University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Evaluation of Palm Oil Fuel Ash as Mineral Filler in Hot Mix Asphalt

By

Juzer Naushad Moosajee

April 2011

A dissertation submitted in part consideration of the degree of BEng (Hons) in Civil Engineering Part 2: Module H23A13

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ABSTRACT
This dissertation presents a study on the laboratory evaluation of Asphalt concrete wearing course using Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) as filler material. POFA, a waste product of the Malaysia Palm Oil Industry has long been disposed in landfills and dumpsites causing serious environmental concerns. In this project, a small portion of POFA (passing 75m) was used as a 100% replacement to stone dust in Asphalt Concrete mixtures. POFA was incorporated into asphalt mixes by using dry process method, which considers filler as part of aggregate. The aggregate gradations used in this study is dense-graded ACW14 with 80/100 penetration grade bitumen as binder. POFA was collected from boilers at Seri Ulu Langat Palm Oil Mill. Two sets of HMA were made with two different kinds of POFA. The two kinds of POFA varied in amount of un-burnt carbon content. A third set was made as control using conventional stone dust filler. The experiment was carried out according to Marshall Mix Design, and Marshall Stability, Flow and Volumetric properties were used as key performance indicators. Results showed that POFA modified samples showed better performance levels than conventional samples, but exhibited higher optimum asphalt contents. HMA modified with POFA containing high carbon content had the best Marshall Stability and Stiffness values of the 3 sets, at the same time having an OAC just a little higher than the control set. However, it exhibited VFA values below requirements.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to Allah and His Holiness Dr. Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin Saheb for their spiritual guidance throughout this study. I thank my parents and family for their moral and ethical support during the course of my studies. I express sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Mr Edwin Goh Boon Hoe, whose instruction; guidance and constructive criticism were of paramount importance throughout the study. I also thank Dr. Abdullahi Ali Mohamed for his significant contributions during the year. I am deeply grateful to the staff at the Civil Engineering Mixing Lab, namely Mr. Mohd Redzuan, Mr Adzarudin Abu Zarim and Mr Elhafis A. Latiff for their technical assistance during the experimenting and laboratory phase of this study. I extend sincere thanks to my fellow classmates and friends, Mr Sachin Muhamad, Mr Ganim Shed Akolokwu and Mr Yhoodish Bhobeechun for their assistance during the experimental work. I also express my special thanks to Mr. Balakrishnan a/l Renganathan and his staff at the Seri Ulu Langat Palm Oil Mill for providing the Palm Oil Fuel Ash at no cost. Last but not the least I thank Mr Rashid Nyagabona for his vital contributions in preparing this report.

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Table of Contents
Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 6 1.1 Background Study ............................................................................................................................... 6 1.2 Objectives of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................................... 7 Literature Review .......................................................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction: ....................................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Aggregate .......................................................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Asphalt Binder ................................................................................................................................... 10 2.4 Mineral Filler ..................................................................................................................................... 11 2.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) .................................................................................................................. 12 2.5.1 Similarities Between POFA and Fly Ash ..................................................................................... 12 2.6 Physical Properties of Aggregates..................................................................................................... 14 2.6.1 Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate, Gsb ...................................................................................... 14 2.6.2 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate ...................................................................................... 15 2.6.3 Aggregate Gradation .................................................................................................................. 16 2.7 Marshall Method for Obtaining Optimum Asphalt Content............................................................. 17 2.7.1 Marshall Mixing Procedure: ....................................................................................................... 17 2.7.2 Marshall Compaction Procedure: .............................................................................................. 17 2.7.3 Volumetric Tests ........................................................................................................................ 18 2.7.4 Stability and Flow test ................................................................................................................ 18 2.7.5 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 19 2.7.6 Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC)............................................................................................... 20 Methodology............................................................................................................................................... 21 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Experiment Design ............................................................................................................................ 21 3.3 Physical Properties of Aggregate ...................................................................................................... 23 3.3.1 Sieving and Gradation ................................................................................................................ 24 3.4 Asphalt Cement Binder ..................................................................................................................... 25 3.4.1 Variation in Binder Content ....................................................................................................... 26 3.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) .................................................................................................................. 26 Juzer Naushad Moosajee, 003579 Page 4

3.6 Marshall Mixing Equipment and Procedure ..................................................................................... 27 Results ......................................................................................................................................................... 30 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 30 4.2 Physical Properties of Aggregates..................................................................................................... 30 4.2.1 Aggregate Gradation .................................................................................................................. 31 4.3 Marshall Samples .............................................................................................................................. 32 4.4 Optimum Asphalt Content ................................................................................................................ 32 Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 33 5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 33 5.2 Volumetric Properties ....................................................................................................................... 33 5.2.1 Bulk Density ............................................................................................................................... 33 5.2.2 Void Analysis .............................................................................................................................. 33 5.3 Stability, Flow and Stiffness .............................................................................................................. 34 5.4 Optimum Asphalt Content ................................................................................................................ 34 5.5 Assessment of use of POFA as Waste Material in HMA ................................................................... 35 Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................................................................... 39 6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 39 6.2 Conclusions of the study ................................................................................................................... 39 6.3 Shortcoming of the study.................................................................................................................. 40 6.4 Limitations of the study .................................................................................................................... 40 6.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................ 40 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................................ 41 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................................. 41 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................................. 41 APPENDIX C ............................................................................................................................................. 47 References .................................................................................................................................................. 50

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CHAPTER 1 Introduction
1.1 Background Study
The Malaysian palm oil industry is a major producer and exporter of palm oil and related products, contributing 39% to world palm oil production and 44% to world exports (MPOC). The palm oil industry contributes more to the country than just edible oil and foreign currency from exports. Palm Oil Fronds, Palm kernel cake, empty fruit bunches are some by-products of palm oil production used to make animal feed for the cattle and dairy industry (FFTC). Other by-products, such as palm oil shells and fibers are used as fuel in boilers to produce steam for electricity generation. The ash from these boilers (POFA) has little commercial value, hence disposed off in landfills or dumped in the vicinity of the factory, causing major environmental concern. With growth in the Palm oil industry, the amount of waste POFA continues to grow. Finding an alternate, sustainable and safe use for POFA is of high importance. Transportation Infrastructures (roads, rail, airports and seaports) are the arteries for the free flow of people, goods and information; three things necessary in a manufacturing and export economy (Olebune, 2006). Road infrastructure is a major component of land based transportation; providing transport within cities and between cities and countries. In order to maintain good road infrastructure, strong, durable high quality road pavements are required. Extensive research has been conducted to improve quality and performance of road pavements by modifying their individual constituents, namely: aggregate, binder (asphalt/cement), mineral filler. Many of these researches have focused on utilization of waste and industrial by-products so as to reduce construction costs as well as environmental degradation. POFA is one such by-product that has been suggested and researched to a certain extent. Abdullah et al. (2006) showed POFA to be a suitable partial replacement of OPC in aerated concrete. In 2009, Tonnayopas et als investivgation showed positive influence of OPFFA on properties of hardened concrete. However, research of POFA as a suitable replacement for conventional stone dust filler in HMA have been few and far between.

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1.2 Objectives of the Study

This study has the following objectives: i. ii. To evaluate the performance of Marshall properties of HMA with POFA as filler. To determine if presence of POFA as filler improves performance of HMA as compared to conventional stone dust filler iii. To determine variation in Marshall properties of the mix caused by variation in carbon content of POFA. iv. To assess use of POFA as waste material in HMA

1.3 Significance of the study

The road construction industry is a major consumer of raw materials in Malaysia. Due to high demand of good quality roads, demand for raw materials is ever increasing, leading to high construction costs. Recycling waste materials in construction is an excellent way of reducing material costs as well as reducing the environmental impact of disposing the wastes. If POFA is shown to be a suitable additive, it will have far reaching benefits. Its recycling will not only benefit the environment, but will also be cost effective and sustainable while providing improved pavement performance.

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CHAPTER II Literature Review

2.1 Introduction:
Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) refers to bound layers of flexible road pavements. It derives its name from the fact that its production (mixing), placement and compaction is carried out at elevated temperatures. It is the primary placement method for large scale road projects that utilize bituminous mixtures (IRC, 2010). HMA is a very complex material that can be used for various road based applications. It can be used as a surface course for providing good ride quality and/or as a base course for load bearing applications. It should provide good drainage as well as be completely waterproof in all weather conditions. All this puts numerous conflicting performance demands on the material. Improving properties of HMA is necessary for better long lasting pavements. The concept of modifying HMA mixes for better performance is not new. These modifications are increasingly being sought from waste materials to promote sustainable development. Numerous studies have been carried out to incorporate waste materials into HMA. These include (but not limited to) scrap rubber, waste glass, boiler ash, incinerator residue, coal-plant refuse (Kandhal P. S., 1992), steel slag (Huang et al. 2007). However, before use of waste materials in HMA is standardized, the following concerns need to be addressed (Warren, 1991): a) Engineering concerns: Since the waste material will replace the conventional materials of HMA, it will affect the engineering properties of the mix. Therefore, the HMA containing the waste material must be reevaluated thoroughly and carefully both in the laboratory and the field. Changes in the HMA production equipment and/or processes will be required in order to accommodate waste materials into the production process. Storage and Handling equipment will also have to be updated Variation in quality and consistency of waste materials will cause variations in quality of HMA Juzer Naushad Moosajee, 003579 Page 8

New methods for designing, testing waste incorporated HMA may have to be developed. Is the amount of waste materials sufficient to fulfill demands?

b) Economic concerns: Mandating use of waste materials is likely to increase production costs of HMA e.g. costs of collecting and transporting waste glass may be higher than costs of locally available aggregate Life cycle costs of HMA containing waste materials need to be determined before use in industry. HMA incorporated with waste materials may have lesser service life even though initial engineering properties meet required standards. This will increase its the life cycle costs. If HMA that contains waste materials is not recyclable, its disposal cost also need to be considered. c) Environmental Concerns: Since HMA production involves high temperatures, use of waste materials in those conditions may release hazardous fumes/emissions and raise concerns of air pollution. Some hazardous components of waste materials may leach out of the HMA into the environment, causing soil and groundwater pollution. Use of hazardous waste materials in conventional HMA plants can compromise safety of workers. Non recyclable, waste incorporated HMA may pose a greater environmental concern than the initial waste material recycled into the mix.

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2.2 Aggregate
Many researchers have shown how variations in aggregate properties e.g. aggregate type, gradation; shape, durability etc have a direct impact on the performance of an HMA mix. Stephens (1974) showed that presence of 30% or higher flat/elongated aggregate particles in asphalt concrete caused higher VTM, resulting in a poor quality mix. Mohamed (2001) showed that variation in gradation of SMA caused noticeable changes in Bulk Density of the compacted mixture. Research in Philippines concluded that use of lahar (volcanic ash aggregate) from Mt. Pinatubo as fine aggregate in HRA and asphalt concrete mixes showed improvements in performance of the road surfaces (Faustino et al. 2005). Research in Yemen (Naji & Asi, 2008) has shown improved properties of asphalt mixtures when volcanic ash (an abundant material) is incorporated as granular aggregate in their HMA mixes. Open-graded Base Mix is a specialty mix containing very little or no fine aggregate, high VTM and lower OAC ranging from 1.5%2.5%. However, its large angular coarse aggregate content creates good interlock providing high resistance to deformation. The mix is highly permeable and provides good drainage thanks to its high VTM. It minimizes reflective cracking when interlaid between a concrete base and a dense HMA surface layer (Roberts et al. 1991).

2.3 Asphalt Binder

Other research has focused on binder modification to improve the quality of HMA mixes. Binder is the glue that holds aggregate particles together. Cement is the binder used in rigid pavements, while flexible pavements are made with asphalt binder. Asphalt modified with SBS has shown better conventional properties e.g. penetration grade, softening point, lower temperature susceptibility (Sengoz & Isikyakar, 2008). Asphalt modified with SBR/MMT has shown to exhibit improved visco-elastic properties, resulting in enhanced resistance to rutting of pavements at high temperatures (Zhang et al. 2009). Hnslolu & Aar, (2004) also showed improvement in properties of asphalt concrete made using HDPE (High density polyethylene)-modified asphalt binder.

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2.4 Mineral Filler

Another important avenue of HMA modification involves the use of mineral fillers. Mineral Fillers are particles that pass No. 200 sieve (75m). It is either mixed into the binder before mixing with aggregate (wet process) or incorporated into the mixture as part of aggregate (dry process). In ACW14 gradation, the mineral filler is considered part of the aggregate content and should be between 4% - 10% of aggregate content (JKR, 2007). Mineral filler should be easily pulverized and free of cemented lumps, mud-balls, and organic materials. Research into use of mineral fillers in HMA pavements dates back more than half a decade. Puzinauskas (1969) mentioned the following roles of mineral fillers in HMA: (a) filling interstices between aggregate particles, (b) providing contact points between large aggregate particles, (c) acting as a bitumen extender thus creating rich and highly consistent bitumen mastic to hold the large aggregate particles. Filler is responsible for stiffening the asphalt binder, which is desirable to a certain extent, however too much filler will result in a dull, brittle, less cohesive mortar (Kandhal P. S., 2009). It wasnt until the 1970s that legislation in US was passed to mandate use of baghouse fines (stone dust) in HMA. These legislations were introduced primarily to enforce strict air pollution regulations. Up until then, HMA plants blew the dust from aggregate dryers into the open atmosphere and various other fillers were used to accommodate the deficiency in fines (Kandhal P. S., 2009).

Many researchers have studied varying mineral fillers in order to improve the quality of flexible pavements in their regions. In 1952, Carpenter found that asphalt mixes that contained Class F fly ash filler had improved resistance to stripping. Dukatz & Anderson (1970) investigated the effects of eight different filler materials on mechanical properties of HMA and concluded that different filler materials have different effects on stiffness but almost no effect on Marshall Stability or void ratio. Asi & Assaad (2005) found that asphalt concrete mixes prepared by replacing 10% of conventional stone dust filler with Jordanian oil shale fly ash provided the best improvement in mechanical properties of the mix. Sharma et al. (2010) concluded that bituminous mixture made using fly ash as mineral filler showed better properties than those made with stone dust filler. Other waste fillers that have been studied include marble waste dust (Karaahin & Terzi, 2007), cement bypass dust (Ramzi Taha et al. 2002), coal ash (Churchill & Amirkhanian, 1999).

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2.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)

Taking queue from other countries, Malaysia has identified POFA, an abundant waste product, as possible substitute filler in HMA. POFA is a by-product of palm oil production. After combustion of solid waste from extraction of palm oil, about 5% POFA by weight of combusted material is produced (Tay, 1990). The color of POFA can range from light whitish grey to dark grey due to variations in un-burnt carbon content. Lighter shades of grey indicate low carbon content which in turn indicates high level of combustion, while darker shades indicate vice versa i.e. high carbon content, low rate of combustion (Abdullah et al. 2006). POFA constitutes of mainly rounded particles as shown in Fig 2.1, while chemical analysis shows a high amount of silica and alumina compounds (Tay, 1990; Tangchirapat et al. 2006; Borhan et al. 2010). The primary contents indicate it is a pozzolanic material (ASTM C618). Pozzolans exhibit cementitious properties in fine particle sizes and in the presence of water and/or calcium hydroxide (Goh et al. 2006). Exact chemical and physical properties vary with the conditions of the boiler (e.g. temperature, pressure, air intake, ash capture mechanism etc.) and the material (fuel) burned. POFA from two separate boilers is least likely to have the exact same properties (Abdullah et al. 2006).

2.5.1 Similarities Between POFA and Fly Ash

POFA is a product of the combustion of palm oil shells and fibers, while fly ash is product of coal combustion. Goh et al. (2006) suggested that POFA appears to be similar to fly ash. Fly ash consists of fine, glossy particles that are spherical in shape with some samples having hollow particles like plerospheres and cenospheres (Sharma et al. 2010). Similar physical features are observed in microscopic image of POFA taken by Tangchirapat et al. (2006) (Figure 2.1). Furthermore, like fly ash (Sharma et al. 2010), POFA contains varying amounts of un-burnt carbon (Abdullah et al. 2006). In addition, comparison of chemical analysis of POFA and fly ash (Table 2.1) show they are both rich in siliceous compounds, indicating their pozzolanic nature (ASTM C618). They have both have been proved to be adequate as partial replacements of OPC in concrete (Tay, 1990; Tonnayopas et al. 2009). Juzer Naushad Moosajee, 003579 Page 12

Table 2.1: Similarities in Chemical Analysis of POFA and Fly Ash POFA POFA Fly Ash Fly Ash

(Tangchirapat et al. (Borhan et al (Sharma et al. (Sharma et al. Mineral (%) Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) Calcium Oxide (CaO) Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Sodium Oxide (Na2O) Potassium Oxide (K2O) Sulfur Trioxide (SO3) Loss on ignition (LOI) 2006) 57.71 6.55 3.3 4.56 4.23 0.5 8.27 0.25 10.52 2.8 18 2010) 43.6 8.4 4.7 11.4 4.8 0.39 2010) 57.5 - 61.09 0.85 - 1.3 3.154 - 5.4 2010) 56.7 - 60.1 0.5 - 0.61 0.9 - 1.26

POFAs use in HMA has been studied by researchers such as Borhan et al. (2010) who found that replacing 5% of filler content with POFA does not impair performance properties of asphalt concrete mix. Furthermore, he found better stability values of samples modified with POFA. Modification with POFA also improved creep resistance and fatigue life of the asphalt concrete mix, while an increase in resilient modulus was also noted. Kamaluddin (2008) found that replacing stone dust with 100% POFA resulted in the highest improvement in the stability and stiffnes values of SMA14.

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2.6 Physical Properties of Aggregates

This section will introduce methods and procedures used to test properties of aggregates. It is required for determining the quality of aggregate used in HMA.

2.6.1 Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregate, Gsb

Ratio of oven-dry weight in air of a unit volume of aggregate (including permeable and impermeable voids) at stated temperature to the weight of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature (Robert et al. (1991). Procedure for determining Bulk Specific Gravity of aggregate was referred to BS EN 812-2: 1995. Equipment: Pycnometer, Oven, Weighing Scale Procedure: i. 1.5 kg of aggregate retained on 1.18mm was collected after the sieving of the aggregate. The aggregate was collected according proportions tabled in Table 3.2. ii. iii. The aggregate was placed in a tray and oven dried at 110C (5C) to a constant weight. It was then filled into a pycnometer and water was filled to the brim. Trapped air bubbles were removed by shaking the pycnometer. The aggregate was then allowed to soak in water for 24 hours. iv. After 24 hours, a slight reduction in water is observed. This is primarily due to the water being absorbed into the aggregate voids. More water is added to fill the pycnometer to brim. Weight of flask, aggregate and water is taken and recorded as M3. v. Aggregate is then removed from the pycnometer into an oven tray and dried in an oven at 110C (5C) to a constant weight. The weight of dry aggregate and pycnometer flask is taken to be M2. vi. vii. The empty vacuum flask is dried using a towel and its weight recorded as M1. The pycnometer is filled with water up to the brim and its weight is recorded as M4.

Following formula used to obtain Bulk Specific Gravity, Gsb:

(3.1)

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2.6.2 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate

Ratio of oven dry weight of a unit volume of a permeable material (excluding voids permeable to asphalt) at a stated temperature to the weight of an equal volume of gas free distilled water. This procedure is conducted instead of the Theoretical Maximum Density Test (Rice Method) to obtain the Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate. Aggregate smaller than 1.18mm was not used in this test. Equipment: Oven, Vacuum Flask, pump, weighing scale. Procedure: i. 1.5 kg of aggregate retained on 1.18mm was collected after the sieving of the aggregate. The aggregate was collected according proportions tabled in Table 3.2. ii. The aggregate was washed to remove any dust from the aggregate surface. It was then oven dried at 110C (5C) to a constant weight. iii. The aggregate was placed in the vacuum flask and sealed. Water was added using the small exit hole up to the marked limit. The hole was sealed with a valve tube. The flask was mounted on a mechanical shaker. The Vacuum tube was attached to the flask, and the pump was attached to the vacuum tube. A vacuum of 30mm Hg was applied for 30 minutes. iv. After the vacuum was applied, the flask, together with the aggregate and water was weighed and the mass recorded as M3 v. Aggregate is then removed from the vacuum flask into an oven tray and dried in an oven at 110C (5C) to a constant weight. The weight of dry aggregate and vacuum flask is taken to be M2. vi. vii. The empty vacuum flask is dried using a towel and its weight recorded as M1. The vacuum flask is filled with water up to the marked limit and its weight is recorded as M4.

Following formula used to obtain Effective Specific Gravity, Gse:

(3.2)

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2.6.3 Aggregate Gradation

Aggregate gradation was selected to conform to JKR specifications for asphalt concrete wearing courses in Malaysia (ACW14). ACW14 produces a dense-graded mix, with almost all particle sizes passing 20mm to filler (BS Sieve Size) incorporated into the mix. It tends to produce mixtures that have high bulk densities and low VTM. Variations in aggregate grading of HMA mixes contribute to a significant variation in bulk densities of the mix (Mohamed, 2001). Figure 3.2 shows the structure of dense graded mix. Each Marshall Sample contains a total of 1200g of aggregate.

Figure 3.2 Structure of Dense-Graded Mix

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2.7 Marshall Method for Obtaining Optimum Asphalt Content

Sample preparation involves two major steps, mixing and compaction. ASTM D1559 is the standard approved by the Malaysian Public Works Department (JKR) for Marshall Mix Design. The following procedure is in accordance with the ASTM D6926.

2.7.1 Marshall Mixing Procedure:

i. Aggregate trays were prepared totaling 1200g, in proportions specified in Table 3.2. Mineral Filler was placed in separate container. ii. The aggregate was heated in a preheated oven to 150C (5C) for around 15 min before it was added to the mixing wok. The mineral filler was not added at this point. iii. Appropriate quantity of asphalt, preheated to 150C (5C) was added to the hot aggregate and mixed on a medium flame until all aggregate was coated with asphalt. Filler was added at this point and mixing continued until filler was completely incorporated into the mix. Flame was controlled throughout mixing so that mix temperature did not exceed mixing temperature (Table 3.4) iv. After mixing, the mixture was allowed to cool to the compaction temperature of 150C (5C).

Equipment - Oven, trays and containers, Wok, Gas and Gas Stove, Spool, Temperature Pen, Gloves

2.7.2 Marshall Compaction Procedure:

Equipment - Marshall Mold, Spatula, Marshall Hammer, Hydraulic Jack, Gloves i. Paper disc was placed on the base plate of the mold and lubricant was sprayed inside the mold for easy removal of the sample. Using the collar, the prepared mix was carefully added to the mold. ii. The mix was spaded with a spatula 15 times around the perimeter and 10 times in the interior. The mix was spaded so that it was slightly higher than the height of the mold. Another paper disc was placed on top of the specimen iii. The base plate, mold and collar were placed on the pedestal of the compactor and the Marshall hammer was placed on the specimen surface. 75 blows of the hammer were applied on the top of the specimen. iv. The mold was removed from the base plate, rotated 180 and replaced on the base plate so that the bottom of the sample can be compacted.

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v.

The Marshall mold was again placed on the pedestal and another 75 blows were applied on the specimen.

vi.

After compaction, the sample was allowed to cool inside the mold for around 30 min. The sample was then removed from the mold using a hydraulic jack. At this point, the sample was still hot and allowed to cool for 1 day before testing. The samples were individually labeled.

2.7.3 Volumetric Tests

These are conducted to obtain the Bulk Specific Gravity of the Compacted Mixture; Gmb. It will also give the height of the sample which will be used to correct the Marshall Stability. The test was performed in accordance with ASTM D6927. The procedure was as follows: i. ii. iii. A vernier caliper was used to obtain the average height of each sample. The sample was then weighed in air and the dry mass (Wair) was recorded. The sample was submerged in water and its mass in water (Wsub) was obtained using a buoyancy scale iv. The sample was then removed from the water, surface dried with a towel and weighed to obtain its saturated surface dry mass (WSSD).

2.7.4 Stability and Flow test

Marshall Stability and Flow is directly related to the strength and deformation characteristic of each sample. The test was performed in accordance with ASTM D6927. i. The samples were placed in a water bath preheated to 60C. They were placed in a staggered manner at three minute intervals so that each sample was heated evenly and for equal length of time before testing. Each sample was bathed for at least 30 minutes but no longer than 40 minutes. ii. After a sample was heated for the required amount of time, it was removed from the bath, surface dried with a towel and immediately placed in the Marshall Stability tester. The loading ram was brought into contact with the testing head and the flow pen was fixed into position. The stability and flow values were zeroed. iii. Load was then applied at a rate of 50.8mm/min until the specimen failed. At this point the loading was stopped and the reading for stability and flow were recorded

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2.7.5 Data Analysis

The results obtained from the Marshall tests are used to calculate the various Marshall properties. Formulas for Marshall Properties are tabulated as follows: Bulk Specific Gravity of Compacted Mixture, (4.3) Bulk Density (kg/m3), (4.4) Theoretical Maximum Density,

(4.5)

Voids in Total Mix, VTM (%): (4.6) Voids in Mineral Aggregate, VMA (%): (4.7) Voids Filled with Asphalt, VFA (%): (4.8) Volume of Samples (cm3), V (4.9)

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Volume, V is used to obtain the Volume Co-relation Ratio (VCR) from the VCR table (Appendix C). The Measured Stability should be multiplied by the Volume Co-relation Ratio (VCR) to obtain the Corrected Stability. The Corrected Stability is then converted from kN to kg. Equation below shows the full calculation

Corrected Stability (kg) =

(4.10)

2.7.6 Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC)

Optimum Asphalt Content (OAC) is the AC at which a mix exhibits Marshall Properties that meet the specified requirements. Very low asphalt content will result in thin asphalt film around the aggregate. This can cause poor bond between aggregate, contamination of aggregate due to environmental factors, high void content and early fracture cracking. Then again, too much asphalt will cause low air voids, high plastic flow, bleeding of asphalt to the surface and an unstable pavement. Thus it is necessary to obtain a perfect balance between the two extremes. OAC is heavily reliant on the physical properties of aggregate, gradation, and amount and type of filler. Two procedures are generally used to obtain OAC; NAPA procedure and Asphalt Institute Method. Asphalt Institute Method was used to obtain the OAC in this experiment. The following steps describe the Asphalt Institute Method as mentioned in MS-2. i. Determine the AC at maximum stability, max density and at mid-point of specified VTM range (4% for ACW14, JKR/SPJ/2007) ii. iii. Average the three AC obtained from the previous steps to obtain the OAC Determine the following properties from the plotted curves using the average OAC (JKR/SPJ/2007): a. Marshall Stability b. Marshall Flow c. VTM d. VFA iv. Compare Values from Step 3 with JKR specification for ACW14 (Table 3.1)

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CHAPTER III Methodology

3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the design, procedures and experiment work carried out during this study. All laboratory work was carried out at the Civil Engineering Mixing Lab, UNMC. All procedures met specifications as set by JKR/SPJ/2007, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) unless specified. Marshall Mix Design was used to prepare samples conforming to JKR specifications for ACW14. Table 3.1: ACW14 Specifications (JKR/SPJ/2007) Parameter Stability (kg) Flow (mm) S F Requirements: Wearing Course > 500 kg > 2.0 mm > 250 kg/mm 3.0% - 5.0% 75% - 85%

Stiffness (kg/mm) S /F VTM (%) VFA (%)

3.2 Experiment Design

For obtaining the objectives of this study, 3 sets of design mixes were prepared, as shown in Table 3.2: Table 3.2 Initial Mix Design Criteria Mineral Filler No. of Samples Asphalt Content (%) No. of Samples per AC Compaction (No. of blows) Mix Type Stone Dust 15 4.5 - 6.5 3 HCPF 15 4.5 - 6.5 3 LCPF 15 4.5 - 6.5 3

75 blows / face

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Figure

3.1

is

schematic

representation

of

the

experimental

program

of

this

study.

Collection and Preparation of Aggregate

Collection of Asphalt

Collection and Preparation of POFA

Characterization of Materials
- Tests for Physical Properties of Aggregates - Aggregate Gradation - Sieving of Aggregate and POFA

Preparing Asphalt Concrete Mix without POFA

Preparing Asphalt Concrete Mix with LCPF

Preparing Asphalt Concrete Mix with HCPF

Marshall Testing of Samples

Determination of Optimum Asphalt Content for Each Set

Comparison of Properties of Each Set at Optimum Asphalt Content

Figure 3.1 Schematic Presentation of Experimental Design

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3.3 Physical Properties of Aggregate

Kajang Rock Innopave Premix Sdn Bhd supplied the coarse aggregate and fine aggregate that was used in this experiment. The coarse aggregate was crushed granite retained on 5mm BS Sieve Size, while the fine aggregate were screened quarry fines passing 5mm. The coarse aggregate was visually inspected to determine its shape and surface characteristics. Due to unavailability of equipments and time constraints, only specific gravity tests were conducted. Specific Gravity Tests were conducted according to the procedures mentioned in the literature review. The equipment and procedure have been pictured below:

Figure 3.2 Pycnometer filled with aggregate and water

Figure 3.3 Vacuum Flask for measuring Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate

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3.3.1 Sieving and Gradation

Equipment - BS Sieves, Mechanical Shaker, Gloves, Face Mask, Storage Containers The aggregate was sieved by using ELE equipment conforming to BS sieve sizes. Mechanical shaker with sieves arranged in sizes is shown in Fig 3.3.

Figure 3.4 Mechanical Shaker for Sieving Aggregate

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3.4 Asphalt Cement Binder

HMA mixes prepared for this experiment used 80/100 penetration grade bitumen, which is the commonly used grade for Malaysian conditions. It was sourced from Shell Bitumen. Table 3.3 and 3.4 list the specifications of Shell 80/100 penetration grade bitumen as specified by the supplier. Table 3.3 Typical Binder Properties Typical Data 1/10 Penetration @ 25C Softening Point R & B Solubility in 1.1.1 trichloroethylene, min Ductility @ 25C, min Flash Point (Cleveland Copen Cup), min Loss on Heating Drop in Penetration after heating Relative Density @ 25/25C mm C % cm C % % 80 - 100 45 - 52 99.5 100 276 0.3 20 1.00-1.06 D5 D36 D2042 D113 D92 D6 D5 D70 ASTM Method

Table 3.4 Binder Application Temperature Storing Mixing Compacting 120C - 150C 130C - 150C 120C - 140C

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3.4.1 Variation in Binder Content

The mass of aggregate, Wagg and gradation is kept constant in all samples throughout the study. However, the mass of binder, Wb varies depending on the % AC. The table below lists the mass of binder for each % AC. Table 3.5 Mass of Binder, Wb per %AC % Content 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 Asphalt Mass of Binder (g) 50.00 56.54 63.16 69.84 76.60 83.42 90.32

The values in the above table are calculated using following formula: (3.3)

3.5 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA)

The POFA used in this study was collected from Seri Ulu Langat Palm Oil Mill Sdn Bhd. The ash was collected from the bottom of two different boilers (PFA and PFB), so that they have slightly different chemical properties. A third sample of POFA (PFC) that was collected and used by previous year students was still available in the university lab. These three samples of POFA were visually inspected to determine their carbon contents with reference to each other. PFA was the darkest of all three samples which reflected its higher carbon content and incomplete combustion. It was tagged as HCPF. PFC was the lightest in color, reflecting its low carbon content and greater level of combustion. It was tagged LCPF. HCPF and LCPF were separately sieved on BS No. 200 sieve (<0.075mm) to obtain the necessary amount of filler content. Juzer Naushad Moosajee, 003579 Page 26

3.6 Marshall Mixing Equipment and Procedure

Figure 3.5 Aggregate arranged in a tray according to gradation

Figure 3.6 Mixing of Samples

Figure 3.7 Checking temperature of mix with thermo pen

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Figure 3.8 Mixture being spaded in a Marshall Mold

Figure 3.9 Marshall Compactor

Figure 3.10 Marshall Sample jacked from Marshall Mold

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Figure 3.11 Buoyancy scale for measuring volumetric properties of Marshall Sample

Figure 3.12 Marshall Samples in a water bath

Figure 3.13 Marshall Testing Equipment

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CHAPTER IV Results
4.1 Introduction
This chapter will present and discuss the results of the all the experiments carried out to complete this study. They are presented in the form of relevant graphs and plots, with brief explanations. The terms and properties mentioned in this chapter have been discussed in the Methodology.

4.2 Physical Properties of Aggregates

On visual inspection, it was discovered the coarse aggregate was angular and had rough surface texture. This was expected since the aggregate was crushed granite. However, many flaky and elongated particles were observed especially among those retained on 5mm sieve. Unfortunately, due to unavailability of equipments, a flakiness index could not be determined, but a high value was expected, rendering the aggregate of poor quality. Table 4.1 presents the data collected from the test for obtaining Bulk Specific Gravity of aggregate retained on BS sieve size 1.18mm. Table 4.2 presents data collected from test for obtaining Effective Specific Gravity of aggregate retained on BS Sieve Seize 1.18mm. Table 4.1 Bulk Specific Gravity of Aggregates, Gsb M1 835 835 835 M2 1547 1634 1634 M3 2516 2572 2570.5 M4 2074 2074 2074 Avg, Gsb Gsb 2.637 2.654 2.641 2.644

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Table 4.2 Effective Specific Gravity of Aggregate , Gse M1 1737 1737 1737 M2 2537 2536 2536 M3 8247.5 8244.5 8245.5 M4 7748 7747 7747 Avg, Gse Gse 2.662 2.650 2.659 2.657071

The Effective Specific Gravity, Gse is greater than the Bulk Specific Gravity, Gsb. This fulfills the criteria for Specific Gravities of permeable materials.

4.2.1 Aggregate Gradation

Sieved aggregate was blended to meet ACW14 specifications by JKR. A breakdown of aggregate gradation is listed in Table 4.3 Table 4.3 Aggregate Gradation Mix Designation ACW 14 % Passing 100 80-95 68-90 52-72 45-62 30-45 17-30 7-16 4-10 0 Marshall Mix % Passing 100 90 75 65 50 33 18 10 5 0 % Retained 0 10 15 10 15 17 15 8 5 5 TOTAL Weight Retained per sample (g) 0 120 180 120 180 204 180 96 60 60 1200

BS Sieve Size (mm) 20 14 10 5 3.35 1.18 0.425 0.150 0.075 Pan (MF, <0.075)

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4.3 Marshall Samples

Initial estimate required a total of 45 samples, categorized in three sets of 15 samples with stone dust, HCPF and LCPF as filler in one of the sets. However, due to errors and mistakes made during mixing and testing of earlier samples, a total of 60 samples were made. Of those 60 samples, only 33 samples were deemed to be correctly mixed and tested. In many instances, values of just 2 samples are used to obtain the average values. Discussions and conclusions will be based on results from these 32 samples. Table 4.4 shows the final mix design.

Table 4.4 Final Mix Design Criteria Mineral Filler No. of Samples Asphalt Content (%) No. of Samples per AC Compaction: No. of blows Mix Type Stone Dust 10 4.5 - 6.5 2 HCPF 10 4.5 - 7 2 LCPF 12 4.5 - 6.5 2

75 blows / face

4.4 Optimum Asphalt Content

After data collection, graphs were plotted to show relationships of Marshall Properties in relation to AC (%). OAC was obtained using Asphalt Institute Method. Table 4.5 lists properties of all three mixes at their OAC. Table 4.5 Physical and Mechanical Properties of ACW14 at OAC (%), Asphalt Institute Method OAC (%) 5.6 6.2 5.7 Bulk Density (kg/m3) 2366 2340 2329 VTM (%) 3-5 3.3 3.8 4.8 VMA (%) 15.5 17.0 17.0 Stability (kg) > 500 1524 1566 1711 Flow (mm) > 2.0 4.8 4.7 4.5 Stiffness (kg/mm) > 250 317.25 331.14 383.81 Page 32

Filler

VFA (%)

JKR Specs Stone Dust LCPF HCPF

75 - 85 79.2 78.1 72.4

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CHAPTER V Discussion
5.1 Introduction
This section will discuss the results obtained from the experiment. It will shed light on how POFA affected performance of the HMA and what other knowledge can be deduced about use of POFA in HMA.

5.2 Volumetric Properties

5.2.1 Bulk Density
The use of POFA resulted in a decrease in the bulk density of the modified samples. As seen from Figure 4.1, bulk densities of samples made with POFA have lesser values than bulk densities of samples made with stone dust. This can be explained by POFAs lighter nature as compared to the stone dust filler. During mixing it was noted that 60g POFA occupied almost 2 times more volume than 60g of stone dust (Figure 4.1). Even at their OACs, POFA modified samples have lesser bulk density than conventional HMA samples. More filler volume in the mix would provide more contact points for the aggregate, which, according to Puzinauskas (1969) can be beneficial to the mix. These additional contact points may also contribute to higher shear strength.

5.2.2 Void Analysis

POFA modified samples have VTM within JKR limits, however when compared to the control specimens, the VTM is markedly higher (Table 4.5). Also HCPF samples had much higher VTM than LCPF samples. POFA also caused an increase in the VMA of the samples. The VFA value of LCPF samples is well within the JKR limit; however, for HCPF samples, the results show voids are not sufficiently filled with asphalt (Table 4.5). This implies the asphalt film around the aggregate is thinner than required. This could lead to accelerated cracking and aging of the pavement.

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5.3 Stability, Flow and Stiffness

Overall, HMA samples modified with POFA exhibited better stability and stiffness than conventional HMA (Table 4.5). These concur with findings of Borhan et al. (2010) who found higher stability values of samples modified with POFA. Kamaluddin (2008) also found that using 100% POFA as filler in SMA gave the best stability and flow values. HCPF modified samples exhibited the highest stability values at a flow slightly lower than other mixes. This contributed to its high stiffness. Presence of LCPF in HMA was also beneficial to the stability and stiffness of the mix, returning better values than conventional HMA.

5.4 Optimum Asphalt Content

OAC of POFA modified samples was found to be higher than conventional HMA. This concurs with Kamaluddins (2008) study, who also found that OAC of SMA modified with POFA was higher than OAC of conventional SMA. The OAC of LCPF samples was found to be much higher than OAC for other mixes. This can be attributed to higher volume of filler in the sample, which has more surface area, thus more asphalt is required to coat the particles. Furthermore, since POFA has properties similar to fly ash (Goh et al. 2006), it can be assumed that, like fly ash, it has higher void content than stone dust (Sharma et al. 2010). The high void content tends to absorb more asphalt, further increasing the OAC. On the other hand, optimum conditions for HCPF were at an AC just a little higher than those for stone dust and much lower than OAC for LCPF. Since the major difference between HCPF and LCPF is the carbon content, it is possible that the high carbon content in HCPF acts as an asphalt extender. This would negate the absorbing properties of the POFA, thus reducing the OAC. The high stability and stiffness values of HCPF together with its economical OAC show that presence of high amount of unburnt carbon was beneficial to the strength characteristics of the mix, but reduced the VFA.

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5.5 Assessment of use of POFA as Waste Material in HMA

This section will assess if use of POFA as filler in HMA tackles the concerns of using waste materials in HMA: i. Engineering concerns: Evaluation of POFA in HMA has shown promising results in improving engineering properties of the mix. Processing of POFA uses technology already in use in HMA plants (e.g. sieving equipment). Other major changes during production will not be required since equipment that handles stone dust can handle POFA. Only changes required will be in the storage and handling sections. Larger container will be required to accommodate the larger volumes. Storage areas should be relocated away from sources of ignition to prevent the carbon catching fire. Testing stage did not require any changes in equipment or procedure. Additionally, POFA is an abundant waste product in Malaysia and other palm oil producing countries. It is likely to be sufficient to meet demands. ii. Economic Concerns: Collection of POFA is inexpensive and because it is light and available at Palm Oil mills all around Malaysia, its transportation is likely to be easy and cheap. Also, since no change in production equipment is required, its use can be implemented relatively cheaply. iii. Environmental Concerns: POFA is a product of combustion of palm fibers, shells and husks is unlikely to contain any hazardous contents. Chemical analysis of POFA showed high level of silicone dioxide which does not breakdown due to elevated temperatures. Levels of hazardous wastes were negligible. Only ignitable content is carbon which does not release hazardous emissions/fumes. Xue et al (2009) showed that asphalt is an effective stabilization and solidification agent for heavy metal (except Ni) in MSWI ash. TCLP test for environmental impact indicated that asphalt is an effective stabilization and solidification agent for heavy metal in MSWI ash.

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Chart 5.1: Bulk Density, (kg/m3) vs AC (%)

2400.00

B u l k k g D / e m n ^ s 3 i t y

2380.00 2360.00

Bulk Density (kg/m^3) Stone Dust Bulk Density (kg/m^3) LCPF Bulk Density (kg/m^3) HCPF Poly. (Bulk Density (kg/m^3) Stone Dust) Poly. (Bulk Density (kg/m^3) LCPF) Poly. (Bulk Density (kg/m^3) HCPF) 4 5 6 7 8

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(
2340.00
2320.00 2300.00 2280.00 2260.00

)
( )

AC (%)

Chart 5.2: VTM (%) vs AC (%)

9.00 8.00 7.00 VTM (%) Stone Dust VTM (%) LCPF VTM (%) HCPF Linear (VTM (%) Stone Dust) Linear (VTM (%) LCPF)

V 6.00 T 5.00 M
4.00

% 3.00
2.00 1.00 0.00 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7

AC (%)

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Chart 5.3: VMA (%) vs AC (%)

18.50 18.00 17.50 V17.00 M 16.50 A 16.00 ( % 15.50 15.00 14.50 14.00 4 5 AC (%) 6 7 ) VMA (%) Stone Dust VMA (%) LCPF

VMA (%) HCPF Poly. (VMA (%) Stone Dust) Poly. (VMA (%) LCPF) Poly. (VMA (%) HCPF)

Chart 5.4: VFA (%) vs AC (%)

95.00 90.00 85.00 80.00 V F 75.00 A 70.00 65.00 60.00 55.00 50.00 4 4.5 5 5.5 AC (%) 6 6.5 7 VFA(%) Stone Dust VFA(%) LCPF VFA(%) HCPF Linear (VFA(%) Stone Dust) Linear (VFA(%) LCPF) Linear (VFA(%) HCPF)

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(
%

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Chart 5.5: Stability (kg) vs AC (%)

1950.00 S t a b i l i t y ( ) 1050.00 4 5 AC (%) 6 7 1850.00 1750.00 1650.00 Stability (kg) HCPF 1550.00 1450.00 1350.00 Poly. (Stability (kg) Stone Dust) Poly. (Stability (kg) LCPF) Poly. (Stability (kg) HCPF) Stability (kg) Stone Dust Stability (kg) LCPF

1250.00 k g 1150.00

Chart 5.6: Flow (mm) vs AC (%)

6.50 6.00 5.50 F l 5.00 o w 4.50 Flow (mm) Stone Dust Flow (mm) LCPF Flow (mm) HCPF Linear (Flow (mm) Stone Dust) Linear (Flow (mm) LCPF) Linear (Flow (mm) HCPF)

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(
m m

4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 4 4.5 5 5.5 AC (%) 6 6.5 7

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CHAPTER VI Conclusions and Recommendations

6.1 Introduction
This chapter summarizes and concludes the research that was carried out to evaluate the potential of POFA as mineral filler in HMA. It will list the shortcomings and limitations of the study and how they affected the experiment and the results obtained. Recommendations for further research within the scope of this study have been proposed.

6.2 Conclusions of the study

1) POFA can be successfully incorporated as mineral filler in HMA without degrading the engineering properties of the mix. 2) POFA with high carbon content greatly improves the Stability and Stiffness of the mix without a significant increase in OAC, but gives a low VFA value. 3) POFA with low carbon content also gives better Stability and Stiffness but requires greater asphalt content at optimum conditions, thus making it uneconomical. 4) POFA successfully addresses some of the engineering, economic and environmental concerns of incorporating waste materials into HMA.

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6.3 Shortcoming of the study

The only shortcomings of the study are that the average of only 2 replicates per AC was used instead of the desirable 3 replicates to obtain the OAC. Errors during mixing and testing rendered 28 samples inadequate for use in result analysis.

6.4 Limitations of the study

1) Aggregate selection was only based on the Specific gravity of the aggregate. Other physical properties such as AIV, ACV, and flakiness index could not be determined due to unavailability of the equipment. Lots of flaky and elongated particles were observed among the coarse aggregate, rendering the aggregate of poor quality. 2) Tests for specific gravity, chemical analysis and carbon content of POFA specimens were not conducted due to unavailable equipment and insufficient funding for project. As a result, a range of desirable carbon content could not be specified. 3) Recyclability and life cycle costs of HMA modified with POFA could not be determined due to time constraints.

6.5 Recommendations
Further research is required to better understand the science of HMA modified with POFA and expand the scope of this study. More positive results will go a long way in convincing stakeholders of the highway industry in Malaysia to implement POFA into their production process. The following avenues are open for future study: 1) Evaluation of POFA as partial replacement of fine aggregate in HMA. 2) Study into the recyclability and life cycle costs of HMA modified with POFA. 3) Studying effect of POFA on properties of binder using wet process of mixing.

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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
1. Mixing involved dealing with hot, flammable, volatile materials e.g. bitumen which required safety measures for handling e.g. gloves, lab coat, safety boots, face mask 2. Sieving involved being around fine dusty particles which required dust mask to protect lungs.

APPENDIX B
Date Semester 1 Week 4 First Meeting with Supervisor, Mr Edwin Goh Boon Hoe. I was briefed me on Palm Oil Fuel Ash, a waste material from the Palm Oil industry and explained how change in fillers can affect properties of HMA. I was asked to learn more about the topic and decide if I would carry out his suggestion. Alternatively, I was asked to propose a topic of my own in a similar field. Activity / Comments

Carried out research on POFA so as to obtain pre-requisites on the subject. Learned of studies that have incorporated OPFFA into concrete by Tonnayopas et al. Also learned of Kamaluddin (2010) who studied use of POFA in SMA.

Studied about HMA modified with crumb rubber. This came to mind

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after seeing Dr. Abdullahi Ali Mohameds presentation on aging characteristics of HMA modified with crumb rubber (April 2010). Decided to accept Mr Gohs proposal since POFA was a new material that had not been searched enough.

Week 6

Second Meeting with supervisor. Informed him of my decision to accept his proposal. He showed a sample of POFA that contained very little amount of unburnt carbon. We agreed on the main objectives: To asses use of POFA in HMA To determine if and/or how variation of carbon content in POFA affects HMA He provided 2 files containing journal articles and reports that shed more light on use of ash in as material in construction industry. These were used as literature I was asked to come up with a project proposal that would introduce POFA as a material in HMA. Method of study would be outlined in the proposal.

Week 7

Studied articles and journals about various ways of modification of HMA. Visit to Civil Engineering Mixing lab as part of pavement engineering module. Various equipments were shown that are used in Marshall Mix design e.g. Marshall Compactor, Marshall Tester. Next day, we were shown procedure of Marshall Mix, from mixing bitumen and aggregate on mixing wok to compaction. Sample was tested next day.

Week 8

Sieving equipment was used to sieve aggregate for Marshall Mixing as part of pavement engineering lab.

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Aggregate gradation conforming to ACW14 was decided upon. Calculations were made on no. of samples and amount of aggregate required.

Project proposal was presented to supervisor that included aggregate gradation. Project proposal and gradation were approved and we were instructed to start sieving.

Week 9

Whole class performed Marshall Mix Design as part of Pavement Engineering lab. We learned how to use mixing and compaction equipment. A set of Marshall samples were prepared and tested. Data was analyzed to be submitted as lab report.

Further online research revealed more information about the science of fillers. Research dating back to 1952, when Puzinauskas found that mineral fillers provide contact points between aggregate.

Week 10

First week of sieving, this turned out to be really hard work. Coarse aggregate could be easily sieved by the mechanical shaker, but sieving fine aggregate, especially particles smaller than 0.425mm could not be easily sieved by the automatic machine. Those particles were eventually sieved by hand. After first day of sieving, we realized importance of using gloves and a dust mask.

Meeting with the supervisor to inform him of the progress in sieving and lab work. He suggested more efficient ways of sieving and also informed us that sieving was indeed the hardest and most tedious part of the laboratory works.

Week 11

Submission of Project diary Final meeting with supervisor for the first semester. He instructed us to finish sieving by the start of the second semester, so that there is

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enough time to complete mixing and testing. School Holiday Break (17th Jan 6th Feb) Further study in order to understand advances in pavement materials and implementations of HMA modifications in the field e.g. Volcanic Ash Road Building in Philippines. Lab work involved more sieving of aggregates Visited Seri Ulu Langat Palm Oil Mill for collection of palm oil fuel ash. During the journey, the supervisor and I discussed the progress in lab work and he talked about his time at university and his experience teaching transportation engineering. He also gave insight into the road transportation sector in Malaysia.

Semester 2 Week 1 More sieving was done in order to obtain the required amount of aggregates for the whole mixing procedure. POFA was characterized as LCPF and HCPF. It was also sieved in order to obtain its finer contents that would be used as mineral filler. Sieving POFA was much easier since it contained more fine particles than aggregate. By the end of the week, more than enough aggregate had been sieved in order to complete the mixing of specimens Bulk and Effective Gravity Tests for Aggregate were carried out to obtain a measure of aggregate strength. These values were used during data analysis. First meeting of the semester with the supervisor, we reported completing the sieving of aggregates and also showed him results of aggregate tests. Week 2 Mixing was started, with the first set involving mixing of control specimens having AC of 5%, 5.5% and 6 %. Control Specimens are those that contain stone dust. They are used as benchmark for comparing

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the POFA modified HMA. 9 samples were prepared in the first week. Progress was slow due to inexperience in determining if mix is ready. Also, due to oven heating problems, bitumen took a long time to reach desired temperature. Week 3 18 samples were prepared this week. Progress was much faster as oven problems were resolved so heating of bitumen was much faster. Also, a prepared time table was drawn up and each person was allocated his mixing slot to avoid clashes. By end of week 3, Control, LCPF and HCPF containing 5%, 5.5%, and 6% AC had been mixed. Week 4 Control, HCPF and LCPF samples containing AC of 4.5% were prepared. Total of 9 samples were prepared. Samples prepared over the last 2 weeks were tested for their volumetric and Marshall properties. However, 2 samples did not yield results due to unexplainable circumstances. All data obtained was analyzed using MS Excel SpreadSheet Program. Values obtained were plotted on graphs and studied over the weekend. Graphs showed grave inconsistency. Stability values decreased from 4.5% onwards, only slightly increasing at 6%. Volumetric properties did not follow regular patterns Introduction part of the report was completed over the weekend

Week 5

Results were presented to the supervisor in order to get his input. He asked about any mistakes in the mixing/testing phase. Eventually it was realized that we made an error while testing the first 27 specimens. All of those specimens were left for more than 1 day before testing. He explained testing a specimen after more than one day can yield below par results since specimen is allowed to dry beyond recommended time. Also those 27 specimens were incorrectly stacked on top of each

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other which resulted in inconsistent void values. 4.5% samples were deemed usable. Since it was already mid semester he suggested remixing control samples so as to obtain at-least 1 set of results that could be discussed. Amount of aggregate left was calculated. Based on our calculations, we determined that 2 samples per AC for each set could be mixed without requiring too much sieving. This was proposed to the supervisor and after his approval we finished the necessary sieving by the end of the week.

Week 6 7

Mixing of samples resumed. Experience from previous mistakes had taught us how to avoid most errors and this was reflected in consistency of the new results. By end of week 9, all required samples of control, LCPF, HCPF and NPF had been prepared and tested.

Results were analyzed as mentioned before and were presented to the supervisor who approved the new consistent values. At the end of the experiment, it was obvious that the most tedious part of the experiment was sieving the aggregate. Mixing and testing could be done at a much faster pace.

Week 8 - 12

These 4 weeks were used to write the final year dissertation that would be submitted as

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APPENDIX C
Table 4.3 Aggregate Gradation Mix Designation ACW 14 % Passing 100 80-95 68-90 52-72 45-62 30-45 17-30 7-16 4-10 0 Marshall Mix % Passing 100 90 75 65 50 33 18 10 5 0 % Retained 0 10 15 10 15 17 15 8 5 5 TOTAL Weight Retained Total Weight of per sample (g) 0 120 180 120 180 204 180 96 60 60 1200 Aggregate Sieved 0 7200 10800 7200 10800 12240 10800 5760 3600 3600 72000

BS Sieve Size (mm) 20 14 10 5 3.35 1.18 0.425 0.150 0.075 Pan (MF, <0.075)

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Asphalt Content (%), A 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 Asphalt Content (%), A 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

Bulk Density (kg/m^3)

Asphalt Content (%), A Stone Dust 6.22 5.55 2.42 2.37 1.70

VTM (%)

Stone Dust 2323.98 2323.10 2382.53 2366.30 2365.21

LCPF 2278.64 2302.46 2322.83 2346.51 2342.12 2318.77

HCPF 2292.71 2317.21 2331.94 2319.96 2319.81

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

LCPF 8.05 6.39 4.86 3.18 2.66

HCPF 7.48 5.79 4.49 4.28 3.58

VMA (%) Stone Dust 16.70 16.54 14.85 15.88 16.37 LCPF 17.71 17.28 16.99 16.59 17.18 HCPF 17.20 16.75 16.66 17.53 17.97

Asphalt Content (%), A 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 Stone Dust 61.56 66.43 83.75 85.16 89.63

VFA (%) LCPF 54.59 63.03 71.40 80.82 84.55 HCPF 56.50 65.42 73.06 75.59 80.08

Asphalt Content (%), A

Stability (kg)

Asphalt Content (%), A HCPF 1555.69 1836.69 1692.08 1601.05 1200.20

Flow (mm)

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

Stone Dust 1218.05 1497.02 1592.33 1325.76 1112.33

LCPF 1389.47 1429.42 1679.15 1585.24 1446.57

4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5

Stone Dust 3.59 4.31 4.12 5.91 5.41

LCPF 3.57 3.50 3.72 5.02 4.94

HCPF 3.24 3.00 4.37 5.31 5.14

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