4.1.1 Describe the ionic bond as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic Bond - Electrostatic attraction between cations (positive) and anions (negatively charged).!

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4.1.2 Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer. Atoms always want to have a full shell. ! Metals have excess, will donate their outer electrons to non-metals with incomplete shells. ! In the metal, protons>electrons as a result of the donation - ionisation; vice versa with nonmetal. ! 4.1.3 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2 and 3 lose electrons. Elements in groups 1,2,3 form ions with the electric conguration isoelectronic to a noble gas (same as electrons; full shells). 4.1.4 Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 5, 6 and 7 gain electrons.

! 4.1.5 State that transition elements can form more than one ion. !
If " EN1 ! EN 2 > 1.8 , molecule is ionic If " EN1 ! EN 2 < 1.8 , molecule is polar covalent

4.1.6 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from the position of the elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity values. i.e. BOND POLARITIESz If! EN1 ! EN 2 < 0.4 , molecule is non polar (covalent)

Electronegativity - Relative measure of an atoms attraction for electrons in a covalent bond! 4.1.7 State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by nonmetals in periods 2 and 3.
Ion NO3OHHCO3SO42CO32-! PO43Name Nitrate Hydroxide Hydrogen Carbonate Sulphate Carbonate Phosphate Ammonium

NH4+

4.1.8 Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds. Lattice is formed by ionic compounds (every cation is attracted to a anion, vice versa) 4.2.1 Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of electrons and positively charged nuclei. Covalent bonding - sharing electrons ! Two electrons are shared between two nuclei; these electrons are attracted to the positively charged nuclei.! 4.2.2 Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing. 4.2.3 Deduce the Lewis (electron dot) structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom Total valence electrons/2 = pairs! Place element with lowest EN in centre, space others evenly around! Join up using pairs, ensure full shells

Octet rule not always followed i.e. Be + B can have 4 and 6 valences, P can have 10 4.2.4 State and explain the relationship between the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength. Bond length - Distance between two bonded nuclei.! Bond Enthalpy - Described in terms of bond enthalpy; measure of energy required to break bond When "H (Reactants - Products) is negative, the reaction is exothermic, as the difference is given out as heat.! When "H is positive, the reaction is endothermic, as the difference is taken in from the surroundings, causing the temperature to drop.! Number of bonds - More bonds = more shared electrons, stronger electrostatic attraction between bonded nuclei ! # - More = stronger attraction = closer together

4.2.5 Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table or from their electronegativity values. Electrons are closer to atom with higher E.N. (i.e. more $+) 4.2.6 Predict the relative polarity of bonds from electronegativity values 4.2.7 Predict the shape and bond angles for species with four, three and two negative charge centres on the central atom using the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR).

Principles of VSEPR: Find number of electron pairs in valence shell of central atom Electron pairs in valence shell repel each other to positions of minimum repulsion, maximum stability! Charge centre - bonded pairs around central atom (incl. lone pair) General rule - -2.5 per pair (extra repulsion from lone pairs)
Number of Charge Centres Two Three Four Three + 1 pair of electrons Two + 2 pairs of electrons Shape Linear Planar Triangular Tetrahedral Triagonal Pyramidal Bent Bond Angle () 180 120 109.5 107 105

Wedged shape - towards viewer! Dashed line - away from viewer

! 4.2.8 Predict whether or not a molecule is polar from its molecular shape and bond polarities. Polarity of a molecule depends on the polarity of each bond + molecular shape.!

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Polarity of Bonds = Di%erence in Electronegativity # - Draw arrows to show polarity of bonds (i.e. where the bonds are attracted to)! # - (Dipoles of) Bonds may cancel each other out, leading to non-polar Results in either: - Individual n (X-Y) bond dipole moments add as vectors to give a net dipole moment - Polar - Vector sum of individual (X-Y) bond dipole moments is zero 4.2.9 Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite and C60 fullerene).
Graphite Each C atom covalently bonded to 3 others, forming hexagons in parallel layers with bond angles of 120. ! Diamond Each C atom is covalently bonded to 4 others tetrahedrally arranged in a regular repetitive pattern with bond angles of 109.5. Hardest known natural substance Fullerene C Each C atom bonded in a sphere of 60 carbon atoms, consisting of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons.!

Layers held together by van der Waals forces (they can slide) One non bonded delocalised electron per atom, conducts electricity Lubricant

Few covalent bonds between molecules, only weak VDWs between fullerenes. Semi-conductor (if made into nanotubes) Used to make nanotubes, catalysts, lubricants

All electrons are bonded

Polishing/cutting

4.2.10 Describe the structure of and bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide. Silicon is like carbon i.e. group 4 element. Each silicon atom is bonded to four others in a tetrahedral arrangement like diamond. !

In SiO2, a similarly tetrahedral bonded structure is formed, but here the bonds are between Si and O atoms. (Os go in-between bonds of Si; so each Si is bonded to 4 Os, each O is bonded to 2 Sis)!

4.3.1 Describe the types of intermolecular forces (attractions between molecules that have temporary dipoles, permanent dipoles or hydrogen bonding) and explain how they arise from the structural features of molecules. Higher electronegativity = electron attraction!

Hydrogen bond!

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Caused by difference in electronegativity between O and H. Causes permanent dipoles, opposite dipole-dipole attraction leads to intermolecular force.! N,O,F - most electronegative elements, so only these + Hydrogen (least electro negative) leads to H-bonding!

Dipole-Dipole Bonding!

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Smaller difference in electronegativity between elements leads to smaller dipoles than hydrogen bonding! H2O > HF > NH3! Water has two Hydrogens, two lone pairs - each water can be bonded to four others, two H-Bonds per molecule! HF has 1 hydrogen, 3 electron pairs, as a result each HF has optimal structure of 1 H-Bond per molecule,! NH3 only has 1 lone pair, can only form 1 HBond.!

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Van der Waals !

Temporary dipoles - any element with electrons will have instantaneous dipoles as electrons wander around nucleus randomly. !

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Dipoles of one atom repel electrons of another atoms, leading to more instantaneous dipoles, small, short lasting force of attraction! More electrons = more attraction!

Shape is important - less crushed, more linear leads to higher surface area, more V.D.W!

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4.3.2 Describe and explain how intermolecular forces a"ect the boiling points of substances Hydrogen bonds (N,O,F + H) > Dipole Dipole > VDWs Along period 2, H2O > HF > NH3 H2O has two lone pairs of electrons, two Hs; so more H-Bonds per molecule N + F only have 1 available H-Bond, but F is more electronegative, leading to a stronger HBond than N 4.4.1 Describe the metallic bond as the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalised electrons. Positive metal ions in a sea of delocalised electrons - Valence electrons in metals form a sea; electrostatic attraction between metals ions and sea provides bond. 4.4.2 Explain the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals Freely moving charged particles conduct electricity, free moving electrons are this medium in metals. 4.5.1 Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting from di"erent types of bonding. Boiling points in Group 1 - As group descends, boiling point decreases as positive charge is spread out of larger area as group descends, leading to weaker metallic bond! Melting points in Period 3 metals - More electrons in sea, higher charge density (small atom, high charge) across periods! Volatility of Alkanes - Van Der Waals forces - more electrons = more forces = less volatility! Isomers of Alkanes - More SA = stronger Van Der Waals forces Solubility - Like dissolves like (i.e. polar substances dissolve polar substances) !
Ionic Solubility in polar solvent (i.e. water) Solubility in non-polar solvent (i.e. hexane) Soluble Insoluble Polar Solubility increases with polarity Solubility decreases with polarity Non-Polar non-soluble non-soluble