http://www.mathgoodies.com/articles/problem_solving.html What Is A 'Problem-Solving Approach'?

As the emphasis has shifted from teaching problem solving to teaching via problem solving (Lester, Masingila, Mau, Lambdin, dos Santon and Raymond, 1994 , many !riters have attempted to clarify !hat is meant by a problem"solving approach to teaching mathematics# $he focus is on teaching mathematical topics through problem" solving conte%ts and en&uiry"oriented environments !hich are characterised by the teacher 'helping students construct a deep understanding of mathematical ideas and processes by engaging them in doing mathematics( creating, con)ecturing, e%ploring, testing, and verifying' (Lester et al#, 1994, p#1*4 # Specific characteristics of a problem" solving approach include( interactions bet!een students+students and teacher+students (,an -oest et al#, 1994 mathematical dialogue and consensus bet!een students (,an -oest et al#, 1994 teachers providing )ust enough information to establish bac.ground+intent of the problem, and students clarifing, interpreting, and attempting to construct one or more solution processes (/obb et al#, 1991 teachers accepting right+!rong ans!ers in a non"evaluative !ay (/obb et al#, 1991 teachers guiding, coaching, as.ing insightful &uestions and sharing in the process of solving problems (Lester et al#, 1994 teachers .no!ing !hen it is appropriate to intervene, and !hen to step bac. and let the pupils ma.e their o!n !ay (Lester et al#, 1994 A further characteristic is that a problem"solving approach can be used to encourage students to ma.e generalisations about rules and concepts, a process !hich is central to mathematics (0van and Lappin, 1994 # Schoenfeld (in 1l.in and Schoenfeld, 1994, p#42 described the !ay in !hich the use of problem solving in his teaching has changed since the 1934s( My early problem-solving courses focused on problems amenable to solutions by Polyatype heuristics: draw a diagram, examine special cases or analogies, specialize, generalize, and so on. Over the years the courses evolved to the point where they focused less on heuristics per se and more on introducing students to fundamental ideas: the importance of mathematical reasoning and proof..., for example, and of sustained mathematical investigations where my problems served as starting points for serious explorations, rather than tas!s to be completed". Schoenfeld also suggested that a good problem should be one !hich can be e%tended to lead to mathematical e%plorations and generalisations# 5e described three characteristics of mathematical thin.ing( 1# valuing the processes of mathemati6ation and abstraction and having the predilection to apply them 7# developing competence !ith the tools of the trade and using those tools in the service of the goal of understanding structure " mathematical sense"ma.ing (Schoenfeld, 1994, p#84 # As /obb et al# (1991 suggested, the purpose for engaging in problem solving is not )ust to solve specific problems, but to 'encourage the interiori6ation and reorgani6ation of the involved schemes as a result of the activity' (p#193 # :ot only does this approach develop students' confidence in their o!n ability to thin. mathematically (Schifter and ;osnot, 1992 , it is a vehicle for students to construct, evaluate and refine their o!n

theories about mathematics and the theories of others (:/$M, 1999 # <ecause it has become so predominant a re&uirement of teaching, it is important to consider the processes themselves in more detail# The Role of Problem Solving in Teaching Mathematics as a Process =roblem solving is an important component of mathematics education because it is the single vehicle !hich seems to be able to achieve at school level all three of the values of mathematics listed at the outset of this article( functional, logical and aesthetic# Let us consider ho! problem solving is a useful medium for each of these# >t has already been pointed out that mathematics is an essential discipline because of its practical role to the individual and society# $hrough a problem"solving approach, this aspect of mathematics can be developed# =resenting a problem and developing the s.ills needed to solve that problem is more motivational than teaching the s.ills !ithout a conte%t# Such motivation gives problem solving special value as a vehicle for learning ne! concepts and s.ills or the reinforcement of s.ills already ac&uired (Stanic and ?ilpatric., 1999, :/$M, 1999 # Approaching mathematics through problem solving can create a conte%t !hich simulates real life and therefore )ustifies the mathematics rather than treating it as an end in itself# $he :ational /ouncil of $eachers of Mathematics (:/$M, 1994 recommended that problem solving be the focus of mathematics teaching because, they say, it encompasses s.ills and functions !hich are an important part of everyday life# ;urthermore it can help people to adapt to changes and une%pected problems in their careers and other aspects of their lives# More recently the /ouncil endorsed this recommendation (:/$M, 1999 !ith the statement that problem solving should underly all aspects of mathematics teaching in order to give students e%perience of the po!er of mathematics in the !orld around them# $hey see problem solving as a vehicle for students to construct, evaluate and refine their o!n theories about mathematics and the theories of others# According to Resnic. (1993 a problem"solving approach contributes to the practical use of mathematics by helping people to develop the facility to be adaptable !hen, for instance, technology brea.s do!n# >t can thus also help people to transfer into ne! !or. environments at this time !hen most are li.ely to be faced !ith several career changes during a !or.ing lifetime (:/$M, 1999 # Resnic. e%pressed the belief that 'school should focus its efforts on preparing people to be good adaptive learners, so that they can perform effectively !hen situations are unpredictable and tas. demands change' (p#19 # /oc.croft (1997 also advocated problem solving as a means of developing mathematical thin.ing as a tool for daily living, saying that problem"solving ability lies 'at the heart of mathematics' (p#32 because it is the means by !hich mathematics can be applied to a variety of unfamiliar situations# =roblem solving is, ho!ever, more than a vehicle for teaching and reinforcing mathematical .no!ledge and helping to meet everyday challenges# >t is also a s.ill !hich can enhance logical reasoning# >ndividuals can no longer function optimally in society by )ust .no!ing the rules to follo! to obtain a correct ans!er# $hey also need to be able to decide through a process of logical deduction !hat algorithm, if any, a situation re&uires, and sometimes need to be able to develop their o!n rules in a situation !here an algorithm cannot be directly applied# ;or these reasons problem solving can be developed as a valuable s.ill in itself, a !ay of thin.ing (:/$M, 1999 , rather than )ust as the means to an end of finding the correct ans!er# Many !riters have emphasised the importance of problem solving as a means of developing the logical thin.ing aspect of mathematics# '>f education fails to contribute to the development of the intelligence, it is obviously incomplete# @et

intelligence is essentially the ability to solve problems( everyday problems, personal problems ### '(=olya, 1994, p#1 # Modern definitions of intelligence (Aardner, 199* tal. about practical intelligence !hich enables 'the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters' (p#84 and also encourages the individual to find or create problems 'thereby laying the ground!or. for the ac&uisition of ne! .no!ledge' (p#9* # As !as pointed out earlier, standard mathematics, !ith the emphasis on the ac&uisition of .no!ledge, does not necessarily cater for these needs# Resnic. (1993 described the discrepancies !hich e%ist bet!een the algorithmic approaches taught in schools and the 'invented' strategies !hich most people use in the !or.force in order to solve practical problems !hich do not al!ays fit neatly into a taught algorithm# As she says, most people have developed 'rules of thumb' for calculating, for e%ample, &uantities, discounts or the amount of change they should give, and these rarely involve standard algorithms# $raining in problem"solving techni&ues e&uips people more readily !ith the ability to adapt to such situations# A further reason !hy a problem"solving approach is valuable is as an aesthetic form# =roblem solving allo!s the student to e%perience a range of emotions associated !ith various stages in the solution process# Mathematicians !ho successfully solve problems say that the e%perience of having done so contributes to an appreciation for the 'po!er and beauty of mathematics' (:/$M, 1999, p#33 , the B)oy of banging your head against a mathematical !all, and then discovering that there might be !ays of either going around or over that !allB (1l.in and Schoenfeld, 1994, p#42 # $hey also spea. of the !illingness or even desire to engage !ith a tas. for a length of time !hich causes the tas. to cease being a 'pu66le' and allo!s it to become a problem# 5o!ever, although it is this engagement !hich initially motivates the solver to pursue a problem, it is still necessary for certain techni&ues to be available for the involvement to continue successfully# 5ence more needs to be understood about !hat these techni&ues are and ho! they can best be made available# >n the past decade it has been suggested that problem"solving techni&ues can be made available most effectively through ma.ing problem solving the focus of the mathematics curriculum# Although mathematical problems have traditionally been a part of the mathematics curriculum, it has been only comparatively recently that problem solving has come to be regarded as an important medium for teaching and learning mathematics (Stanic and ?ilpatric., 1999 # >n the past problem solving had a place in the mathematics classroom, but it !as usually used in a to.en !ay as a starting point to obtain a single correct ans!er, usually by follo!ing a single 'correct' procedure# More recently, ho!ever, professional organisations such as the :ational /ouncil of $eachers of Mathematics (:/$M, 1994 and 1999 have recommended that the mathematics curriculum should be organi6ed around problem solving, focusing on( (i developing s.ills and the ability to apply these s.ills to unfamiliar situations (ii (iii gathering, organising, interpreting and communicating information formulating .ey &uestions, analy6ing and conceptuali6ing problems, defining problems and goals, discovering patterns and similarities, see.ing out appropriate data, e%perimenting, transferring s.ills and strategies to ne! situations

developing curiosity, confidence and open"mindedness (:/$M, 1994, pp#7"2 # 1ne of the aims of teaching through problem solving is to encourage students to refine and build onto their o!n processes over a period of time as their e%periences allo! them to discard some ideas and become a!are of further possibilities (/arpenter, 1999 # As

(iv

!ell as developing .no!ledge, the students are also developing an understanding of !hen it is appropriate to use particular strategies# $hrough using this approach the emphasis is on ma.ing the students more responsible for their o!n learning rather than letting them feel that the algorithms they use are the inventions of some e%ternal and un.no!n 'e%pert'# $here is considerable importance placed on e%ploratory activities, observation and discovery, and trial and error# Students need to develop their o!n theories, test them, test the theories of others, discard them if they are not consistent, and try something else (:/$M, 1999 # Students can become even more involved in problem solving by formulating and solving their o!n problems, or by re!riting problems in their o!n !ords in order to facilitate understanding# >t is of particular importance to note that they are encouraged to discuss the processes !hich they are underta.ing, in order to improve understanding, gain ne! insights into the problem and communicate their ideas ($hompson, 199*, Stacey and Aroves, 199* # Conclusion >t has been suggested in this chapter that there are many reasons !hy a problem" solving approach can contribute significantly to the outcomes of a mathematics education# :ot only is it a vehicle for developing logical thin.ing, it can provide students !ith a conte%t for learning mathematical .no!ledge, it can enhance transfer of s.ills to unfamiliar situations and it is an aesthetic form in itself# A problem"solving approach can provide a vehicle for students to construct their o!n ideas about mathematics and to ta.e responsibility for their o!n learning# $here is little doubt that the mathematics program can be enhanced by the establishment of an environment in !hich students are e%posed to teaching via problem solving, as opposed to more traditional models of teaching about problem solving# $he challenge for teachers, at all levels, is to develop the process of mathematical thin.ing alongside the .no!ledge and to see. opportunities to present even routine mathematics tas.s in problem"solving conte%ts# References /arpenter, $# =# (1999 # '$eaching as problem solving'# >n R#>#/harles and 0#A# Silver (0ds , #he #eaching and $ssessing of Mathematical Problem %olving, (pp#193"747 # CSA( :ational /ouncil of $eachers of Mathematics# /lar.e, D# and McDonough, A# (1999 # '$he problems of the problem solving classroom', #he $ustralian Mathematics #eacher, 4*, 2, 74"74# /obb, =#, Eood, $# and @ac.el, 0# (1991 # 'A constructivist approach to second grade mathematics'# >n von Alaserfield, 0# (0d# , &adical 'onstructivism in Mathematics (ducation, pp# 1*3"138# Dordrecht, $he :etherlands( ?lu!er Academic =ublishers# /oc.croft, E#5# (0d# (1997 # Mathematics /ounts# Report of the /ommittee of >n&uiry into the $eaching of Mathematics in Schools, London( 5er Ma)esty's Stationery 1ffice# 0van, R# and Lappin, A# (1994 # '/onstructing meaningful understanding of mathematics content', in Aichele, D# and /o%ford, A# (0ds# =rofessional Development for $eachers of Mathematics , pp# 179"142# Reston, ,irginia( :/$M# Aardner, 5o!ard (199* # ;rames of Mind# :#@( <asic <oo.s# Lester, ;#?#Fr#, Masingila, F#1#, Mau, S#$#, Lambdin, D#,#, dos Santon, ,#M# and Raymond, A#M# (1994 # 'Learning ho! to teach via problem solving'# in Aichele, D# and /o%ford, A# (0ds# =rofessional Development for $eachers of

Mathematics , pp# 1*7"188# Reston, ,irginia( :/$M# :ational /ouncil of $eachers of Mathematics (:/$M (1994 # An Agenda for Action( Recommendations for School Mathematics of the 1994s, Reston, ,irginia( :/$M# :ational /ouncil of $eachers of Mathematics (:/$M (1999 # /urriculum and 0valuation Standards for School Mathematics, Reston, ,irginia( :/$M

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Article
The Development of Problem Solving Capabilities in Pre servi!e Te!hnolog" Tea!her #$u!ation

"i!hard A. #oser Enhan!in$ the %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities of students and em%lo&ees has be!ome a national edu!ational issue. The Commission on Pre'Colle$e Edu!ation in (athemati!s) !ien!e and Te!hnolo$& *+,-./ de!lared that 0%roblem'solvin$ s1ills) and s!ientifi! and te!hnolo$i!al litera!& '' 2are3 the thin1in$ tools that allo4 us to understand the te!hnolo$i!al 4orld around us0 *%. v/. (ore re!ent re%orts that have fo!used on entr&' level 4or1%la!e s1ills b& Carnevale) 5ainer) and (elt6er *+,,7/ and 8nited tates De%artment of Labor *+,,+/ 2 CA9 "e%ort3 also under s!ore the im%ortan!e of develo%in$ students: %roblem solvin$ abilities. As a result of this de!ade of em%hasis on %roblem solvin$) efforts to enhan!e the !a%abilities of students to solve %roblems have rea!hed most dis!i%lines and most edu!ational levels *#ir!h) +,-;< #ransford) 5oin) Hasselbrin$) =in6er) her4ood) > ?illiams) +,-;< =ulm) +,,7< Lombard) =oni!e1) > !hult6) +,-@< Thomas > En$lund) +,,7/. An te!hnolo$& edu!ation) tea!hin$ throu$h %roblem solvin$ methodolo$& has be!ome a !entral fo!us of instru!tional a!tivit& *?aetjen) +,-,/. At follo4s) therefore) that tea!hers need to be ade%t at usin$ %roblem solvin$ strate$ies in their !lassrooms and laboratories. everal re!ent studies hi$hli$ht this need. #arnes *+,-B/ !on!luded that %roblem solvin$ should be a 1e& des!ri%tor for definin$ te!hnolo$& and a !urri!ular or$ani6er for the stud& of te!hnolo$&. Householder and #oser *+,,+/ re%orted that an em%hasis on %roblem solvin$ instru!tional strate$ies 4as a 1e& in$redient in assessin$ the effe!tive im%lementation of %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$rams. An addition) resear!h b& Horath *+,,7/ and b& Householder and #oser %ointed to the need for $raduates of te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$rams to use %roblem solvin$ strate$ies in their !lassrooms and laboratories and to tea!h %roblem solvin$ s1ills. An s%ite of the need to im%lement effe!tive %roblem solvin$ instru!tion in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation) there is no $enerall& a!!e%ted frame4or1 to $uide !urri!ulum develo%ment or assessment %ro!edures. %a!&groun$ '$eas Cne diffi!ult& in investi$atin$ %roblem solvin$ behavior is the man& usa$es of the %hrase 0%roblem solvin$0. (!Cormi!1 *+,,7/ noted that) de%endin$ on the !onteDt) 0%roblem solvin$0 ma& mean: *a/ a tea!hin$ method that en!oura$es a!tive learnin$) *b/ a $eneri! abilit& to deal 4ith %roblem situations) *!/ a method used in su!h subje!ts as mathemati!s or s!ien!e) or *d/ an em%iri!al investi$ation. Additionall&) 5a$ne *+,-@/ used the term %roblem solvin$ to des!ribe a hi$her'order intelle!tual abilit& and a 4a& of learnin$. All of these usa$es have im%li!ations 4ithin te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation. Problem solvin$ is !learl& seen as a tea!hin$ method 4ith lin1s ba!1 to eD%eriential learnin$. Problem solvin$ ma& also be vie4ed as a 4a& of learnin$ that $enerates ne4 insi$hts and useful thin1in$ %ro!esses for the learner *5a$ne) +,-@/. Eurther) the s!ientifi! method of h&%othesis $eneratin$ and testin$ is !ertainl& at the heart of te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$. An this stud&) be!ause of the im%li!ations for tea!her edu!ation) 0%roblem solvin$0 4as limited to t4o usa$es. Eirst) 0te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$0 refers to the s&stemati! 4a& of investi$atin$ a situation and im%lementin$ solutions. e!ond) the

0%roblem solvin$ a%%roa!h0 is used to des!ribe a tea!hin$ method that en!oura$es the develo%ment of ne4 insi$hts and useful thin1in$ %ro!esses throu$h a!tive investi$ative learnin$. Technological Problem Solving Te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ %ro!esses have been $reatl& influen!ed b& the 4or1 of De4e& and Pol&a * ava$e and terr&) +,,+/. De4e& *+,+7/ des!ribed a five ste% iterative %ro!ess of %roblem solvin$ that !om%rised: *a/ felt diffi!ult&) *b/ !larifi!ation of the %roblem) *!/ identifi!ation of %ossible solutions) *d/ testin$ the su$$ested solutions) and *e/ verifi!ation of the results. Pol&a *+,@B/ %ro%osed a heuristi! %ro!ess for solvin$ %roblems in mathemati!s that %rovided a mental $uideline for a!tion. The ste%s in Pol&a:s heuristi! in!luded: *a/ understandin$ the %roblem) *b/ devisin$ a %lan) *!/ !arr&in$ out the %lan) and *d/ loo1in$ ba!1 '' !he!1in$ the results and evaluatin$ the solution. T4o additional influen!es on te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ have been the s!ientifi! method and the idea of !reative %roblem solvin$. de #ono *+,,7/ %ostulated that the !on!e%t of the 0h&%othesis0) 4hi!h formall& san!tions !reativit& and ima$ination) has been 0the0 idea that has %o4ered ra%id s!ientifi! and te!hnolo$i!al !han$e. ?allas *+,F;/ des!ribed the !reative %roblem solvin$ %ro!ess as involvin$ four %hases: *a/ %re%aration) *b/ in!ubation) *!/ illumination) and *d/ verifi!ation. (ore re!entl&) DeGore) Horton) and La4son *+,-,/ built u%on the 4or1 of ?allas and added t4o additional %hases: motivation and mani%ulation. These a%%roa!hes have formed the basis for man& models of %roblem solvin$ that have been a%%lied in te!hnolo$& edu!ation. ome of these models retain the sim%le linear a%%roa!h) su!h as the ADEAL model of #ransford and tein *+,-H/) 4hile others) su!h as #arnes) ?iatt) and #o4en *+,,7/ and Hut!hinson *+,-B/) have %ro%osed more !om%leD !ir!ular or s%iral models 4ith evaluation !om%onents built into ea!h %hase. Problem Solving As An Instructional Approach The %roblem solvin$ a%%roa!h immerses students in a!tive) investi$ative learnin$ * ell4ood) +,-,/. Throu$h %arti!i%ation in a series of %ra!ti!al %roblem solvin$ a!tivities that ma& involve desi$nin$) modelin$) and testin$ of te!hnolo$i!al solutions it is assumed that the learner 4ill a!Iuire both te!hni!al 1no4led$e and hi$her'order !o$nitive s1ills. 5a$ne *+,-@/ stressed the im%ortan!e of eD%eriential learnin$ and noted that abstra!t !on!e%ts must be built u%on !on!rete situations in order to 0o%erationali6e0 *%. +7./ de!larative 1no4led$e. Andre *+,-;/ em%hasi6ed that the im%ortan!e of %roblem solvin$ methods lies in the de$ree of information %ro!essin$ reIuired of the learner. An identif&in$ %roblems) sear!hin$ for solutions) and %resentin$ results) the learner has multi%le o%%ortunities to en!ode and a!!ommodate ne4 1no4led$e. Preparation To Teach Problem Solving 9o resear!h 4as found that related trainin$ in %roblem solvin$ methods to %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation. Ho4ever) Diaber *+,--/ noted man& !ommon instru!tional elements amon$ 0investi$ative deliver& s&stems0 *%. +;;/ su!h as %roblem solvin$)

inIuir& tea!hin$) dis!over& learnin$) and !riti!al thin1in$. 5iven the !ommonalities) resear!h in these related areas ma& %rovide useful insi$hts to tea!her edu!ators. A meta'anal&sis of inIuir& tea!hin$ studies in s!ien!e edu!ation b& 4eit6er and Anderson *+,-./ re%orted that effe!tive tea!her %re%aration %ro!edures in!luded: *a/ s&stemati! observation of inIuir& %ra!ti!es< *b/ mi!ro'tea!hin$< and *!/ feedba!1) in 4hi!h su%ervisor& !onferen!es 4ere !ombined 4ith videota%ed observations. (ore re!entl&) Hut!hinson *+,-,/ found that %re'servi!e tea!hers 4ho %arti!i%ated in an inIuir&'oriented seminar assumed more a!tive tea!hin$ and learnin$ roles than those tea!hers 4ho %arti!i%ated in a traditional seminar settin$. Eernandes *+,--/) 4ho !om%ared the effe!ts of eD%li!it and im%li!it tea!hin$ of a Pol&a:s *+,@B/ heuristi! model of mathemati!al %roblem'solvin$) re%orted that both a%%roa!hes si$nifi!antl& enhan!ed the %roblem solvin$ %erforman!e of %re'servi!e tea!hers. Ho4ever) onl& eD%li!it instru!tion resulted in the !ons!ious use of the heuristi!. Eernandes !on!luded that in order to tea!h %roblem solvin$ tea!hers must be !om%etent %roblem solvers 4ho are a4are of the methods and %ro!esses that the& em%lo&. These studies su%%ort the idea that !han$es in 4a&s of %re%arin$ tea!hers 4ill !han$es in !lassroom %erforman!e. (oreover) as ?ri$ht *+,,7/ stated) !om%etent te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solver is) b& itself) insuffi!ient %re%aration %roblem solvin$ s1ills. Peda$o$i!al s1ills and %ra!ti!es that foster students: solvin$ abilities must be tau$ht to %ros%e!tive tea!hers. result in bein$ a to tea!h %roblem

Purpose (f The Stu$" Althou$h a host of im%li!ations for instru!tion have been offered from the resear!h on %roblem solvin$ in various domains) relativel& fe4 studies have addressed the need to %re%are tea!hers to tea!h hi$her'order thin1in$ s1ills su!h as %roblem solvin$. Little is 1no4n about the eD%erien!es in 4hi!h %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& edu!ation tea!hers should %arti!i%ate in order to a!Iuire the s1ills needed to be !om%etent te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvers and to use %roblem solvin$ effe!tivel& as an instru!tional methodolo$& in the se!ondar& s!hool !lassroom or laborator&. The %ur%ose of this stud& 4as to develo% a validated inventor& of instru!tional %ro!edures) te!hniIues) and assessment methods that ma& be used b& the %rofession as a frame4or1 for !urri!ulum develo%ment and for the assessment of %ro$ram effe!tiveness in the develo%ment of %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$rams. )esear!h *uestions T4o sets of instru!tional %ra!ti!es 4ere investi$ated: *a/ %ro!edures re!ommended to a!Iuire the s1ills needed to be !om%etent te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvers) and *b/ %ro!edures that fa!ilitate the use of %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods in the se!ondar& s!hool !lassroom or laborator&. Ea!h of the t4o sets of instru!tional %ra!ti!es 4as or$ani6ed into three %arts: *a/ %ro!edures re!ommended to develo% the %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities) *b/ instru!tional te!hniIues for %uttin$ the %ro!edures in %la!e) and *!/ methods for assessment of %ro$ram effe!tiveness in deliverin$ the %ro!edures. %e!ifi!all&) the follo4in$ resear!h Iuestions 4ere used to $uide the stud&: +. Are leadin$ %ra!titioners and advo!ates of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion 4ithin the field of te!hnolo$& edu!ation in a$reement 4ith leadin$ edu!ators and

F. .. H. @. ;. B.

%s&!holo$ists 4ho are not in the field of te!hnolo$& edu!ation as to 4hi!h %ro!edures are effe!tive in the develo%ment of %roblem solvin$ !a%abilitiesJ ?hat %ro!edures are re!ommended to develo% the te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities of %ros%e!tive tea!hers durin$ %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$ramsJ ?hat instru!tional te!hniIues are a%%ro%riate for the deliver& of the %ro!edures re!ommended to develo% the te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities of %ros%e!tive tea!hersJ Ho4 ma& the effe!tiveness of the %ro!edures re!ommended to develo% the te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities of %ros%e!tive tea!hers be assessedJ ?hat %ro!edures should be in!luded in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$rams to assist tea!hers in usin$ a %roblem solvin$ methodolo$&J ?hat instru!tional te!hniIues %rovide an effe!tive means for deliverin$ the %ro!edures desi$ned to assist tea!hers in usin$ a %roblem solvin$ methodolo$&J Ho4 ma& the effe!tiveness of the %ro!edures re!ommended to assist %ros%e!tive tea!hers in usin$ a %roblem solvin$ methodolo$& be assessed in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation %ro$ramsJ

Pro!e$ures Per!e%tions of effe!tive instru!tion 4ere soli!ited from t4o sele!ted %anels of eD%erts in %roblem solvin$. Cne %anel 4as !om%rised of te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ators *TECH/ 4ho 4ere identified as leadin$ %ra!titioners or advo!ates of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion *n K +7/. These %anel members 4ere identified from the a $rou% of FF leadin$ te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ators 4ho %reviousl& served as Del%hi %anelists in the stud& b& Householder and #oser *+,,+/. The sele!tion of TECH %anelists 4as based u%on their interest in %roblem solvin$ as eviden!ed b& *a/ re!ent resear!h) 4ritin$) and %resentations on %roblem solvin$ instru!tion) and *b/ ratin$ of the im%ortan!e of %roblem solvin$ items in res%onse to a Iuestionnaire !ondu!ted b& Householder and #oser. The se!ond %anel in!luded leadin$ edu!ators and %s&!holo$ists *ELT/ 4ho have %ublished in the area of %roblem solvin$ and 4ho 4ere not in the field of te!hnolo$& edu!ation *n K ,/. There 4ere t4o reasons for usin$ t4o %anels. Eirst) eD%ertise from outside te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation ma& broaden the %ool of instru!tional %ro!edures re!ommended to the %rofession throu$h this resear!h. #arnes *+,-B/) 4ho indi!ated the need to broaden the !urri!ular or$ani6ers of te!hnolo$& edu!ation) !onsulted %ra!titioners in several %rofessions outside of te!hnolo$& edu!ation. e!ond) utili6in$ t4o %anels %rovided data for !om%arin$ the %er!e%tions of the eD%erts 4ithin te!hnolo$& edu!ation 4ith the re!ommendations of eD%erts eDternal to the field. Potential %anel members 4ere !onta!ted b& tele%hone to see1 their %arti!i%ation in the stud& and to establish a !onvenient time to !ondu!t the tele%hone intervie4. De%endin$ on the amount of lead time %rior to the s!heduled intervie4) a letter !onfirmin$ the s!heduled intervie4 time 4as either mailed or faDed to the %anelist. En!losed 4ith the !onfirmation letter 4as a !o%& of the tele%hone intervie4 s!hedule) a brief orientation to the stud&) and a listin$ of %ertinent definitions. The intervie4 times ran$ed from +7

minutes 4hen the res%ondent had !om%leted the surve& in advan!e of the !onversation) to H@ minutes 4hen the items 4ere revie4ed and re!orded durin$ the dis!ussion. An semi'stru!tured tele%hone intervie4s) %anelists 4ere as1ed to rate the relevan!e of an inventor& of %ro!edures *B7 items/ s&nthesi6ed from the literature) to !omment on those %ro!edures) and to su$$est additional %ro!edures that the& !onsidered essential in the develo%ment of %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities. A +7'%oint s!ale 4as used b& %anelists to rate the %ro!edures 4ith a ratin$ of +7 indi!atin$ that the %ro!edure 4as absolutel& essential. A ratin$ of one im%lied that the re!ommendation 4as not relevant. The +7' %oint s!ale 4as assumed to have &ielded interval data *9unnall&) +,B-/. This s!ale 4as sele!ted be!ause of the %otential for in!reased reliabilit& in !om%arison to s!ales 4ith fe4er intervals *9unnall&) +,B-/) and also be!ause of its !onversational a%%eal in an intervie4 settin$. That is) it is Iuite !ommon for individuals to be as1ed to rate obje!ts) ideas) or %er!e%tions on a s!ale of + to +7. The tele%hone intervie4 s!hedule 4as %ilot tested 4ith subje!ts not in!luded in the resear!h sam%le. The individuals 4ho !om%rised the sam%le for the %ilot test 4ere tea!her edu!ators 4ho had re!entl& !om%leted do!toral resear!h or 4ho had a re!ord of %ubli!ation in the area of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion. Des!ri%tive statisti!s !al!ulated for ea!h of the B7 items in!luded the !ombined mean s!ore and standard deviation) the mean s!ore and standard deviation b& %anel) the freIuen!& of ratin$ s!ores) and measures of 1urtosis and s1e4ness. #oth the t'test %ro!edure and ?il!oDon:s "an1' um Test 4ere used to test for si$nifi!ant differen!es in the res%onses bet4een the t4o %anels. )esults +n$ Dis!ussion Cf the B7 items rated b& %anelists) onl& the instru!tional methods of 0Com%uter Assisted Anstru!tion0 and 0Le!ture0 re!eived mean ratin$ s!ores of less than ; on the +7'%oint s!ale. Even these instru!tional te!hniIues 4ere the subje!t of miti$atin$ !omments from %anelists as to their a%%ro%riate !onteDts in tea!hin$ %roblem solvin$. As a $rou%) therefore) the %ro!edures s&nthesi6ed from the literature have a hi$h de$ree of relevan!e for the %re%aration of %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& edu!ation tea!hers. Agreement Between Panels Anal&sis of the results 4ith both %arametri! and non%arametri! statisti!al %ro' !edures indi!ated that there 4as no si$nifi!ant differen!e in the mean ratin$ s!ores assi$ned to the items b& the t4o %anels. The overall mean ratin$ s!ore of the B7 items b& the TECH %anel 4as -.7B on the +7'%oint s!ale. The mean ratin$ s!ore of the ELT %anel 4as B.B;. The D for both %anels 4as +.+.. As a result of these findin$s) the !ombined mean s!ores of both %anels *n K +,/ 4ere used to ran1 the inventor& items. Developing Technological Problem Solving Capabilities Recommended Procedures. All +, items in this se!tion re!eived a mean ratin$ $reater than ; on the +7'%oint s!ale. Eour %ro!edures that em%hasi6ed %ra!ti!e in a%%l&in$ %roblem solvin$ strate$ies in realisti! !onteDts and feedba!1 on the use of those strate$ies

re!eived mean ratin$s of nine or $reater. Cther hi$hl&'rated items re!ommended that %ros%e!tive tea!hers have the o%%ortunit& to observe the re$ular modelin$ of %roblem solvin$ behavior and the !o$nitive modelin$ of thin1in$ %ro!esses involved in solvin$ %roblems. The %anelists: res%onses are re%orted in Table +. Table 1 Instructional Procedures Recommended To Develop Technological Problem Solving Capabilities ,ean SD ,.HF ,..F ,.FH ,.7@ ,.77 -.-, -.-. -.;. -.;. -.HF -.7@ -.77 -.77 B.-, B.B, ;.-. ;.B, ;..F ;.7@ )e!ommen$e$ Pro!e$ure

7.;, Problem solvin$ strate$ies are %ra!ti!ed in meanin$ful !onteDts 7.-- Eeedba!1 is %rovided on the use of %roblem solvin$ strate$ies +.+@ Dis!ussion Iuestions em%hasi6e 04h& and ho40 7.,+ Con!e%ts and %rin!i%les are !onne!ted to real 4orld a%%li!ation +.;; Problem solvin$ behavior is re$ularl& modeled +.7B Alternative %roblem solutions are eD%lored +.7H "ealisti! %roblem situations s%an the ran$e of te!hnolo$i!al a!tivities +.F; &stemati! verifi!ation %ro!esses are used to !he!1 results +.@7 mall $rou% %roblem solvin$ %ro!edures are anal&6ed throu$h inter'$rou% dis!ussion Problem solvin$ thin1in$ %ro!esses are re$ularl& modeled throu$h su!h %ra!ti!es as 0tal1 aloud0 methods and self'monitorin$ Iuestions Te!hniIues and %ro!esses !entral to te!hnolo$i!al a!tivities are em%hasi6ed throu$h eDtended %ra!ti!e

+.@B Eeedba!1 hel%s tea!hers inter%ret their eD%erien!es +.B+

+.-. Learnin$ a!tivities are lin1ed to broad %roblem situations +.-B

F.;; 5eneral %roblem solvin$ strate$ies *heuristi!s/ are s%e!ifi!all& tau$ht +.B@ our!es of in!orre!t %ro!edures are !onfronted F.@F ?or1ed'out eDam%les are %rovided 4hen a%%ro%riate +.,, F..+ Con!e%ts develo%ed throu$h %roblem solvin$ a!tivities are !onfirmed in dis!ussion 4ith more eD%erien!ed %ersons Prom%ts) su!h as !he!1lists) are readil& available to $uide %roblem solvin$ %erforman!e

..+. Anitial learnin$ of strate$ies fo!uses on the s1ill rather than !ontent

Teaching Methods. ?hereas there 4as !onsiderable a$reement bet4een the %anelists as to 4hi!h %ro!edures %romote the develo%ment of %roblem solvin$ abilities) no !orres%ondin$ !onsensus develo%ed on 4hi!h instru!tional te!hniIues mi$ht be used to

fa!ilitate those %ro!edures. ?ith the eD!e%tion of small $rou% %roblem solvin$ eD%erien!e) %anelists: ratin$s of the te!hniIues a%%eared to refle!t familiarit& 4ith the %ra!ti!es. (embers of the TECH %anel tended to rate most hi$hl& those %ro!edures %ra!ti!ed 4ithin the field) su!h as desi$n'based %roblem solvin$) " > D eD%erien!es) and innovation a!tivities. ELT %anelists !onsidered te!hniIues su!h as simulation and !ase stud&) 4hi!h are %erha%s more 4idel& used in !ontent areas outside of te!hnolo$& edu!ation) as a%%ro%riate deliver& vehi!les for the re!ommended %roblem solvin$ %ro!edures. Comments b& several %anelists em%hasi6ed the need to use a variet& of instru!tional te!hniIues. Cne %anel member !ommented that all of the instru!tional te!hniIues !ould be hi$hl& relevant in the %ro%er !onteDt. (oreover) as a %anelist su$$ested) %ra!ti!e in a%%l&in$ %roblem solvin$ s1ills in a variet& of instru!tional settin$s ma& fa!ilitate transfer of those s1ills to novel situations. Gariet& itself ma& have im%li!ations for the t&%es of a!tivities $raduate te!hnolo$& edu!ation tea!hers !hose to im%lement in their !lassrooms. Panelists ratin$s of the items in this se!tion are re%orted in Table F. Table 2 Instructional Techni ues That !acilitate The "se #$ The Procedures Recommended To Develop Technological Problem Solving Capabilities ,ean SD ,.F, -.;+ -.@7 -.HH -.+, B.,H B.-, B.-, B.H+ B.F@ ;.B+ ;.@. ;.@7 ;.HH @.@7 )e!ommen$e$ Pro!e$ure

+.+7 mall $rou% %roblem solvin$ eD%erien!e +.HF Andividual %roblem solvin$ eD%erien!es +.F, imulation +.,F Desi$n'based %roblem solvin$ +.,B Coo%erative learnin$ F.,H "esear!h and develo%ment eD%erien!e F..@ Annovation a!tivit& F.., Anvention a!tivit& F.7; Communit&'based %roblem solvin$ F.F, Enter%rise *!lass models a !or%oration/ F.B. Case stud& F.., elf'instru!tion throu$h manuals et!. F.+B Demonstration F..7 Peer tea!hin$ F.7, Com%uter assisted instru!tion *CAA/

Assessment #$ Program %$$ectiveness. Cf the ei$ht assessment methods rated b& the %anelists) onl& 0out!omes from $rou% %roblem solvin$ a!tivities0 had a standard deviation * D/ of M +.77. Eor all the other items the D 4as N F.77. Althou$h as a $rou% the items are hi$hl& rated) the relativel& lar$e D for these assessment methods su$$ested that there is little a$reement amon$ %anelists as to the %er!eived relevan!e of these methods. Panelists: ratin$s of these items is %resented in Table .. Table 3 Methods !or The Assessment #$ Program %$$ectiveness In Delivering The Procedures Recommended To Develop Technological Problem Solving Capabilities ,ean SD -.-. -.., -.++ B.,H B..B B.77 ;.,@ )e!ommen$e$ +ssessment ,etho$

7.B- Cut!omes from $rou% %roblem solvin$ a!tivities F.F. Performan!e sam%les of a s%e!ifi! %roblem solvin$ %hase F..@ EDam%les of %roblem solvin$ b& the tea!her F..- ?ritten or verbal rationales for de!isions F.F; tru!tured intervie4s F.FB Holisti! s!orin$ *%oints a4arded for ea!h sta$e of the %roblem solvin$ %ro!ess/

F.7; Anformal Iuestionin$ durin$ instru!tional a!tivities

;.HB F..7 Tea!her self'inventories of their %roblem solvin$ abilities The !omments on the items run some4hat !ontrar& to the item ratin$s. Panelists eD%ressed reservations about all but the three most hi$hl& ran1ed items. everal %anelists 4ere !on!erned about the 0s!hool smarts0 of students. Cne %anel member !ommented that stru!tured intervie4s mi$ht not be a viable 4a& to $et at %ro$ram effe!tiveness be!ause 0students 1no4 4hi!h ans4ers are valued b& the tea!her.0 Panelists ran1in$s and !omments indi!ated a need for s%e!ifi! observable measures from 4hi!h to assess the effe!tiveness of %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities. Training Teachers To "se Problem Solving Teaching Methods Procedures That Promote The "se #$ Problem Solving Teaching Methods. Ten of the ++ items in this se!tion had a mean ratin$ N B.-,. The limited ran$e of the mean s!ores and the hi$h mean ratin$s of the items indi!ate that the %ro!edures have a hi$h de$ree of relevan!e in assistin$ %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& edu!ation tea!hers in usin$ a %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods. Gisual !ate$ori6ation of the %ro!edures su$$ests that the %rin!i%al instru!tional !om%onent in %romotin$ the use of the %roblem solvin$ a%%roa!h are: *a/ %ra!ti!e 4ith multi%le forms of feedba!1) *b/ o%%ortunities to re$ularl& observe the modelin$ of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion and the asso!iated !o$nitive %ro!esses) and *!/ refle!tion u%on the a%%li!ation of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion in the !lassroom. The tabulated results of the items in this !ate$or& are %resented in Table H.

Table 4 Instructional Procedures Recommended To Promote The "se #$ Problem Solving Teaching Methods ,ean SD ,.77 ,.77 ,.77 -.-, -.;. -.@. -.HF -.F; -.FF B.-, ;.B+.77 +..F )e!ommen$e$ Pro!e$ure Problem solvin$ theor& is s%e!ifi!all& lin1ed to !lassroom %ra!ti!es of tea!hers. Tea!hers re!eive multi%le forms of feedba!1 on their use of the %roblem solvin$ a%%roa!h *e.$. instru!tors) videota%es) and su%ervisor& !onferen!es/ Tea!hers evaluate their o4n %roblem solvin$ strate$ies and dis!uss their a%%li!ation to the tea!hin$ of !hildren Thin1in$ %ro!esses used to fa!ilitate %roblem solvin$ instru!tion are re$ularl& modeled throu$h 0tal1 aloud0 strate$ies and self'monitorin$ Iuestions Tea!hers %arti!i%ate in the s&stemati! observation of %roblem solvin$ %ra!ti!es in the !lassroom and laborator& te%s that !om%rise the %roblem solvin$ a%%roa!h are !learl& defined and %ra!ti!ed in a mi!rotea!hin$ environment Coa!hin$ in the use of %roblem solvin$ methods is $raduall& redu!ed as tea!her !om%eten!e in!reases

+.H, Problem solvin$ instru!tional methods are re$ularl& modeled +.+7 +.;H +.;+.;+ F.7@

Lesson %lannin$ a!!ounts for individual differen!es in students: %roblem +.F; solvin$ abilities su!h as the !onfiden!e and !om%eten!e of the %roblem solvers F.+. Pre'servi!e %roblem solvin$ a!tivities are similar to those that tea!hers 4ill %resent to their te!hnolo$& edu!ation students

F.F. Tea!hers %redi!t and visuali6e the out!omes of lesson %lannin$

Panelists %rovided eDtensive !omments on the items in this se!tion and t&%i!all& elaborated u%on an item or sou$ht to !ombine ideas. Eor eDam%le) one %anelist hi$hli$hted the im%ortan!e of mediated observation and multi%le forms of feedba!1 b& statin$ that) 0An& t&%e of feedba!1 !an be useful) but it must be arti!ulated feedba!1 4ith s%e!ifi! su$$estions for im%rovement. Even in loo1in$ at a videota%e) someone usuall& has to %oint out 4hat to 4at!h for.0 Teaching Methods. ?ith the eD!e%tion of le!ture and !ase stud&) 4hi!h had mean s!ores of @.F+ and ;.-H res%e!tivel&) the mean s!ores of the other ei$ht instru!tional te!hniIues fell 4ithin a limited ran$e from B.@. to ,.++ on the +7'%oint s!ale. tudent tea!hin$ 4as the hi$hest rated te!hniIue in this $rou% and the onl& item 4ith a mean s!ore N ,.77. Panelists: ratin$s of these items are re%orted in Table @.

Table Instructional Techni ues !or The Implementation #$ The Instructional Procedures Recommended To Promote The "se #$ Problem Solving Teaching Methods ,ean SD )e!ommen$e$ Pro!e$ure ,.++ -.BF -.@7 -.., -.+; -.77 B.B, B.@. ;.-H @.F+ +..B tudent tea!hin$ +.H+ Andu!tion &ear +.H; imulation +.;+ Coo%erative learnin$ +.H; (i!ro'tea!hin$ +.@; Demonstration +.@- Peer tea!hin$ F.++ Dis!ussion ..7B Case stud& F.@, Le!ture

Comments b& %anel members su$$ested that !hoi!e of te!hniIue is not ne!essaril& as !riti!al as fa!tors related to the im%lementation of the te!hniIue) su!h as freIuen!& of use or a%%ro%riate seIuen!in$ durin$ the tea!her edu!ation %ro$ram. ?hile student tea!hin$ 4as the most hi$hl& ran1ed te!hniIue) several %anelists !ommented that this eD%erien!e 4ould onl& be useful if the !oo%eratin$ tea!hers 4ere !arefull& sele!ted. Assessment #$ Program %$$ectiveness. Althou$h there 4ere onl& five items in this se!tion) a visual eDamination of the mean res%onses indi!ated t4o $rou%s of assessment methods. The t4o most hi$hl& rated items) s&stemati! observation of tea!her %erforman!e durin$ student tea!hin$ *,.77/ and fo!used intervie4s *-.F+/) em%hasi6ed a stru!tured a%%roa!h to assessment. The remainin$ items relied on more indire!t measures or self're%ort to assess tea!hers: use of %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods. The !omments of %anelists refle!ted a $eneral s1e%ti!ism of an& form of assessment based on self're%ort b& the learner. Additionall&) !omments reinfor!ed the need for assessment methods to be based on observed %erforman!e that !an be !he!1ed a$ainst established ben!hmar1s. The tabulated res%onses to the items in this se!tion are %resented in Table ;. Table . Methods !or The Assessment #$ Program %$$ectiveness In Delivering The Procedures Recommended To Promote The "se #$ Problem Solving Methodologies ,ean SD )e!ommen$e$ Pro!e$ure

,.77 -.F+ B.77 ;.-, ;.B,

+..B &stemati! observation of tea!her %erforman!e durin$ student tea!hin$ +.;- Eo!used intervie4s +.H@ Children:s %erforman!e durin$ tea!hers: field eD%erien!e *student tea!hin$/ F.;7 Journal re%orts from student tea!hin$ F..B Anformal Iuestionin$ durin$ instru!tional a!tivities

Additional Procedures Suggested B& Panelists Panelists su$$ested H; additional %ro!edures 4hi!h the& !onsidered essential for the develo%ment of the %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities. Combinin$ the individual su$$estions resulted in a listin$ of F@ additional items. A %ilot test to validate the relevan!e of these additional %ro!edures 4as !ondu!ted as an adjun!t to this stud&. Cn a mailed Iuestionnaire) %anelists 4ere as1ed to rate the additional %ro!edures. The Iuestionnaire format and item ratin$ %ro!edures used in the %ilot test 4ere identi!al to those %ro!esses used durin$ the initial intervie4s. Ei$hteen of the %anelists *,H.BO/ returned ratin$ sheets. Anal&sis of the data indi!ated similarities in s1e4ness) mean ratin$ s!ores) and standard deviations bet4een the additional %ro!edures and the %ro!edures re!ommended throu$h the revie4 of literature. Therefore) the additional %ro!edures also a%%ear to be relevant to develo%ment of %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities. Ho4ever) be!ause of methodolo$i!al differen!es onl& sele!ted items 4ill be dis!ussed. Technological Problem Solving. The most hi$hl& ran1ed instru!tional %ro!edure) ,.++ on the +7'%oint s!ale) su$$ested that 0Alternative 4a&s of loo1in$ at the %roblem should be !onsidered in the sear!h for a solution.0 Althou$h this item a%%ears to be a ste% in the te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ %ro!ess) it is also !onsistent 4ith the information %ro!essin$ !on!e%t of loo1in$ for a re%resentation of the %roblem that ma1es a solution more li1el&. The modelin$ of 0loo1in$ for alternatives0 as te!hni!al %roblems are addressed ma& be a lar$e ste% in %romotin$ a %roblem solvin$ thin1in$ a%%roa!h. An the assessment se!tion) if 0Anstru!tor models %roblem solvin$ behavior0 had been !onsidered amon$ the initial $rou% of inventor& items) it 4ould have been the most hi$hl& rated item *mean ratin$ K -.-,/. (oreover) this 4as the onl& assessment method that did not relate %ro$ram effe!tiveness in the deliver& of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion to some measure of learner out!ome. Perha%s eviden!e of instru!tor modelin$ of %roblem solvin$ behaviors is a %o4erful indi!ator of %ro$ram effe!tiveness. Training Teachers To "se Problem Solving Teaching Methods. The instru!tional %ro!edures and te!hniIues su$$ested in this se!tion tended to elaborate on the more $eneral items re!ommended in the initial inventor&. (an& of the items fo!used on some as%e!t of observational a!tivit& or field eD%erien!e. Ho4ever) the t4o most hi$hl& rated methods for the assessment of %ro$ram effe!tiveness are !learl& different from the items in the initial inventor&. Cne su$$ested that) 0Tea!hers anal&6e videota%ed se$ments of their a!tual tea!hin$ or mi!ro'tea!hin$0 *mean ratin$ K B.,H/) 4hereas the se!ond item re!ommended that) 0Tea!hers anal&6e situations %resented on videota%e or videodis! in

relation to s%e!ifi! %ro$ram $oals0 *mean ratin$ K B.7;/. The use of these t4o methods ma& offer a !ontrolled 4a& to s&stemati!all& eDamine %ro$ram out!omes. Summar" +n$ Con!lusions The inventor& of %ro!edures 4as hi$hl& rated b& %anelists and the in!rements bet4een adja!ent ran1in$s 4ere too small to establish meanin$ful !ut'off %oints. Therefore no attem%t 4as made to !ate$ori6e the items 4ithin the se!tions. Clearl&) in the !orre!t !onteDt) all of the items ma& !ontribute s&ner$i!all& to the develo%ment of effe!tive %roblem solvin$ instru!tion. 5iven the small mean differen!es bet4een adja!ent ran1in$s in the inventor&) instru!tors and !urri!ulum desi$ners are advised to !onsider the %ro!edures 4ithin ea!h se!tion as a $rou%) and sele!t %ro!edures based on instru!tional obje!tives and situational !onteDt. Eurther) as indi!ated b& %anelists !omments) fa!tors su!h as the freIuen!& of use and a%%ro%riateness of the %ro!edures or te!hniIues at the learners: !urrent sta$e of develo%ment must obviousl& be !onsidered. An $eneral) the ratin$s and !omments b& %anelists indi!ated that the develo%ment of te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities 4as t&%ified b&: *a/ modelin$ and %ra!ti!e 4ith feedba!1 in realisti! situations) *b/ a variet& of relevant instru!tional te!hniIues) and *!/ a !olle!tion of out!ome measures to assess %ro$ram effe!tiveness. Additionall&) trainin$ tea!hers to use %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods involved: *a/ modelin$) mediated observation) s%e!ifi! %ra!ti!e 4ith feedba!1 in usin$ %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods) and refle!tive dis!ussion on the a%%li!ation of these tea!hin$ methods< *b/ !arefull& sele!ted field eD%erien!e sites< and *!/ %erforman!e based assessment. %e!ifi!all&) the follo4in$ !on!lusions 4ere derived from this stud&: +. The inventor& of instru!tional %ro!edures) te!hniIues) and assessment methods !om%iled and rated throu$h this resear!h %rovide a relevant frame4or1 for the develo%ment of the %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation. F. Pro!edures and methods advo!ated b& te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ators 4ere not si$nifi!antl& different from those re!ommended b& the ELT %anel of authors and edu!ational %s&!holo$ists. Therefore) it ma1es sense to utili6e the eD%ertise 4ithin the field of te!hnolo$& edu!ation 4hen desi$nin$ instru!tion intended to fa!ilitate %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities. .. Anstru!tional %ro!edures that !hara!teri6ed the develo%ment of te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities in!luded the: *a/ a%%li!ation of %roblem solvin$ strate$ies 4ith a%%ro%riate feedba!1 in variet& of realisti! situations) *b/ observation of behavioral and !o$nitive modelin$) and *!/ develo%ment of !onne!tions bet4een !on!e%ts and a%%li!ations. H. Althou$h 0small $rou% %roblem solvin$0 4as the most hi$hl& ran1ed instru!tional te!hniIue for the develo%ment of te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ !a%abilities) %anelist !onsidered it a%%ro%riate and desirable to em%lo& a variet& of te!hniIues. @. (ethods for the assessment of %ro$ram effe!tiveness in deliverin$ te!hnolo$i!al %roblem solvin$ instru!tion in!luded: *a/ out!omes from $rou% and individual %roblem solvin$ a!tivities) *b/ %erforman!e sam%les) and *!/ self're%orts.

;. Anstru!tional %ro!edures that %romote the use of %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods in!luded: *a/ the develo%ment of lin1a$es bet4een theor& and %ra!ti!e) *b/ multi%le forms of feedba!1 on %ra!ti!e tea!hin$ a!tivities) *!/ modelin$ of a%%ro%riate methods) and *d/ mediated observation of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion and refle!tive dis!ussion on the a%%li!ation of those tea!hin$ methods. B. Eield eD%erien!e that is !ondu!ted in !arefull& sele!ted sites and that em%hasi6es %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods 4as identified as the most effe!tive means of trainin$ %re'servi!e tea!hers to use those tea!hin$ methods. -. &stemati! observation of tea!hers: %erforman!e durin$ student tea!hin$ 4as the most hi$hl& rated method for the assessment of %ro$ram effe!tiveness in %romotin$ the use of %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods. 'mpli!ations /or Te!hnolog" Tea!her #$u!ation Te!hnolo$& edu!ation tea!hers need to develo% te!hni!al eD%ertise) %roblem solvin$ s1ills) and the abilit& to foster the %roblem solvin$ s1ills of their students. These abilities 4ill not li1el& o!!ur b& !han!e. The !om%eten!ies needed to tea!h %roblem solvin$ must be tau$ht to %ros%e!tive tea!hers. The inventor& of %ro!edures validated in this stud& ma& form a useful set of re!ommendations for %ra!ti!e. These re!ommendations ma& serve to $uide the sele!tion of instru!tional %ra!ti!es) the develo%ment of !urri!ulum) and the assessment of %roblem solvin$ instru!tion in %re'servi!e te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation. #ased on a%%ro%riate se!tions of the inventor&) !he!1lists ma& be develo%ed to %rovide a formative assessment of the %roblem solvin$ tea!hin$ methods used b& instru!tors or to $uide s%e!ifi! feedba!1 to %ra!ti!e tea!hers. "esear!h indi!ates that !han$es in 4a&s of %re%arin$ tea!hers 4ill result in !han$es in !lassroom %erforman!e. The !hallen$e to te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ators is to sele!t and im%lement the most effe!tive tea!hin$ %ro!edures. "i!hard #oser is Assistant Professor) De%artment of Andustrial Te!hnolo$&) Allinois tate 8niversit&) 9ormal) AL. )eferen!es Andre) T. *+,-;/. Problem solvin$ and edu!ation. An 5. D. Ph&e and T. Andre *Eds./) Cognitive Classroom 'earning( "nderstanding) Thin*ing) And Problem Solving *%%. +;,' F7H/. an Die$o) CA: A!ademi! Press. #arnes) J. L. *+,-B/. An international stud& of !urri!ulum or$ani6ers for the stud& of te!hnolo$&. Dissertation Abstracts International) +,) 7@A) ++B;. #arnes) J. L.) ?iatt) C. > #o4en) (. A. *+,,7/. The 9A APelementar& te!hnolo$& edu!ation %roje!t. The Technolog& Teacher) +-*H/)+.'+B. #ir!h) ?. *+,-;/. To4ards a model for %roblem'based learnin$. Studies In .igher %ducation) //*+/) B.'-F. #ransford) J. D.) 5oin) L. A.) Hasselbrin$) T. .) =in6er) C. =.) her4ood) ". D.) > ?illiams) . (. *+,-;/. Learnin$ 4ith te!hnolo$&: theoreti!al and em%iri!al %ers%e!tives. Peabod& 0ournal #$ %ducation) 1+*+/) @'F;.

#ransford) J.) > tein) #. *+,-H/. The Ideal Problem Solver. 9e4 Qor1: Ereeman. Carnevale) A. P.) 5ainer) L. J. > (elt6er) A. . *+,,7/. 2or*place Basics( The %ssential S*ills %mplo&ers 2ant. an Eran!is!o: Josse&'#ass. Commission on Pre'Colle$e Edu!ation in (athemati!s) !ien!e and Te!hnolo$&. *+,-./. %ducating Americans !or The 3/st Centur&. ?ashin$ton) DC: 9ational !ien!e #oard. de #ono) E. *+,,7/. The art of !reative thin1in$. Tele!onferen!e %resentation 9ovember +@) +,,7) P# Adult Learnin$ ervi!es. DeGore) P.) Horton) A.) > La4son) ". #. *+,-,/. Creativit&) Design And Technolog&. ?or!ester) (A: Davis. De4e&) J. *+,+7/. .ow 2e Thin*. #oston: Heath. Diaber) ". A. *+,--/. Dis!over&) inIuir& and eD%erimentation. An ?. H. =em% > A. E. !h4aller *Eds./) Instructional Strategies !or Technolog& %ducation *%%. +;;'+-F/. (ission Hills) CA: 5len!oe. Eernandes) D. (. #. *+,--/. Com%arison of the effe!ts of t4o models of instru!tion on the %roblem'solvin$ %erforman!e of %re'servi!e elementar& s!hool tea!hers and on their a4areness of the %roblem'solvin$ strate$ies the& em%lo&. Dissertation Abstracts International) 45) 7HA) -,+. *Publi!ation 9o. AAC-,+..@,/. 5a$ne) ". (. *+,-@/. The Conditions #$ 'earning And Theor& #$ Instruction *Hth ed./. 9e4 Qor1: Holt) "inehart and ?inston. Horath) L. D. *+,,7/. Te!hnolo$i!al %rofi!ien!es 4hi!h should be develo%ed durin$ the %re%aration of tea!hers of te!hnolo$& edu!ation. 8n%ublished do!toral dissertation) TeDas A>( 8niversit&) Colle$e tation) TL. Householder) D. L.) > #oser) ". A. *+,,+/. Assessin$ the effe!tiveness of !han$e to te!hnolo$& tea!her edu!ation. 0ournal #$ Technolog& %ducation) 3*F/) +;'.+. Hut!hinson) L. (. *+,-,/. Conversational anal&ses of inIuir&'oriented and traditional tea!her edu!ation seminars. Dissertation Abstracts International) 4/) 7FA) H-F. *Publi!ation 9o. AAC,7+@-BB./ Hut!hinson) P. *+,-B/. Problem solvin$ in #ritish !raft) desi$n and te!hnolo$& edu!ation. Dissertation Abstracts International) +,) +7A) F;7B. *Publi!ation 9o. AAC-BF7+F@/. =ulm) 5. *Ed./ *+,,7/. Assessing .igher #rder Thin*ing In Mathematics. ?ashin$ton) DC: Ameri!an Asso!iation for the Advan!ement of !ien!e.

Lombard) A. .) =oni!e1) ". D.) > !hult6) =. *+,-@/. Des!ri%tion and evaluation of an inservi!e model for im%lementation of a learnin$ !&!le a%%roa!h in se!ondar& s!ien!e !lassroom. Science %ducation) 1-) H,+'@77. (!Cormi!1) ". *+,,7) C!tober/. The evolution of !urrent %ra!ti!e in te!hnolo$& edu!ation. A %a%er %resented at the 9ATC Advan!ed "esear!h ?or1sho%: Ante$ratin$ Advan!ed Te!hnolo$& into Te!hnolo$& Edu!ation) Eindhoven) The 9etherlands. 9unnall&) J. C. *+,B-/. Ps&chometric Theor& *Fnd ed./. 9e4 Qor1: (!5ra4'Hill. Pol&a) 5. *+,@B/. .ow To Solve It. Prin!eton) 9J: Prin!eton. ava$e) E.) > terr&) L. *+,,+/. A Conceptual !ramewor* !or Technolog& %ducation . "eston) GA: Anternational Te!hnolo$& Edu!ation Asso!iation. ell4ood) P. *+,-,/. The role of %roblem solvin$ in develo%in$ thin1in$ s1ills. The Technolog& Teacher) +-*./) .'+7. 4eit6er) 5. L.) > Anderson) ". D. *+,-./. A meta'anal&sis of resear!h on s!ien!e tea!her edu!ation %ra!ti!es asso!iated 4ith inIuir& strate$&. 0ournal #$ Research In Science Teaching) 35*@/) H@.'H;;. Thomas) ". 5.) > En$lund) (. *+,,7/. Instructional Design !or !acilitating .igher #rder Thin*ing( 6olume II( Instructional Design Model. t. Paul) (9: (innesota "esear!h and Develo%ment !enter for Go!ational Edu!ation. ?aetjen) ?. #. *+,-,/. Technological Problem Solving( A Proposal. "eston) GA: Anternational Te!hnolo$& Edu!ation Asso!iation. ?allas) 5. *+,F;/. The Art #$ Thought. 9e4 Qor1: Har!ourt) #ra!e. 8nited tates De%artment of Labor. *+,,+/. 2hat 2or* Re uires #$ Schools( A S.C.A.7.S. Report !or America 3555. ?ashin$ton) DC: The e!retar&:s Commission Cn A!hievin$ 9e!essar& 1ills. ?ri$ht) T. *+,,7/. Challen$es fa!in$ edu!ators: The future of te!hnolo$& edu!ation. The Technolog& Teacher) 45*F/) .'@.

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