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NPRA Maintenance Conference May 25-28th, 2004.

San Antonio

On-line Monitoring of Reciprocating Compressors


By

Alberto Guilherme Fagundes Schirmer, Dresser-Rand Nelmo Furtado Fernandes, Petrobras Jos Eduardo De Caux, Petrobras

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"ONLINE" MONITORING OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS NPRA Maintenance Conference May 25-28th, 2004

Alberto Guilherme Fagundes Schirmer (1) Nelmo Furtado Fernandes (2) Jos Eduardo De Caux (3)

Abstract Continuous monitoring of critical rotating machinery is widely accepted by users of strictly rotating machinery such as centrifugal and screw compressors. However, continuous monitoring of reciprocating machinery such as compressors and internal combustion engines has not achieved the same level of acceptance. Significant progress has been achieved recently in narrowing this acceptance gap. This paper describes the pilot installation of a RECON C-GUARD monitoring system on a Worthington BDC-2 reciprocating compressor at PETROBRAS Gabriel Passos Refinery in Betim, MG, Brazil. This system, developed by Windrock Inc. Technology and marketed exclusively by Dresser-Rand, is the first system of its kind ever installed in Brazil. This paper also includes the theory of Reciprocating Compressor Dynamic Analysis using practical examples of common compressor defects diagnosis. The results of the pilot project at Gabriel Passos Refinery are assessed regarding both process and refinery profitability improvements.

(1) Mechanical Engineer. Senior Maintenance & Reliability Engineer at DresserRand Company, Houston, TX. (2) Chemical Engineer. Senior Process Engineer at PETROBRAS Gabriel Passos Refinery, Betim. MG, Brazil. (3) Maintenance Technician. Technical Consultant at PETROBRAS Gabriel Passos Refinery, Betim, MG, Brazil.

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1. Introduction Reciprocating compressors are the most common type of compressors found in industrial applications. Worldwide installed reciprocating compressor horsepower is approximately three times that of centrifugal compressors and maintenance costs of reciprocating compressors are approximately three- and- a- half times greater than those for centrifugal compressors [1]. Continuous monitoring of critical rotating machinery is widely accepted by strictly rotating machinery users such as centrifugal and screw compressors. However, continuous monitoring of reciprocating machinery such as compressors and internal combustion engines has not yet achieved the same acceptance level. Recently, there has been good progress in this field. This paper presents the pilot installation of a RECON C-Guard monitoring system, developed by Windrock Inc. Technology and marketed exclusively by Dresser-Rand, on a Worthington BDC-2 compressor at PETROBRAS Rafael Passos Refinery in Betim, MG, Brazil. Large reciprocating machinery users such as gas transmission and storage companies in the United States and Europe use condition-based maintenance. This maintenance strategy allows not only cost reduction by reducing the number of maintenance interventions to only those actually needed, but also provides efficiency improvements by dynamic analysis of the equipment as well. Condition-based maintenance has become more prevalent in refineries and petrochemical plants because of the increased criticality of these machines as plant capacity increases to the point that compressors previously spared are now pressed into full-time service. Achieving higher reliability requires continuous monitoring of the reciprocating compressors. Reciprocating compressor dynamic analysis is based on the interpretation of deviation of its operation parameters from ideal conditions. Parameters to be analyzed include cylinder internal pressures, volumes, temperatures, phase, vibrations and rod drop. The analysis also includes calculated parameters such as power, efficiency, rod loads and losses. Continuous online monitoring of reciprocating compressors through dynamic analysis allows malfunction diagnosis improving the time and cost to repair and provides continuous protection from catastrophic events such as rod or cylinder rupture.

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2. Reciprocating Compressor Dynamic Analysis Basic Concepts The Pressure x Volume diagram is the best way to represent the energy cycle in a reciprocating machine. Although the theory is relatively simple, getting actual diagrams online presents technological challenges that only recently were overcome. Solutions to these challenges are addressed in Section 4. For simplification, only one side of the compressor cylinder is shown in Picture 2.1. which is used as reference for the reciprocating compressor energy cycle description that follows. At A, also known as top dead center (TDC), both suction and discharge valves are closed. During expansion, the piston movement increases the volume occupied by the gas that originally occupied the clearance volume. This volume increase for the same gas mass causes reduction of the cylinder internal pressure. As the piston reaches B, cylinder internal pressure is equal to suction line pressure. A small additional piston movement is enough to reduce the cylinder internal pressure below suction line pressure causing the suction valve(s) to open. As the piston moves from B to C, suction line gas at a pressure higher than the cylinder internal pressure is admitted into the cylinder. The portion of the total cylinder volume occupied by the admitted gas is called suction volume [2]. At C, the piston begins to move in the opposite direction. As it begins this movement, the piston reduces the volume of gas contained in the cylinder, increasing its pressure and forcing the suction valves to close. After the suction valves close, the original clearance volume gas and the gas admitted during the suction cycle are reduced in volume by the piston movement. Consequently, the cylinder internal pressure increases until reaching the discharge line pressure in D. A small additional piston movement is enough to raise the cylinder internal pressure above the discharge line pressure causing the discharge valve(s) to open. From D to A, gas in the cylinder at pressures exceeding the discharge line is discharged. The volume of gas discharged is called discharge volume [2]. The shaded zones on Picture 2.1 represent the additional work done to force the gas through the suction and discharge valves. The area of the shaded zones represents (approximately) the valve losses. Theoretical P x V diagrams superimposed on the actual diagrams supply important compressor diagnostic information. Section 3 presents examples of this use of P x V diagram feature.

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Picture 2.1 Typical Pressure x Volume (P x V) diagram


Discharge Volume

Discharge Pressure

Pd

A
sion Expan

D
es pr m Co n si o

Suction Pressure

Ps

B
Suction Volume

Clearance Volume

Swept Volume Total Cylinder Volume

Volume

Because of manufacturing and assembly tolerances, reciprocating compressors must have some clearance volume. Because there is some gas remaining in the clearance volume at the end of the entire discharge stroke (swept volume), this remaining gas must expand during the suction stroke. The ratio between suction volume and the swept volume is called suction volumetric efficiency and is expressed by the equation [3]: VE S = SuctionVolume SweptVolume

In a similar manner, only part of the piston stroke is used to discharge gas. The ratio between the discharge volume and the swept volume is called discharge volumetric efficiency and is expressed by the equation [3]:

VE D =

Disch arg e Vulome Swept Volume

All the mass of gas admitted into the cylinder, except that remaining as described above, is discharged. The ratio between the gas mass admitted and gas mass discharged (flow balance) is a function of the ratio of volumetric efficiencies which is equal to 1. This ratio is one of the most representative parameters of the compressors condition. As an example, leaking discharge valve(s) will cause a flow balance lower than 1. Leaking suction valves will cause a flow balance higher than 1. The flow balance concept will be discussed in detail later this paper.

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3. Reciprocating Compressor Dynamic Analysis Diognostic Examples The components that most frequently cause reciprocating compressor shutdowns are listed in Table 3.1 below [4]. Table 3.1 Components that causes reciprocating compressor shutdown
Component Compressor Valves Packing Process Piston Rings Rider rings Unloads Cylinder Lubrication Instrumentation Other Percent (%) 36 17.8 8.8 7.1 6.8 6.8 5.1 5.1 6.5

Table 3.2 shows the distribution of reciprocating compressor failures [4]. Table 3.2 Reciprocating compressor failure causes
Cause Overload Liquid or foreign object ingestion Lubrication Fatigue Freezing Other or undetermined causes Percent (%) 28 18 12 9 6 27

Maintenance costs of repairable items are distributed as per Table 3.3 [1]. Table 3.3 Maintenance costs per repairable item
Component Valves Packing Piston Rings Rider Bands Piston Rods Cylinder Liners Bearings Cost Percent (%) 50 20 20 7 2 0.5 0.5

Systems that monitor only parameters such as rod drop or valve cover temperature are able to diagnose only a small portion of the failures listed in the above tables. The dynamic analysis concepts, previously presented in this paper, enable diagnosing most common defects in reciprocating compressors. In this paper, these capabilities will be exemplified by identification of suction and discharge valve leaks as well as piston rings.
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3.1.

Suction and Discharge Valve Leak Diagnosis

In the case of leaking suction valves(s), faster than ideal pressure reduction occurs during the suction stroke. This happens because the gas in the cylinder is at a pressure higher than the pressure of the suction line. Because the suction valve(s) is leaking, the gas flows toward the suction line, causing the cylinder internal pressure to equalize with the suction line pressure sooner than would occur in the ideal cycle. This faster expansion can be easily noticed when the actual P-V diagram is superimposed to the ideal diagram as seen in Picture 3.1. Picture 3.1 Leaking Suction Valve P-V Diagram
Pressure

Dis charge Volum e s m aller than Ideal Volum e

Pd

Ideal PV Diagram

n l sio ea es Id pr n m tha Co e r w slo

fas sion Expan ideal than ter

Actual PV Diagram

Ps
Suction Volum e bigger than ideal

Clearance Volum e

Swept Volum e

Volume
Total Cylinder Volum e

In a similar manner, the cylinder internal pressure would rise slower in case of leaking suction valve(s). Superimposing the ideal P-V diagram to the actual P-V diagram as in Picture 3.1 can easily show this. Picture 3.1 also shows that leaking suction valve(s) increase the suction volumetric efficiency and reduce discharge volumetric efficiency. As a result, the flow balance is higher than 1. In case of leaking discharge valves, the gas expansion is slower than ideal because the higher pressure gas from the discharge line is admitted into the cylinder through the leaking discharge valves. As shown in Picture 3.2, the slower expansion causes the reduction of the suction volumetric efficiency. Similarly, for leaking discharge valve(s), the cylinder internal pressure will increase faster during the compression. Superimposing the actual P-V diagram to the ideal PV diagram easily shows this. Picture 3.2 shows the superimposed diagrams and also
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how the discharge volumetric efficiency increases. The flow balance is consequently higher than 1. Realistically, 100 percent leak-proof valves do not exist and the flow balance is almost never exactly 1. Typically flow balances between 0.95 and 1.10 are considered acceptable. A more precise assessment can be done calculating the cost of the valve losses. A better discussion on this is available in Section 5 of this paper. Picture 3.2 Leaking discharge valve P-V Diagram
Pressure

Dis charge Volum e bigger than Ideal Volum e

Pd

Ideal PV Diagram

n sio al res Ide mp a n Co r t h te fas

Actual PV Diagram

Slo sion Expan id eal tha n wer

Ps
Suction Volum e s m aller than Ideal

Clearance Volum e

Swept Volum e

Volume
Total Cylinder Volum e

Picture 3.3 Discharge Valve with extreme leak

In extreme cases, discharge valve leaks can be so large that the volume increase during the expansion is not enough to reduce the cylinder internal pressure below the suction line pressure. In this case the suction valves do not open, thus no gas is admitted into the cylinder. Picture 3.3 shows a typical example of this condition.
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3.2.

Piston Ring leak diagnosis

Most industrial compressors are double effect, meaning that the compression happens in both sides of the piston. Small clearance piston rings are installed to impede the flow from one side of the piston to the other. Well-designed piston rings should stop this leakage and move with minimum friction. Even the best-designed rings, including lubricated designs, will show some type of wear over time. Piston ring leaks can be diagnosed and quantitatively assessed through dynamic analysis. An increase and reduction of pressure during expansion and compression typify these leaks when compared to the ideal cycle. Head end (HE) and crank end (CE) sides are separated by half a cycle (180 o). This means that when HE is compressing, HE is expanding and vice-versa. When one side reaches the discharge pressure the other side is at suction pressure, thus these are the maximum leak points. However, there is a moment in which both sides are at the same pressure and no leak occurs. Leak direction changes at this point. In a single side P-V diagram (Picture 3.4) a piston ring leak shows the actual compression or expansion crossing the ideal line. Picture 3.4 Leaking ring P-V diagram
Pressure

Ideal PV Diagram

Pd

Actual and Ideal PV Diagrams crossing

Actual PV Diagram

Ps

Volume

4. Reciprocating Compressor Online Monitoring Although the concepts presented in the previous section are relatively simple, the actual pressure and volume measurements are challenging because a large number of pressure x volume correlated points must be collected during each compression cycle to allow effective compressor diagnosis. The system installed at PETROBRAS-REGAP collects pressure measurements at every degree of revolution for each side of the cylinder, resulting in 360 measurements per revolution or 3570 measurements per second for the 595-RPM
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compressor speed. Specialty pressure transducers are designed for this application. Pressure transducers used in regular process controls are not suited for this service. The volume associated with the pressure is calculated using the crankshaft angular position in relation to TDC and is a direct function of this angle for a given compressor geometry. Temperature transmitters collect suction and discharge temperatures for each cylinder. Temperatures are needed for the compressor thermodynamic performance assessment. Vibration impulse signals with crankshaft phase reference are also collected for each cylinder. Vibration information can confirm P-V diagram diagnoses as well as monitor mechanical looseness. Although not absolutely necessary for compressor dynamic analysis, rod drop can also be collected. Rod drop can supply additional piston ring, rider ring and crosshead shoe wear information [5]. The following parameters can be calculated and monitored: Power Power required to complete the gas compression cycle and is used to determine if the compressor is overloaded. It is also used in conjunction with ideal isentropic power to calculate isentropic efficiency. Unless the compressor load or gas composition is changed, the isentropic efficiency should not vary significantly over time and any significant deviation should be investigated. Capacity Capacity is calculated as the average of suction and discharge conditions and also can be calculated at standard conditions. Flow Balance As previously discussed, flow balance is the ratio between the admitted and discharged masses. Flow balance is used as the first indication of compressor anomalies. A detailed analysis of other parameters will diagnose the problem effectively. Rod Load The reciprocating compressor rod is subjected to a combination of loads because of cylinder internal pressures and inertia of the moving parts. Rod load can be influenced by changes in suction and discharge pressure, compressor unloading, valve(s) leaks, and other causes. Overloading a compressor rod is very dangerous and must be avoided because of potential catastrophic failure, including risk of personal injury. Rod Reversal The rod load varies from compression to tension and vice-versa along the piston stroke. To assure adequate lubrication of the crosshead pin, the load vector should change direction during the piston stroke. API Std 618 [6] recommends that the duration of this reversal shall not be less than 15 degrees of crank angle, and the magnitude of the peak combined reversed load shall be at least 3 percent of the actual combined load in the opposite direction. Some manufacturers have even more rigorous design criteria.

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Picture 4.1 shows a typical diagram of rod load and rod reversal for a reciprocating compressor. Cylinder Maximum Pressure Cylinder overpressure indicates presence of liquids or restrictions to the gas flow. Percent Clearance Most users do not have this information. Percent clearance requires an iterative calculation technique using a variety of methods. Significant differences in results may be indicative of inadequate program setup or presence of liquids in the cylinder. Picture 4.1 Rod Load and Rod Reversal

Theoretical discharge Temperature It is calculated assuming isentropic compression of the gas and is a good reference for comparison with the actual discharge temperature. Generally a difference between theoretical and actual temperatures above 20oF is indicative of excessive recirculation caused by valve(s), piston rings, or unloader anomalies (among others). Volumetric Efficiencies As discussed in section 3, the volumetric efficiencies are calculated from the P-V Diagrams. Valve Losses The additional energy required to force the gas through the valves is calculated and can be expressed as total energy percent or cost, provided the unitary energy cost is known. All the above parameters can be monitored continuously or periodically. Computer networks greatly enhance the possibility of online monitoring. Periodic monitoring is done using portable analyzers and instrumentation. Periodically, qualified analysts install temporary pressure, temperature vibration, and phase sensors, connect the analyzer, and collect the necessary data. The analyzer

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is programmed to calculate the parameters mentioned above. Modern analyzers can display graphical results that are easier to interpret and diagnose. The main advantage of periodic monitoring is its flexibility to collect additional data if needed. This flexibility is very important for experimental analysis greatly improving diagnosis accuracy. Periodic monitoring requires highly qualified analysts with more than 10 years experience analyzing reciprocating equipment. The main disadvantage of periodic monitoring is that it cannot provide continuous machinery protection. As discussed previously, the calculated parameters must operate within limits, otherwise there is a risk of catastrophic failure including risk to the personnel involved in maintenance and operation of the machine(s). Continuous online monitoring is done using permanently installed intelligent transmitters for pressure, temperature, vibration and phase signals. These transmitters calculate the parameters mentioned above and, because they are connected to computer networks, allow remote analysis of the data. The same intelligent transmitters also can be connected to PLC- based controllers or DCS systems, enabling the machinery protection to be integrated with process controls and protection. The intelligent transmitters have also optional relay outputs in case they are used in the plant protection systems. The main advantage of continuous monitoring is continuous protection of the machine(s). Additionally continuous monitoring allows cross-examination of process information and machinery dynamic information increasing diagnostic capabilities. The main disadvantage of continuous monitoring is the lack of flexibility for additional data collection because the sensors cannot be easily relocated. The location and quantity of sensors must be carefully studied to maximize diagnostic capabilities. 5. Reciprocating Compressor Monitoring System Installation at PETROBRASREGAP Initial discussions between Dresser-Rand and PETROBRAS headquarters indicated that although the company was very well positioned regarding centrifugal compressor monitoring, there was no reciprocating compressor monitored at any PETROBRAS refinery. PETROBRAS strategy for critical machinery is continuous monitoring and large investments made in centrifugal compressors, turbines and pumps. PETROBRAS reviewed its compressor fleet from all 11 refineries and selected the best for a pilot project -- Gabriel Passos Refinery (REGAP) in Betim, MG. Compressor Tag number 106-K-2A was chosen because of the critical nature of the hydrogen make-up process. The 106-K-2A compressor is a two-stage compressor with the operational data listed in Table 5.1:

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Table 5.1 - 106-K-2A Compressor Operational Data


Manufacturer Power (HP) Speed (RPM) Service Suction Pressure (psig) Discharge Pressure (psig) Suction Temperature (oF) Discharge Temperature Cylinder Diameter (in) Suction Valves per side Discharge Valves per side Unloaders Compressor Worthington (D-R) 805 595 Hydrogen 1st Stage 198 482 95.4 247 11 1/2 2 1 2 2nd Stage 465 796 110 202 7 1/2 1 1 1

Picture 5.1 shows a schematic diagram of the installation. All field components are approved for Class 1 Div. 1 Group B (NEC). The most difficult issue for this installation was the absence of cylinder pressure ports. Drilling ports would not be feasible because the time needed for the mandatory hydrotest of the cylinders. To avoid drilling the cylinder, there were different solutions for the first and second stages. Picture 5.1 Online Monitoring Schematic Diagram

The first stage cylinder is fitted with plugged recirculation ports. The compressor OEM designed modified plugs in order to pipe the internal pressure to the external pressure transducer. Picture 5.2 shows detail of this modification. Isolating valves were installed to allow easy maintenance and calibration of the pressure transducers.
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The second stage cylinder in not fitted with recirculation ports. The adopted solution was to pipe the pressure through the discharge valves. The discharge valves were chosen to avoid the additional difficulty caused by suction valve unloaders. The OEM markets the modification design. Picture 5.3 shows a schematic diagram of the modification. The OEM supplied modified MAGNUM valves as well as the design of the modification, which were executed and installed by PETROBRAS - REGAP. Picture 5.2 First Stage Pressure Port
Assembly details

Adapter tube

1st stage before modification 1st Stage after modification (isolating valve and pressure transducer installed)
Picture 5.3 2nd Stage Pressure Port Schematic Diagram

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Picture 5.4 shows details of the 2nd Stage assembly. Isolating valves were installed for pressure transducer maintenance and calibration. Picture 5.4 Second Stage Pressure Port Assembly
Adapter tube Assembly details

2nd Stage isolating valves and transducer installation detail

2nd stage before modification

2nd stage after modification

Temperature transmitters were installed at suction and discharge pulsation bottles. Picture 5.4 shows details of the installation. Picture 5.4 Temperature transmitters installation
Discharge

Suction

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The phase sensor (pickup) was installed on the electric motor fan because of better access. The phase reference is precisely correspondent to TDC. Picture 5.5 shows details of the installation. Picture 5.5 Phase sensor installation details

Phase sensor assembly detail Phase sensor installed on the electric motor fan OD

The field instrumentation was connected to intelligent transmitters by shielded cables. The transmitters were connected to a dedicated microcomputer in the control room. Because this microcomputer is connected to the PETROBRAS computer network, dynamic data from the compressor are available throughout most of the PETROBRAS organization. Intelligent transmitters controlling the software can be programmed to send data periodically either by email or FTP(?) if additional security is necessary. 6. Achieved Results 6.1. Diesel Hydrotreating Units at REGAP Brazil currently has two main specs for diesel fuel. Diesel B, or "inland" diesel with .35 percent sulfur and diesel D or "metropolitan" with 0.20 percent sulfur for major urban centers. REGAP (Refinaria Gabriel Passos) produces diesel for the Minas Gerais State in order to comply with both specs. In order to comply with market specs, REGAP has two hydrotreating units: Unit-108 and U-110. U-110 operates at pressures around 50 kgf/cm, and up to 57kgf/cm. U108 operates at lower pressures around 45 kgf/cm. One of the main quality items required by diesel specs (besides sulfur content) is the ASTM color specification which is directly related to product stability. The main chemical characteristic linked to color is the diesel nitrogen and aromatics content.

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Hydrotreating units (HDT) are used in order to reduce nitrogen and sulfur in the diesel. Hydrogen reacts in catalytic beds with sulfur and nitrogen compounds. The hydrogen produced within REGAP is pumped to the HDT's by reciprocating compressors which maintain adequate pressure for the reactions. A typical HDT diagram is shown in Picture 6.1. Picture 6.1 - Typical Hydrotreating Unit

6.2. Monitoring and Diagnostics Final product quality is directly related to plant operating pressure maximization. Hydrotreaters achieve higher sulfur and nitrogen conversions at higher pressures. The higher-pressure conversions result in lower sulfur and nitrogen content to improve diesel oil quality. Initial analysis of the hydrogen compressor showed that the first stage was operating very close to the theoretical cycle, but the second stage had a severe head end (HE) suction Valve leak, as well as a large crank end (CE) suction valve leak. These leaks caused excessive gas recycle in this stage, external recycling of gas compressed by the first stage, and low second stage discharge pressure. Fig 6.2 shows the P-V diagram for the second stage. The recycling severity could influence the flow calculations; thus flow calculations were made using the discharge volumetric efficiency. The recycling flow was calculated as 2.57 mmscfd for open clearance pocket and 3.4 mmscfd for closed clearance pocket. Dresser-Rands analysts determined that these leaks were not caused by valve imperfections. The most probable cause was determined to be improper adjustment of the unloader fingers holding the valve rings partially open.

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Picture 6.2 - P-V Diagram, second stage

After compressor shutdown and valve inspection, it was evident that the diagnosis was correct. Figure 6.3 shows details of the second stage suction valves. The marking of the unloader fingers is very clear as well as the shadowed area due to gas passage.

Figure 6.3 - Second Stage Suction Valve Details

The maintenance intervention was restricted to suction valve replacement and correcting the unloader finger setting. The compressor was tested after the intervention and operated at discharge pressure above 60Kg/cm2 Figure 6.4 shows the P-V diagram during the test.

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Figure 6.4 - P-V Diagram after correction

The actual curves are very close to the ideal cycle. Since this intervention, DresserRand has analyzed the compressor weekly to alert PETROBRAS of any performance degradation.

6.3. Achieved Results As previously discussed, process improvements come from discharge pressure maximization. Higher discharge pressures allow treating low value streams, which can be incorporated, to the diesel stream after treatment. Operating U-110 at higher pressures increases nitrogen removal and allows the incorporation of hard-to-treat streams into the diesel stream increasing diesel production and reducing production of low- added -value products. U-110 was typically operated at 49 kgf/cm2 at reactor inlet and the high-pressure separator was controlled at 42kg/cm2. Plant design allows reactor inlet pressures up to 57 kgf/cm, thus the pressure can be raised to 57 kgf/cm at reactor inlet and up to 52 kgf/cm at the high-pressure separator. The pressure can be raised 7 to 8 kgf/cm. Raising the pressure improves catalyst activity, sulfur and nitrogen removal, and saturation of aromatic rings improves at high hydrogen partial pressures. Because the product color is related to the reduction of nitrogen and aromatics, operating at higher pressures improves diesel quality. [7]. The refinery expects to process an additional 100 m/d of coker gas oil, which is hard to incorporate to the diesel stream due to the high sulfur, nitrogen and aromatics content. With this additional processing, the sale of low value gas oil will decrease and the sale of high- value diesel will increase.
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For each m/d of coker gas oil incorporated into the diesel stream, there will be an estimated additional margin of US$20.00 when producing diesel B. This represents an estimated addition of US$720,000.00/year from diesel B production.

7. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful for the support received from PETROBRAS, Dresser-Rand and Windrock Inc. Within these organizations the following people deserve to be mentioned: Fbio Dutra (PETROBRAS-REGAP); Manoel Simes (PETROBRASTecnologia de Equipamentos Dinmicos); Rogrio Campos (PETROBRAS Tecnologia de Equipamentos Dinmicos); David Scheef (Dresser-Rand); Rod Gunn (Dresser-Rand); Dalmo Barros (Dresser-Rand); Ed Flanagan (Windrock Inc.) e Warren Liable (Windrock Inc.) BIBLIOGRAFY [1] Griffith, W. A., Flanagan, E. B., ONLINE, CONTINOUS MONITORING OF MECHANICAL CONDITION AND PEORFORMANCE FOR CRITICAL RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS, Proceedings of the 30th Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, 2001 Rodrigues, P. S. B., COMPRESSORES INDUSTRIAIS, Editora Didtica e Cientfica : PETROBRAS, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 1991 GPSA, ENGINEERING DATA BOOK VOLUME 1, Gas Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa, OK, 1998 Leonard, S. M., INCREASING THE RELIABILITY OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS ON HYDROGEN SERVICES, National Petroleum Refiners Association Maintenance Conference, New Orleans, LA, 1997 Schultheis, S. M., Howard, B. F., ROD DROP MONITORING, DOES IT REALLY WORK?, Proceedings of the 29th Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M University, Houston, TX, 2000 API Standard 618, RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS FOR PETROLEUM, CHEMICAL, AND GAS INDUSTRY SERVICES, 4th Edition, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1995 Topsoe, H., Cluasen, B.S., Massoth, F.E., HIDROTREATING CATALYSYS, Science and Technology, Springer 1996.

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