ABSTRACT

Alternating current (AC) is the main driving force in the industries and residential areas, but for the long transmission line (more than 400 miles) AC transmission is more expensive than that of direct current (DC). Technically, AC transmission line control is more complicated because of the frequency. DC transmission does not have these limitations, which has led to build long HVDC transmission lines over the last 40 years.

HVDC technology made possible to transfer bulk power over long distances. This paper presents a comparative evaluation of HVDC and HVAC transmission systems.

The electrical power can be transmitted from generating stations to consumer load by using Ac transmission or by using Dc transmission.

The paper presents the difference between High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) and High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) power system. The main differences are like thermal limit, corona losses, skin effect, Ferranti effect etc.

The High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) is highly preferred for transmitting high power across long distances with fewer losses. High voltage Direct current (HVDC) is having the following advantages like higher efficiency, good regulation, Economical, lesser conductors, no reactive power compensation and high reliable than HVAC system transmitting same amount of power.

The presentation will give the conclusion as the HVDC is eco friendly power transmission and high reliable. .

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The different transmission technologies to transmit bulk amount of power are High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) and High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC).

HVDC has been used for bulk power transmission for many decades. The first commercial HVDC transmission system was installed in 1954 between the island of Gotland and mainland Sweden. Today many HVDC links exist throughout the world, many of which involve submarine cables.

High voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission system consists of three basic parts:

1) converter station to convert AC to DC 2) transmission line 3) second converter station to convert back to AC.

HVDC transmission systems can be configured in many ways on the basis of cost, flexibility, and operational requirements. The simplest one is the back-to-back interconnection, and it has two converters on the same site and there is no transmission line. This type of connection is used as an inter tie between two different AC transmission systems. The mono-polar link connects two converter stations by a single conductor line and earth or sea is used as a returned path. The most common HVDC link is bipolar, where two converter stations are connected by bipolar () conductors and each conductor has its own ground return. The multi-terminal HVDC transmission systems have more than two converter stations, which could be connected is series or parallel.

More efficient over long distances, HVDC transmission can move more power with less electrical losses than an equivalent AC transmission line. Lower cost higher efficiency means a lower transmission cost, helping renewable energy compete against other power sources.

Improved Reliability: HVDC transmission can enhance system stability, allows the operator complete control over power flow, and facilitate the integration of wind from different resource areas. HVDC transmission lines require narrower right-of-way footprints, using less land, than equivalent AC lines.

The major advantage of DC power lines is their efficiencyless energy is lost as it is transmitted and there is no need for reactive compensation along the line. Because DC flows steadily through the wires without changing track many times each second and through the entire conductor rather than at the surface, DC transmission lines typically lose less power than AC transmission lines.

So far, HVDC transmission has mainly been used in submarine applications, either connecting offshore wind farms to land or Transmitting electricity over long distance through the sea where overhead lines cannot be used.

The HVDC cables are beginning to be used also for land transmission projects. As higher power loads need to be transported over long distances across land, more and more thinking goes into creating HVDC electricity highways.

CHAPTER 2 HVDC & HVAC

Alternating current (AC) became very familiar for the industrial and domestic uses, but still for the long transmission lines, AC has some limitations which has led to the use of DC transmission in some projects. The technical detail of HVDC transmission compare to high voltage AC (HVAC) transmission is discussed to verify HVDC transmission for long distances. Current and voltage limits are the two important factors of the high voltage transmission line. The AC resistance of a conductor is higher than its DC resistance because of skin effect, and eventually loss is higher for AC transmission. The switching surges are the serious transient over voltages for the high voltage transmission line, in the case of AC transmission the peak values are two or three times normal crest voltage but for DC transmission it is 1.7 times normal voltage. HVDC transmission has less corona and radio interference than that of HVAC transmission line . The total power loss due to corona is less than 5 MW for a 450 kV and 895 kilometers HVDC transmission line.

The long HVAC overhead lines produce and consume the reactive power, which is a serious problem. If the transmission line has a series inductance L and shunt capacitance C per unit of length and operating voltage V and current I, the reactive power produced by the line is Qc =CV2 and consumers reactive power QL = LI2 per unit length. If QC = QL

where Zs is surge impedance of the line. The power in the line is

and is called natural load. So the power carried by the line depends on the operating voltage and the surge impedance of the line. Table I shows the typical values of a three phase overhead lines.

Voltage (kV) Natural load (MW)

132

230

345

500

700

43

130

300

830

1600

TABLE I voltage rating and power capacity

The power flow in an AC system and the power transfer in a transmission line can be expressed

E1 and E2 are the two terminal voltages, is the phase difference of these voltages, and X is the series reactance. Maximum power transfer occurs at = 90 and is

Pmax is the steady-state stability limit. For a long distance transmission system the line has the most of the reactance and very small part is in the two terminal systems, consisting of machines, transformers, and local lines. The inductive reactance of a singlecircuit 60 Hz overhead line with single conductor is about 0.8 /mi (0.5/km); with double conductor is about 3/4 as greater. The reactance of the line is proportional to the
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length of the line, and thus power per circuit of an operating voltage is limited by steadystate stability, which is inversely proportional to length of line.

For the reason of stability the load angle is kept at relatively low value under normal operating condition (about 30) because power flow disturbances affect the load-angle very quickly. In an uncompensated line the phase angle varies with the distance when the line operating at natural load and puts a limit on the distance. For 30 phase angle the distance is 258 mi at 60 Hz. The line distance can be increased using series capacitor, whose reactance compensates a part of series inductive reactance of the line, but the maximum part that can be compensated has not been determined yet.

On the other hand D.C transmission has no reactance problem, no stability problem, and hence no distance limitation.

2.1

HVDC Transmission

HVDC transmission system consists mainly of the following components: AC filters DC filters Converter transformer Thyristor valves Smoothing reactor STATCOM or capacitor banks DC cable and return path Auxiliary power set (i.e.Diesel generator)

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of a typical HVDC converter Station

Filters AC filters are used in order to absorb harmonic currents generated by the HVDC converter and thus to reduce the impact of the harmonics on the connected AC system. AC filters also supply reactive power to the converter station. DC filters are used to avoid that the harmonic voltage in the DC side will cause an AC current superimposed on the DC current in the transmission line.

Converter Transformer In HVDC transmission systems two converter transformers are required is to have the secondary and the primary with one star and one delta Connection. This way several harmonics are cancelled and a significant reduction of filters is achieved. The overall design of a converter transformer for HVDC transmission is more complicated than it is for ordinary transformers. The insulation has to withstand the AC component of the voltage plus the DC component coming from the thyristor valves.

Thyristor Valves The thyristor valves are the most important component in the converter station, since they operate the conversion from AC to DC and vice versa. The available technology today gives thyristors characterized by silicon wafer of diameter up to 125 mm, blocking voltages up to 8 kV and current carrying capacities up to 4kV DC. With these characteristics it is possible to convert up to 1000 MW for land connections and up to 500 MW for submarine transmissions. In order to operate the thyristor valves require reactive power. For this reason filters and capacitor banks are used, but the usage of STATCOMs is also considered.

Smoothing Reactors Smoothing reactors are large inductances connected in series with each pole. They prevent the current interruption at minimum load, limit the DC fault current, prevent resonances in the DC circuit and reduce the harmonic current caused by interferences from the overhead lines.
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Capacitor Banks and STATCOMs Since the valves in the converters require reactive power, it is necessary to include in the design of the converter station capacitor banks or STATCOMs. This way the control of the reactive power balance is achieved. Capacitor banks consist of a series of capacitors connected in parallel to the transformer. STATCOMs are designed with VSC technology and they improve the operation of the whole converter station due to their function to generate or consume reactive power.

2.3 ADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER HVAC TRANSMISSION:

ADVANTAGES

Greater power per conductor. Simpler line construction. Ground return can be used. Hence each conductor can be operated as an independent circuit. No charging current. No Skin effect. Cables can be worked at a higher voltage gradient. Line power factor is always unity: line does not require reactive compensation. Less corona loss and radio interference, especially in foul weather, for a certain conductor diameter and rms voltage. Synchronous operation is not required. Hence distance is not limited by stability. May interconnect A.C systems of different frequencies. Low short-circuit current on D.C line. Does not contribute to short-circuit current of a A.C system. Tie-line power is easily controlled.

DISADVANTAGES Converters are expensive. Converters require much reactive power. Converters generate harmonic, require filters. Multiterminal or network operation is not easy

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1,000 km. Highvoltage direct current transmission allows efficient use of energy sources remote from load centers. In a number of applications HVDC is more effective than AC transmission.

Examples include. Marine cables, where high capacitance causes additional AC losses. Endpoint-to-endpoint long-haul bulk power transmission without intermediate 'taps', for example, in remote areas Increasing the capacity of an existing power grid in situations where additional wires are difficult or expensive to install power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronized AC distribution systems Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short circuit current Reducing line cost.

HVDC needs fewer conductors as there is no need to support multiple phases. Also, thinner conductors can be used since HVDC does not suffer from the skin effect facilitate power transmission between different countries that use AC at differing voltages and/or frequencies Synchronize AC produced by renewable energy sources Long undersea high voltage cables have a high electrical capacitance, since the conductors are surrounded by a relatively thin coating of insulation and a metal cover. The geometry is that of a long co-axial capacitor. Where alternating current is passed through cable transmission, this capacitance appears in parallel with load. Extra current must flow in the cable to charge the cable capacitance, which generates additional losses in the conductors

of the cable. Additionally, there is a dielectric loss component in the material of the cable insulation, consumers power.

When, however, DC supply is used, the cable capacitance is only charged when the cable is first keyed up or when the voltage is changed; there is no steady-state surplus current required. For a long AC undersea cable, the entire current-carrying capacity of the conductor could be used to supply the charging current alone. This limits the length of AC cables.

DC cables have no such limitation although some DC leakage current continues to flow through the dielectric; this is very small compared to the cable rating. HVDC can carry more power per conductor because, for a given power rating, the constant voltage in a DC line is lower than the peak voltage in an AC line.

In AC power, the root mean square (RMS) voltage measurement is considered the standard, but RMS is only about 75% of the peak voltage. The peak voltage of AC determines the actual insulation thickness and conductor spacing. Because DC operates at an invariable highest voltage, this allows existing transmission line corridors with equally sized conductors and insulation to carry 100% more power into an area of high power consumption than AC, which can lower costs. Because HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another.

Changes in load that would cause portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would be liable to stabilize the AC system.

The scale and trend of power flow through a DC link can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone
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. 2.3 MERIT-DEMERIT OF HVDC OVER HVAC TRANSMISSION

The demerits of HVDC are in conversion, switching, control, availability and overall maintenance. The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC transmission line. The outlay of the inverters may not be counterbalance by reductions in line erection cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all earlier mercury rectifiers global have been dismantled or replaced by thyristor units. In contrast to AC systems realizing multiterminal systems is very multipart, as it is expanding the existing formats to multi-terminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multi-terminal DC system necessitates fine message between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated by the inverter control system instead of the inherent properties of the transmission line. Multi-terminal lines are rare. HVDC is less consistent and has lower availability than AC systems, mainly due to the extra adaptation of equipments. Single pole systems have accessibility of about 98.5%, with about a third of the downtime unscheduled due to faults. Fault redundant bipolar systems provide high availability for 50% of the link capacity, but availability of the full capacity is about 97% to 98%. High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great to allocate dependable switching. Working a HVDC method requires many spare parts to be kept, often exclusively for one system as HVDC systems are less standardized than AC systems and technology changes faster.

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Fig. 2. Basic concept of HVDC

AC system is used in the transmission of bulk power, instead of DC (Direct Current), because of its ability to renovate voltage to various levels using a transformer. Ability to transform voltage and to flow power in two opposite directions (bidirectional) are the only major advantages of AC system over DC system. DC transmission system on the other hand has more advantages over AC transmission system. The industrial growth of a nation requires increased consumption energy, particularly electrical energy. This has lead to increase in the generation and transmission facilities to meet the increasing demand. The generation can be increased to the required level but the problem is in transmission due to the thermal limit, because the transmission line load ability is fixed up to 60% of the power to be transmitted.

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CHAPTER 3 PROBLEMS WITH HVAC TRANSMISSION

The following are the disadvantages in HVAC transmission lines: Skin effect Corona loss Ferranti effect Thermal limit Economics of transmission Reliability Technical performance

3.1

SKIN EFFECT OF HVAC:

The skin effect is the tendency of an alternating electric current (AC) to distribute itself within a conductor so that the current density near the surface of the conductor is greater than that at its core. That is, the electric current tends to flow at the "skin" of the conductor. The skin effect causes the effective resistance of the conductor to increase increa with the frequency of the current. Skin effect is due to eddy currents set up by the AC current. The skin effect has practical consequences in the design of radio-frequency radio and microwave circuits and to some extent in AC electrical power transmission and an distribution systems. Also, it is of considerable importance when designing discharge tube circuits. This outcome can be minimized by using, Moose or ACSR (Aluminum conductor steel reinforce) conductors which has the property to minimize the skin effect. But it adds to the cost contrast to common conductors.

Fig.3 3.

skin

effect

Skinn depth,

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3.2

CORONA LOSSES IN HVAC & HVDC SYSTEM:

The purpose of the power transmission line is to carry energy from generation stations to urban or industrial places. To satisfy the growing need of the energy the transmission line capacity has been increased rapidly recent years, and this trend is continuing. The typical high voltage transmission line range is 400-1000 kV and this huge voltage has to cross all kinds of terrain - urban area, village, water, desert, and mountain. The effect of high voltage on the environment and human being is a topical and even controversial issue in recent year. This section discusses HVDC transmission effects on the environment in the context of Nelson River transmission system. The common effects of high voltage transmission systems are magnetic fields, electric fields, RF interference, corona effects, electromagnetic interference, electrodes, acoustic noise, and visual impact.

MAGNETIC FIELD The magnetic field around a conductor depends on the current flowing through the conductor and the distance from the conductor. The magnetic flux density is inversely proportional to the distance from the conductor. For 450 kV DC transmission line the flux density is about 25 T, where the Earth's natural magnetic field is 40 T .

ELECTRIC FIELD Electric field is produced by the potential difference between the overhead conductor and the earth and the space charge clouds produced by conductor corona. Directly under the conductor has the highest electric field and is approximately 20 kV/m for a 450 kV transmission line. The electric field may change with the weather, seasonal variation and relative humidity. DC has less electric field problem than that of AC because of the lack of steady-state displacement current; thus HVDC require much less right-ofway (ROW) than horizontal AC configuration and less height than the AC delta configuration of HVAC transmission of comparable rating. The potential difference between land electrode and line conductor is termed as step voltage, can cause shock current. The typical human body resistance of 1000 ohms, a limit value of 5 mA current can flow through the human body safely and DC has the less electric current density, which is 70 nA/m2 for 450 kV transmission line.
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CORONA Corona effects on the surface of high voltage overhead power transmission lines are the principal source of radiated noise. The ion and corona effects on the DC transmission lines lead to a small contribution of ozone production. The natural concentration of ozone in the clean air is approximately 50 ppb (parts per billion) and in the city area this value may reach 150 ppb. The limiting values for persons risk is around 180-200 ppb. The HVDC overhead transmission line produces 10 ppb as compared with naturally occurring concentration.

A corona is a process by which a current, perhaps sustained, develops from an electrode with a high potential in a neutral fluid, usually air, by ionizing that fluid so as to create plasma around the electrode. The ions generated eventually pass charge to nearby areas of lower potential, or recombine to form neutral gas molecules. Copper losses and Corona losses are the major losses of the grid. When the weather is stormy, the number of ions or electrons is more than the normal, and as such the corona may occur at much less voltage, Vc as compared with fair weather. The common expression of corona loss for HVAC system, KW/Km/Phase is given by

When corona losses are low, the loss formulae becomes as:

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The common expression of corona loss for HVDC system, KW/Km/Phase is given by

Loss ratio of HVDC and HVAC is given by

Now putting f =50 Hz and other terms remaining constant, then equation (7) reduces as:

LR

(8)

Similarly, corona losses of HVDC system are given by the following parameters in mono polar system as:

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And bipolar HVDC system given as:

The corona losses in a bipolar line are given as:

Where, mo = 0.97 to 0.92 for roughened or weather wires go = 33KV/cm, Air dielectric strength at N.T.P 1 =Air density correction factor r= Radius of the line conductor P0 = (0.3 to 0.5) kW/km D= Spacing of the conductors h= Height of the conductor above in earth Vc= Disruptive critical voltage. Vop= Operating voltage of HVDC system Vph= Phase to neutral voltage b= Barometric pressure at any pressure and F is the factor ranging from 0.012 to 8 depending on the weather conditions of ambient at temperature, t.

It is found that

1 and mo reduces drastically at bad weather condition, so the

corresponding value of Vc is literally reduces, so there is a prospect of grid failure due to huge corona losses in power lines. The above modus operandi is also constructive to revise the corona losses during the unclean climate condition.

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RADIO, TV, AND TELEPHONE INTERFERENCE

The switching process of the thyristor valves of the electronic converters causes fast current commutations and voltage changes, which produces parasitic current. The parasitic current and operational harmonic cause disturbances in the kilohertz and megahertz region of the radio-frequency spectrum. These high frequencies propagate to the overhead line through the converter transformers. Radio interference radiation can be reduced by electromagnetic shielding of the valve hall. The radio-interference level of an HVDC overhead transmission line is lower than that of HVAC overhead transmission line. For the HVDC it is 40 dB (V/m) for 0.5 MHz, 300 meter from the conductor, for the 380 kV HVAC overhead transmission line the value is 50 dB (V/m) .

The fair weather corona-generated line radio interference is about 35 dB at 30 m and 40 dB at 15 m from the outer conductor at 450 kV. The power line carrier frequency interference can occur at the frequency band 30-400 kHz. The thyristor operation produces the harmonics, and this harmonic current induces potentials in the lines as results of their electromagnetic fields. These potentials can interfere with the telecommunication systems electrically and magnetically. This interference can be reduced using appropriate filter circuits

ACOUSTIC NOISE

The main sources of acoustic noise are the road and rail traffic, and very small portion come from the industrial plant like power plant. The subjective perceptions of acoustic noise nuisance are dependent on the amplitude, frequency and duration of the noise [9]. The accepted limit of the acoustic noise for the industrial plant depends on the local conditions but is generally between 35 and 45 dB (A). The HVDC transmission system contains numbers of subassemblies and components which cause noise. The transformer is the principle source of noise, and its noise mainly depends on the core flux density. The no load operational noises are 10 to 20 dB (A) higher than that of the rated load operation. With converter transformers, on the other hand the sum of all load noises
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is approximately 10 dB (A) higher than the no load noises, and the frequency content of the emitted noise is evenly spread over 300 to 3000 Hz. The noise can be controlled or reduced using high quality low noise equipments, enclosure of equipment to attenuate noise emission, shielding room or separating the noisy equipment by distance. For a typical HVDC station has a noise intensity of less than 10 dB(A) at a distance of 350 m. The HVDC transmission line has less width for the rightof- way compare to HVAC transmission line and hence, DC transmission has less visual impact. In general, from all environmental aspect, the audible noise could only be the limiting factor for HVDC line in meeting existing or future regulations.

3.3

FERRANTI EFFECT OF HVDC:

The Ferranti Effect is a rise in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a long transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, which occurs when the line is charged but there is a very light load or the load is disconnected. This effect is due to the voltage drop across the line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. Therefore both capacitance and inductance are accountable for producing this phenomenon. The Ferranti Effect will be more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage applied. The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length. Due to high capacitance, the Ferranti Effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths

Fig.4. Ferranti Effect of Transmission line

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3.4

THERMAL LIMIT OF HVAC:

Thermal limits usually determine the maximum power flow for lines. Thermal power flow limits on overhead lines are intended to limit the temperature attained by the energized conductors and the resulting sag and loss of tensile strength. The amount of power that can be sent over a transmission line is limited. The origins of the limits vary depending on the length of the line. The increase in thermal limit of the transmission system increases the cost of insulation and also it. increases the cost of Transformers, Switch gear and other terminal apparatus.

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CHAPTER 4 HVDC IN INDIA

The Talcher to Kolar 400KV HVDC, Rihand via Darin Chandrapur to Padghe (Mumbai) 800 kV HVDC power Transmission line from Gomati RiverNidhaura (near Kanpur). The 800 kV, 6000 MW North East-Agra multi-terminal HVDC link. HVDC Rihand Fatehpur & Shikohabad to Dadari Transmission line for NTPC (PGCIL), 800 kV HVDC Transmission Line from Barabisa to Islampur (283 km) by Tata Power, HVDC SileruBarsoor Sileru and etc. Table II List of HVDC Projects in India

S.No

Project Name

Power Rating (MW) 1500

AC Voltage

DC Voltage

Mode Of Operation

Length Of Line

Rihand-Dadri 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Talcher-Kolar Ballia-Bhiwadi Chandrapur-Padge Mundra-Mohindergarh Bishwanath-Agra Vidhyanchal Chandrapur

400 KV

500 KV

Bipole 816 Km

2000 2500 1500 1500 6000 2*250 2*250

400 KV 400 KV 400 KV 400 KV 400 KV 400 KV 400 KV

500 KV

Bipole

1369 Km 780 Km 752 Km 986 Km 1728 Km

500 KV Bipole 500 KV Bipole 500 KV Bipole 800 KV Multi-Terminal 70 KV 205 K V 205 K V Back To Back Back To Back

Sasaram

1*500

400 KV

Back To Back

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CHAPTER 5 HVDC POWER TRANSMISSION

Modern DC power transmission is relatively a new technology which made a modest beginning in the year 1954. The advent of thyristor valve and relater technological improvements over the last 18 years has been responsible for the acceleration of the growth of HVDC technology is still undergoing many changes due to continuing innovations directed at improving reliability and reducing cost of converter stations. The hottest expansion of multi-terminal system operation has augmented the scope of application of HVDC systems. However, the growth in the knowledge on HVDC technology remains limited.

When the number and size of DC system are small, it was common to mull over HVDC power transmission as too specialized and fit only to be taken up by the manufacturers and consultants. With the escalation of HVDC systems there is now a bigger alertness among engineers from the power utilities, regarding the potential of DC transmission from the point of view of dealings with AC systems. Some of these exchanges are advantageous, while others may pose problems unless investigated thoroughly during the design arenas and solutions incorporated to succeed over the adverse effects. While it is factual that the HVDC systems are to a certain extent consistent and converter control tolerates elasticity in the method of maneuvers.

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5.1

COMPARISONS OF AC & DC TRANSMISSION

The comparative merits of two modes of transmission (AC & DC) which have to to be considered by a classification conniver are based on the following factors:

Economics of transmission Technical performance Reliability

5.1.1 ECONOMICS OF POWER TRANSMISSION

Bulk power could be transferred using HVDC or HVAC transmission system from a remote generating station to the load center. Direct cost comparisons between AC and DC alternatives should be conducted before make a decision. In order to compare the cost, all main system elements must be taken into consideration. For the DC alternative, capital cost for the converter terminals, AC input/output equipment, filters, the interconnecting transmission line must be accounted. For the AC alternative, capital cost for the step up/ step-down transformer, the overhead line, light load compensation if required, reactive power compensation, circuit breaker, building should be evaluated.

Estimate the costs is not a straight forward calculation, because the equipments' costs are always varying and also it varies from place to place and company to company. For this calculation, the installed cost of each of these items includes cost of materials or equipment, construction, land, material handling, surveys and usually overhead charges. At the beginning of the survey several transmission arrangements were investigated for the Bipole 1, but preliminary examination narrowed down to 500 AC or 450 DC.

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The estimate cost for the circuit breaker and transformer include the approximate cost of related control and protection, buswork, disconnect switches, related structures, and control houses. Total cost for the sending and receiving end AC stations is $37.69 million. All costs are calculated on the basis of year 1985. The cost of electrical and electronic equipments varies time to time; naturally the cost goes down with newer technology. The HVDC and HVAC system consist of not only the equipment cost but also the labor cost, which goes up with the time. If both costs compensate each other, the present cost would be the same as 1985's cost. By taking inflation into account, the costs in 1985 can be converted to the present equivalent cost, and the multiplying factor is 1.73.

Table III Equipment Converter transformers Valves (including control and cooling) Filters and var supply Miscellaneous (communications, dc reactor, arresters, relaying etc.) Engineering (system studies, project management) Civil work and site installation 15-30 Percentage of total cost 20-25 20-30 5-20 5-15

2-5

D.C. SYSTEM COSTS AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL PROJECT COSTS

The cost of transmission line includes the investment and operational costs. The investment includes costs of right of way (ROW), transmission towers, conductors, insulators and terminal equipment. The operational costs take account of mainly the cost of losses. The characteristics of the insulators vary the type of voltage applied. For simplicity, if it is assumed that the insulator characteristics are similar for AC & DC and it depend on the peak level of the voltage applied with the respect to the ground.
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Then it can be publicized that for lines designed with the same insulation level, a DC line carry as much power with two conductors (with positive and negative polarities with respect to ground) as an AC line with three conductors for the same size. This implies that for a given power stage DC line requires less ROW, simpler and cheaper towers and reduced conductor and insulation costs.

The power losses are also reduced with DC as there are only two conductors. The absence of skin effect with DC is also beneficial in reducing power losses marginally. The dielectric losses in case of power cables is also very less for DC transmission. The corona effects tend to be less noteworthy on DC conductors than for AC and this also leads to the option of monetary size of the conductors with DC transmission. The other factors that manipulate the line cost are the cost of reparation and terminal equipments. DC lines do not entail compensation but the workstation equipment costs are increased due to the presence of the power converter and filters

Fig .5. HVDC and HVAC Transmission systems cost

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AC tends to be more economical than DC for distance less than break even distance and costlier for longer distances. The break even distance can vary from 500 to 800 km in overhead power lines depending on the per unit line costs.

5.1.2 TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE The DC transmission has some positive facets which are lacking in AC transmission. These are largely due to the prompt controllability of power in DC lines through converter control. The following are the advantages: Full control over power transmitted. The ability to enhance transient and dynamic stability in association AC networks. Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines. These make it feasible to avoid DC breakers in two terminal DC links. In addition, the DC transmission overcomes some of the problems of AC transmission. These are described further:

5.1.2.1VOLTAGE & POWER CONTROL

The voltage control in AC lines is complicated by the line charging and inductive voltage drops. The voltage profile in an AC line is relatively flat only for the fixed level of power transfer corresponding to surge impedance loading (SIL).

Fig.6.

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The voltage profile varies with the line loading. For the constant voltage at the line terminals, the mid point voltages reduced for the line loading higher then SIL and increase for loading less than SIL. This is shown in figure followed: The maintenance of constant voltages at the two ends requires reactive power control from inductive to capacitive as the line loading is increased. The reactive power requirements increase with the increase in the line lengths. Although DC converter stations require reactive power related to the line loadings, the line itself does not involve reactive power. The steady state charging currents in AC lines pose serious problems in cables this puts the break even distance for the cable transmission around 40 km.

Fig. 7.HVDC Converter Topology

With consideration of source inductance. Where, and is the firing and overlapping angle respectively by which Udr> Udi is to be controlled for power flow. Fig.3 shows the various electrical angles which define the operation of converter bridges. These angles are

27

measured on the three phase valve side voltages and are based upon steady state conditions with a harmonic free and idealized three phase commutation voltage. They apply to both inverters and rectifiers. Delay angle . The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage to the starting instant of forward current conduction. This angle is controlled by the gate firing pulse and if less than 90 degrees, the converter bridge is a rectifier and if greater than 90 degrees, it is an inverter.

This angle is often referred to as the firing angle. Advance angle . The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the starting instant of forward current conduction to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage. The angle of advance is related in degrees to the angle of delay by the following equation

It is useful to express the commutation reactance of a 6 pulse converter bridge in per-unit of the converter transformer rating SN as follows

Where, IdN is the rated direct current and UVN is the rated phase-to-phase voltage on the valve or secondary side of the converter transformer. Usually the DC converter bridge power rating is known from its rated DC current IdN and rated DC voltage UdN. The valve and converter bridge design is very dependent upon the commutation reactance XC and so consequently its value is established and known.

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In modern HVDC converter bridges it is usually in the range 0.1<XC<0.15 in per unit where 1.0 per unit is (UVN)2/SN ohms. Overlap angle . The duration of commutation between two converter valve arms expressed in electrical angular measure. Extinction angle . The time expressed in electrical angular measure from the end of current conduction to the next zero crossing of the idealized sinusoidal commutating voltage. depends on the angle of advance and the angle of overlap and is determined by the relation

A reasonably good ballpark figure for the power factor of a converter bridge at the AC commutating bus is given by the following expression for a rectifier. Note that the delay angle is usually known or determined. For example, the standard steady state range of delay angle for a rectifier may be 10o < < 18o and the lowest normal operating power factor (P.f) will be when = 18o

Where Id is the DC load current and IdN is rated DC current and is the power factor angle. For the inverter, the normal rated extinction angle is established in the converter bridge design, usually at = 18o. Ignoring the losses in the converter bridge, the power flowing through the bridge

Pd = Id Ud

(19)

Ud is the operating direct voltage across the bridge where Id is the operating DC through the converter bridge as shown Fig. 3
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5.1.2.2 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF THE POWER CONVERTER

Fig. 8 Simulated waveforms of the Rectifier side

The figure, Fig. 4 depicts the commutation voltage at the input side and output voltage of the control rectifier with good voltage profile where X-axis is voltage and Y-axis is time in millisecond

Fig. 9 Simulated waveforms of the Converter side

The figures, Fig. 5 depicts the commutation voltage at the inverter side with lesser harmonics, better power factor and excellent voltage profile where X-axis is voltage and Y-axis is time in millisecond.
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5.1.2.3 RELIABILITY OF HVDC

The reliability of DC transmission systems is quite good and comparable to that of AC systems. An exhaustive record of existing HVDC links in the world is available from which the reliability statistics can be computed. It must be remembered that the performance of the thyristor valves is much more reliable than mercury arc valves and further development in devices control and protection is likely to perk up the trustworthiness level for example the development of direct light triggered (LTT) is expected to perk up reliability because of the eradication of the high voltage pulse transformers and auxiliary supplies for turning on the device. Both energy accessibility and transient reliability of existing DC systems with thyristor valves or high power switches is 90% or more.

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CHAPTER 6 HUGE APPLICATIONS OF DC TRANSMISSION

The detailed evaluation of AC & DC transmission in terms of economics and technical performance leads to the following areas of application for DC transmission.

Long distance bulk power transmission.

The advantage of HVDC is the ability to transmit large amounts of power over long distances with lower capital costs and with lower losses than AC. Depending on voltage level and construction details, losses are quoted as about 3% per 1,000 km

Subversive or underwater cables.

Long undersea high voltage cables have a high electrical capacitance, since the conductors are surrounded by a relatively thin layer of insulation and a metal sheath. The geometry is that of a long co-axial capacitor.

Where alternating current is used for cable transmission, this capacitance appears in parallel with load. Additional current must flow in the cable to charge the cable capacitance, which generates additional losses in the conductors of the cable. Additionally, there is a dielectric loss component in the material of the cable insulation, which consumes power. When, however, direct current is used, the cable capacitance is only charged when the cable is first energized or when the voltage is changed; there is no steady-state additional current required.

For a long AC undersea cable, the entire current-carrying capacity of the conductor could be used to supply the charging current alone. This limits the length of AC cables. DC cables have no such limitation. Although some DC leakage current continues to flow through the dielectric, this is very small compared to the cable rating.

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 Asynchronous interconnections of AC systems operating at different frequencies or where independent control of systems is desired.

HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC distribution systems, it can help increase system stability, by preventing cascading failures from propagating from one part of a wider power transmission grid to another. Changes in load that would cause portions of an AC network to become unsynchronized and separate would not similarly affect a DC link, and the power flow through the DC link would tend to stabilize the AC network.

The magnitude and direction of power flow through a DC link can be directly commanded, and changed as needed to support the AC networks at either end of the DC link. This has caused many power system operators to contemplate wider use of HVDC technology for its stability benefits alone.

Control and stabilization of power flows in AC ties in an integrated power system.

Power transmission and stabilization between unsynchronised AC distribution systems Connecting a remote generating plant to the distribution grid, Stabilizing a predominantly AC power-grid, without increasing prospective short circuit current Reducing line cost.

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CHAPTER 7 WEAKNESS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

The extent of application of DC transmission is limited by the following factors:

The intricacy of breaking DC currents which results in high expense of DC breakers.

High voltage DC circuit breakers are difficult to build because some mechanism must be included in the circuit breaker to force current to zero, otherwise arcing and contact wear would be too great to allow reliable switching.

Inability to use transformers to change the voltage levels.

High cost of conversion equipment.

The required static inverters are expensive and have limited overload capacity. At smaller transmission distances the losses in the static inverters may be bigger than in an AC transmission line. The cost of the inverters may not be offset by reductions in line construction cost and lower line loss. With two exceptions, all former mercury rectifiers worldwide have been dismantled or replaced by thyristor units.

Generation of harmonics which call for AC & DC power filters, adding to the cost of converter stations.

Soaring Complexity of power control.

In contrast to AC systems[citation needed], realizing multiterminal systems is complex, as is expanding existing schemes to multiterminal systems. Controlling power flow in a multiterminal DC system requires good communication between all the terminals; power flow must be actively regulated by the inverter control system instead of the inherent properties of the transmission line. Multi-terminal lines are rare.
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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION

Long distances are technically unreachable by HVAC line without intermediate reactive compensations. The frequency and the intermediate reactive components cause stabilityproblems in AC line. On the other hand HVDC transmission does not have the stability problem because of absence of the frequency, and thus, no distance limitation.

The cost per unit length of a HVDC line lower than that of HVAC line of the same power capability and comparable reliability, but the cost of the terminal equipment of a HVDC line is much higher than that of the HVAC line.

The breakeven distance of overhead lines between AC and DC line is range from 500 km (310 miles) to 800 km (497 miles). The HVDC has less effect on the human and the natural environment in general, which makes the HVDC friendlier to environment.

Hi-tech encroachment will result in enhanced operating characteristics, reduced complexity and smaller area requirements for potential HVDC converter stations with reduced cost, eco friendly power transmission, high reliability, stout stability and high efficiency. Save energy and save nation

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[11] Summary of Impacts of the New Guidelines of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection on Power System Operation. International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (INIRP). Hidro-Quebec. 1999.
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[12] High Power Electronics HVDC and SVC. ke Ekstrm. Compendium. Kungl Tekniska Hgskolan. June 1990.

[13] Power System Stability and Control. Prabha Kundur. Electric Power Research Institute. Power Engineering Series. 1994

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[16] Economic Assessment of HVDC Links. Cigr Working Group 14.20. June 2001.

[17] Performance and Economic Comparisons between Point-to-Point HVDC Transmission and Hybrid Back-to-Back HVDC/AC Transmission. A.E. Hammad, W.F. Long. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, No. 2, April 1990.

[18] Role of HVDC Transmission in Future Energy Development. T.J.Hammons, D. Woodford, J. Loughtan, M. Chamia, J. Donahoe, D. Povh, B.Bisewski, W. Long. IEEE Power Engineering Review, February 2000.

[19] HVDC A Major option for the electricity networks of the 21st century.

[20] M. Chamia. IEEE WPM 1999 Panel Session, The Role of HVDC Transmission in the 21st Century.

[21] Supply to Rapidly Growing Cities and Areas. F.S. Correa, L.R. Wilhelm son, J.F. Allaire. Cigr Symposium, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September 1999.

[22] Power Semiconductors in Transmission and Distribution Applications.

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