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Sri Harsha Gamidi 09304012 M.tech Structural Engineering Guide: Dr. K.M.Bajoria Department of civil Engineering Indian Institute of Technology,Bombay November 2009
Abstract A large range of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques are employed for a wide variety of applications within Civil Engineering. The majority of these applications may be regarded as structural but they also include site surveying and highways problems. Testing may be used during planning and construction phases, but the majorities of applications are concerned with troubleshooting, maintenance and repair. The normal maintenance method is to inspect the structure periodically, and when the degrees of deterioration exceed certain limit, repair or strengthening of the structures is performed. To inspect existing structures, visual inspection is the easiest and the most fundamental method. But this method may not be applicable for inspecting defects which does not appear on the surface. For such defects, Non-destructive inspection is the only method which can be applied. Nondestructive testing plays an important role for quality evaluation. India has been producing concrete structures since long times. And now it is becoming important problem to maintain these existing concrete and steel structures. This presentation aims on the explanation of NDT techniques and their application to structures.
Contents
List of Figures 1 Introduction 2 Destructive testing 2.1 Denitions of Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Testing of large structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Destructive software testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Non Destructive Testing 4 Ultrasonic testing 4.1 How it works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Liquid Penetration Test 5.1 Principle . . . . . . . . 5.2 Materials . . . . . . . 5.3 Procedure . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Limitations . . 5.3.2 Precautions . . iv 1 2 2 3 3 5 7 7 10 10 10 11 12 12 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 18 19 19 19
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6 Magnetic Particle inspection 6.1 Magnetic Flux Leckage(MFL) 6.1.1 Procedure . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Features . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Corrosion . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Crack detection . . . .
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7 ElectroMagnetic testing 7.0.5 Eddy current testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.6 Remote eld testing (RFT) . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.0.7 Dierences Between RFT and ECT . . . . . . . . 7.0.8 Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) 7.0.9 Pulsed eddy current method . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
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iii 8 Radiographic Testing 8.1 X-ray Method . . . . 8.1.1 Benets . . . 8.1.2 Limitations . 8.2 Gamma Ray method 8.2.1 Benets . . . 8.2.2 Limitations . 20 20 20 20 20 22 22 23 23 23 23 24 24 25 29
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9 Miscellaneous methods 9.1 Visual inspection method . . . 9.2 LASER Testing . . . . . . . . 9.3 Infrared and Thermal Testing 9.4 Schmidt hammer . . . . . . . 9.5 RADAR Technology . . . . . 10 Case Study: Bridge 11 Conclusions
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List of Figures
2.1 5.1 8.1 8.2 9.1 Destructive testing of a 6-story non-ductile concrete building using a shake table[2] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dye penetration test Steps[3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-Ray Equipment[8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-Ray image of reinforced concrete column[9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carrying of RADAR Test on pavement[5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 13 21 21 24 28 28
10.1 Schmidt Hammer[7],GPR Test being conducted on a bridge[5] . . . . . . . . 10.2 Figure showing the RADAR data[5] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chapter 1 Introduction
Nondestructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highlyvaluable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, and eddy-current testing NDT is a commonly-used tool in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, medicine, and art. Specialist high risk areas such as nuclear and oshore structures, and gas and oil pipelines, make extensive use of Non-Destructive Testing of metallic components during manufacture and construction as part of quality assurance procedures as well as during routine maintenance inspections to detect cracking and corrosion. Radiography and ultrasonics are most widely used for checking of welds, although eddy current and magnetic methods are also available. Alternating current eld measurement techniques permit noncontacting crack detection and sizing in welded joints both in air and underwater.The focus of this presentations concentrates on mainstream engineering activities, where the extent of N.D.T. usage varies considerably [1].
2.1
Denitions of Hardness
In materials science, there are three principal operational denitions of hardness. Scratch hardness: Resistance to fracture or plastic (permanent) deformation due to friction from a sharp object. 2
Figure 2.1: Destructive testing of a 6-story non-ductile concrete building using a shake table[2] Indentation hardness: Resistance to plastic (permanent) deformation due to a constant load from a sharp object. Rebound hardness: Height of the bounce of an object dropped on the material, related to elasticity. The mathematical denition of hardness is the pressure applied over the projected contact area between the indenter and the material being tested. As a result hardness values are typically reported in units of pressure, although this is only a true pressure if the indenter and surface interface is perfectly at[2].
2.2
Building structures or large nonbuilding structures (such as dams and bridges) are rarely subjected to destructive testing due to the prohibitive cost of constructing a building, or a scale model of a building, just to destroy it. Earthquake engineering requires a good understanding of how structures will perform at earthquakes. Destructive tests are more frequently carried out for structures which are to be constructed in earthquake zones. Such tests are sometimes referred to as crash tests, and they are carried out to verify the designed seismic performance of a new building, or the actual performance of an existing building. The tests are, mostly, carried out on a platform called a shake-table which is designed to shake in the same manner as an earthquake(Fig. 2.1).
2.3
Destructive software testing is a type of software testing which attempts to cause a piece of software to fail in an uncontrolled manner, in order to test its robustness. As structural
4 performance at earthquakes is better understood, testing of structures in earthquakes is increasingly done by modeling the structure using specialist nite element software[2].
6 serviceability of the component. With statistical methods it is possible to look closer into the eld of uncertainly. Methods such as Probability of Detection (POD) or the ROC-method Relative Operating Characteristics are examples of the statistical analysis methods. Also the aspect of human errors has to be taken into account when determining the overall reliability. Personnel Qualication is an important aspect of non-destructive evaluation. NDT techniques rely heavily on human skill and knowledge for the correct assessment and interpretation of test results. Proper and adequate training and certication of NDT personnel is therefore a must to ensure that the capabilities of the techniques are fully exploited. There are a number of published international and regional standards covering the certication of competence of personnel. The most common NDT Methods are discussed in this presentation. In order of most used, they are: Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Radiographic Testing (RT), Liquid penetrant Testing, Magnetic particle Testing, Electromagnetic Testing (ET) in which Eddy Current Testing (ECT) is well know and Acoustic Emission (AE or AET). Besides the main NDT methods a lot of other NDT techniques are available, such as Shearography Holography, Microwave and many more and new methods are being constantly researched and developed. In the next sections the methods are explained and their applications to structures are discussed[3].
4.1
How it works
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over the object being inspected. The transducer is typically separated from the test object by a couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion testing. There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform, reection and attenuation. In reection (or pulse-echo) mode, the transducer performs both the sending and the receiving of the pulsed waves as the sound is reected back to the device. Reected ultrasound comes from an interface, such as the back wall of the object or from an imperfection within the object. The diagnostic machine displays these results in the form of a signal with an amplitude representing the intensity of the reection and the distance, representing the arrival time of the reection. In attenuation (or through-transmission) mode, a transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Imperfections or other conditions in the space between the transmitter and receiver reduce the amount of sound transmitted, thus revealing their presence Advantages: High penetrating power, which allows the detection of aws deep in the part.
8 High sensitivity, permitting the detection of extremely small aws. Only one surface need be accessible. Greater accuracy than other nondestructive methods in determining the depth of internal aws and the thickness of parts with parallel surfaces. Some capability of estimating the size, orientation, shape and nature of defects. Nonhazardous to operations or to nearby personnel and has no eect on equipment and materials in the vicinity. Capable of portable or highly automated operation. metals, nonmetals and composites surface and slightly subsurface aws can be detected can be applied to welds, tubing, joints, castings, billets, forgings, shafts, structural components, concrete, pressure vessels, aircraft and engine components used to determine thickness and mechanical properties monitoring service wear and deterioration Disadvantages: Manual operation requires careful attention by experienced technicians Extensive technical knowledge is required for the development of inspection procedures Parts that are rough, irregular in shape, very small or thin, or not homogeneous are dicult to inspect. Surface must be prepared by cleaning and removing loose scale, paint, etc, although paint that is properly bonded to a surface usually need not be removed. Couplants are needed to provide eective transfer of ultrasonic wave energy between transducers and parts being inspected unless a non-contact technique is used. Noncontact techniques include Laser and Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMAT). Inspected items must be water resistant, when using water based couplants that do not contain rust inhibitors. usually contacting, either direct or with intervening medium required (e.g. immersion testing) special probes are required for applications
9 sensitivity limited by frequency used and some materials cause signicant scattering scattering by test material structure can cause false indications not easily applied to very thin materials
5.1
Principle
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension uid penetrates into clean and dry surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping, spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the aw where a visible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or white light, depending upon the type of dye used - uorescent or nonuorescent (visible).
5.2
Materials
Penetrants are classied into sensitivity levels. Visible penetrants are typically red in color, and represent the lowest sensitivity. Fluorescent penetrants contain two or more dyes that uoresce when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation (also known as black light). Since Fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed in a darkened environment, and the excited dyes emit brilliant yellow-green light that contrasts strongly against the dark background, this material is more sensitive to small defects. When selecting a sensitivity level one must consider many factors, including the environment under which the test will be performed, 10
11 the surface nish of the specimen, and the size of defects sought. One must also assure that the test chemicals are compatible with the sample so that the examination will not cause permanent staining, or degradation. This technique can be quite portable, because in its simplest form the inspection requires only 3 aerosol spray cans, some paper towels, and adequate visible light. Stationary systems with dedicated application, wash, and development stations, are more costly and complicated, but result in better sensitivity and higher sample through-put.
5.3
Procedure
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection: 1. Pre-cleaning: The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing. The end goal of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of contamination. 2. Application of Penetrant: The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed time to soak into any aws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends upon the penetrant being used, material being testing and the size of aws sought. As expected, smaller aws require a longer penetration time 3. Excess Penetrant Removal: The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsiable, or hydrophilic post-emulsiable are the common choices. Emulsiers represent the highest sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the solvent on the test surface directly, because this can the remove the penetrant from the aws. This process must be performed under controlled conditions so that all penetrant on the surface is removed (background noise), but penetrants trapped in real defects remains in place. 4. Application of Developer: After excess penetrant has been removed a white developer is applied to the sample. Several developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water suspendable, and water soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one cant use water-soluble or suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the two. Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface. The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication, a process similar to the action of blotting paper. Any colored stains indicate the positions and types of defects on the surface under inspection. 5. Inspection: The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation
12 of adequate intensity (1,000 micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2 foot-candles) for uorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take place after a 10 minute development time. This time delay allows the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation when using visible dye. Also of concern, if one waits too long after development, the indications may bleed out such that interpretation is hindered. 6. Post Cleaning: The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if post-inspection coating processes are scheduled. The aws are more visible, because The defect indication has a high visual contrast (e.g. red dye against a white developer background, or a bright uorescent indication against a dark background). The developer draws the penetrant out of the aw over a wider area than the real aw, so it looks wider[2].
5.3.1
Limitations
need access to test surface efects must be surface breaking decontamination and precleaning of test surface may be needed vapour hazard. very tight and shallow defects dicult to nd depth of aw not indicated
5.3.2
Precautions
Proper cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and any defects present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be necessary. Penetrant dyes stain cloth, skin and other porous surfaces brought into contact. One should verify compatibility on the test material, especially when considering the testing of plastic components. Steps,Fig 5.1 1.Section of material with a surface-breaking crack that is not visible to the naked eye. 2.Penetrant is applied to the surface. 3.Excess penetrant is removed. 4.Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.
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15 45 to 90 degrees to the magnetic ux lines. Magnetic Particle Inspection cannot be used for non-ferrous materials and non-magnetic ferrous materials such as austenitic stainless steels. In such cases, other methods such as dye penetrant inspection are used[4].
6.1
It is a magnetic method of nondestructive testing that is used to detect corrosion and pitting in steel structures, most commonly pipelines and storage tanks. The basic principle is that a powerful magnet is used to magnetize the steel. At areas where there is corrosion or missing metal, the magnetic eld leaks from the steel. In an MFL tool, a magnetic detector is placed between the poles of the magnet to detect the leakage eld. Analysts interpret the chart recording of the leakage eld to identify damaged areas and hopefully to estimate the depth of metal loss. This method is best suitable for pipeline examination and tank oors.
6.1.1
Procedure
Typically, an MFL tool consists of two or more bodies. One body is the magnetizer with the magnets and sensors and the other bodies contain the electronics and batteries. The magnetizer body houses the sensors that are located between powerful rare-earth magnets. The magnets are mounted between the brushes and tool body to create a magnetic circuit along with the pipe wall. As the tool travels along the pipe, the sensors detect interruptions in the magnetic circuit. Interruptions are typically caused by metal loss and which in most cases is corrosion. Mechanical damage such as shovel gouges can also be detected. The metal loss in a magnetic circuit is analogous to a rock in a stream. Magnetism needs metal to ow and in the absence of it, the ow of magnetism will go around, over or under to maintain its relative path from one magnet to another, similar to the ow of water around a rock in a stream. The sensors detect the changes in the magnetic eld in the three directions (axial ,radial, or circumferential) to characterize the anomaly. An MFL tool can take sensor readings based on either the distance the tool travels or on increments of time. The second body is called an Electronics Can. This section can be split into a number of bodies depending on the size of the tool. This can, as the name suggests, contains the electronics or brains of the instrument. The Electronics Can also contains the batteries and is some cases an IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit) to tie location information to GPS coordinates.
6.1.2
Features
Although primarily used to detect corrosion, MFL tools can also be used to detect features that they were not originally designed to identify. When an MFL tool encounters a geometric deformity such as a dent, wrinkle or buckle, a very distinct signal is created due to the plastic deformation of the pipe wall.
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6.1.3
Corrosion
High-resolution MFL tools collect data approximately every 2 mm along the axis of a pipe and this superior resolution allows for a comprehensive analysis of collected signals. Pipeline Integrity Management programs have specic intervals for inspecting pipeline segments.By employing high-resolution MFL tools an exceptional corrosion growth analysis can be conducted. This type of analysis proves extremely useful in forecasting the inspection intervals.
6.1.4
Crack detection
There are cases where large non-axial oriented cracks have been found in a pipeline that was inspected by a magnetic ux leakage tool. To an experienced MFL data analyst, a dent is easily recognizable by trademark horseshoe signal in the radial component of the vector eld. What is not easily identiable to an MFL tool is the signature that a crack leaves[4].
7.0.5
Eddy-curren testing uses electromagnetic induction to detect aw in conductive materials. It is used to detect near-surface cracks and corrosion in metallic objects such as tubes and aircraft fuselage and structures. ECT is more commonly applied to nonferromagnetic materials, since in ferromagnetic materials the depth of penetration is relatively small[3]. Procedure In a standard eddy current testing a circular coil carrying current is placed proximity to the test specimen (electrically conductive).The alternating current in the coil generates changing magnetic eld which interacts with test specimen and generates eddy current. Variations in the phase and magnitude of these eddy currents can be monitored using a second search coil, or by measuring changes to the current owing in the primary excitation coil. Variations in the electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of the test object, or the presence of any aws, will cause a change in eddy current ow and a corresponding change in the phase and amplitude of the measured current. This is the basis of standard (at coil) eddy current inspection, the most widely used eddy current technique. However, eddy-current testing can detect very small cracks in or near the surface of the material, the surfaces need minimal preparation, and physically complex geometries can be investigated. The testing devices are portable, provide immediate feedback, and do not need to contact the item. 17
18 Limitations Only conductive materials can be tested, the surface of the material must be accessible, the nish of the material may cause bad readings, the depth of penetration into the material is limited, and aws that lie parallel to the probe may be undetectable.
7.0.6
It is an electromagnetic method of nondestructive testing whose main application is nding defects in steel pipes and tubes. RFT may also referred to as RFEC (remote eld eddy current) or RFET (remote eld electromagnetic technique). An RFT probe is moved down the inside of a pipe and is able to detect inside and outside defects with approximately equal sensitivity (although it can not discriminate between the two). Although RFT works in nonferromagnetic materials such as copper and brass, its sister technology eddy-current testing is more eective in these materials. Procedure The basic RFT probe consists of an exciter coil (also known as a transmit or send coil) which sends a signal to the detector (or receive coil). The exciter coil is pumped with an AC current and emits a magnetic eld. The eld travels outwards from the exciter coil, through the pipe wall, and along the pipe. The detector is placed inside the pipe two to three pipe diameters away from the exciter and detects the magnetic eld that has traveled back in from the outside of the pipe wall (for a total of two through-wall transits). In areas of metal loss, the eld arrives at the detector with a faster travel time (greater phase) and greater signal strength (amplitude) due to the reduced path through the steel. Hence the dominant mechanism of RFT is through-transmission. Benets commonly applied to examination of boilers, heat exchangers, cast iron pipes, and pipelines. No need for direct contact with the pipe wall. Probe travel speed around 30 cm/s (1 foot per second), usually slower in pipes greater than 3 inch diameter. Limitations Less sensitive to probe wobble than conventional eddy current testing (its sister technology for nonferromagnetic materials). Because the eld travels on the outside of the pipe, RFT shows reduced accuracy and sensitivity at conductive and magnetic objects on or near the outside of the pipe, such as attachments or tube support plates. Two coils generally create two signals from one small defect - a headache for the analyst.
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7.0.7
The main dierences between RFT and conventional eddy-current testing (ECT) is in the coil-to-coil spacing. The RFT probe has widely spaced coils to pick up the throughtransmission eld. The typical ECT probe has coils or coil sets that create a eld and measure the response within a small area, close to the object being tested.
7.0.8
It is similar to eddy current applied to steel. Its most common application is to detect and size cracks in welds. The ACFM probe induces a uniform alternating current in the area under test and detects the resulting current ow near to the surface. This current is undisturbed if the area is defect free. A crack redirects the current around the ends and faces of the crack. The ACFM instrument measures these disturbances in the eld and uses mathematical modeling to estimate crack size[4]. Benets Detects and sizes cracks both length and depth. Can inspect any electrically conductive material. Data recorded electronically for o-line evaluation if necessary. Permanent record of indications. Non-Invasive, inspection without removing any protective coating. Works with surface temperatures up to 500 degrees Celsius. Limitations Not recommended for short sections or small items. Locations of weld repairs and localized grinding can cause spurious indications. Crack length needs to be longer than 5 mm. Multiple defects reduce the ability to estimate defect depth. Equipment more bulky than for MT and indications may be more dicult to interpret.
7.0.9
A method for the detection and the characterization of corrosion in multi-layer metallic structures. For this technique, a coil (or coils) is used both as eld source (driven by a square wave voltage-controlled excitation), and/or as eld sensor (measuring a transient response). The eld sensor allows the capture of information about the condition of the area of the structure under inspection. The ability of this technique to detect corrosion hinges on the use of a transient response feature (i.e., Lift-o Point of Intersection) to infer the presence of material loss.
8.1
X-ray Method
In this method x rays of high frequency are used for inspection.The instrument is as shown in the Fig. 8.1.
8.1.1
Benets
Metals, nonmetals, composites and mixed materials can be tested. Used on all shapes and forms; castings, welds, electronic assemblies, aerospace, marine and automotive components.
8.1.2
Limitations
Access to both sides of test piece needed. Voltage, focal spot size and exposure time critical radiation hazards. cracks must be oriented parallel to beam for detection. sensitivity decreases with increasing thickness[8].
8.2
In this method Gamma rays emitted from radio active source are used for inspection.
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8.2.1
Benets
Usually used on dense or thick material. Used on all shapes and forms; castings, welds, electronic assemblies, aerospace, marine and automotive components. Used where thickness or access limits X-ray generators.
8.2.2
Limitations
There some radiation chances of hazards. Cracks must be oriented parallel to beam for detection. Sensitivity decreases with increasing thickness. Access to both sides of test piece needed. Not as sensitive as X-rays[8].
This system consists of stretch pole, which can turn and horizontal arm that can stretch from 1.5m to 3m, and this horizontal arm has high sensitive camera equipment for the inspection on the arm tip.The cameras record the data while traveling.Blind spots(supports) can be easily checked by this method.Best suitable for pipelines and railway tracks[8].
9.2
LASER Testing
Laser, stands for Light Amplication by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process called stimulated emission. Lasers have applications like The application of laser are (laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS)) to determine the composition of building materials. we can use lasers for cutting metals and measuring distances.
9.3
Infrared Thermography is the science of measuring and mapping surface temperatures. An infrared thermographic scanning system can measure and view temperature patterns based upon temperature dierences as small as a few hundredths of a degree Celsius. Infrared thermographic testing may be performed during day or night, depending on environmental conditions and the desired results.Infrared thermography, a nondestructive, remote sensing technique, has proved to be an eective, convenient, and economical method of testing concrete. It can detect internal voids, delaminations, and cracks in concrete structures such as bridge decks, highway pavements, garage oors, parking lot pavements, and building walls. As a testing technique, some of its most important qualities are that (1) it is accurate; (2) it is repeatable; (3) it doesnt cause any inconvenience to the public; and (4) it is economical. 23
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9.4
Schmidt hammer
In this the test hammer hits the concrete with a spring-driven pin at a dened energy, and then measures the rebound (in rebound units). Its rebound is dependent on the hardness of the concrete and is measured by test equipment. When conducting the test the hammer should be held perpendicular to the surface which in turn should be at and smooth. Note that the Schmidt hammer does not work well for small samples and will make marks. By reference to the conversion tables, the rebound value can be used to determine the compressive strength. Schmidt hammers are available from their original manfacturers in several dierent energy ranges[9].
9.5
RADAR Technology
The RADAR technology based on Electromagnetic waves has been used not only in archaeology but also in civil engineering. Suitable frequency for carrying experiment must be chosen based on the site conditions, materials involved e.t.c. Example: EM wave tomography of underground, locating the life lines buried at underground as gas or water pipes, nding air pockets under roads, etc. Moreover, radar system installed on the shield machine which excavates a tunnel at urban area and the system is utilized to nd the life lines as gas or water pipes and the metal or woody old piles existing ahead of the machine.Radar is not much inuenced by weather, and it is used for void inspection for tunnels and road pavement. Therefore, radar is considered as the most suitable method for inspecting voids under pavement at airports. The Fig.9.1 shows the application of RADAR technology to pavments.
26 They include: Impact-Echo (IE) for checking integrity of concrete[9]. Impact-Echo (IE) is suitable to determine the thickness of the concrete[9]. Magnetic ux leakage (MFL) to detect corrosion in strands and bars in post-tensioned concrete structures[]. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method can determine the presence and location of water. This enables the determination of pore size and pore distribution as the concrete cures. Infrared imaging technologies to nd defects in the concrete parts of bridges.. Strain Transducers to record the induced strains. Potential mapping is the most simple electrochemical technique used for obtaining corrosion information on site. The technique informs qualitatively on the corrosion risk of the reinforcement in the reinforced concrete structures. Acoustic emission monitoring can play a very eective role in enhancing safety, ensuring availability and reducing the repair/refurbishment costs of bridges. A well-established and accepted application of GPR is the accurate condition assessment of bridge decks as well as other reinforced concrete structures. The ability of GPR to be used without requiring the removal of an existing asphalt. Ultrasonic testing allows also the visualization of perpendicularly arranged reinforcement bars, tendon ducts. UT can compensate decits of the radar method[4]. The combined application of radar, impact-echo and ultrasonic echo for the assessment of post-tensioned concrete structures[5]. Liquid-penetration testing - Visual check of dye that penetrates hairline fractures in pavement. Ultrasonic testing of welds, bolts and rivets steel members. Divers inspect underwater concrete piers, which may have been damaged by erosion. Magneto-inductive is used for evaluation of cables and wires. Laser Measurement Technologies for numerous applications using laser-based distance measurements for highway infrastructure. Applications for this technology include measuring bridge deections under calibrated load to evaluate structural behavior, calculating out-of-plane distortions in girder webs and anges, and evaluating the asbuilt construction of large structures such as abutments.
27 Bridge Monitoring Systems using acoustic emission sensors or eddy-current sensor. Generally, these instruments are dedicated, remote data-acquisition systems that collect information on the behavior of a structure over time. The acoustic emissions detection system can evaluate sounds emanating from any materials, including steel cables, trusses and concrete in a bridge. Cracks can be recognized many months before they are visible on the surface. Thermographic methods for evaluating composite bridges and composite bridge repairs. Both ultrasonic and radiographic testing are used to inspect steel bridges during fabrication to ensure weld quality. Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT) can be an eective inspection tool that could be used in place of radiography under certain conditions. Ultrasonic velocity measurements can be used as a quality-control tool during construction and how ultrasonic testing may be used for in-service inspection of bridges constructed of reactive powder concrete (RPC). Electromagnetic acoustic transducers could detect broken wires within a strand. Electrochemical Fatigue Sensor (EFS) can be used to determine if actively growing fatigue cracks are present. An EFS sensor is rst applied to the fatigue sensitive location on the bridge or metal structure, and then is injected with an electrolyte at which point a small voltage is applied. An algorithm automatically indicates the level of fatigue crack activity at the inspection location. Brillouin ber optic sensor technology is a promising technology for structural health monitoring (SHM) thanks to its unique feature of distributed strain and temperature measurement by means of low-cost optical bers. X-ray computed tomography for determination of crack propagation in concrete using[8]. X-ray computed tomography for determination of void percentage and distribution in concrete. Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis for determination of chloride concentration and depth proles in concrete. Neutron scattering technique measuring cement hydration using. Ultrasonic method for direct measurement of preload force of bolted connections. This is an innovative technique for direct measurement of actual bolt stresses
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Figure 10.2: Figure showing the RADAR data[5] Robotic Tacheometry System (RTS) (Total Station) oers the capability to measure the spatial coordinates of discrete points on a bridge without having to touch the structure. There is incredible technology out there to help monitor and diagnose problems, and research continues to develop new technologies to keep up with the infrastructure of bridges. Older bridges need more than just a regular inspection. As bridge get older, it needs more tests[7].
Chapter 11 Conclusions
The present report aimed at explaining the methods of NDT and their techniques. A case study of bridges also studied. Engineering is not always complete, and further research works are needed. To set up a good system for maintenance of existing concrete structures, there are still many things to be done. Dierent methods can be applied to the same problem, but the best method is choosen based on the features of the problem.
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Bibliography
[1] J H BUNGEY, Non destructive testing in U K.,Seiken Symposium,2000. [2] www.wikipedia.com, Non destructive testing., 14 November 2009. [3] www.ndt.org, Non destructive testing 14 November 2009. [4] Y.H.Cha anb J H shu. Dierential approach to Ultrasonic Testing of Strength and Homogenety of concrete Seiken symposium.,2000. [5] K R Maser and I sande , Application of Ground Penetration RADAR technique for evaluation of Air eld pavment, Seiken Symposium 2000 . [6] N.Tamura and K.Takada, High Evaluation Inspection vehicle, Seiken Symposium, 2000. [7] K Brandes,J Herther and R.Helmerich. Non - destructive testing being essential part of the safety assesment of steel bridges Seiken Symposium 2000. [8] J F Hinslay, text book of Non destructive Testing. [9] A P Ferrerira and P F Castro. NDT for assessing concrete strength Seiken symposium.,2000.
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