INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE Intelligence Dictionary definition (1) The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new situations

(2) The ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective criteria (as tests) Types of intelligence (Multiple intelligence theory !o"#r$ G#r$ner% i) eneral intelligence! " #bilities that allow us to be fle$ible and adaptive thinkers% not necessarily tied to ac&uired knowledge' ii) (inguistic"verbal intelligence! " )se words and language in various forms * #bility to manipulate language to e$press oneself poetically iii) (ogical"+athematical intelligence! " #bility to detect patterns * #pproach problems logically * ,eason deductively iv) +usical intelligence! " ,ecogni-e nonverbal sounds! pitch% rhythm% and tonal patterns v) .patial intelligence! " Typically thinks in images and pictures * )sed in both arts and sciences vi) /ntrapersonal intelligence! " #bility to understand oneself% including feelings and motivations * 0an discipline themselves to accomplish a wide variety of tasks vii) /nterpersonal intelligence! " #bility to 1read people12discriminate among other individuals especially their moods% intentions% motivations3 * #dept at group work% typically assume a leadership role' viii) 4aturalist intelligence! " #bility to recogni-e and classify living things like plants% animals i$) 5odily"6inesthetic intelligence! " )se one7s mental abilities to coordinate one7s own bodily movements 4ote! )nderstanding the various types of intelligence provides theoretical foundations for recogni-ing different talents and abilities in people 18hat makes life interesting% however% is that we don7t have the same strength in each intelligence area% and we don7t have the same amalgam of intelligences' 9ust as we look different from one another and have different kinds of personalities% we also have different kinds of minds'1

Defining Artifici#l Intelligence (A I% There is no agreed definition of the term artificial intelligence' :owever% there are various definitions that have been proposed' These are considered below' #/ is a study in which computer systems are made that think like human beings' :augeland% 1;<= > 5ellman% 1;?<' #/ is a study in which computer systems are made that act like people' #/ is the art of creating computers that perform functions that re&uire intelligence when performed by people' 6ur-weil% 1;;@' #/ is the study of how to make computers do things% which at the moment people are better at' ,ich > 6night #/ is the study of computations that make it possible to perceive% reason and act' 8inston% 1;;2 #/ is considered to be a study that seeks to e$plain and emulate intelligent behaviour in terms of computational processes' .chalkeoff% 1;;@' #/ is considered to be a branch of computer science that is concerned with the automation of intelligent behavior' (uger > .tubblefield% 1;;A' Artificial Intelligence is the development of systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate with intelligence in human behavior: perception, natural language processing, reasoning, planning and problem solving, learning and adaptation, etc. !istory 1;BA +c0ulloch > Citts! 5oolean circuit model of brain 1;=@ Turing7s D0omputing +achinery and /ntelligenceE 1;=@s Farly #/ programs% including .amuel7s checkers (draughts) program 4ewell > .imon7s (ogic Theorist% elernter7s eometry Fngine 1;=G Dartmouth meeting! D#rtificial /ntelligenceE adopted 1;GGH?B #/ discovers computational comple$ity% 4eural network research almost disappears 1;G;H?; Farly development of knowledge"based systems 1;<@H<< F$pert systems industry booms 1;<<H;A F$pert systems industry busts! D#/ 8interE 1;<=H;= 4eural networks return to popularity(,eturn of #44) 1;<<H ,esurgence of probabilistic and decision"theoretic methods ,apid increase in technical depth of mainstream #/% D4ouvelle #/E! #(ife% #s% soft computing

TURING TE&T FOR INTELLIGENCE (ACT !UMANL'%

/nterpersonal link (telete$t) :uman /nterrogator :uman 5eing

0omputer

,oom I1 ,oom I2 The human interrogator thinks he*she is communicating with a human' To pass Turing Test the computer must! Crocess natural language3 ,epresent knowledge3 ,eason3 (earn and adapt to the new situations'

,oom IA

Total Turing test included vision > robotics' FEATURE& T!AT C!ARACTERI&TIC& ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE #% &y()olic *rocessing #/ emphasi-es manipulation of symbols rather than numbers' The manner in which symbols are processed is non"algorithmic since most human reasoning process do not necessarily follow a step by step approach (algorithmic approach)' )% !euristics #re similar to rules of thumb where you need not rethink completely what to do every time a similar problem is encountered' c% Inferencing This is a form of reasoning with facts and rules using heuristics or some search strategies' $% *#ttern (#tching # process of describing objects% events or processes in terms of their &ualitative features and logical and computational relationships' e% +no"le$ge *rocessing 6nowledge consists of facts% concepts% theories% heuristics methods% procedures and relationships' f% +no"le$ge )#ses, 0ollection of knowledge related to a problem or an opportunity used in problem' ,easoning occurs based on this knowledge base' The use of a 65 in artificial systems is depicted below' Inputs Co(puter

/nputs (&uestions% problems% etc)

6nowledge 5ase

/nferencing 0apability

Jutputs (answers alternatives% solutions etc')

Contr#sting Artifici#l #n$ N#tur#l Intelligence /mportant commercial advantages of #/ are!" (1) #/ is permanent as long as computer system and prongs remain unchanged (2) #/ offers ease of duplications and dissemination vs' long apprenticeship' (A) #/ can be less e$pensive than natural intelligence' (B) #/ being a computer technician is consistent and thorough nature intelligence may be erratic since people are erratic% they don7t perform consistently' (=) #/ can e$ecute certain tasks much faster than human can' (G) #/ can perform certain tasks better than many or even most people' (?) 4atural /ntelligence has the following advantages (<) 4atural intelligence is creative% #/ is uninspired" human always determine knowledge' (;)4atural intelligence enables people to benefits from use sensory e$perience directive most #/ systems must work with symbolic in and respectively' Mo$elling AI syste(s Cerception .ubsystem ,easoning .ubsystem #ction .ubsystem(made of actuators*effectors) MAIN -RANC!E& OF AI The current Domain of #/ research and application can be cut into field7s along different dimensions' /) 5y the scope of 0ognitive*/ntelligent capacities under research% the fields include 0ore cognitive facilities e'g' searching% reasoning% learning% planning categori-ing and recogni-ing' /nput*output facilities e'g' sensors' 2) 5y the type of major techni&ues% the fields include! ,ule H 5ased system 0ase based system 4eural networks enetic programming (ogical programming (e'g' Crolog) Kunctional programming(e'g' lisp) A) 5y the domains of application% the fields include game playing theorem proving data mining etc /n general the following branches can be identified3 (#) M#chine .ision/AL.INN "Deals with visual recognition of objects through cameras and sensors e'g' recogni-ing people through retina' Jn maturity computers should recogni-e owners% vehicles should find their way around% robots perform household chores etc' The basic objective is to interpret scenario rather than generates pictures' ()) &peech (0oice% Un$erst#n$ing ,ecognition and understanding of spoken language #imed at getting computers to talk% discuss% read articles aloud and takes voice commands' c) N#tur#l L#ngu#ge *rocessing (NL*)"#ltaLista% 0aterpillar truck manuals ives computers ability to communication with user using the latter7s native language' !#0e t"o su)fiel$s1

N#tur#l l#ngu#ge un$erst#n$ing" investigates ways of enabling computers to comprehend instructions given in ordinary Fnglish so that they can understand people more easily' N#tur#l L#ngu#ge Gener#tion" .trives to have computers produces ordinary Fnglish language so that people can understand them more easily' Jn maturity computers should speak in natural language and understand natural language' $) *ro)le( &ol0ing #imed at building speciali-ed problem solvers e'g' F. The challenges faced are! o :ow to formulate problem% o (ooking or searching for solutions and o ,epresenting knowledge' e) Ro)otics, ",obotics combines sensory systems with mechanical motion to produce machines of varying intelligences and ability' ".ensory systems include vision systems% tactile systems% signal processing systems etc' +ain challenges of #/ research include! o #rm positioning and o (ocation positioning' )sed in industries e'g' motor vehicles assembly% welding% etc f% M#chine Le#rning Kocused in making computers ac&uire knowledge% skills and be adaptive' The challenges are! o 6nowledge ac&uisition% o 6nowledge representation% o (earning operators and o :ow to help human learn' Jn maturity computers are e$pected to learn from e$perience% solve problems and be adaptive' g% Intelligent Agents &o(e Applic#tions Are#s of AI/Cl#ss $icussions #pplication domain areas include +ilitary and +edicine /ndustry and entertainment Fducation and 5usiness C,J5(F+ .J(L/4 TF0:4/M)F. /4 #,T/K/0/#( /4TF((/ F40F Croblems are tackled in #/ using two main broad approaches namely! i) .earch techni&ue ii) +odelling natural phenomena (e'g' evolution and neural networks)' SEAR !I"# AS A $R%&'E( S%')I"# *E !"I+,E .ince searching is e$tensively used% we look at searching as a techni&ue of solving problems in more detail' Searching is the process of looking for the solution of a problem through a set of possibilities (state space)' Search conditions include! 0urrent state "where one is3 oal state H the solution reached3 check whether it has been reached3 0ost of obtaining the solution'

*he solution is a path from the current state to the goal state.
*rocess of &e#rching .earching proceeds as follows!

1) 0heck the current state3 2) F$ecute allowable actions to move to the ne$t state3 A) 0heck if the new state is the solution state3 if it is not then the new state becomes the current state and the process is repeated until a solution is found or the state space is e$hausted' &e#rch pro)le( The search problem consists of finding a solution plan% which is a path from the current state to the goal state' Representing search problems # search problem is represented using a directed graph' The states are represented as nodes while the allowed steps or actions are represented as arcs' -efining a search problem # search problem is defined by specifying! .tate space"set of possibilities .tart node3 oal condition% and a test to check whether the goal condition is met3 ,ules giving how to change states' Example of a search case study Three blocks #% 5% 0 on a table are considered' # block can be grasped when there is no other block on top of it' Jnly one block can be moved at a time' $ossible moves Cut a block on table3 Cut a block on top of another block3 ,emove a block from the top of another and place on top of another block' $roblem /nitial state (current state) # 5 Go#l st#te (fin#l st#te% A 5 0 &t#te sp#ce C A # 50 # 50 & # 0

0 5 #

5 #0 5 #0

#50

0 #5 0 #5 # 0

5 0 #

A -

C The state space has 1A elements or nodes'

The solution to our problem is any member of the set of all paths from original to goal state such as the path indicated in bold' #eneral search algorithm Kunction search (Croblem% MueuingKn)! .olutionNKailure3 Lar nodes!structure3 5egin 8hile 5egin 4ode!O removePfrontPnode(nodes)3 /f oalPtest(problem% .T#TF(node)) succeeds then .olution!O4ode Flse 4odes!OMueuingKn(node% JCF,#TJ,(problem))3 Fnd3 Fnd8hile Fnd3 &e#rch &tr#tegies a) 5lind .earch b) :euristic .earch E0#lu#tion of &e#rch &tr#tegies Kour 0riteria! 0ompleteness" /f a solution e$ists it is guaranteed to be found Time 0omple$ity" Time taken to find the solution .pace 0omple$ity"+emory re&uired to perform search' Jptimality"Kinding of the highest"&uality solution when a number e$ist' #% E2h#usti0e 3-lin$ &e#rch &tr#tegies 4o information about the cost or number of steps to reach the goal is used to guide the search' .earching may yield a solution or the state space may be e$hausted without a solution' Two main types of blind search o Depth"first .earch (DK.) o 5readth"first .earch (5K.) o )0. These strategies differ in the order in which nodes are e$panded' 5lind .earch &uickly leads to search spaces that are too large' &readth .irst Search /&.S0 F$pands all nodes at one level before moving to the ne$t i'e' the branch (child) nodes are visited first' This is search strategy in which the nodes of the same level are visited first' Kinds the shallowest goal state' )ses a lot of memory because the entire search tree must be stored' o .pace comple$ity is a problem 0omplete' Jptimal if cost is directly related to depth' ?

+odifications! )niform 0ost .earch a d

g f

The arrows show the breadth first search progression +,E,E1path only containing the root WHILE QUEUE is non-empty AND goal not reached DO emo!e the "irst path "rom the QUEUE Create ne# paths $to all children% e&ect ne# paths #ith loops Add paths to the 'AC( o" the QUEUE I) goal reached *HEN s+ccess ELSE "ail+re Unifor( Cost &e#rch Q F$pands the lowest cost node% rather than the lowest depth node' Q .olution is guaranteed to be the cheapest if the path cost function is non"decreasing' -epth .irst Search /-.S0 Q F$pands nodes at the deepest level of the search tree' Q .tores only one path from root to leaf' Q .pace comple$ity not a problem Q Time could be wasted going down the wrong branch of the tree' Q The above is really bad if there is an infinite% or really big search tree' Q 4either complete nor optimal' Q +odifications! Q Depth (imited .earch Q /terative Deepening .earch a d

g f

The arrows show the depth first search progression'

<

+,E,E1path only containing the root WHILE QUEUE is non-empty AND goal not reached DO emo!e the "irst path "rom the QUEUE Create ne# paths $to all children% e&ect ne# paths #ith loops Add paths to the ) ON* o" the QUEUE I) goal reached *HEN s+ccess ELSE "ail+re Depth Li(ite$ &e#rch Q .et a limit on the depth of the search' Q #ddresses the problem of wasting time going down the wrong branch' Q The difficulty with this approach is choosing a suitable limit' Iter#ti0e Deepening &e#rch Q 0ombines DK. and 5K. Q /terative depth limited search Q Jvercomes the problem of choosing a suitable limit' Q .tart with a very low limit and increase gradually until a solution is found' 'imitations of Exhaustive Search (ethods F$haustive search has the advantage of guaranteeing solutions if they e$ist' :owever% e$haustive search has some problems associated with the need to visit all states at times' o Jne problem is about combinatorial problems associated with some search cases' #t times the number of possibilities rise and demands on storage and processing cannot be met' o The other problem is that the state space can be e$tremely large such that complete search is time consuming' .ometimes the state space can be ine$haustible% in that it is difficult to enumerate' b0 #uided 2 Informed2 !euristic Search uided search is one solution to the problems associated with e$haustive search' The knowledge about the problem domain is used to guide the search mechanism thus enabling it to avoid wrong options' :euristics are rules that apply most of the time but not all the time' Definition4 .earches that use a heuristic function to direct the search towards the goal' :euristic Kunction (h(n)) o # function that calculates the cost of reaching the goal state from the node n' Two 5asic #pproaches o reedy .earch +inimises the estimated cost to reach the goal' o #R .earch +inimises total path cost' #reedy Search The node closest to the goal state% as determined by h(n)% is e$panded first' /ssues! o Kinds solution &uickly o Doesn7t always find the best solution% since it evaluates the immediate best choice% not the long term options' o 0an fall prey to false starts F$pands a node that leads to a dead end' ,esembles DK. (likes to follow a path to a solution or a dead end) so has similar problems'

&est1.irst Search !euristic /n the best"first search heuristic the node with the most promising chance of being the solution is visited first' 4odes are regarded as most promising when they are associated with the most desired numerical values called heuristic estimates' :euristic estimates are computed values that assess the suitability of a node as candidate solution' The functions used to compute heuristic estimates are called heuristic functions' #t times the nodes have associated costs or benefits' # heuristic function would therefore seek to minimi-e costs or ma$imi-e benefits' E2#(ple 0onsider an e$ample% in which nodes have associated costs and also subse&uent paths have associated costs as well' /n this case we consider a heuristic that seeks to minimi-e the costs' The search is going to be guided by cost minimi-ation' Jriginal problems minimi-eSf($)!O sum pathT 5 a 2 7 b 2 7 c A 2 9 d A t goal f(d)O2= d t f 2 g 8 f(c)O1; c g f(g)O22 2 s 2 e 6 = f(b)O1A b 7 f f(f)O1< f(a)O? a s e f(e)O;

E,ercise! re"trace the path given that the heuristic function only adds the sum of path and the cost of the current node' %ther Search $roblems There are so many cases in which the search techni&ue may be used' These include the following cases! <"pu--le problems' 1 B = <"&ueens problem' Lacuum world L '' '' 2 G A < ?

Real 'ife Applications %f *he Search *echni3ue Travelling H minimi-e the distances in route finding' L(./ layouts

1@

 ,obot navigation H robot movements #ssembly se&uencing' E4ER ISES /nvestigate how to program models related to agents% neural networks and genetic algorithms' 1' 2' A' B' =' G' ?' Discuss e$amples of agents' Discuss how to implement the genetic algorithm' :ow are problems solved in artificial intelligenceU 8hat is searchingU Discuss how to handle problems using searching techni&ue' Discuss e$haustive search and heuristic search' Discuss relevance of the search techni&ue and other e$amples where the search techni&ue may be applied'

11

INFORMED SEARCH #dd domain"specific information to select what is the best path to continue searching along Define a heuristic function% h$n%% that estimates the 1goodness1 of a node n' .pecifically% h$n% O estimated cost (or distance) of minimal cost path from n to a goal state' The term he+ristic means 1serving to aid discovery1 and is an estimate% based on domain"specific information that is computable from the current state description% of how close we are to a goal F$ample heuristics! o +issionaries and 0annibals! 4umber of people on the starting bank of the river o <"pu--le! 4umber of tiles out of place o <"pu--le! .um of distances each tile is from its goal position h$n% VO @ for all nodes n h$n% O @ implies that n is a goal node h$n% O infinity implies that n is a deadend from which a goal cannot be reached #ll domain knowledge used in the search is encoded in the heuristic function h' Informed Methods F$amples include! reedy .earch :ill 0limbing #R #lgorithm #% Gree$y &e#rch Jrder nodes on the nodes list by increasing value of an evaluation function% "% that incorporates domain"specific information in some way' This is a generic way of referring to the class of informed methods' )se as an evaluation function "$n% - h$n%% sorting nodes by increasing values of " .elects node to e$pand that is believed to be closest (hence it's 1greedy1) to a goal node (i'e'% smallest " value) '/t is not complete' The strategy may use the following simplified algorithm! +,E,E1path only containing the root WHILE QUEUE is non-empty AND goal not reached DO emo!e the "irst path "rom the QUEUE Create ne# paths $to all children% e&ect ne# paths #ith loops Add paths and sort the entire QUEUE I) goal reached *HEN s+ccess ELSE "ail+re )% !ill Cli()ing &e#rch (ooks one step ahead to determine if any successor is better than the current state3 if there is% move to the best successor' .imilar to reedy search but :ill"0limbing does not allow backtracking or jumping to an alternative path since there is no nodes list of other candidate frontier nodes from which the search could be continued' 4ot complete since the search will terminate at 1local ma$ima%1 1plateaus%1 and 1ridges'1 c% A: Algorith( )se as an evaluation function "$n% O g$n% W h$n%% where g$n% is as defined in )niform"0ost search' That is% g$n% O minimal cost path from the start state to the current state n' #dds a 1breadth"first1 component to the evaluation function by including the g term ,anks nodes on the search frontier by the estimated cost of a solution that goes from the start node through the given node to a goal node' That is% g$n% is the cost from the start node to node n% and h$n% is the estimated cost from node n to a goal'

12