aluminium tu&e upon a sudden turning on o# t0e current. $0e inside &ul& s0ould &e as small as possi&le M0en it is desired to o&tain lig0t only &y incandescence o# t0e electrode. # it is desired to produce p0osp0orescence1 t0e &ul& s0ould &e larger1 else it Mould &e apt to get too 0ot1 and t0e p0osp0orescence Mould cease. n t0is arrangement usually only t0e small &ul& s0oMs p0osp0orescence1 as t0ere is practically no &om&ardment against t0e outer glo&e. n some o# t0ese &ul&s constructed as illustrated in Fig. 7> t0e small tu&e Mas coated Mit0 p0osp0orescent paint1 and &eauti#ul e##ects Mere o&tained. nstead o# making t0e inside &ul& large1 in order to avoid undue 0eating1 it ansMers t0e purpose to make t0e electrode m larger. n t0is case t0e &om&ardment is Meakened &y reason o# t0e smaller electric density. Bany &ul&s Mere constructed on t0e plan illustrated in Fig. 7,. Lere a small &ul& -1 containing t0e re#ractory &utton m1 upon &eing e50austed to a very 0ig0 degree Mas sealed in a large glo&e :1 M0ic0 Mas t0en moderately e50austed and sealed o##. $0e principal advantage o# t0is construction Mas t0at it alloMed o# reac0ing e5tremely 0ig0 vacua1 and1 at t0e same time use a large &ul&. t Mas #ound1 in t0e course o# e5periences Mit0 &ul&s suc0 as illustrated in Fig. 7,1 t0at it Mas Mell to make t0e stem Q near t0e seal at e very t0ick1 and t0e leading@in Mire M t0in1 as it occurred sometimes t0at t0e stem at e Mas 0eated and t0e &ul& Mas cracked. "#ten t0e outer glo&e : Mas e50austed only 8ust enoug0 to alloM t0e disc0arge to pass t0roug01 and t0e space &etMeen t0e &ul&s appeared crimson1 producing a curious e##ect. n some cases1 M0en t0e e50austion in glo&e : Mas very loM1 and t0e air good conducting1 it Mas #ound necessary1 in order to &ring t0e &utton m to 0ig0 incandescence1 to place1 pre#era&ly on t0e upper part o# t0e neck o# t0e glo&e1 a tin#oil coating M0ic0 Mas connected to an insulated &ody1 to t0e ground1 or to t0e ot0er terminal o# t0e coil1 as t0e 0ig0ly conducting air Meakened t0e e##ect someM0at1 pro&a&ly &y &eing acted upon inductively #rom t0e Mire M1 M0ere it entered t0e &ul& at e. Anot0er di##iculty @@ M0ic01 0oMever1 is alMays present M0en t0e re#ractory &utton is mounted in a Fig. 7, very small &ul& @@ e5isted in t0e construction illustrated in Fig. 7,1 namely1 t0e vacuum in t0e &ul& & Mould &e impaired in a comparatively s0ort time.

108

$0e c0ie# idea in t0e tMo last descri&ed constructions Mas to con#ine t0e 0eat to t0e central portion o# t0e glo&e &y preventing t0e e5c0ange o# air1 An advantage is secured1 &ut oMing to t0e 0eating o# t0e inside &ul& and sloM evaporation o# t0e glass t0e vacuum is 0ard to maintain1 even i# t0e construction illustrated in Fig. 7> &e c0osen1 in M0ic0 &ot0 &ul&s communicate. But &y #ar t0e &etter May @@ t0e ideal May @@ Mould &e to reac0 su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uencies. $0e 0ig0er t0e #re'uency t0e sloMer Mould &e t0e e5c0ange o# t0e air1 and t0ink t0at a #re'uency may &e reac0ed at M0ic0 t0ere Mould &e no e5c0ange M0atever o# t0e air molecules around t0e terminal. We Mould t0en produce a #lame in M0ic0 t0ere Mould &e no carrying aMay o# material1 and a 'ueer #lame it Mould &e1 #or it Mould &e rigidO Wit0 sudS+ 0ig0 #re'uencies t0e inertia o# t0e particles1 Mould come into play. As t0e &rus01 or #lame1 Mould gain rigidity in virtue o# t0e inertia o# t0e particles1 t0e e5c0ange o# t0e latter Mould &e prevented. $0is Mould necessarily occur1 #or1 t0e num&er U# t0e impulses &eing augmented1 t0e potential energy o# eac0 Mould diminis01 so t0at #inally only atomic vi&rations could &e set up1 and t0e motion o# translation t0roug0 measura&le space Mould cease. $0us an ordinary gas &urner connected to a source o# rapidly alternating potential mig0t 0ave its e##iciency augmented to a certain limit1 and t0is #or tMo reasons @@ &ecause o# t0e additional vi&ration imparted1 and &ecause o# a sloMing doMn o# t0e process o# carrying o##. But t0e reneMal &eing rendered di##icult1 and reneMal &eing necessary to maintain t0e &urner1 a continued increase o# t0e #re'uency o# t0e impulses1 assuming t0ey could &e transmitted to and impressed upon t0e #lame1 Mould result in t0e Ee5tinctionE o# t0e latter1 meaning &y t0is term only t0e cessation o# t0e c0emical process. t0ink1 0oMever1 t0at in t0e case o# an electrode immersed in a #luid insulating medium1 and surrounded &y independent carriers o# electric c0arges1 M0ic0 can &e acted upon inductively1 a su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uency o# t0e impulses Mould pro&a&ly result in a gravitation o# t0e gas all around toMard t0e electrode. For t0is it Mould &e only necessary to assume t0at t0e independent &odies are irregularly s0aped6 t0ey Mould t0en turn toMard t0e electrode t0eir side o# t0e greatest electric density1 and t0is Mould &e a position in M0ic0 t0e #luid resistance to approac0 Mould &e smaller t0an t0at o##ered to t0e receding. $0e general opinion1 do not dou&t1 is t0at it is out o# t0e 'uestion to reac0 any suc0 #re'uencies as mig0t @@ assuming some o# t0e vieMs &e#ore e5pressed to &e true produce any o# t0e results M0ic0 0ave pointed out as mere possi&ilities. $0is may &e so1 &ut in t0e course o# t0ese investigations1 #rom t0e o&servation o# many p0enomena 0ave gained t0e conviction t0at t0ese #re'uencies Mould &e muc0 loMer t0an one is apt to estimate at #irst. n a #lame Me set up lig0t vi&rations &y causing molecules1 o# atoms1 to collide. But M0at is t0e ratio o# t0e #re'uency o# t0e collisions and t0at o# t0e vi&rations set upO Certainly it must &e incompara&ly smaller t0an t0at o# t0e knocks o# t0e &ell and t0e sound vi&rations1 or t0at o# t0e disc0arges and t0e oscillations o# t0e condenser. We may cause t0e molecules o# t0e gas to collide &y t0e use o# alternate electric impulses o# 0ig0 #re'uency1 and so Me may imitate t0e process in a #lame6 and #rom e5periments Mit0 #re'uencies M0ic0 Me are noM a&le to o&tain1 t0ink t0at t0e result is produci&le Mit0 impulses M0ic0 are transmissi&le t0roug0 a conductor. n connection Mit0 t0oug0ts o# a similar nature1 it appeared to me o# great interest to demonstrate t0e rigidity o# a vi&rating gaseous column. Alt0oug0 Mit0 suc0 loM #re'uencies as1 say +=1=== per second1 M0ic0 Mas a&le to o&tain Mit0out di##iculty #rom a specially constructed alternator1 t0e task looked discouraging at #irst1 made a series o# e5periments. $0e trials Mit0 air at ordinary pressure led to no result1 &ut Mit0 air moderately rare#ied o&tain M0at t0ink to &e an unmistaka&le e5perimental evidence o# t0e property soug0t #or. As a result o# t0is kind mig0t lead a&le investigators to conclusions o# importance Mill descri&e one o# t0e e5periments per#ormed.

10* t is Mell knoMn t0at M0en a tu&e is slig0tly e50austed t0e disc0arge may &e passed t0roug0 it in t0e #orm o# a t0in luminous t0read. W0en produced Mit0 currents o# loM #re'uency1 o&tained #rom a coil operated as usual1 t0is t0read is inert. # a magnet &e approac0ed to it1 t0e part near t0e same is attracted or repelled1 according to t0e direction o# t0e lines o# #orce o# t0e magnet. t occurred to me t0at i# suc0 a t0read Mould &e produced Mit0 currents o# very 0ig0 #re'uency1 it s0ould &e more or less rigid1 and as it Mas visi&le it could &e easily studied. Accordingly prepared a tu&e a&out + inc0 in diameter and + metre long1 Mit0 outside coating at eac0 end. $0e tu&e Mas e50austed to a point at M0ic01 &y a little Morking t0e t0read disc0arge could &e o&tained. t must &e remarked 0ere t0at t0e general aspect o# t0e tu&e1 and t0e degree o# e50austion1 are 'uite di##erent t0an M0en ordinary loM #re'uency currents are used. As it Mas #ound pre#era&le to Mork Mit0 one terminal1 t0e tu&e prepared Mas suspended #rom t0e end o# a Mire connected to t0e terminal1 t0e tin#oil coating &eing connected to t0e Mire1 and to t0e loMer coating sometimes a small insulated plate Mas attac0ed. W0en t0e t0read Mas #ormed it e5tended t0roug0 t0e upper part o# t0e tu&e and lost itsel# in t0e loMer end. # it possessed rigidity it resem&led1 not e5actly an elastic cord stretc0ed tig0t &etMeen tMo supports1 &ut a cord suspended #rom a 0eig0t Mit0 a small Meig0t attac0ed at t0e end. W0en t0e #inger or a magnet Mas approac0ed to t0e upper end o# t0e luminous t0read1 it could &e &roug0t locally out o# position &y electrostatic or magnetic action6 and M0en t0e distur&ing o&8ect Mas very 'uickly removed1 an analogous result Mas produced1 as t0oug0 a suspended cord Mould &e displaced and 'uickly released near t0e point o# suspension. n doing t0is t0e luminous t0read Mas set in vi&ration1 and tMo very s0arply marked nodes1 and a t0ird indistinct one1 Mere #ormed. $0e vi&ration1 once set up1 continued #or #ully eig0t minutes1 dying gradually out. $0e speed o# t0e vi&ration o#ten varied percepti&ly1 and it could &e o&served t0at t0e electrostatic attraction o# t0e glass a##ected t0e vi&rating t0read6 &ut it Mas clear t0at t0e electrostatic action Mas not t0e cause o# t0e vi&ration1 #or t0e t0read Mas most generally stationary1 and could alMays &e set in vi&ration &y passing t0e #inger 'uickly near t0e upper part o# t0e tu&e. Wit0 a magnet t0e t0read could &e split in tMo and &ot0 parts vi&rated. By approac0ing t0e 0and to t0e loMer coating o# t0e tu&e1 or insulated plate i# attac0ed1 t0e vi&ration Mas 'uickened6 also1 as #ar as could see1 &y raising t0e potential o# #re'uency. $0us1 eit0er increasing t0e #re'uency or passing a stronger disc0arge o# t0e same #re'uency corresponded to a tig0tening o# t0e cord. did not o&tain any e5perimental evidence Mit0 condenser disc0arges. A luminous &and e5cited in a &ul& &y repeated disc0arges o# a :eyden 8ar must possess rigidity1 and i# de#ormed and suddenly released s0ould vi&rate. But pro&a&ly t0e amount o# vi&rating matter is so small t0at in spite o# t0e e5treme speed t0e inertia cannot prominently assert itsel#. Besides1 t0e o&servation in sudS+ a case is rendered e5tremely di##icult on account o# t0e #undamental vi&ration. $0e demonstration o# t0e #act @@ M0ic0 still needs &etter e5perimental con#irmation @@ t0at a vi&rating gaseous column possesses rigidity1 mig0t greatly modi#y t0e vieMs o# t0inkers. W0en Mit0 loM #re'uencies and insigni#icant potentials indications o# t0at property may &e noted1 0oM must a gaseous medium &e0ave under t0e in#luence o# enormous electrostatic stresses M0ic0 may &e active in t0e interstellar space1 and M0ic0 may alternate Mit0 inconceiva&le rapidityO $0e e5istence o# suc0 an electrostatic1 r0yt0mically t0ro&&ing #orce @@ o# a vi&rating electrostatic #ield @@ Mould s0oM B possi&le May 0oM solids mig0t 0ave #ormed #rom t0e ultra@gaseous uterus1 and 0oM transverse and all kinds o# vi&rations may &e transmitted t0roug0 a gaseous medium #illing all space. $0en1 et0er mig0t &e a true #luid1 devoid o# rigidity1 and at rest1 it &eing merely necessary as a connecting link to ena&le interaction. W0at determines t0e rigidity o# a &odyO t must &e t0e speed and t0e amount o# moving matter. n a gas t0e speed may &e considera&le1 &ut t0e density is e5ceedingly small6 in a li'uid t0e speed Mould &e likely to &e small1 t0oug0 t0e density may &e considera&le6 and in &ot0 cases t0e inertia resistance o##ered to displacement is practically nil. But place a gaseous *or li'uid/ column in an intense1 rapidly alternating electrostatic #ield1 set t0e particles vi&rating Mit0 enormous speeds1 t0en t0e inertia resistance asserts itsel#. A &ody mig0t move Mit0 more or less #reedom t0roug0 t0e vi&rating mass1 &ut as a M0ole it Mould &e rigid. $0ere is a su&8ect M0ic0 must mention in connection Mit0 t0ese e5periments4 it is t0at o# 0ig0 vacua. $0is is a su&8ect t0e study o# M0ic0 is not only interesting1 &ut use#ul1 #or it may lead to results o# great practical importance. n commercial apparatus suc0 as incandescent lamps1 operated #rom ordinary systems o# distri&ution1 a muc0 0ig0er vacuum t0an o&tained at present Mould not secure a very great advantage. n suc0 a case t0e Mork is per#ormed on t0e #ilament and t0e gas is little concerned6 t0e improvement1 t0ere#ore1 Mould &e &ut tri#ling. But M0en Me &egin to use very 0ig0 #re'uencies and potentials1 t0e action o# t0e gas &ecomes all important1 and t0e degree o# e50austion materially modi#ies t0e results. As long as ordinary coils1 even very large ones1 Mere used1 t0e study o# t0e su&8ect Mas limited1 &ecause 8ust at a point M0en it &ecame most interesting it 0ad to &e interrupted on account o# t0e Enon@strikingE vacuum &eing reac0ed. But presently Me are a&le to o&tain #rom a small disruptive disc0arge coil potentials muc0 0ig0er t0an even t0e largest coil Mas capa&le o# giving1 and1 M0at is more1 Me can make t0e potential alternate Mit0 great rapidity. Bot0 o# t0ese results ena&le us noM Uo pass a luminous disc0arge t0roug0 almost any vacua o&taina&le1 and t0e #ield o# our investigations is greatly e5tended. $0ink Me as Me may1 o# all t0e possi&le directions to develop a practical illuminant1 t0e line o# 0ig0 vacua seems to &e t0e most promising at present. But to reac0 e5treme vacua t0e appliances must &e muc0 mote improved1 and ultimate per#ection Mill not &e attained until Me s0all 0ave discarded t0e mec0anical and per#ected an electrical vacuum pump. Bolecules and atoms can &e t0roMn out o# a &ul& under t0e action o# an enormous potential4 t0is Mill &e t0e principle o# t0e vacuum pump o# t0e #uture. For t0e present1 Me must secure t0e &est results Me can Mit0 mec0anical appliances. n t0is respect1 it mig0t not &e out o# t0e May to say a #eM Mords a&out t0e met0od o#1 and appatatus #or1 producing e5cessively 0ig0 degrees o# e50austion o# M0ic0 0ave availed mysel# in t0e course

110 o# t0ese investigations. t is very pro&a&le t0at ot0er e5perimenters 0ave used similar arrangements6 &ut as it is possi&le t0at t0ere may &e an item o# interest in t0eir description1 a #eM remarks1 M0ic0 Mill render t0is investigation more complete1 mig0t &e permitted.

$0e apparatus is illustrated in a draMing s0oMn in Fig. 9=. S represents a Sprengel pump1 M0ic0 0as &een specially constructed to &etter suit t0e Mork re'uired. $0e stopcock M0ic0 is usually employed 0as &een omitted1 and instead o# it a 0olloM stopper 0as &een #itted in t0e neck o# t0e reservoir R. $0is stopper 0as a small 0ole 01 t0roug0 M0ic0 t0e mercury descends6 t0e si2e o# t0e outlet o &eing properly determined Mit0 respect to t0e section o# t0e #all tu&e t1 M0ic0 is sealed to t0e reservoir instead o# &eing connected to it in t0e usual manner. $0is arrangement overcomes t0e imper#ections and trou&les1 M0ic0 o#ten arise #rom t0e use o# t0e stopcock on t0e reservoir and t0e connection o# t0e latter Mit0 t0e #all tu&e. $0e pump is connected t0roug0 a U@s0aped tu&e t to a very large reservoir R+. Especial care Mas taken in #itting t0e grinding sur#aces o# t0e stoppers p and P11 and &ot0 o# t0ese and t0e mercury caps a&ove t0em Mere made e5ceptionally long. A#ter t0e U@s0aped tu&e Mas #itted and put in place1 it Mas 0eated1 so as to so#ten and take o## t0e strain resulting #rom imper#ect #itting. $0e U@s0aped tu&e Mas provided Mit0 a stopcock C1 and tMo ground connections g and gl @@ one #or a small &ul& &1 usually containing caustic potas01 and t0e ot0er #or t0e receiver r1 to &e e50austed. $0e reservoir R+ Mas connected &y means o# a ru&&er tu&e to a slig0tly larger reservoir R71 eac0 o# t0e tMo reservoirs &eing provided Mit0 a stopcock C+ and C7 respectively. $0e reservoir R7 could &e raised and loMered &y a M0eel and rack1 and t0e range o# its motion Mas so determined t0at M0en it Mas #illed Mit0 mercury and t0e stopcock C1 closed1 so as to #orm a $orricellian vacuum in it M0en raised1 it could &e li#ted so 0ig0 t0at t0e mercury in reservoir R+ Mould stand a little a&ove stopcock C+4 and M0en t0is stopcock Mas dosed and t0e reservoir R7 descended1 so as to #orm a $orricellian vacuum in reservoir R+1 it could &e loMered so #ar as to completely empty t0e latter1 t0e mercury #illing t0e reservoir R7 up to a little a&ove stopcock C7. $0e capacity o# t0e pump and o# t0e connections Mas taken as small as possi&le relatively to t0e volume o# reservoir1 R+1 since1 o# course1 t0e degree o# e50austion depended upon t0e ratio o# t0ese 'uantities. Wit0 t0is apparatus com&ined t0e usual means indicated &y #ormer e5periments #or t0e production o# very 0ig0 vacua. n most o# t0e e5periments it Mas convenient to use caustic potas0. may venture to say1 in regard to its use1 t0at muc0 time is saved and a more per#ect action o# t0e pump insured &y #using and &oiling t0e potas0 M soon as1 or even &e#ore1 t0e pump settles doMn. # t0is course is not #olloMed t0e sticks1 as ordinarily employed1 may give moisture o## at a certain very sloM rate1 and t0e pump may Mork #or many 0ours Mit0out reac0ing a very 0ig0 vacuum. $0e potas0 Mas 0eated eit0er &y a spirit lamp or &y passing a disc0arge t0roug0 it1 or &y passing a current t0roug0 a Mire contained in it. $0e advantage in t0e latter case Mas t0at t0e 0eating could &e more rapidly

111 repeated. Generally t0e process o# e50austion Mas t0e #olloMing4 @@ at t0e start1 t0e stopcocks C and C+ &eing open1 and all ot0er connections closed1 t0e reservoir R97 Mas raised so #ar t0at t0e mercury #illed t0e reservoir R+ and a part4 o# t0e narroM connecting U@s0aped tu&e. W0en t0e pump Mas set to Mork1 t0e mercury Mould1 o# course1 'uickly rise in t0e tu&e1 and reservoir R7 Mas loMered1 t0e e5perimenter keeping t0e mercury at a&out t0e same level. $0e reservoir R7 Mas &alanced &y a long spring M0ic0 #acilitated t0e operation1 and t0e #riction o# t0e parts Mas generally su##icient to keep it almost in any position. W0en t0e Sprengel pump 0ad done its Mork1 t0e reservoir R7 Mas #urt0er loMered and t0e mercury descended in R+ and #illed R71 M0ereupon stopcock C7 Mas closed. $0e air ad0ering to t0e Malls o# R1 and t0at a&sor&ed &y t0e mercury Mas carried o##1 and to #ree t0e mercury o# all air t0e reservoir R7 Mas #or a long time Morked up and doMn. Curing t0is process some air1 M0ic0 Mould gat0er &eloM stopcock C71 Mas e5pelled #rom R7 &y loMering it #ar enoug0 and opening t0e stopcock1 closing t0e latter again &e#ore raising t0e reservoir. W0en all t0e air 0ad &een e5pelled #rom t0e mercury1 and no air Mould gat0er in R7 M0en it Mas loMered1 t0e caustic potas0 Mas resorted to. $0e reservoir R7 Mas noM again raised until t0e mercury in R+ stood a&ove stopcock C+. $0e caustic potas0 Mas #used and &oiled1 and t0e moisture partly carried o## &y t0e pump and partly re@a&sor&ed6 and t0is process o# 0eating and cooling Mas repeated many times1 and eac0 time1 upon t0e moisture &eing a&sor&ed or carried o##1 t0e reservoir R7 Mas #or a long time raised and loMered. n t0is manner all t0c moisture Mas carried o## #rom t0e mercury1 and &ot0 t0e reservoirs Mere in proper condition to &e used. $0e reservoir R7 Mas t0en again raised to t0e top1 and t0e pump Mas kept Morking #or a long time. W0en t0e 0ig0est vacuum o&taina&le Mit0 t0e Cump 0ad &een reac0ed t0e potas0 &ul& Mas usually Mrapped Mit0 cotton M0ic0 Mas sprinkled Mit0 et0er so as to keep t0e potas0 at a very loM temperature1 t0en t0e reservoir R7 Mas loMered1 and again reservoir R+ &eing emptied t0e receiver r Mas 'uickly sealed up. W0en a neM &ul& Mas put on1 t0e mercury Mas alMays raised a&ove stopcock C+1 M0ic0 Mas closed1 so as to alMays keep t0e mercury and &ot0 t0e reservoirs in #ine condition1 and t0e mercury Mas never Mit0draMn #rom R+ e5cept M0en t0e pump 0ad reac0ed t0e 0ig0est degree o# e50austion. t is necessary to o&serve t0is rule i# it is desired to use t0e appartus to advantage. By means o# t0is arrangement Mas a&le to proceed very 'uickly1 and M0en t0e apparatus Mas in per#ect order it Mas possi&le to reac0 t0e p0osp0orescent stage in a small &ul& in less t0an +S minutes1 M0ic0 is certainly very 'uick Mork #or a small la&oratory arrangement re'uiring all in all a&out +== pounds o# mercury. Wit0 ordinary small &ul&s t0e ratio o# t0e capacity o# t0e pump1 receiver1 and connections1 and t0at o# reservoir R Mas a&out +@@7=1 and t0e degrees o# e50austion reac0ed Mere necessarily very 0ig01 t0oug0 am una&le to make a precise and relia&le statement 0oM #ar t0e e50austion Mas carried. W0at impresses t0e investigator most in t0e course o# t0ese e5periences is t0e &e0avior o# gases M0en su&8ected to great rapidly alternating electrostatic stresses. But 0e must remain in dou&t as to M0et0er t0e e##ects o&served are due M0olly to t0e molecules1 or atoms1 o# t0e gas M0ic0 c0emical analysis discloses to us1 or M0et0er t0ere enters into play anot0er medium o# a gaseous nature1 comprising atoms1 or molecules1 immersed in a #luid pervading t0e space. Suc0 a medium1 surely must e5ist1 and am convinced t0at1 #or instance1 even i# air Mere a&sent1 t0e sur#ace and neig0&or0ood o# a &ody in space Mould &e 0eated &y rapidly alternating t0e potential o# t0e &ody6 &ut no suc0 0eating o# t0e sur#ace or neig0&or0ood could occur i# all #ree atoms Mere removed and only a 0omogeneous1 incompressi&le1 and elastic #luid @@ suc0 as et0er is supposed to &e @@ Mould remain1 #or t0en t0ere Mould &e no impacts1 no collisions. n suc0 a case1 as #ar as t0e &ody itsel# is concerned1 only #rictional losses in t0e inside could occur. t is a striking #act t0at t0e disc0arge t0roug0 a gas is esta&lis0ed Mit0 ever increasing #reedom as t0e #re'uency o# t0e impulses is augmented. t &e0aves in t0is respect 'uite contrarily to a metallic conductor. n t0e latter t0e impedance enters prominently into play as t0e #re'uency is increased1 &ut t0e gas acts muc0 as a series o# condensers Mould4 t0e #acility Mit0 M0ic0 t0e disc0arge passes t0roug0 seems to depend on t0e rate o# c0ange o# potential. # it act so1 t0en in a vacuum tu&e even o# great lengt01 and no matter 0oM strong t0e current1 sel#@ induction could not assert itsel#4 to any apprecia&le degree. We 0ave1 t0en1 as #ar as Me can noM see1 in t0e gas a conductor M0ic0 is capa&le o# transmitting electric impulses o# any #re'uency M0ic0 Me may &e a&le to produce. Could t0e #re'uency &e &roug0t 0ig0 enoug01 t0en a 'ueer system o# electric distri&ution1 M0ic0 Mould &e likely to interest gas companies1 mig0t &e reali2ed4 metal pipes #illed Mit0 gas @@ t0e metal &eing t0e insulator1 t0e gas t0e conductor @@ supplying p0osp0orescent &ul&s1 or per0aps devices as yet uninvented. t is certainly possi&le to take a 0olloM core o# copper1 rare#y t0e gas in t0e same1 and &y passing impulses o# su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uency t0roug0 a circuit around it1 &ring t0e gas inside to a 0ig0 degree o# incandescence6 &ut as to t0e nature o# t0e #orces t0ere Mould &e considera&le uncertainty1 #or it Mould &e dou&t#ul M0et0er Mit0 suc0 impulses t0e copper core Mould act as a static screen. Suc0 parado5es and apparent impossi&ilities Me encounter at every step in t0is line o# Mork1 and t0erein lies1 to a great e5tent1 t0e c0arm o# t0e study. 0ave 0ere a s0ort and Mide tu&e M0ic0 is e50austed to a 0ig0 degree and covered Mit0 a su&stantial coating o# &ron2e1 t0e coating alloMing &arely t0e lig0t to s0ine t0roug0. A metallic clasp1 Mit0 a 0ook #or suspending t0e tu&e1 is #astened around t0e middle portion o# t0e latter1 t0e clasp &eing in contact Mit0 t0e &ron2e coating. noM Mant to lig0t t0e gas inside &y suspending t0e tu&e on a Mire connected to t0e coil. Any one M0o Mould try t0e

112 e5periment #or t0e #irst time1 not 0aving any previous e5perience1 Mould pro&a&ly take care to &e 'uite alone M0en making t0e trial1 #or #ear t0at 0e mig0t &ecome t0e 8oke o# 0is assistants. Still1 t0e &ul& lig0ts in spite o# t0e metal coating1 and t0e lig0t can &e distinctly perceived t0roug0 t0e latter. A long tu&e covered Mit0 aluminium &ron2e lig0ts M0en 0eld in one 0and @@ t0e ot0er touc0ing t0e terminal o# t0e coil @@ 'uite poMer#ully. t mig0t &e o&8ected t0at t0e coatings arc not su##iciently conducting6 still1 even i# t0ey Mere 0ig0ly resistant1 t0ey oug0t to screen t0e gas. $0ey certainly screen it per#ectly in a condition o# rest1 &ut not &y #ar per#ectly M0en t0e c0arge is surging in t0e coating. But t0e loss o# energy M0ic0 occurs Mit0in t0e tu&e1 notMit0standing t0e screen1 is occasioned principally &y t0e presence o# t0e gas. Were Me to take a large 0olloM metallic sp0ere and #ill it Mit0 a per#ect incompressi&le #luid dielectric1 t0ere Mould &e no loss inside o# t0e sp0ere1 and conse'uently t0e inside mig0t &e considered as per#ectly screened1 t0oug0 t0e potential &e very rapidly alternating. Even Mere t0e sp0ere #illed Mit0 oil1 t0e loss Mould &e incompara&ly smaller t0an M0en t0e #luid is replaced &y a gas1 #or in t0e latter case t0e #orce produces displacements6 t0at means impact and collisions in t0e inside. !o matter M0at t0e pressure o# t0e gas may &e1 it &ecomes an important #actor in t0e &earing o# a conductor M0en t0e electric density is great and t0e #re'uency very 0ig0. $0at in t0e 0eating o# conductors &y lig0tning disc0arges air is an element o# great importance1 is almost as certain as an e5perimental #act. may illustrate t0e action o# t0e air &y t0e #olloMing e5periment4 take a s0ort tu&e M0ic0 is e50austed to a moderate degree and 0as a platinum Mire running t0roug0 t0e middle #rom one end to t0e ot0er. pass a steady or loM #re'uency current t0roug0 t0e Mire1 and it is 0eated uni#ormly in all parts. $0e 0eating 0ere is due to conduction1 or #rictional losses1 and t0e gas around t0e Mire 0as @ as #ar as Me can see @ no #unction to per#orm. But noM let me pass sudden disc0arges1 or a 0ig0 #re'uency current1 t0roug0 t0e Mire. Again t0e Mire is 0eated1 t0is time principally on t0e ends and least in t0e middle portion6 and i# t0e #re'uency o# t0e impulses1 or t0e rate o# c0ange1 is 0ig0 enoug01 t0e Mire mig0t as Mell &e cut in t0e middle as not1 #or practically all t0e 0eating is due to t0e rare#ied gas4 Lere t0e gas mig0t only act as a conductor o# no impedance diverting t0e current #rom t0e Mire as t0e impedance o# t0e latter is enormously increased1 and merely 0eating t0e ends o# t0e Mire &y reason o# t0eir resistance to t0e passage o# t0e disc0arge. But it is not at all necessary t0at t0e gas in t0e tu&e s0ould &e conducting6 it mig0t &e at an e5tremely loM pressure1 still t0e ends o# t0e Mire Mould &e 0eated @@ as1 0oMever1 is ascertained &y e5perience @only t0e tMo ends Mould in suc0 case not &e electrically connected t0roug0 t0e gaseous medium. !oM M0at Mit0 t0ese #re'uencies and potentials occurs in an e50austed tu&e occurs in t0e lig0tning disc0arges at ordinary pressure. We only need to remem&er one o# t0e #acts arrived at in t0e course o# t0ese investigations1 namely1 t0at to impulses o# very 0ig0 #re'uency t0e gas at ordinary pressure &e0aves muc0 in t0e same manner as t0oug0 it Mere at moderately loM pressure. t0ink t0at in lig0tning disc0arges #re'uently Mires or conducting o&8ects are volatili2ed merely &ecause air is present1 and t0at1 Mere t0e conductor immersed in an insulating li'uid1 it Mould &e sa#e1 #or t0en t0e energy Mould 0ave to spend itsel# someM0ere else. From t0e &e0avior o# gases to sudden impulses o# 0ig0 potential am led to conclude t0at t0ere can &e no surer May o# diverting a lig0tning disc0arge t0an &y a##ording it a passage t0roug0 a volume o# gas1 i# suc0 a t0ing can &e done in a practical manner. $0ere are tMo more #eatures upon M0ic0 t0ink it necessary to dMell in connection Mit0 t0ese e5periments @@ t0e Eradiant stateE and t0e non@striking vacuumE. Any one M0o 0as studied Crookes Mork must 0ave received t0e impression t0at t0e PPradiant statePP is a property o# t0e gas insepara&ly connected Mit0 an e5tremely 0ig0 degree o# e50austion. But it s0ould &e remem&ered t0at t0e p0enomena o&served in an e50austed vessel are limited to t0e c0aracter and capacity o# t0e apparatus M0ic0 is made use o#. t0ink t0at in a &ul& a molecule1 or atom1 does not precisely move in a straig0t line &ecause it meets no o&stacle1 &ut &ecause t0e velocity imparted to it is su##icient to propel it in a sensi&ly straig0t line. $0e mean #ree pat0 is one t0ing1 &ut t0e velocity @@ t0e energy associated Mit0 t0e moving &ody @@ is anot0er1 and under ordinary circumstances &elieve t0at it is mere 'uestion o# potential or speed. A disruptive disc0arge coil1 M0en t0e potential is pus0ed very #ar1 e5cites p0osp0orescence and pro8ects s0adoMs1 at comparatively loM degrees o# e50austion. n a lig0tning disc0arge1 matter moves in straig0t lines at ordinary pressure M0en t0e mean #ree pat0 is e5ceedingly small1 and #re'uently images o# Mires or ot0er metallic o&8ects 0ave &een produced &y t0e particles t0roMn o## in straig0t lines.

11

0ave prepared a &ul& to illustrate &y an e5periment t0e correctness o# t0ese assertions. n a glo&e : *Fig. 9+/1 0ave mounted upon a lamp #ilaments o# a piece o# lime l. $0e lamp #ilament is connected Mit0 a Mire M0ic0 leads into t0e &ul&1 and t0e general construction o# t0e latter is as indicated in Fig. +,1 &e#ore descri&ed. $0e &ul& &eing suspended #rom a Mire connected to t0e terminal o# t0e coil1 and t0e latter &eing set to Mork1 t0e lime piece l and t0e pro8ecting parts o# t0e #ilament # are &om&arded. $0e degree o# e50austion is 8ust suc0 t0at Mit0 t0e potential t0e coil is capa&le o# giving p0osp0orescence o# t0e glass is produced1 &ut disappears as soon as t0e vacuum is impaired. $0e lime containing moisture1 and moisture &eing given o## as soon as 0eating occurs1 t0e p0osp0orescence lasts only #or a #eM moments. W0en t0e lime 0as &een su##iciently 0eated1 enoug0 moisture 0as &een given o## to impair materially t0e vacuum o# t0e &ul&. As t0e &om&ardment goes on1 one point o# t0e lime piece is more 0eated t0an ot0er points1 and t0e results is t0at #inally practically all t0e disc0arge passes t0roug0 t0at point M0ic0 is intensely 0eated1 and a M0ite stream o# lime particles *Fig. 9+/ t0en &reaks #ort0 #rom t0at point. $0is stream is composed o# EradiantE matter1 yet t0e degree o# e50austion is loM. But t0e particles move in straig0t lines &ecause t0e velocity imparted to t0em is great1 and t0is is due to t0ree causes @@ to t0e great electric density1 t0e 0ig0 temperature o# t0e small point1 and t0e #act t0at t0e particles o# t0e lime are easily torn and t0roMn o## @@ #ar more easily t0an t0ose o# car&on. Wit0 #re'uencies suc0 as Me are a&le to o&tain1 t0e particles are &odily t0roMn o## and pro8ected to a considera&le distance1 &ut Mit0 su##iciently 0ig0 #re'uencies no suc0 t0ing Mould occur4 in suc0 case only a stress Mould spread or a vi&ration Mould &e propagated t0roug0 t0e &ul&. t Mould &e out o# t0e 'uestion to reac0 any suc0 #re'uency on t0e assumption t0at t0e atoms move Mit0 t0e speed o# lig0t6 &ut &elieve t0at suc0 a t0ing is impossi&le6 #or t0is an enormous potential Mould &e re'uired. Wit0 potentials M0ic0 Me are a&le to o&tain1 even Mit0 a disruptive disc0arge coil1 t0e speed must &e 'uite insigni#icant. As to t0e Enon@striking vacuumE1 t0e point to &e noted is t0at it can occur only Mit0 loM #re'uency impulses1 and it is necessitated &y t0e impossi&ility o# carrying o## enoug0 energy Mit0 suc0 impulses in 0ig0 vacuum since t0e #eM atoms M0ic0 are around t0e terminal upon coming in contact Mit0 t0e same are repelled and kept at a distance #or a comparatively long period o# time1 and not enoug0 Mork can &e per#ormed to render t0e e##ect percepti&le to t0e eye. # t0e di##erence o# potential &etMeen t0c terminals is raised1 t0e dielectric &reaks doMn. But Mit0 very 0ig0 #re'uency impulses t0ere is no necessity #or suc0 &reaking doMn1 since any amount o# Mork can &e per#ormed &y continually agitating t0e atoms in t0e e50austed vessel1 provided t0e #re'uency is 0ig0 enoug0. t is easy to reac0 @@ even Mit0 #re'uencies o&tained #rom an alternator as 0ere used @@ a stage at M0ic0 t0e disc0arge does not pass &etMeen tMo electrodes in a narroM tu&e1 eac0 o# t0ese &eing connected to one o# t0e terminals o# t0e coil1 &ut it is di##icult to reac0 a point at M0ic0 a luminous disc0arge Mould not occur around eac0 electrode. A t0oug0t M0ic0 naturally presents itsel# in connection Mit0 0ig0 #re'uency currents1 is to make use o# t0eir poMer#ul electro@dynamic inductive action to product4 lig0t e##ects in a sealed glass glo&e. $0e leading@in Mire is one o# t0e de#ects o# t0e present incandescent lamp1 and i# no ot0er improvement Mere made1 t0at imper#ection at least s0ould &e done aMay Mit0. FolloMing t0is t0oug0t1 0ave carried on e5periments in various directions1 o# M0ic0 some Mere indicated in my #ormer paper. may 0ere mention one or tMo more lines o# e5periment M0ic0 0ave &een #olloMed up. Bany &ul&s Mere constructed as s0oMn in Fig. 97 and Fig. 99. n Fig. 97 a Mide tu&e r Mas sealed to a smaller W@ s0aped tu&e U1 o# p0osp0orescent glass. n t0e tu&e $ Mas placed a coil C o# aluminium Mire1 t0e ends o# M0ic0 Mere provided Mit0 small sp0eres t and tl o# aluminium1 and reac0ed into t0e U tu&e. $0e tu&e $ Mas slipped into a socket containing a primary coil t0roug0 M0ic0 usually t0e disc0arges o# :eyden 8ars Mere directed1 and t0e rare#ied gas in t0e small U tu&e Mas e5cited to strong luminosity &y t0e 0ig0@tension currents induced in t0e

11.

coil C. W0en :eyden 8ar disc0arges Mere used to induce currents in t0e coil C1 it Mas #ound necessary to pack t0e tu&e $ tig0tly Mit0 insulating poMder1 as a disc0arge Mould occur #re'uently &etMeen t0e turns o# t0e coil1 especially M0en t0e primary Mas t0ick and t0e air gap1 t0roug0 M0ic0 t0e 8ars disc0arged1 large1 and no little trou&le Mas e5perienced in t0is May. n Fig. 99 is illustrated anot0er #orm o# t0e &ul& constructed. n t0is case a tu&e $ is sealed to a glo&e :. $0e tu&e contains a coil C1 t0e ends o# M0ic0 pass t0roug0 tMo small glass tu&es t and tl1 M0ic0 are sealed to t0e tu&e $. $Mo re#ractory &uttons m and ml are mounted on lamp #ilaments M0ic0 are #astened to t0e ends o# t0e Mires passing t0roug0 t0e glass tu&es t and tl. Generally in &ul&s made on t0is plan t0e glo&e . communicated Mit0 t0e tu&e $. For t0is purpose t0e ends o# t0e small tu&es t and t+ Mere 8ust a tri#le 0eated in t0e &urner1 merely to 0old t0e Mires1 &ut not to inter#ere Mit0 t0e communication. $0e tu&e $1 Mit0 t0e small tu&es1 Mires t0roug0 t0e same1 and t0e re#ractory &uttons m and m+ Mas #irst prepared1 and t0en sealed to glo&e :1 M0ereupon t0e coil C Mas slipped in and t0e connections made to its ends. $0e tu&e Mas t0en packed Mit0 insulating poMder1 8amming t0e latter as tig0t as possi&le up to very nearly t0e end1 t0en it Mas closed and only a small 0ole le#t t0roug0 M0ic0 t0e remainder o# t0e poMder Mas introduced1 and #inally t0e end o# t0e tu&e Mas closed. Usually in &ul&s constructed as s0oMn in Fig. 99 an aluminium tu&e a Mas #astened to t0e upper end s o# eac0 o# t0e tu&es t and tl1 in order to protect t0at end against t0e 0eat. $0e &uttons m and ml could &e &roug0t to any degree o# incandescence &y passing t0e disc0arges o# :eyden 8ars around t0e coil C. n suc0 &ul&s Mit0 tMo &uttons a very curious e##ect is produced &y t0e #ormation o# t0e s0adoMs o# eac0 o# t0e tMo &uttons. Anot0er line o# e5periment1 M0ic0 0as &een assiduously #olloMed1 Mas to induce &y electro@dynamic induction a current or luminous disc0arge in an e50austed tu&e or &ul&. $0is matter 0as received suc0 a&le treatment at t0e 0ands o# Pro#. Q. Q. $0omson t0at could add &ut little to M0at 0e 0as made knoMn1 even 0ad made it t0e special su&8ect o# t0is lecture. Still1 since e5periences in t0is line 0ave gradually led me to t0e present vieMs and results1 a #eM Mords must &e devoted 0ere to t0is su&8ect. t 0as occurred1 no dou&t1 to many t0at as a vacuum tu&e is made longer t0e electromotive #orce per unit lengt0 o# t0e tu&e1 necessary to pass a luminous disc0arge t0roug0 t0e latter1 gets continually smaller6 t0ere#ore1 i# t0e e50austed tu&e &e made long enoug01 even Mit0 loM #re'uencies a luminous disc0arge could &e induced in suc0 a tu&e closed upon itsel#. Suc0 a tu&e mig0t &e placed around a 0all or on a ceiling1 and at once a simple appliance capa&le o# giving considera&le lig0t Mould &e o&tained. But t0is Mould &e an appliance 0ard to manu#acture and e5tremely unmanagea&le. t Mould not do to make t0e tu&e up o# small lengt0s1 &ecause t0ere Mould &e Mit0 ordinary #re'uencies considera&le loss in t0e coatings1 and &esides1 i# coatings Mere used1 it Mould &e &etter to supply t0e current directly to t0e tu&e &y connecting t0e coatings to a trans#ormer. But even i# all o&8ections o# suc0 nature Mere removed1 still1 Mit0 loM #re'uencies t0e lig0t conversion itsel# Mould &e ine##icient1 as 0ave &e#ore stated. n using e5tremely 0ig0 #re'uencies t0e lengt0 o# t0e secondary @@ in ot0er Mords1 t0e site o# t0e vessel @@ can &e reduced as #ar as desired1 and t0e e##iciency o# t0e lig0t conversion is increased6 provided t0at means are invented #or e##iciently o&taining suc0 0ig0 #re'uencies. $0us one is led1 #rom t0eoretical and practical considerations1 to t0e use o# 0ig0 #re'uencies1 and t0is means 0ig0 electromotive #orces and small currents in t0e primary. W0en 0e Morks Mit0 condenser c0arges @@ and t0ey are t0e only means up to t0e present knoMn #or reac0ing t0ese e5treme #re'uencies @@ 0e gets tr. electromotive #orces o# several t0ousands o# volts per turn o# t0e primary. Le cannot multiply t0e electro@dynamic inductive e##ect &y taking more turns in t0e primary1 #or 0e arrives

111 at t0e conclusion t0at t0e &est May is to Mork Mit0 one single turn @@ t0oug0 0e must sometimes depart #rom t0is rule @@ @and 0e must get along Mit0 M0atever inductive e##ect 0e can o&tain Mit0 one turn. But &e#ore 0e 0as long e5perimented Mit0 t0e e5treme #re'uencies re'uired to set up in a small &ul& an electromotive #orce o# several t0ousands o# volts 0e reali2es t0e great importance o# electrostatic e##ects1 and t0ese e##ects groM relatively to t0e electro@dynamic in signi#icance as t0e #re'uency is increased. !oM1 i# anyt0ing is desira&le in t0is case1 it is to increase t0e #re'uency1 and t0is Mould make it still Morse #or t0e electro@dynamic e##ects. "n t0e ot0er 0and1 it is easy to e5alt t0e electrostatic action as #ar as one likes &y taking more turns on t0e secondary1 or com&ining sel#@induction and capacity to raise t0e potential. t s0ould also &e remem&ered t0at1 in reducing t0e current to t0e smallest value and increasing t0e potential1 t0e electric impulses o# 0ig0 #re'uency can &e more easily transmitted t0roug0 a conductor. $0ese and similar t0oug0ts determined me to devote more attention to t0e electrostatic p0enomena1 and to endeavor to produce potentials as 0ig0 as possi&le1 and alternating as #ast as t0ey could &e made to alternate. t0en #ound t0at could e5cite vacuum tu&es at considera&le distance #rom a conductor connected to a properly constructed coil1 and t0at could1 &y converting t0e oscillatory current o# a condenser to a 0ig0er potential1 esta&lis0 electrostatic alternating #ields M0ic0 acted t0roug0 t0e M0ole e5tent o# a room1 lig0ting up a tu&e no matter M0ere it Mas 0eld in space. t0oug0t recogni2ed t0at 0ad made a step in advance1 and 0ave perserved in t0is line6 &ut Mis0 to say t0at s0are Mit0 all lovers o# science and progress t0e one and only desire @@ to reac0 a result o# utility to men in any direction to M0ic0 t0oug0t or e5periment may lead me. t0ink t0at t0is departure is t0e rig0t one1 #or cannot see1 #rom t0e o&servation o# t0e p0enomena M0ic0 mani#est t0emselves as t0e #re'uency is increased1 M0at t0ere Mould remain to act &etMeen tMo circuits conveying1 #or instance1 impulses o# several 0undred millions per second1 e5cept electrostatic #orces. Even Mit0 suc0 sti#ling #re'uencies t0e energy Mould &e practically all potential1 and my conviction 0as groMn strong t0at1 to M0atever kind o# motion lig0t may &e due1 it is produced &y tremendous electrostatic stresses vi&rating Mit0 e5treme rapidity. "# all t0ese p0enomena o&served Mit0 currents1 or electric impulses1 o# 0ig0 #re'uency1 t0e most #ascinating #or an audience are certainly t0ose M0ic0 are noted in an electrostatic #ield acting t0roug0 considera&le distance1 and t0e &est an unskilled lecturer can do is to &egin and #inis0 Mit0 t0e e50i&ition o# t0ese singular e##ects. take a tu&e in t0e 0and and move it a&out1 and it is lig0ted M0erever may 0old it6 t0roug0out space t0e invisi&le #orces act. But may take anot0er tu&e and it mig0t not lig0t1 t0e vacuum &eing very 0ig0. e5cite it &y means o# a disruptive disc0arge coil1 and noM it Mill lig0t in t0e electrostatic #ield. may put it aMay #or a #eM Meeks or mont0s1 still it retains t0e #aculty o# &eing e5cited. W0at c0ange 0ave produced in t0e tu&e in t0e ad o# e5citing itO # a motion imparted to t0e atoms1 it is di##icult to perceive 0oM it can persist so long Mit0out &eing arrested &y #rictional losses6 and i# a strain e5erted in t0e dielectric1 suc0 as a simple electri#ication Mould produce1 it is easy to see 0oM it may persist inde#initely &ut very di##icult to understand M0y suc0 a condition s0ould aid t0e e5citation M0en Me 0ave to deal Mit0 potentials M0ic0 are rapidly alternating. Since 0ave e50i&ited t0ese p0enomena #or t0e #irst time1 0ave o&tained some ot0er interesting e##ects. For instance1 0ave produced t0e incandescence o# a &utton1 #ilament1 or Mire enclosed in a tu&e. $o get to t0is result it Mas necessary to economi2e t0e energy M0ic0 is o&tained #rom t0e #ield and direct most o# it on t0e small &ody to &e rendered incandescent. At t0e &eginning t0e task appeared di##icult1 &ut t0e e5periences gat0ered permitted me to teac0 t0e result easily. n Fig. 9. and Fig. 9< tMo suc0 tu&es are illustrated M0ic0 are prepared #or t0e occasion. n Fig. 9. a s0ort tu&e $+1 sealed to anot0er long tu&e $1 is provided Mit0 a stem s1 Mit0 a platinum Mire sealed in t0e latter. A very t0in lamp #ilament is #astened to t0is Mire1 and connection to t0e outside is made t0roug0 a t0in copper Mire M. $0e tu&e is provided Mit0 outside and inside coatings1 C and C+ respectively1 and is #illed as #ar as t0e coatings reac0 Mit0 conducting1 and t0e space a&ove Mit0 insulating poMder. $0ese coatings are merely used to ena&le me to per#orm tMo e5periments Mit0 t0e tu&e @@ namely1 to produce t0e e##ect desired eit0er &y direct connection o# t0e &ody o# t0e e5perimenter or o# anot0er &ody to t0e Mire M1 or &y acting inductively t0roug0 t0e glass. $0e stem s is provided Mit0 an aluminium tu&e a #or purposes &e#ore e5plained1 and only a small part o# t0e #ilament reac0es out o# t0is tu&e. By 0olding t0e tu&e $+ anyM0ere in t0e electrostatic #ield t0e #ilament is rendered incandescent. A more interesting piece o# apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 9<. $0e construction is t0e same as &e#ore1 only instead o# t0e lamp #ilament a small platinum Mire P1 sealed in a stem s1 and &ent a&ove it in a circle1 is connected to t0e copper Mire M1 M0ic0 is 8oined to an inside coating C. A small stem sl is provided Mit0 a needle1 on t0e point o# M0ic0 is arranged to rotate very #reely a very lig0t #an o# mica v. $o prevent t0e #an #rom #alling out1 a t0in stem o# glass g is &ent properly and #astened to t0e aluminium tu&e. W0en t0e glass tu&e is 0eld anyM0ere in t0e electrostatic #ield t0e platinum Mire &ecomes incandescent1 and t0e mica vanes are rotated very #ast.

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ntense p0osp0orescence may &e e5cited in a &ul& &y merely connecting it to a plate Mit0in t0e #ield1 and t0e plate need not &e any larger t0an an ordinary lamp s0ade. $0e p0osp0orescence e5cited Mit0 t0ese currents is incompara&ly more poMer#ul t0an Mit0 ordinary apparatus. A small p0osp0orescent &ul&1 M0en attac0ed to a Mire connected tl1 a coil1 emits su##icient lig0t to alloM reading ordinary print at a distance o# #ive to si5 paces. t Mas o# interest to see 0oM some o# t0e p0osp0orescent &ul&s o# Pro#essor Crookes Mould &e0ave Mit0 t0ese currents1 and 0e 0as 0ad t0e kindness to lend me 2 #eM #or t0e occasion. $0e e##ects produced are magni#icent1 especially &y t0e sulp0ide o# calcium and sulp0ide o# 2inc. From t0e disruptive disc0arge coil t0ey gloM intensely merely &y 0olding t0em in t0e 0and and connecting t0e &ody to t0e terminal o# t0e coil. $o M0atever results investigations o# t0is kind may lead1 t0eir c0ie# interest lies #or t0e present in t0e possi&ilities t0ey o##er #or t0e production o# an e##icient illuminating device. n no &ranc0 o# electric industry is an advance more desired t0an in t0e manu#acture o# lig0t. Every t0inker1 M0en considering t0e &ar&arous met0ods employed1 t0e deplora&le losses incurred in our &est systems o# lig0t production1 must 0ave asked 0imsel#1 W0at is likely to &e t0e lig0t o# t0e #utureO s it to &e an incandescent solid1 as in t0e present lamp1 or an incandescent gas1 or a p0osp0orescent &ody1 or somet0ing like a &urner1 &ut incompara&ly more e##icientO $0ere is little c0ance to per#ect a gas &urner6 not1 per0aps1 &ecause 0uman ingenuity 0as &een &ent upon t0at pro&lem #or centuries Mit0out a radical departure 0aving &een made @@ t0oug0 t0is argument is not devoid o# #orce @@ &ut &ecause in a &urner t0e 0ig0er vi&rations can never &e reac0ed e5cept &y passing t0roug0 all t0e loM ones. For 0oM is a #lame produced unless &y a #all o# li#ted Meig0tsO Suc0 process cannot &e maintained Mit0out reneMal1 and reneMal is repeated passing #rom loM to 0ig0 vi&rations. "ne May only seems to &e open to improve a &urner1 and t0at is &y trying to reac0 0ig0er degrees o# incandescence. Lig0er incandescence is e'uivalent to a 'uicker vi&ration6 t0at means more lig0t #rom t0e same material1 and t0at1 again1 means more economy. n t0is direction some improvements 0ave &een made1 &ut t0e progress is 0ampered &y many limitations. Ciscarding1 t0en1 t0e &urner1 t0ere remain t0e t0ree Mays #irst mentioned1 M0ic0 are essentially electrical. Suppose t0e lig0t o# t0e immediate #uture to &e a solid rendered incandescent &y electricity. Would it not seem t0at it is &etter to employ a small &utton t0an a #rail #ilamentO From many considerations it certainly must &e concluded t0at a &utton is capa&le o# a 0ig0er economy1 assuming1 o# course1 t0e di##iculties connected Mit0 t0e operation o# suc0 a lamp to &e e##ectively overcome. But to lig0t suc0 a lamp Me re'uire a 0ig0 potential6 and to get t0is economically Me must use 0ig0 #re'uencies. Suc0 considerations apply even more to t0e production o# lig0t &y t0e incandescence o# a gas1 or &y p0osp0orescence. n all cases Me re'uire 0ig0 #re'uencies and 0ig0 potentials. $0ese t0oug0ts occurred to me a long time ago.

113 ncidentally Me gain1 &y t0e use o# very 0ig0 #re'uencies1 many advantages1 suc0 as a 0ig0er economy in t0e lig0t production1 t0e possi&ility o# Morking Mit0 one lead1 t0e possi&ility o# doing aMay Mit0 t0e leading@in Mire1 etc. $0e 'uestion is1 0oM #ar can Me go Mit0 #re'uenciesO "rdinary conductors rapidly lose t0e #acility o# transmitting electric impulses M0en t0e #re'uency is greatly increased. Assume t0e means #or t0e production o# impulses o# very great #re'uency &roug0t to t0e utmost per#ection1 every one Mill naturally ask 0oM to transmit t0em M0en t0e necessity arises. n transmitting suc0 impulses t0roug0 conductors Me must remem&er t0at Me 0ave to deal Mit0 pressure and #loM1 in t0e ordinary interpretation o# t0ese terms. :et t0e pressure increase to an enormous value1 and let t0e #loM correspondingly diminis01 t0en suc0 impulses @@ variations merely o# pressure1 as it Mere @@ can no dou&t &e transmitted t0roug0 a Mire even i# t0eir #re'uency &e many 0undreds o# millions per second. t Mould1 o# course1 &e out o# 'uestion to transmit suc0 impulses t0roug0 a Mire immersed in a gaseous medium1 even i# t0c Mire Mere provided Mit0 a t0ick and e5cellent insulation #or most o# t0e energy Mould &e lost in molecular &om&ardment and conse'uent 0eating. $0e end o# t0e Mire connected to t0e source Mould &e 0eated1 and t0e remote end Mould receive &ut a tri#ling part o# t0e energy supplied. $0e prime necessity1 t0en1 i# suc0 electric impulses are to &e used1 is to #ind means to reduce as muc0 as possi&le t0e dissipation. $0e #irst t0oug0t is1 employ t0e t0innest possi&le Mire surrounded &y t0e t0ickest practica&le insulation. $0e ne5t t0oug0t is to employ electrostatic screens. $0e insulation o# t0e Mire may &e covered Mit0 a t0in conducting coating and t0e latter connected to t0e ground. But t0is Mould not do1 as t0en all t0e energy Mould pass t0roug0 t0e conducting coating to t0e ground and not0ing Mould get to t0e end o# t0e Mire. # a ground connection is made it can only &e made t0roug0 a conductor o##ering an enormous impedance1 or t0roug0 a condenser o# e5tremely small capacity. $0is1 0oMever1 does not do aMay Mit0 ot0er di##iculties. # t0e Mave lengt0 o# t0e impulses is muc0 smaller t0an t0e lengt0 o# t0e Mire1 t0en corresponding s0ort Maves Mill &e sent up in t0e conducting coating1 and it Mill &e more or less t0e same as t0oug0 t0e coating Mere directly connected to eart0. t is t0ere#ore necessary to cut up t0e coating in sections muc0 s0orter t0an t0e Mave lengt0. Suc0 an arrangement does not still a##ord a per#ect screen1 &ut it is ten t0ousand times &etter t0an none. t0ink it pre#era&le to cut up t0e conducting coating in small sections1 even i# t0e current Maves &e muc0 longer t0an t0e coating. # a Mire Mere provided Mit0 a per#ect electrostatic screen1 it Mould &e t0e same as t0oug0 all o&8ects Mere removed #rom it at in#inite distance. $0e capacity Mould t0en &e reduced to t0e capacity o# t0e Mire itsel#1 M0ic0 Mould &e very small. t Mould t0en &e possi&le to send over t0e Mire current vi&rations o# very 0ig0 #re'uencies at enormous distance Mit0out a##ecting greatly t0e c0aracter o# t0e vi&rations. A per#ect screen is o# course out o# t0e 'uestion1 &ut &elieve t0at Mit0 a screen suc0 as 0ave 8ust descri&ed telep0ony could &e rendered practica&le across t0e Atlantic. According to my ideas1 t0e gutta@perc0a covered Mire s0ould &e provided Mit0 a t0ird conducting coating su&divided in sections. "n t0e top o# t0is s0ould &e again placed a layer o# gutta@perc0a and ot0er insulation1 and on t0e top o# t0e M0ole t0e armor. But suc0 ca&les Mill not &e constructed1 #or ere long intelligence @@ transmitted Mit0out Mires Mill t0ro& t0roug0 t0e eart0 like a pulse t0roug0 a living organism. $0e Monder is t0at1 Mit0 t0e present state o# knoMledge and t0e e5periences gained1 no attempt is &eing made to distur& t0e electrostatic or magnetic condition o# t0e eart01 and transmit1 i# not0ing else1 intelligence. t 0as &een my c0ie# aim in presenting t0ese results to point out p0enomena or #eatures o# novelty1 and to advance ideas M0ic0 am 0ope#ul Mill serve as starting points o# neM departures. t 0as &een my c0ie# desire t0is evening to entertain you Mit0 some novel e5periments. Aour applause1 so #re'uently and generously accorded 0as told me t0at 0ave succeeded. n conclusion1 let me t0ank you most 0eartily #or your kindness and attention1 and assure you t0at t0e 0onor 0ave 0ad in addressing suc0 a distinguis0ed audience1 t0e pleasure 0ave 0ad in presenting t0ese results to a gat0ering o# so many a&le men and among t0em also some o# t0ose in M0ose Mork #or many years past 0ave #ound enlig0tenment and constant pleasure @@ s0all never #orget.

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Te"la era un-ingegnere elettrico al .uale "ia la "cienza u&&iciale% "ia .uella non u&&iciale% de/ono molto. 0ue"to 1 un di"po"iti/o di ri"onanza% utile per tramettere onde attra/er"o la terra. Ma% una /olta co"truito% /a maneggiato con e"trema cautela.

!COscillatore di Tesla
&onte+$ttp+22www.angel&ire.com2"ci&i2Eclip"e*a!2Te"la2,"cillator.$tml9Nostra traduzione:

A Nikola Tesla si -ensa -rinci-almente come ad un genio dellCelettricitHB ma fu -ure autore di un mucc0io di dis-ositi$i meccanici. )no dei -iL famosi di 2uesti fu la sua #Macc$ina per Terremoti# anc0e conosciuta come lCOscillatore di Tesla. !a macc0ina c0e Tesla 0a -ro$ato fu -iccolaB circa 3 -ollici di lung0ezzaB e -esante solo uno o due -oundsG del ti-o E-otresti metterlo nella tasca del tuo ca--ottoE. Nel 18*8B il laboratorio di Tesla a Ne6 Rork fu $icino cadere a -ezzi con 2uesto -iccolo dis-ositi$oB azionato solo da solo cin2ue -ounds di -ressione dellCaria c0e agiscono contro uno s-eciale -istone -neumatico. !Cintero sistema fu -rogettato -er essere alimentato dalla -ressione del $a-ore. Tesla sta$a s-erimentando modi -er trasmettere forza motrice attra/er"o la Terra) /ersioni -iL grandi di 2uesti oscillatoriB forse -esanti 200 -oundsB e essendo circa alta tre -iedi -ote$a trasmettere forza motrice utilizzabile o$un2ue nellCintero -ianeta. Se $i sembra fantasticoB 2uesto dis-ositi$o -ote$a anc0e tro$are na$iB sottomarini e -alazzi o$un2ue e su scala globale. ,l dis-ositi$o di Tesla era del tutto meccanicoB ed J mostrato 2ui di seguito(

,l $a-ore -otrebbe essere forzato nellCoscillatoreB e uscire attra$erso una serie di -ortelliB il cui effetto era

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di -ortare l"armatura a $ibrare ad alta $elocitH. ,l ri$estimento era -er necessitH molto forteB in 2uanto le tem-erature do$ute alla -ressione di riscaldamento nella camera su-eriore su-era$ano i 200 gradiB e la -ressione -ortata a .00-si. +urono create altre $ersioni di 2uesta macc0inaB -rogettate -er -rodurre energia elettrica sia alternata c0e continua 9senza il bisogno di aggiustamenti:.

:l #iano
&on 2uesto in menteB 0o iniziato a -ensare al modo in cui -oter costruire uno di 2uesti oscillatori -iL facilente c0e con un reci-iente a -ressione in acciaio. 'oic0J il -istone ad aria fa affidamento sull"aria com-ressa -er realizzare il mo$imento dCoscillazioneB mi sembra c0e do$rebbe essere utile un altro modo di forzare -istone a muo$ersi. 7o battuto sull"idea di usare un cam-o magnetico -er creare -arte del mo$imento. ,l dis-orre di una corrente alternata a fre2uenza $ariabile -otrebbe essere la soluzione -erfetta a 2uesto -roblemaB -ermettendo una -erfetta modulazione delle fre2uenze dCoscillazione con la sistemazione di una sem-lice bobinaB senza il bisogno di aria o di $a-ore. E$entualmenteB la soluzione c0e meglio sembra essere adatta al la$oro -uK essere la seguente(

,l sistema la$ora come segue. !Caria com-ressa entrando nel $ano d"ingresso forza la testa -istone $erso l"alto. &omun2ueB l"asta del -istone J im-edita a muo$ersi $erso l"alto dallCazione di cam-i magnetici o--osti tra le due bobine. !a corrente nelle bobine -uK essere $ariata -er creare un cam-o di una forza s-ecificaB e 2uindi l"ammontare di forza ric0iesta -er il -istone da do$er aumentare. ,l cam-o -reme giL e

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lCaria -reme su. @uando la s-inta dell"aria su-era la s-inta del cam-oB il -istone $errH s-arato $erso l"altoB ma a--ena la testa del -istone su-era l"a-ertura dell"ariaB la ca$itH $errH de-ressurizzata. @uando accadeB il cam-o sbatterH il -istone $erso il bassoB e la testa del martello col-irH la lamiera d"acciao alla base. Al $ariare della -ressione dellCaria e della forza del cam-o magneticoB si -uK creare 2ualsiasi inter$allo di fre2uenza si desideri.

&'ttiamo <iC la CasaD

Ogni cosa in natura $ibra ad una certa fre2uenza. @uando un oggetto J $ibrato alla sua risonanza naturaleB inizia a subire un -esante s0ockB a--ena -ro$a a scuotere se stesso a distanza. 'otrebbe sembrare ridicolo immaginare c0e un minuscolo oscillatore -ossa da solo buttare giL un -alazzoB se non -er il principio di ri"onanza. &ome un bambino sullCaltalenaB solo una -iccolissima forza J ric0iesta -er mantenere un mo$imento reci-roco e abbastanza am-io. )na maggiore $ibrazione -otrebbe essere stabilita in una casa facendo coincidere ciascun col-o del -istone col ritorno delle singole $ibrazioni attra$erso il -alazzo do$e si tro$a lCoscillatore. Ogni $olta c0e il -istone batteBingrandisce la forza un -oC di -iL. Alla fre2uenza di 10007zB la forza accumulata -uK essere molto a--rezzabileF !a fre2uenza di risonanza J collegata al tem-o c0e -rende -er le $ibrazioni -er es-andersi attra$erso l"edificioB ri$erberareB ed iec0eggiarej -er ritornare ancora allCoscillatore. Tro$ando la corretta fre2uenzaB -uK essere distrutta O=N, struttura. ,nfattiB -iL grande J la strutturaB -iL J bassa la fre2uenza di risonanzaB -iL J facile da distruggere. Tesla una $olta sc0erza$a 2uando dice$a c0e -ote$a s-accare la Terra con una di 2ueste macc0ineB e nessuno sa $eramente se sta$a sc0erzando...

Costr'Eione
Sto attualmente considerando di costruire un oscillatore -er -ro$aB basato sul -rogetto di 2uesta -agina. ,l dis-ositi$o J al2uanto -ericoloso cosI a$rK bisogno di la$orarci con cautela. Se 2ualcuno 0a un suggerimento su ulteriori miglioramenti c0e -ossono essere fattiB J -regato di 9Ecli-se=kAngelfire.com:. scri$ermi

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the Complete +i-ola Tesla Tesla 1uotes Tesla2s Lost !nventions the #ma3ing +i-ola Tesla Tesla2s 4lying &achine Tesla2s 5onder6orld the Tesla Turbine Tesla2s 7lac- 7o8 Tesla time9line Chronography Tesla2s %arthqua-e &achine /reatest Hac-er: &achine To %nd 5ar 'adiant %nergy 'eceiver &agni ying Transmitter *i-tor2s (atents *i-tor "chauberger The 7io9"phere #irship (o6er 4rom The ,ceans $ynamic Hydropo6er *orte8 "cience "ympathetic *ibratory (hysics 5alter 'ussell 5ater (o6er 5hirl(o6er ;oe 4uel Cell Help 4ran- /ermano /lobal %nergy Technologies #pplications The 7oo-store (roducts ! %ndorse

Excerpt from the New York World

Telegram !ul" ## #$%& '

Tesla's Earthquake Machine

Nikola Tesla re(ealed that an earthquake which drew police and ambulances to the re$ion of his laboratory at 5* E! ;ouston <t!# New =ork# in )*1*# was the result of a little machine he was experimenting with at the time which "you could put in your overcoat pocket!" The bewildered newspapermen pounced upon this as at least one thin$ they could understand and Nikola Tesla )the father of modern electricit") told what had happened as follows/ Tesla stated# "I was experimenting with vibrations. I had one of my machines going and I wanted to see if I could get it in tune with the vibration of the building. I put it up notch after notch. There was a peculiar cracking sound. I asked my assistants where did the sound come from. They did not know. I put the machine up a few more notches. There was a louder cracking sound. I knew I was approaching the vibration of the steel building. I pushed the machine a little higher. "Suddenly all the heavy machinery in the place was flying around. I grabbed a hammer and broke the machine. The building would have been about our ears in another few minutes. Outside in the street there was pandemonium. The police and ambulances arrived. I told my assistants to say nothing. We told the police it must have been an earth uake. That!s all they ever knew about it." <ome shrewd reporter asked >r! Tesla at this point what he would need to destroy the Empire <tate 9uildin$ and the doctor replied/ ""ibration will do anything. It would only be necessary to step up the vibrations of the machine to fit the natural vibration of the building and the building would come crashing down. That!s why soldiers break step crossing a bridge." "?n the occasion of his annual birthday celebration interview by the press on 3uly ):# )1@0 in his suite at the ;otel New =orker# Tesla announced a method of transmittin$ mechanical ener$y accurately with minimal loss over any terrestrial distance# includin$ a related new means of communication and a method# he claimed# which would facilitate the unerrin$ location of under$round mineral deposits! At that time he recalled the earth%tremblin$ "quake" that brou$ht police and ambulances rushin$ to the scene of his ;ouston <treet laboratory while an e periment was in pro$ress with one of his mechanical oscillators!!!"

Excerpt from* )Tesla* Man +ut of Time)

b" Margaret ,hene" ;e attached an oscillator no lar$er than an alarm clock to a steel link 4' lon$ and 4" thick! "#or a long time nothing happened$ but at last the great steel link began to tremble$ increased its trembling until it dilated and contracted like a beating heart$ and finally broke. Sledgehammers could not have done it"$ he told a reporter$ "crowbars could not have done it$ but a fusillade of taps$ no one of which would have harmed a baby$ did it." Pleased with this be$innin$# he put the little oscillator in his coat pocket! 7indin$ a half%built steel buildin$ in the ,all <treet district# ): stories hi$h with nothin$ up but the steelwork# he clamped the oscillator to one of the beams! "In a few minutes I could feel the beam trembling. %radually the trembling increased in intensity and extended throughout the whole great mass of steel. #inally the structure began to creak and weave$ and the steelworkers came to the ground panic&stricken$ believing that there had been an earth uake. 'efore anything serious happened$ I took off the oscillator$ put it in my pocket$ and went away. 'ut if I had kept on () minutes more$ I could have laid that building flat in the street. *nd with the same oscillator I could drop 'rooklyn 'ridge in less than an hour!"

1 * More -nformation* <parlin$# Earl/ N! =! ,orld%Tele$ram '3uly ))# )1@0(# )Nikola Tesla at .$ /ses Earth to Transmit 0ignals1 Expects to ha(e 2#33 333 333 Within Two Years) A ;ere Tesla tells the story of the earthquake $enerated by the mechanical oscillator in his N=8 laboratory in )*1*# which brou$ht the police there to stop him! They entered the lab Bust in time to see Tesla swin$ a sled$e hammer and smash the tiny device# which was mounted on a $irder/ Nikola Tesla revealed that an earthquake which drew police and ambulances to the re$ion of his laborator" at 45 E6 7ouston 0t6 New York in #5$5# was the result of a little machine he was e perimentin$ with at the time which "you could put in your overcoat pocket!" The bewildered newspapermen pounced upon this as at least one thin$ they could understand and "the father of modern electricity" told what had happened as follows/ "I was experimenting with vibrations. I had one of my machines going and I wanted to see if I could get it in tune with the vibration of the building. I put it up notch after notch. There was a peculiar cracking sound." "I asked my assistants where did the sound come from. They did not know. I put the machine up a few more notches. There was a louder cracking sound. I knew I was approaching the vibration of the steel building. I pushed the machine a little higher. "Suddenly all the heavy machinery in the place was flying around. I grabbed a hammer and broke the machine. The building would have been about our ears in another few minutes. Outside in the street there was pandemonium. The police and ambulances arrived. I told my assistants to say nothing. We told the police it must have been an earth uake. That!s all they ever knew about it." <ome shrewd reporter asked >r! Tesla at this point what he would need to destroy the Empire <tate 9uildin$ and the doctor replied/ ""ibration will do anything. It would only be necessary to step up the vibrations of the machine to fit the natural vibration of the building and the building would come crashing down. That!s why soldiers break step crossing a bridge!" In another interview# he 'Tesla( boasted that# "With this principle one could split the earth in half like an apple"...

8entury Ma$a-ine# p! 14)# 7i$ure 4 'April )*10( A -n #5$% Tesla constructed a preferred embodiment of the mechanical oscillator which he described as a "double compound mechanical and electrical oscillator for generating current of perfect constant d"namo frequenc" of #3 horsepower!" Allan .! 9enson/ ,orld Today '7eb! )1)4(C "Nikola Tesla# >reamer" A An illustration for the article shows an artist's conception of the planet splittin$ in two! The caption reads/ "Tesla claims that in a few weeks he could set the earth's crust into such a state of (ibration that it would rise and fall hundreds of feet and practicall" destro" ci(ili8ation6 9 continuation of this process would he sa"s e(entuall" split the earth in two6" New =ork <un '3uly ):# )1@0(C "New 9pparatus Transmits Energ" ' Tesla 9nnounces Method of Remote ,ontrol" N! =! American '3uly ))# )1@0(# <ection 4C "Tesla's ,ontrolled Earth :uakes ;ower Through the Earth 9 0tartling <isco(er""! New =ork ;erald Tribune '3uly ))# )1@0(# pp! )# *C "Tesla at .$# <isco(ers New Message Wa(e ' 9t =irthda" >uncheon 7e 9nnounces Machine for #'Wa" ,ommunication" New =ork <un '3uly ))# )1@0(C "Nikola Tesla <escribes New -n(ention ' 9rt of Tele' ?eod"namics" New =ork Times '3uly ))# )1@0(# p! 4@# col! *C "Tesla# +1# );romises to Transmit @orce ' Transmission of Energ" +(er World"

Excerpt from* ;rodigal ?enius* The >ife and Times of Nicola Tesla b" !ohn +'Neill
Tele'?eo'<"namics/

1.0 Tele%6eo%>ynamics is the transmission of sonic or acoustic vibrations# which can be produced with comparatively simple apparatus! There is of course much sonic equipment available now for different applications# but this has little or nothin$ to do with Nikola Tesla's oscillator%$enerator! ,hat Tesla proposed represents a new technolo$y in sonic transmission even today! In Tesla's oscillator%$enerator# a &esonance effect can be observed! <ince resonance seems to be an ever increasin$ effect with this oscillator%$enerator# it can be deduced that there must be a $reat source of ener$y available throu$h it! ,hy can a resonance be created in the oscillator%$enerator when it cannot in a ordinary reciprocatin$ en$ineD ,ith the oscillator%$enerator# all $overnin$ mechanisms are eliminated! ?n the other hand# consider the car en$ine! <tartin$ with the cylinder# a reciprocatin$ motion is converted into rotary motion by a means of shafts# cranks# $ears# drivetrains# transmissions# etc! These parts all consume work by friction# but the $reatest loss occurs in the chan$e from reciprocatin$ to rotary motion! At each point every varyin$ inclination of the crank and pistons work at a disadvanta$e and result in loss of efficiency! -n Tesla's oscillator'generator the piston is entirely free to move as the medium impels it without havin$ to encounter and overcome the inertia of a movin$ system and in this respect the two types of en$ines differ radically and essentially! This type of en$ine# under the influence of an applied force such as the tension of compressed air# steam# or other $ases under pressure# "ields an oscillation of a constant period! The obBective of the Tesla oscillator%$enerator is to provide a mechanism capable of convertin$ the ener$y of compressed $as or steam into mechanical power! <ince the oscillator%$enerator is denuded of all $overnin$ devices# friction is almost non' existent! In other words$ the piston floats freely in air and is capable of converting all pressure into mechanical energy. ?ur obBective in buildin$ the en$ine is to provide an oscillator which under the influence of an applied force such as the elastic tension of a $as under pressure will yield an oscillatin$ movement which within very wide limits# will be of constant period# irrespective of variation of load# frictional losses# and other factors which in ordinary en$ines chan$e in the rate of reciprocatin$! It is a well% known principle that if a sprin$ possessin$ a sensible inertia is brou$ht under tension# i!e!# bein$ stretched# and then freed# it will perform vibrations which are isochronous! As far as the period in $eneral is concerned# it will depend on the ri$idity of the sprin$# and its own inertia or that of the system of which it may form an immediate part! This is known as <imple ;armonic Motion! This simple harmonic motion in the form of isochronous sound vibrations can be impressed upon the earth# causin$ the propa$ation of correspondin$ rhythmical disturbances throu$h the same which pass throu$h its remotest boundaries without attenuation so that the transmission is affected with an efficiency of one hundred percent!

The ;atent1 Tesla's Mechanical +scillator* /0 ;atent A &#4 #B$ ' Reciprocating Engine ' Nikola Tesla
To all whom it may concern/ 9e it known that I# Nikola Tesla# a citi-en of the Enited <tates# residin$ at New =ork# in the county and <tate of New =ork# have invented certain new and useful Improvements in &eciprocatin$ En$ines# of which the followin$ is a specification# reference bein$ had to the drawin$ accompanyin$ and formin$ a part of the same! In the invention which forms the subBect of my present application# m" obCect has been primaril" to pro(ide an engine which under the influence of an applied force such as the elastic tension of steam or gas under pressure will "ield an oscillator" mo(ement which within (er" wide limits will be of constant period irrespecti(e of (ariations of load frictional losses and other factors which in all ordinar" engines produce change in the rate of reciprocation! The further obBects of the invention are to provide a mechanism# capable of convertin$ the ener$y of steam or $as under pressure into mechanical power more economically than the forms of en$ine heretofore used# chiefly by overcomin$ the losses which result in these by the combination with rotatin$ parts possessin$ $reat inertia of a reciprocatin$ systemC which also# is better adapted for use at hi$her temperatures and pressures# and which is capable of useful and practical application to $eneral industrial purposes# particularly in small units! The invention is based upon certain well known mechanical principles a statement of which will assist in a better understandin$ of the nature and purposes of the obBects sou$ht and results obtained! ;eretofore# where the pressure of steam or any $as has been utili-ed and applied for the

1.1 production of mechanical motion it has been customary to connect with the reciprocatin$ or movin$ parts of the en$ine a fly%wheel or some rotary system equivalent in its effect and possessin$ relatively $reat mechanical inertia# upon which dependence was mainly placed for the maintenance of constant speed! This# while securin$ in a measure this obBect# renders impossible the attainment of the result at which I have arrived# and is attended by disadvanta$es which by my invention are entirely obviated! ?n the other hand# in certain cases# where reciprocatin$ en$ines or tools have been used without a rotatin$ system of $reat inertia# no attempt# so far as I know# has been made to secure conditions which would necessarily yield such results as I have reached! -t is a well known principle that if a spring possessing a sensible inertia be brought under tension as b" being stretched and then freed it will perform (ibrations which are isochronous and as to period in the main dependent upon the rigidit" of the spring and its own inertia or that of the s"stem of which it ma" form an immediate part! This is known to be true in all cases where the force which tends to brin$ the sprin$ or movable system into a $iven position is proportionate to the displacement! In carryin$ out my invention and for securin$ the obBects in $eneral terms stated above# I employ the ener$y of steam or $as under pressure# actin$ throu$h proper mechanism# to maintain in oscillation a piston# and# takin$ advanta$e of the law above stated# I connect with said piston# or cause to act upon it# a sprin$# under such conditions as to automatically re$ulate the period of the vibration# so that the alternate impulses of the power impelled piston# and the natural vibrations of the sprin$ shall always correspond in direction and coincide in time! ,hile# in the practice of the invention I may employ any kind of sprin$ or elastic body of which the law or principle of operation above defined holds true# I prefer to use an air sprin$# or $enerally speakin$ a confined body or cushion of elastic fluid# as the mechanical difficulties in the use of metallic sprin$s are serious# owin$ mainly# to the tendency to break! Moreover# instead of permittin$ the piston to impin$e directly upon such cushions within its own cylinder# I prefer# in order to avoid the influence of the varyin$ pressure of the steam or $as that acts upon the piston and which mi$ht disturb the relations necessary for the maintenance of isochronous vibration# and also to better utili-e the heat $enerated by the compression# to employ an independent plunder connected with the main piston# and a chamber or cylinder therefore# containin$ air which is normally# at the same pressure as the e ternal atmosphere# for thus a sprin$ of practically constant ri$idity is obtained# but the air or $as within the cylinder may be maintained at any pressure! In order to describe the best manner of which I am aware in which the invention is or may be carried into effect# I refer now to the accompan"ing drawing which represents in central cross'section an engine embod"ing m" impro(ements! A is the main cylinder in which works a piston 9! Inlet ports 88 pass throu$h the sides of the cylinder# openin$ at the middle portion thereof and on opposite sides! E haust ports >> e tend throu$h the wall of the cylinder and are formed with branches that open into the interior of the cylinder on each side of the inlet ports and on opposite sides of the cylinder! The piston 9 is formed with two circumferential $rooves E7# which communicate throu$h openin$s 6 in the piston with the cylinder on opposite sides of said piston respectively! I do not consider as of special importance the particular construction and arran$ement of the cylinder# the piston and the ports for controllin$ it# e cept that it is desirable that all the ports# and more especially# the e haust ports should be made very much lar$er than is usually the case# so that no force due to the action of the steam or compressed air will tend to retard of affect the return of the piston in either direction! The piston

1.2 9 is secured to a piston rod ;# which works in suitable stuffin$ bo es in the heads of the cylinder A! This rod is prolon$ed on one side and e tends throu$h bearin$s F in a cylinder I suitably mounted or supported in line with the first# and within which is a disk or plun$er 3 carried by the rod ;! The cylinder I is without ports of any kind and is air%ti$ht e cept as a small leaka$e my occur throu$h the bearin$s F# which e perience has shown need not be fitted with any very considerable accuracy! The cylinder I is surrounded by a Backet G which leaves an open space or chamber around it! The bearin$s F in the cylinder I# e tend throu$h the Backet G which leaves an open space or chamber around it! The bearin$s F in the cylinder I# e tend throu$h the Backet G to the outside air and the chamber between the cylinder and Backet is made steam or air ti$ht as by suitable packin$! The main supply line . for steam or compressed air leads into this chamber# and the two pipes that lead to the cylinder A run from the said chamber# oil cups M bein$ conveniently arran$ed to deliver oil into the said pipes for lubricatin$ the piston! In the particular form of en$ine shown the Backet G which contains the cylinder I is provided with a flan$e N by which it is screwed to the end of cylinder A! A small channel ? is thus formed which has air vents P in its sides and drip pipes H leadin$ out from it throu$h which the oil which collects in it is carried off! To e plain now the operation of the device above described! In the position of the parts shown# or when the piston is at the middle point of its stroke# the plun$er 3 is at the center of the cylinder I and the air on both sides of the same is at the normal pressure of the outside atmosphere! If a source of steam or compressed air be then connected to the inlet ports 88 of the cylinder A and a movement be imparted to the piston as by a sudden blow# the latter is caused to reciprocate in a manner well understood! The movement of the piston in either direction ceases when the force tendin$ to impel it and the momentum which it has acquired are counterbalanced by the increasin$ pressure of the steam or compressed air in that end of the cylinder toward which it is movin$ and as in its movement the piston has shut off at a $iven point# the pressure that impelled it and established the pressure that tends to return it# it is then impelled in the opposite direction# and this action is continued as lon$ as the requisite pressure is applied! The movements of the piston compress and rarify the air in the cylinder I at opposite ends of the same alternately! A forward stroke compresses the air ahead of the plun$er 3 and tends to drive it forward! This action of the plun$er upon the air contained in the opposite ends of the cylinder is e actly the same in principle as thou$h a piston rod were connected to the middle point of a coiled sprin$# the ends of which are connected to fi ed supports! 8onsequently the two chambers may be considered as a sin$le sprin$! The compressions of the air in the cylinder I and the consequent loss of ener$y due mainly to the imperfect elasticity of the air# $ive rise to a very considerable amount of heat! This heat I utili-e by conductin$ the steam or compressed air to the en$ine cylinder throu$h the chamber formed by the Backet surroundin$ the air%sprin$ cylinder! The heat thus taken up and used to raise the temperature of the steam or air actin$ upon the piston is availed of to increase the efficiency of the en$ine! In any $iven en$ine of this kind the normal pressure will produce a stroke of determined len$th# and this will be increased or diminished accordin$ to the increase of pressure above or the reduction of pressure below the normal! In constructin$ the apparatus I allow for a variation in the len$th of stroke by $ivin$ to the confinin$ cylinder I of the air sprin$ properly determined dimensions! The $reater the pressure upon the piston# the hi$her will be the de$ree of compression of the air%sprin$# and the consequent counteractin$ force upon the plun$er! The rate or period of reciprocation of the piston# however# is no more dependent upon the pressure applied to drive it# than would be the period of oscillation of a pendulum permanently maintained in vibration# upon the force which periodically impels it# the effect of variations in such force bein$ merely to produce correspondin$ variations in the len$th of stroke or amplitude of vibration respectively! The period is mainly determined by the ri$idity of the air sprin$ and the inertia of the movin$ system# and I may therefore secure any period of oscillation within very wide limits by properly portionin$ these factors# as by varyin$ the dimensions of the air chamber which is equivalent to varyin$ the ri$idity of the sprin$# or by adBustin$ the wei$ht of the movin$ parts! These conditions are all readily determinable# and an engine constructed as herein described m" be made to follow the principle of operation abo(e stated and maintain a perfectl" uniform period through (er" much wider limits of pressure than in ordinar" use it is e(er likel" to be subCected to and it ma" be successfull" used as a prime mo(er where(er a constant rate of oscillation or speed is required pro(ided the limits within which the forces tending to bring the mo(ing s"stem to a gi(en position are proportionate to the displacements are not materiall" exceeded! The pressure of the air confined in the cylinder when the plun$er 3 is in its central position will always be practically that of the surroundin$ atmosphere# for while the cylinder is so constructed as

1. not to permit such sudden escape of air as to sensibly impair or modify the action of the air sprin$ there will be a slow leaka$e of air into or out of it around the piston rod accordin$ to the pressure therein# so that the pressure of the air on opposite sides of the plun$er will always tend to remain at that of the outside atmosphere! As an instance of the uses to which this en$ine may be applied I have shown its piston rod connected with a pawl & the oscillation of which drives a train of wheels! These may constitute the train of a clock or of any other mechanism! The pawl & is pivoted at &I and its bifurcated end en$a$es with the teeth of the ratchet wheel alternately on opposite sides of the same# one end of the pawl at each half oscillation actin$ to propel the wheel forward throu$h the space of one tooth when it is en$a$ed and locked by the other end on the last half of the oscillation which brin$s the first end of the oscillation into position to en$a$e with another tooth! 9nother application of the in(ention is to mo(e a conductor in a magnetic field for generating electric currents and in these and similar uses it is ob(ious that the characteristics of the engine render it especiall" adapted for use in small si8es or units! ;avin$ now described my invention# what I claim is/ '8laims not included here(! EN>! Notes* ;is early e periments in vibration# he e plained# "led to his invention of his "earth vibrating" machine!" '7or more detailed information on this device# please check out a fantastic book# by <ale ;ond ' )Tesla's Earthquake Machine6) Much of the material presented in this book is related to the construction of a class of machine invented by Tesla and known as the reciprocatin$ Mechanical ?scillator! <erious students of Tesla's work may reco$ni-e this machine as the basis of his system for producin$ electrical vibrations of a very constant period! In )*1* another variation was used to create a small earthquake in the nei$hborhood surroundin$ his ;ouston <treet lab! Tesla called this method of transmittin$ mechanical ener$y "tele$eodynamics!" Included are mechanical drawin$s that will $uide you throu$h the construction of a workin$ model of the Tele%6eo%>ynamic ?scillator# plus a comprehensive description of the machine in Tesla's own words! Pick one up from Ama-on!com 'below(! Also/ see the newest article on this site# written by >ale Pond and used by permission % )0"mpathetic Dibrator" ;h"sics1 -t Trul" -s 9 Musical /ni(erseE)

Tesla's 0team Engine ;atent* /0 ;atent A &#. $33 ' 0team Engine ' Nikola Tesla
To all whom it may concern/ 9e it known that I# Nikola Tesla# a citi-en of the Enited <tates# residin$ at New =ork# in the county and <tate of New =ork# have invented certain new and useful Improvements in <team En$ines# of which the followin$ is a specification# reference bein$ had to the drawin$ accompanyin$ and formin$ a part of the same! ;eretofore# en$ines# operated by the application of a force such as the elastic tension of steam or a $as under pressure# have been provided with a flywheel# or some rotary system equivalent in its effect and possessin$ relatively $reat mechanical inertia# which was relied upon for maintainin$ a uniform speed! I have produced# however# an en$ine which without such appurtenances produces# under very wide variations of pressure# load# and other disturbin$ causes# an oscillatin$ movement of constant period# and have shown and described the same in J E< Patent K 0)5#)21 L! A description of the principle of the construction and mode of operation of this device is necessary to an understandin$ of my present invention! ,hen a sprin$ which possess a sensible inertia is brou$ht under tension as by bein$ stretched and then freed it will perform vibrations which are isochronous and# as to period# in the main dependent upon the ri$idity of the sprin$# and its own inertia or that of the system of which it may form an immediate part! This is known to be true in all cases where the force which tends to brin$ the sprin$ or movable system into a $iven position is proportionate to the displacement! In utili-in$ this principle for the purpose of producin$ reciprocatin$ movement of a constant period# I employ the ener$y of steam or $as under pressure# actin$ throu$h proper mechanism# to maintain in oscillation a piston# and connect with it or cause to act upon such piston a sprin$# preferably an air sprin$# under such conditions as to automatically re$ulate the period of the vibration# so that the alternate impulses of the power impelled piston and

1.. the natural vibrations of the sprin$ shall always correspond in direction and coincide in time! In such an apparatus it bein$ essential that the inertia of the movin$ system and the ri$idity of the sprin$ should bear certain definite relations# it is obvious that the practicable amount of work performed by the en$ine# when this involves the overcomin$ of inertia is a limitation to the applicability of the en$ine! I therefore propose# in order to secure all the advanta$es of such performances as this en$ine is capable of# to utili-e it as the means of controllin$ the admission and e haust of steam or $as under pressure in other en$ines $enerally# but more especially those forms of en$ine in which the piston is free to reciprocate# or in other words# is not connected with a flywheel or other like device for re$ulatin$ or controllin$ its speed! The drawin$s hereto anne ed illustrate devices by means of which the invention may be carried out# @igure # bein$ a central vertical section of an en$ine embodyin$ my invention# and 7i$ure 4 a similar view of a modification of the same! &eferrin$ to 7i$ure )# A desi$nates a cylinder containin$ a reciprocatin$ piston 9 secured to a rod 8 e tendin$ throu$h on or both cylinder heads! >>C are steam ducts communicatin$ with the cylinder at or near its ends and E is the e haust chamber or passa$e located between the steam ports! The piston 9 is provided with the usual passa$es 77I which by the movements of the piston are brou$ht alternately into communication with the e haust port! 6 desi$nates a slide valve which when reciprocated admits the steam or the $as by which the en$ine is driven# from the pipe 6I throu$h the ducts >>I to the ends of the cylinder! The parts thus described may be considered as e emplifyin$ any cylinder# piston and slide valve with the proper ports controlled thereby# but the slide valve instead of bein$ dependent for its movement upon the piston 9 is connected in any manner so as to be reciprocated by the piston rod of a small en$ine of constant period# constructed substantially as follows/ a is the cylinder# in which works the piston b! An inlet pipe c passes throu$h the side of the cylinder at the middle portion of the same! The cylinder e hausts throu$h ports dd into a chamber dI provided with an openin$ d! the piston b is provided with two circumferential $rooves e# f which communicate throu$h openin$s $ in the same with the cylinder chambers on opposite sides of the piston! The special construction of this device may be varied considerably# but it is desirable that all the ports# and more particularly# the e haust ports be made lar$er than is usually done# so that no force due to the action of the steam or compressed air in the chambers will tend to retard or accelerate the movement of the piston in either direction! The piston b is secured to a rod h which e tends throu$h the cylinder heads# the lower end carryin$ the slide valve above described and the upper end havin$ secured to it a plun$er B in a cylinder I fi ed to the cylinder a and in line with it! The cylinder I is without ports of any kind and is air%ti$ht e cept that leaka$e may occur around the piston rod which does not require to be very close fittin$# and constitutes an ordinary form of air sprin$! If steam or a $as under pressure be admitted throu$h the port c to either side of the piston b# the latter# as will be understood# may be maintained in reciprocation# and it is free to move# in the sense that its movement in either direction ceases only when the force tendin$ to impel it and the momentum which it has acquired are counterbalanced by the increasin$ pressure of the steam in that end of the cylinder toward which it is movin$# and as in its movement the piston has shut off at a $iven point# the pressure that impelled it and established the pressure that tends to return it# it is then impelled in the opposite direction# and this action is continued as lon$ as the requisite

1.1 pressure is applied! The movements of the piston compress and rarify the air in the cylinder I at opposite ends of the same alternately# and this results in the heatin$ of the cylinder! 9ut since a variation of the temperature of the air in the chamber would affect the ri$idity of the air sprin$# I maintain the temperature uniform as by surroundin$ the cylinder I with a Backet aI which is open to the air and filled with water! In such an en$ine as that Bust described the normal pressure will produce a stroke of determined len$th# which may be increased or diminished accordin$ to the increase of pressure above or the reduction of pressure below the normal and due allowance is made in constructin$ the en$ine for a variation in the len$th of stroke or amplitude of vibration respectively! The period is mainly determined by the ri$idity of the air sprin$ and the inertia of the movin$ system and I may therefore secure any period of oscillation within very wide limits by properly adBustin$ these factors# as by varyin$ the dimensions of the air chamber which may be equivalent to varyin$ the ri$idity of the sprin$# or by adBustin$ the wei$ht of the movin$ parts! This latter is readily accomplished by makin$ provision for the attachment to the piston rod of one or more wei$hts hI! <ince the only work which the small en$ine has to perform is the reciprocation of the valve attached to the piston rod# its load is substantially uniform and its period by reason of its construction will be constant! ,hatever may be the load on the main en$ine therefore the steam is admitted to the cylinder at defined intervals# and thus any tendency to a chan$e of the period of vibration in the main en$ine is overcome! The control of the main en$ine by the en$ine of constant period may be effected in other ways % of which @igure F will serve as an illustration! In this case the piston of the controllin$ en$ine constitutes the slide valve of the main en$ine# so that the latter may be considered as operated by the e haust of the former! In the fi$ure I have shown two cylinders AAI placed end to end with a piston 9 and 9I in each! The cylinder of the controllin$ en$ine is formed by or in the casin$ intermediate to the two main cylinders but in all other essential respects the construction and mode of operation of the controllin$ en$ine remains as described in connection with 7i$ure )! The e haust ports dd# however# constitute the inlet ports of the cylinders AAI and the e haust of the latter is effected throu$h the ports m#m which are controlled by the pistons 9 and 9I respectively! The inlet port for the admission of the steam to the controllin$ en$ine is similar to that in 7i$ure ) and is indicated by the dotted circle at the center of the piston b! 9n engine of the kind described possess man" and important ad(antages6 A much more perfect re$ulation and uniformity of action is secured# while the en$ine is simple and its wei$hts for a $iven capacity is very $reatly reduced! The reciprocating mo(ement of the piston ma" be con(erted into rotar" motion or it ma" be utili8ed and applied in an" other manner desired either directl" or indirectl"! -n /0 ;atent A &#4 #B$ # I have shown and described two reciprocatin$ en$ines combined in such manner that the movement or operation of one is dependent upon and controlled by the other! In the present case# however# the controllin$ en$ine is not desi$ned nor adapted to perform other work than the re$ulation of the period of the other# and it is moreover an en$ine of defined character which has the capability of an oscillatin$ movement of constant period! Nikola Tesla! ,hat I claim is/ '8laims not included hereG EN<6 - hope this got some of "ou thinking666Tesla's in(entions1 the" ha(e a wa" of working6 @rank ?ermano