:

LJ

^^A Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Frederick J Gravetter Larry B. Wallnau

ii

Statistics, Science, and Observations

I l-ia Definitions of Statistics
hd".:\y. a."'?:a:i'?s. j n d so on . :".:?: iia::^::-:? ai'? j? .
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calc.ila:::"L:i s:a:is:ios >':ao:s and :::.i:os; ;;.i:. :c : lie v.r. w e concentrat e o n a m u c h b r o a d e r d c : i n i : i c n c : s : a : i s : i c s Specifically, w e use the term statistics to refer to a set of mathematical procedures. In this case, w e are using the
:or:n J:.".::J::CJ ;>: a s h c r : o n o d vorsic n :: J:." : ::J::C." : : ^ r c c e i ^ r e j - o : o\."::\^o. vou are probably using this b o o b

i c r a s:a:is:ics :: .irso ::'. behavioral sciences.

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Research in psychology (and otherfields)involves gathering information. To determine.for example, whether violence on TV has any effect on children's behavior, y o u w o u l d n e e d to gather information about children's b e h a v i o r s and :hc IV p r o g r a m s :hcy i',a:ch W h o n r o s o a r c h o r s unish :ho :si.< :: g a : h o r m ; :n:'.;rma::.;n. :hov

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time scores, a n d s o on. In this book, w e present the statistics that researchers use to analyze and interpret the iriioiTna::'::"! : h a : :]i'?-" : a:],.?: ^jooinoa^-.-. s:a::s::cs so:"."'? 1. Stat general p u r p o s e s

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understood throughoa: :hc scicn:i:"ic cc:nnvani:y l h a s . :hc s:a::s::cal m c : h c d s used by one researcher familiar to other researchers, w h o can accurately : n : c r p r c : :hc s:a::s::cal analyses with afullunderstan analysis .as do no arid .ha: ros.ihs s:::n::o

1-2

Populations and Samples

| i-2a What Are They?

regroup (orgroups) ccn:hcscl:-c: t of time spent in the bathroo. n with the group of women. Ir :1c jy. :hc cnhre group that .ailed a population.

As ycucan vse'-. ima-M^'?. (IJ:^.:^::::;:^;;^^:;::^^^':-::: '?xam;;>. :h? en:::''? ??: ;: v-cmen C:I::I: ":La:"i':: i.i . . . ^::.^::j:i::::;j::^.i:v:; v-cmen v.rho are registered :: .lis :."a:-." m sue ::e:ri ex::en"ic>: ].":o? :e ver-." s:na^. denendm^ 1 .1 :-::"i^:=: nccn>:: a ncn.La:j: :a:s. vc:crsin:hc Jni:cc S:a:es Perhaps :hc inves:ija:cr wculci h/c :c s:ucy :he pcpjla:icnccnsis:ini-c: wcivicn v-hc are h?aas ;:' ?:a:e l'';;;.L aliens can c:"ihcv.r:hc researcher de::.!'s v researcher lnaddi:ieri. nen.La::eri i .1

corporations,parts produced in a iac:';:"."..;: an-":]-,in:- c>? . researcher ."r.:s :e s:.]dv In nrachec. ncnulahcns are typically very large, such as the population of college sophomores in the United States or the population of small businesses.

in the population of interest. Therefore, researchers typically select a smaller nen.La:ien and hmi: :heir s:.idles :e individuals 1 1 1 :he se>e: individuals selected ire in." nen.Laiieii is ca]>d . " j.vr.rv'e. A sample is intende population, and a sample should always be identified in:crms c:':hc nonula::

anageable group from [he

only 10 s t u d e n t s in a g r a d u a t e p r o g r a m , a n d a n o t h e r study might use a sample of m o r e t h a n l.OCt registered

So far w e h a v e t a l k e d a b o u t a s a m p l e b e i n g selectedfroma p o p u l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h i s is actually o n l y half of

i-L-l^:;:: . =<'::.*::'.':.":.L; L:^ ;J ^je^ncall--". ." researcher uriishcs ?>:O:I"IL:"IL:"I-::

:hc sample. :hc goal is :c generalize :hc r e s a l e back :c :hc c m i r c p c p a l a h c n R e m e m b e r : h a : :hc r e s e a r c h

s:ar:cd .--::bi a ::-::"i'?icil <:. .ICS:J; v\ a b c . i : :be ;;;;; .il a : j ; n . c ansv.cr:hc '.:.v:=-.::: ~ -<=<<--::.<- s : . ] c i c s ; sample

a n d t h e n generalizes :bc r c s a b s from :j"ic sample :c :J-LC p o p a l a h o n i h c full relationship b e t w e e n a sample and a j c j u l a h c i i i s s h o w n in Figure 1.1.

All of the individuals of interest

,esul,s , * ralz;d >opulation e , a m

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The jam is selected thepopuk

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The Individuals selected to oorticlpote In the research study

I i-2b Variables and Data

. vpicallv. researchers arc n-ncrcsicd in spccnie eh ar a.eicrisiics ci ihc individ.ials in ihc pcp.ilaiici-Licr m ihc sample), or they are interested in outside fac:ors ihai may influence- ihc individuals. For example, a researcher i:..' -. iiiicrcsicd ii". il .".?:"!?? >:iihc v.caihcr en iicciilc's meeds As ihc v.caihcr chamics. dc ii^'i? moods also change? Something that can change c: nave diiicrcni values is called a variable.

Avarlableis a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals.

Once ajain. variables ea:i be characicrisiics ihai dine: ire in e:ie mdivid.ial le ancihcr. s.ieli as hcighi. wcijhi. of day, or the size of the room in which ihc research is being conducted.

The measurement obtained for each individual is called a datum or.more commonly, a score or raw score. The complete set of scores is called the data set orsimply the data.

llcicrc vie meve vie she 1:1." ]:: ..1 s." 1 : 1 ill'is. ;icn.il."iici"is. and dai; Laili-er. ucuula is. .'. ... .. sscd a jcjulaiicnciccllci'c sophomores and a sample of preschool children. Be forewarned, however, that we will also refer to iicii.ilaiicns cr samnlcs of scores because researchivuicallvinvel-. es me." s.ir 1 1 1 1 1 each mdivid.ial M cbiain; see ...'' . . . . . ' . . . 111; ei sccrcs

I i-2e Parameters and Statistics

..' . . . .'. \ .lieilie: :lie da:; ccme :::::;.." ;;c;;ala:j::i ::: c:ia:ac:e::s::c::ia: des::::bes . ;:..!; ::::.::r e\."::ii;le. .". e:a::e sccre ;;ci;ala:j::"i: parameter. A charac:cris:ic :h;i: describes a sample is called a i:a::s:k. Ihus. :he average score f
c i : i ..i n . I . I .1 .1 . ! . . . . .

B B
A p a i a i u e l e r :s . -..l..e. ..S...11-. . t : u m e r i c a l v a l u e . t h a t d e s cribes a population. A parameterisi rsuallyderivedfrom

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A statistic is a value, a s a a l l y a nui nerical value, that describes a sample. A statist: c i s u s u a U y d e rived from measurements of the individuals in the sample.

_. 'J.-: u c u a l ;i o n para meter has t o o n esponding s a m a l e s:a::s::c. arid : : \ : s : :ese. irchs :udies involve L sing i s a m p l e i as the has is for a:"is-.-.e:::v:: this h o o k is C I incemed with t h e n :latia r.sl.:;: .".:?:::::".s a l x ucual; ;:." :amel e r s . A s a r e s u l t , much of ondingpopulat: on

~----"! ! = " i sample s:a::s::cs arid

parameters. I a Cl-,ap:c r 7 , f o r e x a mple i-.e e x a m i n e ::*: rela:icnsJ-Li;j be:iveen ::*: meai o h t a i n e d f o r a iample and the m e a n for the I opulation: i o m which the sample was obtained.

I i-2d Descriptive and Inferential Statistical Methods

data, these different procedures canbe classified into two general categories. The firs: ca:cjcry. descripiiv-i statistics, consists of s:a:is:ical procedures :hat are used to simplify and summarize data.

:if.inputs :a;is:ics are lecjmiq.ies :;,: :a!-;e raivscores and ci-jamic c: s.immariio ::,e:n ma :ci-ivi:ha: i: rrirs- manage able. Often the scores are organizedin a table or agraph so that it is possible to see the entir : s-:ir^s \ ::..-: ilil.s ;l ila -si has hundreds of scores, the average provides a single descriptive value for the entire set.
.:.'? soccrid Sonera! ca:o^c:'."c: s:a:is:ica; icclmio.ios IS ca^od :^ere-^::a: j : a : : j : : c j ir.ierer.::."! s:a:is:ics arc mo:]iCds::..": .iso sam^o da:; majo? ^er.e:."! s:a:omori:s ."be ." ;;c;;.La::cri

Iiiieieiilial slalr.ii' .

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v : i make generalizations about [he

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Uccausc j o a a I a : i c n s are :vi??.:a..v verv^aro?. i: a s a a . . v i s lie: i?i?ssi;?.'? :: measai'?

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Therefore, a s a m p l e is selected t o r e p r e s e n t i h c p c p a l a i i c n Uy analyzing tnc results from :he sample, w e hope

mal-o? tieneial s t a t e m e n t s al?e :):3JA":'::I . -"i?:call?. ie se." eis .-.se s." ?:\i?les?."t:st:es,-s the i?,-sis Mi-

drawing conclusions about population parameters. One p r o b l e m s h eci >rmation about the i?ci?ala?ici"is.; sample is net 'i\:j'?::od

DCDalaiicn Aline .itil. s." i:\nles ."ie ::'r.'.'rso'.'.-revresen:a:':.

." i?eiiecil-."accarate i ? i c ? a r e c i t n e v.ncle : ) ' : 3 i a : : c : i liiere a s a a l l v i s ^ ; : n : tliscrei?ai"LC'." l?e?v.ee?i ." sa?ni?le statistic anti the corresponding population aai." i:\ctci . ins disn'c^anc-: is callcti sanwiin,^ :hc i i m c a m c n i a l p r c b l c m that in:crcn:ial statistics must always address (Bos 1.1). error, anti n crca:cs

The Margin of Error between Statistics and Parameters

Ono cc mine 11 exam;;.'? :? s." i:\iilii".-.? e i i e i is tiiC c i i c i asscciatcti v . i i n a sample proportion,
articles :CI?C:HI"L\1 i c s a l t s l i e in i3'?li::-:a^ ID-: :: .1'??".:^. ::?":?i s t a t e m e n t s sacl". as tnis

Candidate Brow n leads :heoo:::ii:hJI% of :hevo:e. Candidate tones has 12% assr valandth remammg7%a e unaec\dea. :r.:s :c:: .-as :ayen nxr; a sar::\e z:re~:s:erea : o:ers ndhasa: wrgw "1 error of plus-or

.ie -.tciici." lined n

? i?ci?ala?ici"i As a 1 ..;!-."s. ::

aiaicicpciiccl^ciccbiaincclii-cmasamplca: the statistics n-?i:i . s." i:\nlc

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The concept of sampling orrcris i:ijs:ra:cc in :':;: iij.ir.; shcv.-s a pcpiioon of 1.000 college students and two samples, each with 5 students, that have been selected from the population. Notice that each sample contains different individuals who have different characteristics. Because the characteristics of each the five students in sample 1 have an average age of 19.8years and the students in sample 2 have an average age of 20.1 years.

F i g u r e 1.2 A demonstration of sampling error. Two s mples are selected from the sam are different from one sample to another parameters. The natural differences that population. Notice t h a t the sa mple sta sties different from the correspon xist, by chance, between a sampl statistic and a population para ing pop B called

/ /

Population o f " COO c o l l e g e students Population Para'-'O'ors Average A g e = 21.3 years A v e r a g e IQ = 112.5 65% Female, 35% M a l e ,

1 \ \

Sample 01 Eric

Sample 02

John S-;j pits Sk.riiilic:; A v e r a g e A g e - 20.4 Averuye IQ - 114.2 40% Female, 00% Male

Brian Sample Statistics AverageAye 159 Averuye IQ - 104.6 60% Female, 40% Male

1: is also very u n l i / c l y i n a : :J"LC s:a:is:ics c b : a i n c c p o p u l a t i o n . In Figure 1.2,for example,neit.her sa u a r a m c : c r s You should also realize : h a : Figure 1 '?xa'::l'.":]-[,? ?a:vi'? a? :]"[? ^c^.ila::

m p l i n g e r r o r : sample rre sp ondin g p opulati

A? a iur::"icr dc:nc:"i?::a:j::i :: :a:ri^i:v:: i:ria::i:ie::..": .i: ::."::::::: :!.":::: :eij.":v:ed 1:1:0 two groups by dra^m:: a line ire in iren: :c i;acl< . . n. ic average a::e i"Lei::i"L:. 10; eaci"i ::::= I.."-, e ei-iae:lv :l.e iaine aveia Alines: ccr:aii"ily :l" will not. No matter what you chose to measure, you willprobably Find some difference between the two groups. However, the difference you obtain does not necessarily mean that there is asystematic difference between the two groups. For example, ii' :hc- average age icr s:accn:s en :hc right-hand side of the roomis higher than the average for students on the left, it is unlikely that some mysterious force has caused the older people to gravitate to the right side of the room. Instead, the difference is probably the result of random factors such as chance. The unp re die: able. imsys:cina:ic differences :hac exist from one sample to another are an example of

I i-2e Statistics in the Context of Research

.I I.: ',.

s:a:is:ics and in:eren:ial s:a:is:ics arc used to organize and interpret the data. At the end of :hc example. nc'^saiuDliii:; crrc: can ai'i'cc: ::"^r:jr^:^:::;:: c^;c:m"icri:al :CS.L:S. arid :: nsidcr ^ny in:crcn:ial s:a:is:ica: :nc:l,cdi arc needed :: doa! i-.::ji :h:s problem

lii-jrc 1.3 shows an oservii :w of a general: play. Ihc purpose of the ret earch study is t :]"['? d:::?:'?:i':'? h'?:v.'?'?n :v.c m'?:h':d: ::: :'?a':hm:i roadie :; :::?:-:::ado children. Two samples are : elected :cd from i'rc:u:hc th :)c:;.ila:j;n'; . i v : . .. . i imc:hcdAand:hc children: nsample Bare .ssigned to method B. After Gmonths, all of the students are given a s:ancarci;ec his point, the researcher has two sets of data: the scores forsample A and the scores forsampleB (see Figure 1.3).
:o begin using statistics.

Step 1 Experiment Com pore two teaching methods

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IA /A II 11 II Step 2 Descriptive 7ft
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Interpret results

The sample data show a 5-point difference between the two teaching methods. However, there are two ways to interpret the results: 1. There actually Is no difference between difference is due to chance (sampling error). 2. There really is a difference between the two methods, and the sample data accurately reflect this difference. The goal of inferential statistics is to help researchers decide between the two interpretations.

1'irs . IV.I : ..i .. ' s:."::s:::s ;:e

::

. ::':.'-.

. . :: .1 . : : : : '..in.:'1 :1"LC researcher could draw a graph showing [he

scores ici-cacn sample cr ccmpa:c ::*: average sec re i c : each sample \ c : c :ha: dcscrip:ivc m c ^ c c s pre vide a simplified, organized description of the scores. In this esample, the students taught by method A averaged 7 G on the standardized test, anc students taught by method B averaged only 71. Once the researcher has described :J-LC results, the nest step is to interpret the outcome. This is the role of inferential statistics. I this esample, the researcherhas found a difference of S points between the two samples (sample A averaged 7SandsampleB averaged 71). The prcblcm :cr in: c rem la 1 s:a:is:ics is :c di::crcn:ia:e between the following two interpretations: 1. There is no real difference between the two teaching methods, and the 5-point difference between the samples is just an esample of sampling error (like :1-LC samples in Figure 1.2).

n simple English, does the 5-point difference between samples provide convincing evidence of a difference between the two cacli::v:i mc:licds.c: :s :l.e .is:::.<' :;.i::;cso c : m i c r o b i a l s:."::s::::s :s :: ."r.s-.-.o: :l\:s :; .ios::c

1.

A r e s e a r c h e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n the t e x t i n g h a b i t s of high school s t u d e n t s in t h e United States. If t h e n s e a r c h e r . measures t h e n u m b e r oi':?>:: :ri'?::a:i'?: :]ia: '?a':]"i . n d . v . d . i ; . i'.^.d: 'j; :':'. d;and . calcula:cs :he average n u m b e r fc r t h e e n t i e g r o u p of high school:, ii .

2.

A r e s e a r c h e r is i n t e r e s t e d in h o w w a t c h i n g a reality televisio LI i:\c\-s :ca:uriiiLj fashion m o d e l s influ snces t h e :a:in^;)^]"Lavicr of 13-year-old girls.

s:jcy :,:-LCLVrojpc:.iC:3-yca

3.

Statistical technicrues are d a

p u r p o s e for :ric :CC:"L:"LXUCS i n e a c h c a t e j

t w o ge: n e r a l c a t e g j r i c s . ' A h a : . ire t h e t w o cat egories called, a n d w h a t i s t h ; g e n e r a l

I.Ans-ver + l 4. Briefly define t h e concept of sampling e rror.

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13 Data Structures, Research Methods, and Statistics

I i-3a Individual Variables

'j\;".':'.':.." : '^ ? ': i ? ' : . 1n . i " . i . ..:. . . .. ............'... . .

college students. When the results consist of numerical scores, such as the number of hours spent studying each . . ^ " = " i ^ r i ! '?d':]"i ca:'?:- cr-" l'c: example, a recent newspaper article reported that Gl% of the adults in the United States currently drink alcohol.

I i-3b Relationships Between Variables

Most research, h o w e v e r , is imciided ic e x a m i n e r e l a n c n s h i p s b e n v e e m v . c e : m e r e variables 1-cr example, is there a relationship b e t w e e n the amount of violence that childrensee on television and the amount of aggressive behavior ihcy display 1 ' Is i h c r c a re ia: loirs hip between the truality of breakfast and level of academic performance for elementary school children? Is there a relationship b e t w e e n the number of hours of sleep and grade point average for college students? To establish the existence of a relationship, researchers must make observationsthat is, measurements of the t w o variables. The resulting measurements canbe dassifiedintc t w o distinct data structures that also help to classify different research methods and different statistical i i. !' In ~ --."i=".v: . . disi..ss il.ese .1 .

[. Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual: The Correlational Method One method for e\." rel.'iiir.shii; variables is :c cbserve variables as ihevexisi 1rai.irallvicr ; set of individuals. Thai is. simply measure ihe live variables for each individual For example, research
performance for college students (Trockel, Barnes, and Egget, 2000). The researchers u s ed a s u r v e y ta shows an example of the kind of data obtainedi n the study. The researchers then look for consistent lime changes ire m e n ' ? si.idein le airciher. is i h e r e alse ." leirdeircv 11 r academic performance to change:

Figure 1.4 Ore of two da performance] The sam (o> res for stud es evaluating the relat ements for each indivi ual [wake-up time a howninatable(a)an in a graph (b).

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Performance

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Consistent patterns in :licda:a arc c::cii easier :c see i::lic sec res are presence in a graph. Figure 1.1 alsc slicv/s:licsccrcs:cr:liccigli:s:udcn:sina jrapli called a sca::cr pic: ln:lic sca::cr pic:, cacli individual is rc'jrcscn:cd . ;:::::: s: ::..": r L i; -: = " ~ .^ " ;::s:::::. rrcsrj: r.ds :: :l.c s:.:dcri:'s ..al-:c-.];: sl\:-.-.s." :lc."r : . . . . . . . . 1 . 1 ime increases.

i o n a l m e t h o d , - v c cifferen: :

Limitations of the Correlational Method

The results from a correlational study can demonstrate the existence of a relationship b e t w e e n t w o variables,

demonstrate a causc-and-ciicc: re la: lens hip For example. :hc d a : a in Figure 1.1 s h ow a systematic relationship between wake-up time and academic performance for a group of college students; those w h o sleep late tend to have l o w e r performance scores than those w h o wake early. However, there are many possible explanations for rolaiicnshin and l-^ic-.-.o^ac:!-: .]..": : a c : c : :ac: c : s ; :s :osnc nsinlo la:o slooneis :.,-.

lev.'?:' t r a d e s l n n a r : i c a l a r . v.o c a n n c : ccnclado :l"ia: v-d'.<::Y-. s:adon:s an earlier v.cald caaso:1"LOI: a':ad'?n"iL'i

n o r i c r m a n c o :c i m n r c v o . c r :l"ia: s:ad'.~n^ m e r e v.cald caaso s:adon:s :c v.al<o an earlier . o don"Lons::a:o."

[. Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores: Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods
:J-LC s c c c n c mc:J-LCd i'cr examining :hc- re la :ic lis hip no:iv.:.:n:ivc variables invclves :ne c c m p a r i s c n c : one of the variables to define the groups, and then measuring the second variable to obtain scores for each group. For example, one group of elementary school children is s h o w n a 30-minute s h o w n a SCMninute comedy that includes no violence. Both groups are then observed on the playground and a r e s e a r c h e r record? :no n u m b e r c : a c r o s s : - , e . o . . . . i e x a m n l e c : :1"LO resulting datais s h o w n in Figure 1.5. The researcher compares the scores for che violence gr oup w i t h the scores for :he no-violence g r o a n As's:oi:\.":i:: diiioioricc n e t w e e n t h e t w o groups provides evidence for .1 .i i clonicr.:."!-. s i l . : : l

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L'if.' 'e uL'o-iS-i"i r j o l w o c i vu''u'rj os. \ o l o

Violence

VIolencQ

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3 2

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I i-3e The Experimental Method

asb

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:"ia: i banging the value of

riable causes changes to occur in the second variable i'c accomplish:bis goal. :bc experimental method o characteristics thai differentiate experiments from other types of research studies: 1. Manipulator i Thereses rchermanipulateso L i e variable by cbangin:; i:s value iremone level 1 another. A see. indvariabli is observed (measu red) to determine whether the mani pulatit mcau! changes to occ 2. Control The researcheri nust exercise contrc lover the research situation to ensn re thai othei extraneous va liable s do m .t influence the relat ionship being examined. To demonstrate thesii two charatt eristics, consider ar np.rlm.mlnwiM, researchers demonst rate the paiii-killing effects of ha ntllini" mcnevi Zbou& Vobs. 2009). Intheexperirr of coUege students'vas told that they were par:icipa:in5 in a mairaal dcx:cri:y s: adv . be :cscaicbcr :be:i manipulated the treatment condidons bv :::. ::v: bal: c: :bc s:adc:"i:s." s:."::l-i::: mcncvio count and :bcc:bcrbal: a s:ael-: e: blanl-: pieces c:paper A::c: :bc cc J:I:.:I; :ssl;. :bc participants were asked to dip their hands into bowls of painfully hot water (122 F) and rate how unccm:cr:ablc 1: ivas l'ar:ici3an:s ivbc bad ee an:ed menev ra:ed :he pain significantly lower :ban :bcsc ivbc bad ccan:ed paper Ibc s:ructure of the perim may sys:cma:ically
v

variable and may observe more than one variable, Here we are considering the simplest case, mv;..-, on.y ^ . j 0 I u y o n e v^aMe is

in experiment. Participants are randomly assii courting bl money). :ces of paper. Later, each participant is leslei
r

tions: counting money 01 it [122 F) water and it [paper versus

pain. A difference between the ratings for tr

V c r c o e SI; Counting money o block oopcr (the Independent variable) Manipulated - o t r e a t I w o 1rcal c-i1 c o n d lions.

Money

Paper

8 10 8

10 5 5
V p c i r n p a r e groups^/

ly -ha: :hc difference in pain i causedby the money, the researcher rr mtion for the difference. Thai s, any other variables that might affect re are :v.e general categories if variables that researchers must cons

s s.icli as a::c. ::ca:mcn: Aand ; :ese.":::l.e:s v.L ^ T ^ i" L L -" icmalcs and -.:.: ='j::'. ;:.

and

:ha: varvi'rcm

?:i: ccmnarcs different groups of participants (one ::e.":n\er.: ii;. :ese.":::l.e:s n\ ..s: er.sarc :lia: na:::c:nan: ::.,-: l.,-r.dl:r./: :r.s:e."d ;jl.":r. ;:. ;je: :. ..scs a change in [he

participants'percep:icr.s:: nam Sanncsc. ncv.cvcr. :na: :nc nar::cma:i:s in:]".'? money condition were
L ^ T I ^ " L L -" males In :l.:s case. :l"ic:c :s an

al:cr:"ia::vc c x n l a n a : i c n : c : an."

in:]".'? nain:a:m::s :lia: c>::s:s ncv.-.ccn :l"ic :v.rc i"rcaas

Specifically,it is possible that the difference i n p a i n was causedby t h e m o n e y . b u t it also is possible that the difference was causedby the participants' gender (females can tolerate more pain than males can). W h e n e v e r a research study allows more than one e s p l a n a t i o n f o r the results, the study is said to be

2. E n v i r o n m e n t a l Variable s

These are characteristics of thi

and weather conditions. A researcher must ensure that the i same environmen: as :l"ic mdividaals m ::ca:mcn: il _'sm\: :l.e ::. nc :- coaming c.xacrimen: (sec fi::arc l.G) as a n e s a m p i e . samjese :na: :l"ic mdividaals m :l.e mene-: ccndi:j;n v.crc all :es:ed in [he morning ."r.d :d.\."ls::

:a:m::s .e:e :<' .iscd ;;: :l.c mene-: :::." .iscd ;;: :l\e :imc :'. da-: rche rs typically use t h r e e ! a s i c l echnicrues to ct
m a sigrtmertt, which meai istha : ':.":::. ;j.":::c:n:

il other variables. First, the researcher could use as an equal chance of being assigned :c cacriof :1"LC d:s:::l;a:c na:::c:nan: charac: c::s::cs cvcnl

lent conditions. The goal c fran: l o m a s s i g n m e i

between the t w o groups so that neither group is noticeably smarter (or older, or faster) than the other. Kandcm ass:::nmcn: can alsc l;c ascd assigned randcml-: :cs:m:: .ins : : ::.-. alcn: ccmrcl cnvircnmcmal :."a:ial;lcs : : : cxamnlc. na::j:man:s :: aiicrnccn n e n m e m s L :. c>:amnlc. researcher can asc researcher ccald ma:ch

r;\Ci:ch-;~-r ens arc :i:j:vd'?:;:

groups by ensuring that every group has exac:ly iJC% females and -IC's, males finally. :hc researcher can control variables by holding ;he;:\ conat^n;
;j.":::c:n."r.:s ' h c l d m / : ."/:c o:r.s:."r.:;.

1'cr e x a m p l e . 1 : an ex p e n m e n : ascs enly IC-ycar-old children as

: c sc."r can :-?::OIL:"I ::J:;:;:: a

:hananc:hcr

In the experimE ntal m e t h o d , one

ariable is

i while anot

e r v a r i a b l e i s o b s e r v e d a n d n easured. To

relationship b e t w en the two variables. in experime t attempts t o e ntrol all othe variables t them from influ ncini" :hc r e s u l t

Terminology in the Experimental Method

Specific n a m e s are u s e d f o r che ;wo va r ia ble s : h a : arc s:udicd by :hc c x p c r i m c m a l m c : h o c . The variable that is manipulatedby the e x p e r i m e m e r is called :hc independent variable 1: can be idenhfied as the treatment . m e n e v v e r s us n a j c r is :1"LC

c o n d i h o n s :o w h i c h j a r : lei j a m s arc assigned : : : : :hc e x a m p l e ::'.

dependent variable.

For the example in Figure l.S, the level of pain is the dependent variable.

B B
The i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e is :hc ariab"c - l a t i s m variable usually consists of the tw o l o r m o r ) treat variable consists of :1-LC a:;:ecede: conditio is that v e r e m . inipulated irior-.c

zt

esearcher. Inbehavioral research the independ nt nditions t which subjects are e x p o s e d . The i dependent c b s c r v m i " : h c d c j c i r d c m ' ariable.

The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e is :hc va iablc :l-,a i s o h s r v e d t c assess the effect of the treatment.

Control Conditions in an Experiment

A:. c \ j c : : m c r i : a l s:.]dvcval.ia:cs :hc r c l a i i c n s h u bc:v.ccn :v.c variables bv mariij.ilaiiiv:: c u e variable i:hc
m d c j c n d c m variable; arid mcas.niri:; c u e variable >':hc d c j c i r d c m variable; . \ c : c :l"ia: m a n '?>::!O:::IM::I: cnlv

one variable is actually measured. You should realize that this is different from a correlational study, in which b c : h variables arc m e a s u r e d and :hc da:a ccirsis: c i i v . c s c p a r a i c sec res i c r each individual Often an experiment will include a conditionin which the participants do not receive any treatment. The scores from these individuals arc :hc:r c o m p a r e d vvi:h sec res i r c m p a r h c i p a n t s w h o do receive the treatment. The goal of this type of study is to demonstrate that the treatment has an effect by showing that the scores in the treatment condition are substantially different i r c m :he scores in the no-treatment condition. In this kind of research, the no-treatment condition is called the oontrol condition, exp erirr^ennai condition. a n d the t r e a t m e n t c o n d i t i o n i s called the

liicivicuals in a control condition do no: rco:LV:::-,: oxpoi-LTii::!:^: ::-i:a::iii::i: l:is:ead. :jic experiment! ccnci:icn

:L:J-1OI- receive lie :rca:mcn: c:

they receive a neutral, placebo treatment. The purpose of a control conditionis to provide abaseline for comparison with

iSe:iie:JiL:i;:ii.is:Jiavea::eas::ive

different values before you can say that i: is "variabic.1') for the money-counting experiment (see Figure 1.6), :bc iridcucridcn: variable is mcnc-i :."c:s.is i;!a:ni;ai;c: l'c: an cxucrimcii: v.i::i an experimental group and a

. :::: ..;:.: .

. .. .

I i-3d Nonexperimental Methods: Nonequivalent Groups and Pre-Post Studies

:::.."! :::."-.:::'.. iy.'j.'j :=." ..:: ::.: :'?::ri exver:r;\er,: :: a:v:'.<::\d ci
:'??'?a:'L"]"I ::.id." Vc .1 sric .La r o ^ i i ' ? . :"LC^'?V?:'. :]"ia: :]"[? : i : ; ^ .";j;^:as :: s:.\d:as::..": s."::s:-. -.:.'j r::'j-::'.:-:

roc.urom'?:!:? :

'?a:^'?:

;J."

i^:.." ::."; 'j\~:'j.:".'jr.-

::.:.r. in^.id'? :rtd:x.^.i.:

:::.":".

variable a n d rigorous control of o t h e r , e x t r a n e o u s v a r i a b l e s . As a result, t h e r e are a n u m b e r of o t h e r r e s e a r d das :/::".:::..": .":: a\;ja::::\a:\:s ;;.i: s::^ 'j\t".:r.'j r a ^ i a n s : ^ ; bo:'.-.'? an variables by comparing
and ara disc.issad m ::.a :: ::Y: j a r a g r a p h s . This

rirc.r.js c : sccras Iv.c a x a m ; ; > s a:a sncv-n::"!

. .'.. . ..

Figure 1.7 Two examples [before/after) fnonexperime jps [boys/girls define the tw (a) e [depress n) in each u p s e f s c e r s. In (a) the study uses t w o n (b) the study uses time roup.

Variable 111: Subject g e n d e r (the quasi-independent variable) N::/ n c r i p u l a l e d , bul used to c r e a t e two groups of subjects

|\
V

\ \ / Boys Girls

10 16 15 13 12 15 16 V A n y ^ oiiieorce?

K
(the d e p e n d e n t variable) Measured In e a c h of t h e t w o groups \ / /

V
(b)

Variable #1: Time (the qucsi h d o p e n d e r variable) N o - - n c n p u l a t o d . but used t o c r e a t e t w o groups of scores

l\ \
\ / / Therapy Therapy

V
Varioblo av: Depression scores (the d e p e n d e n t variable) Measured a t e a c h of the t w o different times

l\
V

12
\ \ / /

12 10 14 15 12

15 13
V. A n y > cirre-sres?

1'nc :;;; ;;ar: c : : n a : !. n

1.

sncv/s a :i e x a m p l e c : a ^o^eir^y, . . . .
^Ti^"~L ~^
lice; .1 . :^je

...

.1 n

.r.io'.'.-.:,': males :n.]s:

. ::::\;j^es . ' . . ..;JS. ...

:c:i"ialcs :n.]s: ;;c

c a i m c : cc:i:rcl::"LC assignment of p a r t i c i p a n ts t o g r o u p s aiici.e.'r.r.e: er.s.\:e :: ..:. alcn: ::: .i;;s C:]ic: e x a m p l e s c : ric^icc .K\ alcri

' .

1 .1

. . . . ' .

...

.. .

.'.II' . L I
participant

..'.'

. .

a :^c-;;a:cri:

ilee.' ..se

v a r i a b l e s a n d e n s u r e equivalent tire ::::=. ::.:s :-.";;cc: :':?-:ar-:J"i :s r.e: a true e x p e r i m e n t

..'...'..:.
tv.icc:'.;: cacli ^ar:ici;;am: ence i' : 'I.I s:::.;j^ . . .'s .

. . .

t h e r a p y a n d after t h e r a p y . The t w o g r o u p s of scores are o b t a i n e d b y m e a s u r i n g the same v a r i a b l e (depression ) :l.e:.";K arid <'::<".:'. ."iter tlicra;;-:'.:'.."; ; : c - ; ; c s : st.idv. l , c ^ c v c : . :1"LC

r e s e a r c h e r ha s n o c o n t r o l o v e r t h e passage of t i m e . The "before" scores are always m e a s u r e d earlier t h a n the "after" s c o r e s . Although a difference b e t w e e n t h e t w o g r o u p s of scores m a y b e c a u s e d b y t h e t r e a t m e n t . i t is b-. L ::' . . . . '

v d e p r e s s i o n scores m a y decreas

e v e r time in trie same .a-:::..": tl.e s-."m;;:cmsc:; : : ! d d : ^ ^ : ! ' ? o : : \ : r time In a ; ; r c - ; ; c s : st.idy. :bc r e s e a r c h e r also ha s n o c o n t r o l o v e r o t h e r variable s t h a t change w i t h t i m e . For example, :hc wca:hci- could change f r o m
cs ::

i m p r o v e b e c a u se of t h e w e a t h e r a n d n o : because cl' :hc t b c r a p y Uccausc :hc r e s e a r c h e r cannot c o n t r o l t h e

Terminology in Nonexperimental Research Although the two research studies shown in Figure 1.7 are not true experiments,} should notice that they produce the same kind of data that are found in an

Correlational studies are also

second variable is measured to obtain scores within each group. In an experiment, are discussing no the groups are created by manipulation of the independent variable, and the participants' scores are the dependent variable The same terminology is often used of scores. to identify the two variables in nc nexpcrimen:a 1 svacics. i'ba: is. :he variable that is used to create groups is the independent variable and the scores are the dependent variable. For example. :bc :op par: of Fijure : 7. gender (boy/girl), is :hc independent variable and the verbal test scores are the dependent variable. However, you should realize that gender (boy/girl) is not a true independent variable because it is not manipulated. Fortius reason, the "independent variable" in anonexperimemal s: jcy is ci:en called a q::as:-::;dependen: variable

the quasi-in dependent variable.

liable " that is usedto create the diffcrcn: groups of scores is oftei i called

I i-3e Data Structures and Statistical Methods

The two general data structures that we used to classify research methods can also be used to classify st,

:. One Group with Two Variables Measured for Each Individual Recall that the data from a correlational study consist of two scores, representing two different variables.for each individual. The sco res canbelistedin a table or displayedin a scatter plot as in Figure 1.5. The relationship between the two variables is n.inlly mNMin-d irl described using a statistic called s correlation. Correlations and the correlational method -ir^ di.-ii..H in detail in ChapterslS and IS.
.icaasicna __<a :a: categories t h a t d >f college s t u d e r esearcher h a s tv ;n-i\?

;.r lamale) a n d b y ceU-phone p r e f e r e n c e (talk or t e x t ) . Note t h a t t h e Tionoa! r a m ? : l o r o r : a r : \ r . o . . ro^o.miror oould classify a g r o u p r w h ir l i v i d u a l b u t n e i t h e r of t h e scores is a n u m e r i c a l v a l u e . This type of

i . i .iii ::-.!

i . i .

la-.d i? lyrically sUlLLlliailiLT; .:i a .a;j.u j."LO\yin:i no'.-.many r i d i y id a a . : a:o ?la^^:iL':ci ::i:c c a c n c : :nc lossible cat ego ri 2s. Table 1.: . shows an e x a m p l e of this k i n d of s u m m a r y t a b l e . The table s h o w s . f o r ! x a m p l e , t h a t 3 0 of t h e m a l e i in the sample p r e f e r r e d texting to talking. This type of d a t a c a n b e coded vith n u m b e r s (fc r e x a m p l e . male = 0 a n d female = 1) so t h a t it is possible to c o m p u t e a correlation. l o w e v e r . t h e r e l J: ions hip bi i t w e e n v a r i a b l e s f o r n o n - n u m e r i c a l d a t a , s u c h as t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 1.1,1s rsually evaluate i l u s i n g a s t a :is:ical i c c n n i c u c / n o v. n a: a ch :-j,-.-;,-,re : e j : >_m-:oaaro :?::: aro rjro:on:od n Chapter 17.

1
rial data consist' 1 c of o -numerical scores. r > ents for each individual: indicate v.\ T J ' V J>:OJ >: U't t over talk. ender and cell pho e prefer anc The nun oers ch >: category. For ex m p l e . o u o t

he 50 ma es,30

Ce P h , P f , c ,

Males Females

30 25

20 25

"I

Musi of the statistical p r o c e d u r e s p r e s e n t e d in this

II. C o m p a r i n g T w o or M o r e G r o u p s o f S c o r e s

b o o k are designed : c : i':?-:ar-:j"i s:.idj?s :]".a: o:::aj.":o ::: .i;;s ' : : : ' : : : ' ? : . !i:0? ::.: '?x;;cri:nc:i:al svady ill Figure 1.6 a n d t h e n o n e x p e r i m e n t a l studies in Figure 1.7. Specifically, w e e x a m i n e descriptive statistics . . ..^: . . . . . s:a::s:j:s : n a : a'.'.cv.' a? :::: ..:j^. :: s."::aj>s. :: :yr:.'r:o :.': ;;':;;a;a:j:n

W h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e d u r e p r o d u c e s n u m e r i c a l scores, t h e statistical e v a l u a t i o n typically

i n v o l v e s c o m p u t i n g :]"[? .". '?:a:i'? s o : : o ::: 'J::'. ::.: :::: and -y.'r:. o::rt^d'.:\y. ::.: a v e r a g e s . The p r o c e s s of
."'::."::':::: iJi'i'S'iT.M'd :r. . r:.d r:vr.-: :'. s:a::s::':a! o i l : : O:::\;J."::^

averages are p r e s e n t e d i n Chapters 8-14. If t h e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o c e s s simply classifies individuals intc :"LC:"i-:va:ncricalca:co;:'j?s.:]".'? s:a:is:j:a! '?-."a;aa:j:n .is.id'.'.:::ns:s:s :: grc aa anti ^"LCiiccmaarin:- a : ' : a ' : : : j : n s '?xan"L:n:n:i : .i '.:'. ::.*:: :.:::v: a r o p o r t i o n s for each a c a - n x v i ' : : ^ : , ! da-.a . . . .
:s

a:'?S'?n: an 'j\;".':'.':

p r e f e r r e d b y 60% of t h e ma le s c o m p a r e d t o 50% of t h e females. As m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e , t h e s e d a t a are '?-.a!aa:'?d .is:a:i; :::.:-:: ...":: ::::. :':;.'::; :s nrosoniod in .'naa:'::'

Variables and Measurement

majo? da:; ." :'?:'?;i:'::i ::.id." ;:? IOS.L: ':::;;:'?: and

i r e s e a r c h e r may linisb a s:.id'." v-::]"ia so: ;:'1C,> scores. ;)crscnali:y sccrcs. i w e t a k e a closer l o o / a: i:\c variab!.;! ::,a: arc bo::i; m e a s u r e d a n d the p n

I i-4a Constructs and Operational Definitions

Some variables, such as heigh:, weigh:, and eye color arc well-crimed, concrete entities that canbe observe and measured directly. On the other hand, many variables studiedby behavioral scientists are internal charac:cris:ics :ha: people use :c help describe and explain behavior For example, wc say :hat a student di weU in schoolbecause he orshe is intelligent. Or we say that someone is anxious insocial situations, or that scinccnc seems :c . ' ^ ^ ' T Variables 111-:-? anxic:-.". and arc called ccr,;:r;;c:;. a:\d bee; :hc."arc in: a limbic and cannc: be dircc:l'-".;bscrvcd. :hc-."arc ci:cn call'?d hyvo:he::cci'. ccr.;:r;;c:; o:i:s::\.::s s..::ws niMlli:: ."ic IIIMIT.."! i:^i7i:'i:is::is::..": :."i".i"ic: d:icc:lvcbscivcd.:: is

possible to observe and measure behaviors that are representative of the construct. For example, we cannt "see" intelligence but we can see examples of intelligent behavior. The external behaviors can thenbe used external behaviors that canbe observed and measured. For example, your intelligence is measured and dei by your performance on.in M. eating. . .. . . . . .

Constructs are internal a ributes o charade rist: sfha canno be directly observed u: arc useful for describing and explaining bcha-. ic: An operational definitio i identifie ameasurem ntpr operational definition ha two comp (a set of operations) :: lU'ias.inn:: an cx:cma 1 behavior

and uses the resuming mc ^urement asadefinitia nand a mea. urement of ahypothe cal construct. Note that an tdes Tibesa set of operations fori leasuring a construct. Second.it defines the construct inte ms of the resulting mea surer ents.

I i-4b Discrete and Continuous Variables

lb.? var:ab:.?s:nas:jdvcanb.?cJ-Larac:.?r:L.?dbv:b'?:vp'?c : val.ies : b a : can;:.? ass::::-L.?d :c : h e m . A discrete riiriiitie c o n s i s t o:"scpara:c. indivisible ca:cgcrics l - c r : b i s :ypc c : variable. : h e r e are n o

....

,,., . . , , ,

. ,

totermediate

v a l u es

valuesfor example,fivedots and six dotsno other values can ever be observed.

i;iscrc:c variables are ccmmc:-Llvros:r:c:od :c v.bclo. cc .m:ablo n . i n i b o r s : c : example . :bc n u m b e r of children

in a family c r : b c n.r.ribo: :: ?:.1L1'?:"I:? O::-?:"IL;L:"I-:: 1: o b s e r v e ':lass a::endanoc ::o:ri day :o day, y o u may

count 13students one day and 19students the next day. However.it is impossible ever to observe a value between 13 and 19. A discrete variable may also consist of observations that differ qualitatively. For example, ::::. n ;:a::onin.i:'se. :-?aci"i'?r. lav.ver. .?::;. and cell'?::'?

booa.iso :: e o n : : : : : o: :o::a:a:o. :nd:v:::blo o;":e::::::e:

On the o t h e r h a n d , many v a r i a b l e s are not discrete. Variables SJCJ-L as :imc. iLCi^li:. and w c i g b : are not limited tc

a f i x e d s e t o f s e p a r a t e . i n d i v i s i b l e categories. You can measure t i m e , f o r e x a m p l e , i n h o u r s , m i n u t e s , s e c o n d s, or

offractionalparts.

anytwoobservedvalue

: ] " [ ? ': '. ! : 1 .1 . .i. i .

;j-:::;::

iv ! : " [ i. 1 i .1.: . : . ! . !s i; ) c :
." vo'..!*: : ] . ; i : : :

llfll I f f I; i ^ f 1'
" s s n :

s 111 i

jiff;

[fl

s s
M H l

Hi
1 I
s

1111 '

Real limits sie

.masnes :: line:-., sis ici secies:ha: a:-,

line 1'bc real lnui: is two real limits. The upper t

separating two adiaccn: secies is lcca:cd cxac:ly baliway be:limit is at the top oi":bc iircrval. and :bc lower real limit is

The concept of real limits applies to any measuremi : of a continuous variable, even ivbcn :he score categ isuring time to the nearest tenth of a second, the measurement categories wouldbe 31.0,31.1,31.2, a .so on. Eachof ::-LCSC ca:cjcrics represents aninterv; the scale that is boundedby real limits. For esampli iscore ofX = 31.1 seconds indicates that the actual rreallimitof31.05andar between adjacent cat ego in this book, real limits e maker rinaiiv. ivesJ-LCj:divarnvej:J-La::he:e::iiict^::^;;t;;ja:id(;:j^'e:eapp:v:e :i,c variables :ha: arc being measured and not to the scores that are obtained from the measure men:. For c.xamjlc. measuring; ucoulc's bcii"b:s :c :bc neares: iiicb produces scores of SO, SI, S2, and so on. Although the scores may appear to be .' i n ii i". b-i- incasarcd :c :bc neares: Technical Note: Students often ask whether a value of exactly 150.5 shouldhe assignedtothe.X = 150 rvalortheX = 151 :0.5 is the boundary m the t or the other. placement of 150.5 depends on the rule that you are using for rounding numbers, if you are rounding up, then 150.5 goes in the higher interval (X = 151) but if you are a. then in the lowe i rrcallimriofSl.lii.

divided in:c anv njiubc: ci i'raencnal i;ar:s i.i-i\::".i

inch, the nearest 0.5 inch, or the nearest 0.1 men Similarly, a professor cvaluaimg students' knowledge could use a pass/fail sysiem :ha: classifies siudents into two broad categories. However, the professor could choose to use a 10-point cruiz that 10. Or the professor could use a 100-point exam that potentially divides student knowledge into 101 categories from 0to 100. Wheneveryou are free to choose the decree ofurccisicnc: :bc n.iiribci :i ca:c::ciics ici measuring a variable, the vaiiablc i:..:s: be CCI"L::I"LJC as

I i-4e Scales of Measurement

It should be obvic us sync iv ina: da:a cc llec::cn roc aires ina: ive ma/e measaremen:s c: our observations.

as male/female or employed/unemployed, or they can be numerical values such as 68 inches or 175 pounds. The categories used to measure a variable maze jp a scale cf::\easure::\en:. and :hc rclaiicnsl-dps between the categories determine different types of scales. The distinctions among the scales are important because they identify the limitations of certain types of measurements andbecause certain statistical procedures are appropriate for scores that have been measured on some scales but not on others. If you were interestedin uecule's l.e:\il.:s. :c: e>:a:i"ii;le. :: :. :: .lid :neas ..:: . :::: ..;j :: . . b-. .. :l;ss::^\\i I"I ::v.c ca:cjcrics :all, medium, and short. However, :his simple classification would not tell youmuch about the acvaal bci:d"L:s c: :be LnclLVLt i jale. arid :bese :i"ieasa:emen:s v.cald nc:::-"'? -"; a ?:"!: ariii micrmaiiciiic calcula:c a:\a. '.! i i

.s :; j i \ : s :^ : e d .'.'..

..

...!..

S'M:::I:;. v.e OS^I:

::\:s:

I i-4d The Nominal Scale

Ihc -i-.'cre :.c::\::.a: m e a n s " b a v i n s : c cc ;v::b n a m e s " K c a s a r c m c n : c a a n c m l n a l scale Invclvcs class:lv:n; individuals into categorieB that b a s e different n a m e s but are not related to each other in any systematic way. l-'cr e x a m p l e . : : v.: a v.crc mcasurm:- :bc a c a d e m e : m ; c : s : c : ; ::.: be ."::. b.:s:::ess. ::be::\:s::v. ."r.d s-: :r. _.":::. s:adcri: celled? s : a d c n : s. :bc ca:c::crlcs ;-.c alci. :lo??:::-?el in one category according to his

c r b c r m a c r Ibc m e a s u r e m e n t f r c m a n c m l n a l scale allc,-.- us :c d c : c r m l n c ivbc :bcr :wc Individuals are different.but they do not identify either the direction or the size of the difference. If one student is an art major a n d a n c : b c r : s a b : c l c j v m a c r v.c c a n s a v : b a : : b c v a r c dlffcrcm. b u : v , c c a n n c : say : b a : ar: is " m o r e t h a n ' or "less than" biology and w e cannot specify h o w m u c h difference : h c r c is b e t w e e n art and biology. Other

inal scale label and

Al:hca:ih :hc c a : c o ; r : c s e n a :ic:nl:ial scale are n c : c u a n : l : a : : v c valacs. : h c v a r c : : cc; s:cnallv : c u : e s e r . : e d ;:-. i i ir i ..i n.: . . i s h c u l d :'M ...' "La:

the r o o m n u m b e r s are simply names and do not reflect any quantitative information. Room 109 is not necessarily bigger than Room 100 and certainly not 9 points bigger. It also is fairly c o m m on to use numerical values as a code for nominal categories w h e n data are enteredinto computer programs. For example, the data from a survey may code males with a 0 and females with a 1. Again, the nume r ic a l values arc simply n a m e s and do not represent any truantita:ivc difference. I h c scales : h a : follow do reflect an attempt to make Quantitative

I i-4e The Ordinal Scale

Th

orj

Oi'icn. an c r d i n a l scale c c n s i s i s c i ' a scries ci'ranl(s!iirs:.scccnd.:J-Lird. and sc en; l i / e :ne c r d e r c : f i n i s n i n a b c r s c r a c c Occasicnally. :ne c a i c j c r i c s are idcmii'icd by v e r b a l labels like- small, medium, and large drink sizes at afast-food restaurant. In e ither case. :hc i"ac: : h a : :hc categories form an o r d e r e d sequence means that there :s . diicciicr.."! :"'L-1^"":: ccr. c.'iciiciics ', m c a s a i c m c n : ! 11cm an c r d m a l scale, v.; a can d c i c r m i n c

whether t w o individuals are different and y o u can determine the direction of difference. However, ordinal measurements do not allow y o u to determine the size of the difference b e t w e e n t w o individuals. For example,
11 U: .:

.n

i.: .1 .

na

lin .. .1

better reader.but y o u do not k n o w h o w m u c n bc::cr. Oilier e x a m p l e s of ordinal scales include socioeconomic class t a p p e r , middle, lev-.cr; and 1-sbir: sizes (small, mcdi.im. large; In addiiicn. c r d m a l scales arc ci'icivasc mcas.irc variables i c r v.'bicb 1: is dii'iica
. . ' . 'II 11

.. c
.1 ' .1 ' 1 :>. s c a k

I i-4f The Interval and Ratio Scales

additional recruirement that the categories form a series of intervals cha: arc all Exactly the same size. Thus, the scale c: measurement consists of aseries of equal intervals, such as inches on a ruler. Oil-icr examples c: Fahrenheit. Note that.in each case, one interval (1 inch, 1 second, 1 pound, 1 degree) is the same size.no matter where it is located on the scale. The fact that the intervals are all the same size makes it possible to determine both the size and the direction of the difference between two measurements. For example, youknow that a V measjremen:c:SCl Fa lire line:: is higher than ameasure of 60, and youknow that it is exactly U C hijhc-iThe factor that differentiates an intervalscale from aratio scale is the nature of the zero point. An interval scale has ail a:l;i::a:-." . ha: is. :hc .."!.:< : is ."ssi\:::cd ; ;;ai:i'i.]la: ;."::;::;:: -.':.< scale sum;!-? ."s." matter of convenience or reference. Inparticular, a value of zero does not indicate a total absence of the variable being measured. For example a temperature of 0 Fahrenheit does not mean that there is nc zero point are relatively rare. The two most common examples are the Fa lire line 1: and Celsius :cmpcra:urc scales. Other examples include golf scores (above andbelowpar) and relative measures such as above and below average rainfall. Ara:lc seal'? is allelic red bva ncrc :l".a: is nc: a:b:::a:'-"b.i: ra:hei . . / '-1 .h.e reurcscn:::!:: nene (a complete absence) of the variable beingmeasured. The existence of ir it.ilins-.r ir irtitrary zero point means that we can measure the absolute amount of the variable; that t . u r -ir rrs-i-nrs- ilia distance from 0 This makes it possible:.; cempare measurements in terms of ratios. For s-xirr^lf. ir ir ;liviiualwho recruires 10 seconds to solve a problem (10 more than 0) has :al-<cn:wlcc as much &.~t i- v.- irliviliiil who finishes in only S seconds (S more thanO). With aratio scale, we can measure the directur. jr.d the slit jl the difference

Example 1.2.

Ail interval scale consists of ordered categories :ha: arc all in:crvals of exactly the sa n.imbors on; scale ial d:::c:c:.o:s::. ::..-/::.::.idc does not indicate a zcrc amc.m: c: ::.c variable being measured. A ratio scale is an in:crval scale ^1:11:1-Lcacci:icnal:ca:jrcc: an absclj:c zcrc pem: do reflect ratios of magnitude.

height in inches, obtaining values such as -1-1,51, -19, and so on. These initial measurements constitute a ratio scale. A value of zero to form ratios. For example, a child who is G O

.\cv-.s.ippcso ::,a: ::,o rosea:.::,.:: cc:ivo::s ::,o ::r_::a: :n,:as.ir,::n,:n: :n:c a noiv scale bv caic.iia:::!; ::,c CLi'i'crcncc bc:v-.cc:i cacli ::.:ld's .-:::.-! .1 v ... . .. . .,.!.. w:.: .. ::,an avc:a::c nc^\:c:s a see:': -1: a : inciics :aiicr ::Lan average gets a score of+1. Similarly, a child who is 2 inches shorter than average gets a score of-2. On :J-L1S scale.

distances, on eitherscale. For example, there is a S-inch difference in height between two boys who measure 57 and 51 inches tall on the first scale. Likewise, there is a S-inch difference between two boys who measure +9 and +3 on the secondscale. However, you should also notice that ratio comparisons are not possihle on the second scale. For example, a bey who measures +9 is not three :imcs:alicr:hanaboy who measures+3.

I i-4g Statistics and Scales of Measurement

Icrc.u-p.irpcsos. scaioi :: nioaijronion: a:o :nip.:::an: bocaaso iJ-LOVLnfjonco :>:/:nd c: !:a::s::c! ina: can and cannot be used. For example.if you measure IQ scores for agroupofstudents.it is possMe to add the scores together and calculate amean score for the group. On the other hand, ifyo u measure the academic majoi for each student, you cannot compute the mean. (What is the mean of three psychology majors, an English major, and two chemistry majors1'; Incvas: ma;'cri:y O:"::-LC s:a:is:ical:cc:-Lnic;uespresentedin this book are designed :cr:"i.i:ii'::::^ sccrcs ircm anm:'?:'va; era :'a:ic sca> 1'c: mes: s:a::s::ca; a;;^:':a:j:n?. :nc d:?::nc::cn an <''. sca> and ." :.":::: sca> :s nc: :nv.j':::ari: b'M.' ..:: b:::\ si.^s ;:-:

::'. <'.:.':=::.

:',d:\d. mcas.ircmcn:: :::::;. nemma!:: crdina! s::.">s arc -r.r.rd.'s

i n . I I
' I . I

namcrica! :."a_i'?s and arc nc: cc:m)a:i;)lc

i .1 . II

nominal or ordinal scales of measurement (for example, the median and the mode in Chapter 3, the Spearman co rrelationin Chapter 15, and the chi-sc[uare tests in Chapter 17). Additional statistical methods for measurement :rc:n crdiria! s::.">s arc presented in Appendix E.

i-5 Statistical Notation

The measurements obtainedi n research studies provide the datafor statistical analysis. Most of thi analyses use :l"ic same ::?:"i?i"ci 1 i:\.":l:ci:\aiical :^'?:a::-::"i?. :"M::a:L'::"i. o:"i-:; bail': aii:l"iinc:ic :l"ia: y c u n a v ; ; : c y j : .is :-"ca:s ci ^?j"i-??L case le arc .lris.nc iriailicinaiical skills. ilicic is." mail.'

review section in Appendix A at the back of this book. The appendix also includes a skills-assessme: help y o u determine whether y o u n e e d the basic m a t h e m a t i c s review. In this section, w e introduce s specialised i i c i a i i c n i l i a : is ascd i c : siaiisucal calc.ilaiicris li"i l a i c : cliauicis. a d d m c n a l siaiisucal 11

Mcas.inni: a variable

a icscaicli si.idvivuicallv viclds a val.ic :i".-i-

a sccic

cacl"i individual Ka'.v s e c i e s arc ."ii.'blc ."ic i c i n c s c r . i c d

:]"['? criminal, .men a lined S'Mi'is :;i:("

n i n e s 1:1 . ;:." me.:!.":

l e t t e r X P o r e x a m p l e . i f performance in your statistics course is m e a s u r e d b y tests and y o u obtain a 3S on the first test, then w e could st ate that X = 3 S . A s e t of scores c a n b e p r e s e n t e d i n a column that is h e a d e d b y X For example, a lis: . the left). . . .in", 'ilic simile e c l a i n n c n

e made for two variables, there willbe res for each individual. The data canbe wo lists labeled* and yfor the two variables. I le X) and weight inpounds (variable 11 canbe; d as shown in the double column in :hc argiiL Each pair X.Yre -.< :*..;: bse i of a single partici I'hclc-crMs usee :c specify how many scores arc in a sc: An uppercase le::er. icemii'ies :hc number c: scores in apopulation and alowercase letter n identifies the number of scores in a sample. Throughout the remainder of the book you will notice that we often use notational differences to distinguish between samples and populations. For the height and weight datain the preceding table, n = 7for both variables. Note that by

I i-5a Summation Notation

frequently, a specialnotationisusedto refer to the SL of a set of scores Inc Crcc/ lc::cr sigma. cr I. is usee to stand for summation. The expression EX means to i all the scores for variable X. The summation sign, Z, canbe read as "the sum of." Thus.SLYis read "the sum the scores." For the following set of quiz scores,

1. The summation sign,E,is always followedby a symbol or :na::-Lcma:ical expression. The symbol or expression identifies exactly which values are to be added. To compute X,for example, the symbol following the summation sign is X, and the task is to find the sum of the X values. On the other hand, tc compute E(X - 1 ) \ the summation sign is foUowedby a relatively complex mathematical expression, so your first task is to calculate all of the {X - 1) Values and then add the results. 2. The summation process is often include d wi:h several o:hci- ma: he ma: leal operations, such as multiplication or squaring. To obtain the correct answer, i: is Essential that the different operations be done in:ric corrcc: scc.ience l-'cllcv-'i:"i:: :s a 1::: s:-,.:-.\::v:: o: ::::: order of cverazio::;::: mathematical operations. Most of this list shouldbe familiar, but you should note that we have inserted ::-!: s.imma::cn;:r.;e.:ss as :l,e :'.;.ir:ji cpera::c:i 1:1 :;-,: lis: Order of Mathematical Operations :a a o::v.<".:'.'jd ;:: :e:.:l.eses is d: :::? More inforn mathematic the Math Re Symbols an

Squaring (or raisin:::: ::::: e\ij: ::e:::s; :s d: r.e see: rid

J Finally, any c:hcr addi:icn and/or sjb:rac:icn is dene The following examples dcmcns:ra:c now summation not atio:

A set of four scores consist ofvalues 3.1. 7. and < 1 V V c will cc:upu:c IX. IX 1 and HX; "fcrincsc scores lc help demonstrate the ealealaiiens. '.ve .ill .ise." eem:;a:a::erial -oh..: si,.: ::.^:r:^::^^:::'::^ J v .alaes; ::'. :::s: ? ? Add::::::;."! eelamnseari :J-Lcn be added :c shci', add:::cnals:cps in :hc series c:cpcra::cns Ycushculc nc:icc :ha: :hc firs: inrcc cpcra:ions in:hc iis: >':: .":: :::l.eses. i>:: jar::"i-:i. arid :rial::::l..~n::; aii crea:e a nev.cclamn c:'valaes Ine ias: :'': e::e:a::e:"is. he'.-. :::edace a s:n::le valae corresponding to the sum. The tahle to the left shows the original scores (the X values) and the squared scores (the X Values) that are needed to compute SLY2.

.l,e . . ial::pl:ca::c:r. sc i-.e :;; d:rec:lv:c :r,e s operation. TheX values are listedin thefirstcolumn of the tahle, and we simply add the values in this column:

1c ccmpa:eA". :hc correcc order of operations is to square each score and :hc-ii::nc :hc same: :he squared values. The computational tahle shows the original scores and the resuks cb:ained i'rem squaring (:hc firs: s:cp in i:\c calculation). The second step is tofindthe sum of the squared values, sc wc simply add i:\c numbers in :hc X "column.

. he una! calcala::c:i. {IX: : ::iclades paren:j-,eses. se :l,e :::s: s:ep is :c pericrm :l,e cabala::: :i :r.s:de :r,e pa:en:j-,eses .1. .:s. -.-.e :::s find LX and then square this sum. Earher, we computedX = lS,sa

To compute UX - IS. :hc firs: s:cp is :c poricrm :ho cpora:ic:i inside:ho paiomhosos .h.is. i-.o bo;i:i bvs.ibiracting one point fro. each of theX values. The resulting values are listedin the middle column of the table. The nest step is to add the tX-1) values.

The calculation of UX - V, 'requires :hrcc s:cps :hc firs: s:cp (inside paron: noses; is :c s.ibirac:'. pcin: from eachX value. The rcsniisircmihissicp arc shewnin:hc middle cchmmciihc ccmpniaiicnaiiabic :hc secend s:cp is :c square cachciihc (A 1; values. The results from this step are shown in the third column of the tahle. The final step is to add the {X - \) Values to obtain

v.siako is :: add :he <X '.: vai.ios and :hen sq.iaro :he

In both of [he preceding examples, and in many i in ope rati in is the last step in the calculation. According to [he order c:"cjcra:ic:"is. jarcmricsiis, exponents, andmuldplicac on aU con.e before summaiion. However, there are situations in which extra addition and subtractic narecomple :ed after the sur unation. E or this example. use the same scoresfhat appeared in [he previous :v.rc cxamulcs. an(i ecuipute EX - 1. Withnoparen[heses. cxponcms. or mul:iplica:ii in, the First st .pis.hesumma lion. Thus we begin by conpuling EX. Earlierwe found EX = IS. The next step is to subtract one p( lint from the lata.

!--!-

For [his example, cadi individual lias :ivo scores. The first: following computational table, compute EX,Ey, and EXy.

s idemiiied as A. and :lic secend sec re is ;'. Wkh (he help of (he

lc iind IX. simply add :lic values in :hc A cc

_c ccmpu:e IXY. :j-,e iirs: s:ep is :c m.ilnplvA :imes i'icr cacli individual llic resuliin^ pre column of the table. Finally, we add the products to obtain

:s (AT values; arc lis:cd in :hc :hird

E 3
Summary
r c i c r :c m c i h c d s i c : c i l i a r y nv:i. s.iiriiriaiminii. a:\d LUT:; 2. Scientific Cucs:ic:is .isually c c i i c c m a p c p u l a i i c n . which is :hc c m i r c sc: ci' individuals one wishes t o s:udy. Usuallv. u c u . i l a i i c n s arc =: l a i i i c : h a : i: is imucssiblc o f a r e s e a r c h study. 3. A c h a r a c t e r i s e : h a : describes a sample is called a statistic, a n d a characteristic that describes a j c j u l a i i c n i s call-eel." i ; a : a i n c i c : Alil.i ..::':'. sample siaiisucs arc .ls.iallvicuicsciriaiivc ci"corresponding .11 .1 i .1 . .1 .:.i . naturally ( 1. S t a t . . . . . . . ii ,md a p a r a m e t e r . The i c a n d ." ;;aiaii"icic: is called sampling e r r o r . itegone examine idual, so m o s t r e s e a r c h is c c n d u c :cd v.nh samples A sample is a M C .n; sclccicd l i e in." ucij.ilaiicir. asually for p u r p o s e s

J. The c o r r c l a i i o n a l m c : h o d e x a m i n e s re la Heirships bcn-.ccir variables b v m - i a s a r i n ; nvo different variables i c r each individual i h i s m c i h o d allows r e s e a r c h e r s t o m e a s u r e a n d describe relaiicnships . b u : cannot p r o d u c e a cause-and-effect e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e relationship . G. The e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d e x a m i n e s relationships b e t w e e n va ria b l e s b y m a n i p u l a t i n g an i n d e p e n d e n t group of scores in each condition. The g r o u p s of scores are t h e n c o m p a r e d . A systematic difference a n o t h e r also caused a change in the d e p e n d e n : variable. All o : h e r v a r i a b l e s are controlle d to p r e v e n t t h e m f r o m i n f l u e n c m i - i h c r c l a h o n s h i p The i n : c n : c i : h c c x p c r i i u c m a l m c i h o d is to d e m o n s t r a t e a cause-and-effect relationship b e t w e e n v a r i a b l e s .

li".sic."d

i:i."iini.il."iiii\i

. .

i.idv ascs a i;:cc\isnii\i

participant characiciisiic ''s.ich ."s male icinalc; c : ihc uassanc ci en:". ! ' ' b c i c ic a i i c : ; :: 'ircaie the g r o u p s being c o m p a r e d . S. A m e a s u r e m e n t scale consists of a set of categories t h a t are u s e d :c classiiy individuals. A n o m i n a l scale consists of categories that differ only in n a m e a n d are n o t differentiate d i n t e r m s of m a g n i t u d e or l i r a i r c i d i i r a l scale. :hc caiciiciics arc d i i i c i c n i i a i c d iciins ci diicciicn. forming an o r d e r e d series. An i n t e r v a l scale consists of an o r d e r e d series of caicgorics : h a : arc all ceual-sizcd imcrvals . W i i h Finally, a ratio scale is an i n t e r v a l scale for w h i c h :hc zero point indicates n o n e of t h e v a r i a b l e b e i n g m e a s u r e d . W i t h a ratio scale, ratios of m e a s u r e m e n t s reflect ratios of m a g n i t u d e .

A ELS::::.: varLable .:.;:isis:s ;: L : i d L V L ! L b l e ca:.;;.-;.;!. .:L:O:I I-.J-L.;1.; LuniboL! ::,a: vary 1:1 :; .m:able !:;;:! A :n:ci-va:cn:hc scale Ibc be jncarlc! :ha: !cpara:c ln:crval! arc called real limi:s and arc lcca:cc cxac:ly halfway between adjacent scores. 10. The letter .X is used to represent scores for a variable. If a second variable is used, V represents its scores. The letter Wis used as the symbolfor the number of sco res in a population; n is the symbolfor anumber 11. The Greekletter sigma (O is used to stand for summation. Therefore, the expression!^ is read "the sum

.'..'.' . . . ... . .
exLJCLieLi:!. and LYL.IILLLJIVLLI^ LILVLCILLITL l"iav-? beeLiccLYLLjleLed

E 3
| Key Terms

correlational method experimental method i i L dep ei ulei 11 v a r i a b 1 e depen den t vari abl e control condition experimental condition iLOiLequivalent groups study pre-post study cju asi-in depen den t vari abl e

discrete variable

real limits upper real limit lower real limit

ordinal scale

I Resources
Book Companion Web site: www.cengage.com/psychology/gravetter Vcucaiiiiiid jrae::cc ^.lmcs and c:bc: learmn:- aids :c: eve:-: cba;;:c: m:bii bee'.< c:i::i: book companion website, as well as a series of workshops and other resources corresponding to the main topic areas. In the lefthand column are a variety of learning exerrises for Chapter l.induding a tutorial cruiz. Also in the left-hand column.under Book Resources.isalinkto the workshops. For Chapter 1, there is a workshop that reviews the scales of measurement. To get there, dick on the Workshop link, then dick on Scales of Measurement. To find .n.i : ..i v .: v .:.i \ote that the workshops well1 .'. . . . . . . uooks writtenby different authors. As a result, youmayfind that some of the notation or terminology is different from that wincl-i you learned in this text. At the end of each chapter we remind you about the Web resources. Again, there is a tutorial cruiz for every chapter, and we notify you whenever there is a workshop that is related to the chapter content.

0,.
a

P l l a Improve yourunderstandingof statistics with Apha's auto-gradedproblem sets andimmediate,

C E N G A G E b r a i n Psychology CourseMate brings course concepts to life withinteradive learning, s:.]d'.". and cxani ;;:c;;a:a::cri :cels::..": s/.^je:: :e\:beek . ' . . ^cbsi:c. r v Ccjrscya:c inclades an in:c:i:\n:cd in:c:\nc:ivc cFcck and c:bc: in:c:ac:ivc learning :cels including quizzes,

Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access your account and purchase materials. incSiansncalPackaicicriJ-LCSccial Sciences, kncivnas SPSS. Li; cc:np.i:c: prcjramiba: pcricr most of the s t at is :ical calculate us :ba: are presence in :j"iis beck, and is commonly available on college and university computer systems. Appendix D contains a general introduction to SPSS. In the Resource sedion at

: : .

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:l\c s:.'::s:::.'

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el..'

I Focus on Problem Solving

Demonstration l . i S u m m a t i o n N o t a t i o n I of scores consist c: :hc :c lie i^inj values

For these scores, compute cache: :hc :c Hewing

ipute X. The second step is to scruare the value for JX= 28 and ( ^ ( 2 8 ) ^ 7 8 4

squared scores :hc ccivipu:a:iciial :able shows the s is. To compute IX \ie add the values in the X 2 column.

Compute E(X-2] The first step.inside parentheses, is to subtract 2 points from each score. The second step is to add the resulting values. The computational table shows the scores and the (X - 2) values. To compu:c It* T,. add :hc values in the tX - 2) column