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GLOSSARY
OF
TERIS
USED
IN
%VELL
LOGGIiG
By
R. E. SHERIFF
Reprintedfrom
GEOPHYSICS
Society of Exploration
P.O. Box 3098
Geophysicists
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GLOSSARY OF T/F!$
ROBERT
E.
SHERIFF*
The "Glossary of Terms Used in Geophysical Exploration" publishedin Geophysics in February 1968 met with some justified criticism becauseof the emphasison seismicexplorationfor oil. The Addendum published in April 1969 attempted to restore balanceas far as mineral explorationwas concerned. But onemajor area of geophysics had sti!l been slighted:that of well logging. This present addendum is intended to complete our coverageof geophysical exploration
terms.
A revision of the "Glossaryof Terms Used in Geophysical Exploration" is now underway and it is intendedthat this "Glossaryof Terms Used in
Well Logging" should be included as an integral part of the revision. The present publication is made, therefore,in the samesense as the previous publications:as a semifinaldraft of the entriesaccessiblefor proofreadingby a much wider group of knowledgeablegeophysiciststhan we could otherwise reach. Comments, corrections, or disagreements are invited, so that they may receive
consideration before the revision is finalized.
Well loggingtechnology has seenrapid development in the last few years with the advent of several types of acoustic and radioactive logging methodsand other new loggingtools. Computers are beginningto have an impact on this field by making readily available, from combinationsof logs, information which previously could be extracted only by tedious methods. The author believes that a "geophysicist" should be conversantwith aspectsperipheral to his central concern and central application, and that a geophysical interpretation ought to be consistent with all available data of all kinds, not merely with that portion of the data in which the
Readerswill note that someentriesappearboth in the previousglossaryand in the present one with somewhat different specializedmeanings, depending on the area in which the word is used. Because suchdifferences involve vocabularyoutside of well loggingusage,it did not seem appropriate to includethem here. The forthcoming revisionwill attempt to clarify such differences. Groundruleshave beenessentially the sameas those laid down for the precedinggeophysical glossary: 1. An equal sign indicatesthat what follows is an equivalent. Logsindicated as beingequiv-
interpreter specializes. Sonic logginginformation is vital to seismic interpretation and density logginginformationto gravity interpretation.But vital also are measurementsof other physical propertieswith which an interpretationought to be consistent, just as a seismic interpretation oughtto be consistent with gravity and magnetic observations. In a rapidly changing field such as ours,the boundaries betweenareasof specilization
must be crossed more and more often as we ad-
alent, however,may not be identical (e.g., neutronlifetime log and thermal decaytime
log).
2. A colon indicates that what follows is a defi-
4. Wordshavebeendefined astheyareactually
used.
vanceinto the future. Hence it seems appropriate to present a "Glossary of Terms Used in Well Logging."
? Manuscriptreceived by the Editor June 8, 1970.
* ChevronOil Company,Houston,Texas.
1117
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lent, the principal entry is that most used, even where this gives preference to a trade name over a generic name. Trade names are included where they are in general use. Such entries begin with a
Oil Company, Jackson,Mississippi; Mr. E. E. Finklea of Schlumberger Limited, Ridgefield,Connecticut; Mr. Noel Frost of the Birdwell Division
lower caseletter wheretheir usage is for the class of devices; although the namefor a specific loggingtool may begin with a capital.
An attempt has been made to include trademark registration where 17 was aware of
such. Neither inclusion nor exclusion should
of SSC, Tulsa, Oklahoma; Dr. D. W. Hilchie of Dresser Atlas, Houston, Texas; Mr. John I. Myung of the Birdwell Division of SSC, Tulsa, Oklahoma; Mr. R. A. Robertson of Standard Oil Companyof California, San Francisco;Mr. Terry Walker of Welex, Houston, Texas; and Mr. J. E. Walstromof StandardOil Companyof California,
San Francisco. I also want to thank the Chevron
imply any judgments about the merits of specific devices. I wish to expressmy appreciationto the companiesand peoplewho have helped me, including
some whose names I do not know. I want to
Oil Companyand the StandardOil Company of California for permission to publishthis glossary. I again remind you that I do not regard this draft as final and invite suggestions for corrections,additions,or revisions.
R. E. Sheriff
Fro.
1. Idealized
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1118
BEFORE
SQUEEZE
,diP*
Sheriff
AFTER
SQUEEZE
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MUDCAKE
Fr:... (a) Schematicof compensated density log sonde. (b) Compensated density log. Courtesy Schlumberger.
O rn
INTERVAL
IDEPTH I
TRUE
DRIFT
DIRECTION
OF HOLE
1120
Sheriff
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SPOHTANEOUS POTEHTIAI
mllllval,i
1E$ I $ T I V I TY
ohms,.m'/m
//
OSCILLATOR
,/ HOUSING
AMPLIFIER
AND
RECEIVER
/ COIL
AMPLIFIER
RECEIVER
GROUND
FOUCAULT CURRENT I TTER
LOOP
ION
T RANSM
OSCILLATOR COIL
IITRANSMITTER ::R
a b
1121
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? oo.....
oRADIAL
..
I
I
i
i
iRADIAL DISTANCE
i
DISTRIBUTION
OF
FLUIDS
ABOUT
BOREHOLE
I
i i
I
i
I I
I
I
I I
i
i
I I
I
I
i
1
I
Rxo r ....
i
I
I
i
Rt
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
1
I
ABOUT BOREHOLE
I
II
II
DISTRIBUTION
!1 i
OF RESISTIVITY
I i
I
I
ii
11LI
itz
!1
i
i
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
i1 i
11 :::) I
II I
I
I I
I
MUD ; CAKE I
I
-I . iNVADED I I ZONE
I
I 1
UNCONTAMINATED
ZONE
1122
Sheriff
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LXTEROLOG
CONDUCTIVITY 400 200
.:_:::::.=5:::::
Fro. 7. (a) Schematic of laterolog7 showing currentflow lines.(b) Laterolog with hybrid scale.
Courtesy Schlumberger.
1123
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RESISTIVITY
ohml - m/m
RESISTIVITY
ohml - ml/m
Fro. 8. Microlog and microcaliper log (on left), nd microlaterolog (on right). Courtesy Schlumberger.
io
cro Nm.mal 2"
I0
MICROCALIPER
....
SIGMA
. _..
...................................
POROSITY
Per
Cent
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1124
GENERATOR
a
METER
160
NEUTRON
Sheriff
GENERATOR
b
ME TE R
CING
1425
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14'iC;. 1l. (a) Neutron log. (b) Sidexvall neutronlog. Courtesy Schlumberger.
CALIPER
HOLE DIAM.
BHC
SONIC
LOG
2 SPAN
iNCHES
At u SEC/FT.
!oo 7o 40
,.
Ri
LOWER TRANSMITTE/
1/////////
a b
!3. (a) Schema'it BHC sonic log sonde. (b) Sonic log. Courtesy Sclllumberger.
1126 S.R
o rnv
Sheriff RESISTIVITY
0 SHORT
0 LONG
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NORMAL
NORMAL
!0
I0
--
I+
SAND-LINE
F'm. 14. SP log in a sand shale serieswith fresh mud in borehole. Courtesy Schlumberger.
J SHALE
?AS,E -LINEI
,
i!'i
'
?
,,
1127
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MICROSECOND----.>
1000
1500
BOUNDARY.WAVE
'
SHEAR
WAVE
1128
Sheriff
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gation.
tinuous velocity log), the traveltime of the compressional wave between two points is mea-
In some acoustical
logs
(soni,
con
sured.
tude of part of the wave train is measured. Still other acoustical logs (character log, three
a__nn_o_U]_u.s: (1) That space between a drill ;i:, and the formations through which the returr,]ng olling fluid (mud) returns to the surfcu. 2) Tne
space between tubing and casing or between casing and formation. (3) A low resistance ring seinetimes produced by invasion processes in hydrocarbon-bearing beds. Because of their greater
hydrocarbons are displaced
invaded zone than
l,display VDL log, microseismogram log, signature o most of the v&avetrain in wiggle or variable density form. Still others (cement
bond log, fracture log) are characterized the objective of the measurements rather
their form. Borehole televiewer is
by than
mobility,
beyond
farther
the
conductive
forma-
an acous-
tion
water.
See Figure
6.
tical
log also--pically,
Specifically,
emission
a sonic log_,
which results
by a
wave:
from
'
: elastic
of
the
The difference
sections
sonic logging sonde. This wave train is detected by one or more nearby detectors and various asThe wave train
bration pit is defined as 200 API units. (2) The reading in the Indiana limestone portion of the API calibration pit (which has 19 percent porosity
as
and is
lOO0 API
saturated
units.
wit
fresh
water)
is
defined
modes
of energy transfer. The first arrival usually results from compressional (P or longitudinal)
waves travelling in the formation; h inverse of its velocity is measured by the sonic 1o. A second arrival is sometimes iden"Ffied as shear (S) wave travel in the formation, sometimes as
LS,....i]:
an electrical log,
The resistivity
which differs
zone,
recurdd
from the
influence
by
of
true
resistivity
ence of adjacent
of the formation
invaded
Rayleigh arrivals (not Rayleigh waves as used in seismology). Compressional waves travelling through t13e mud usually have relatively high frequency content. One or more modes of high amplitude, low frequency tube waves or Stonetey
waves are usually
Figure t.
) A
tween
fo rm 1ai:
the formation
Empirical
resistivity
relationships
factor F (some-
times
written
FR), porosity
water
saturation
S w, and resistivities
F
a very distinct
arrival.
See
F : R0/R w= a c-m,
R0/R t : S w,
where m = porosity exponent tor, which varies or cementation facbetween 1.5 and 3,
CtJv_o__t]o.n_ 19: Awe. loqing techniqeUe in -E5 -ormation is ll irrad ated with n utrons
that transmute whose radiation some nuclei into radioisotopes is measured after a time lag.
of
: acoustic velocity
a substance to enter into
= proportionality
0.6 to 1.5,
constant
varying
from
(t_G__JYj=JL (electrochemical):
The relative
a reaction.
found
tendency
When
the shales adjacent to a reservoir are perfect cationic membranes and the permeable bed is clean.
the electrochemical SP can be from the ac-
R0 : resistivity of the formation when 100 percent saturated with formation water,
tivities (equiValent concentrations of dissolved salts) of the formation water and mud fittrate.
is
the special
case where m =
j gg'n lJa bow spring orlever connected a sonde which presses against the o ore.,_ ._: olhe Variation of a phYnsical depending orientation ale g whic roperty it is hole wall to centralize the tool, to push the
tool to the opposite side of the borehole,
to hold a sensor pad to the borehole wall. To prepare a perforating gun for firing.
or (2)
.azro:::plo
or drift
: _a_dole plot:
data.
A display
of dipmeter
.thin (4)
The resistivity anisotropy coefficient square root of the ratio of the resistivity
is the mea-
- ture cross-section.
= lO-
1t29
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ease-line
shale
occur
silift:
base line
when waters
it
are
the
SP curve.
when the
A $hkft
sllnities
differerst
,G.,aQ$_U_. e._C, rQ_S -__s _6_]0.: ( 1 ) "A t omi c c a pt u r e c r o s s -'-- for neutrons is the effective area within which a neutron has to pass in order to be
captured bilistic
of the
separated
fect
by shale
act
as per-
cationic
membranes,
formation
capturing
nucleus.
Atomic
capture
cross-section
: borehole
compensated
a Dresser
sonic
Atlas
log.
See com-
is often measured in Darns (1 barn : 10-cm), (2) "Macroscopic capture cross-section" is the
effective cross-sectional area per unit volume of material for capture of neutrons; hence, it depends on the number of atoms present as well
as their atomic capture cross-sections. The
pensated lo.
BHC Acoustilog
BHCis a Schlumberger
traderlame.
unit of measure for 7] s cme/cm or reciprocal cm (cm'); :C is often measured in "capture units"
.b._!..]_n__.z..A?: A portion of a formation in which a logging tool response is too low; also called
"shadow zone." A blind zone occurs because of
r units." 1 c.u. : ]O'cm TM . ith 3)The -ate "sigma of absorption of therma neutrons a
velocity v is tqus
the finite size or configuration of tha logging tool. For the lateral curve, a blind zone (ab-
of measure
of macroscopic
capture
cross-
normally
low reading)
is recorded
when a bed
laterolog, sidewall microlaterolog, sonic, density, and neutron logs which includes a secondarz
which is highly resistive compared to the overlying and underlying formations is present between current and measuring electrodes.
b__f_ehf_e_6_ii:
cause of the size hole or sometimes
A distortion
and the influence invaded
of
a well
the
log
bore-
be-
]'9]ltFndex
1ot.
of zone.
.9=,,,,0_,._C]-!..r. a t_.r: A m ag ne t i c o r sc r a t c he r
device for locating casing collars, whict are used for correlating collars with other logs and hic. h often serve as reference depths in subsequent completion operations.
borehole
narrow acoustic
(sonar)
beam scans the borenole wall in a tight helix as the tool moves up the borehole. A display of the
reflected wave on a cathode ray screen) is photographed yieldthe borehole wall, revealing etc. BHTV is a Mobil Oil tradecomand
ac:s as such a membrane, allowing 5odium ions Co pass but not chloride ions. Important in generating the electrochemical SP.
dmeter.
The exponent m in the rchie
b_o._.n.d. wat_e/_: Water absorbed in or chemically bined with shales, gypsum, or other material
which
tions.
rti_a._G.,.E.:
is
not
free
to
flow
under
natural
condi-
nt= b_r_i_d/: The insulation-covered lower the cable to which the logging tool
nected.
bo_n_d ..]._:
the acoustic
portion of is con-
of
of bonding of the cement to the pipe. If the casing is poorly cemented, energy travel through the casing at the fast speed of acoustic waves in steel is strong and little energy travels in the formation; if the casinq is well cemented, the casing signal nearly disappears and the formation signal is strong. The log may consents the amplitude of a portion of the longitudinal acoustic wave train or (2) a display
of the acoustic wave train such as the charac-
circular
electrode
on a micro-
resistivity
three-D, signature
_81ib_ati:
before
logs.
and/or
after
Calibration
test
records run
c.ba.
: signature
log:
A display
of the
to the
cal.j_er Awell log which measures di........ =m'e"e r,lo: -open hoe caliper logging too ole s some
times have 1, 2, 3, or 4 arms. Also called
in wiggle form, as opposed of display in variable form in the three-D lo, microseismo-
1,
1o,
fracture
section gage. See Figures 8 and 13. Tools for studying the corrosion of casing or tubing
use many "fingers."
.G.hl_oni_ne : A log based on the counting rate of capture gamma rays produced by capture of thermal neutrons by chlorine in the formation. By limiting the count to a certain energy range, the tool
30
Sheriff
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is
made
more
sensitive
to
chlorine
and
rela-
continuous
velocity
log strong
to the
= sonic
long_.
tively insensitive to formation porosity. The chlorine log is now essentially replaced by the neutron lifetime loq and thermal decay time log.
cvcleskip.:
arrival
the
In acoustic
is sometimes
closest
or sonic
logging
the firs1
trigger
but not
enough to
transmitter
receiver
cbro_at:
See
arion
gas chromatograph.
J_et_: Containing no appreciable amount of clay or shale. Applied to sandstones and carbonates. Compa re _! _tj L.
;_O_l]_dc__]_D: : ccollar
locator.
.c_O_l_p_a_j_on c_,_r_e_.LJD_: An empirical correction applied to porosity derived from the sonic log in
uncompacted formations such as sands at shallow
the farthest receiver, which may then be triggered by a later cycle resulting in an erroneously high transit time. This situation is called "cycle skipping." Its onset is characterized by an abrupt deflection corresponding to an added cycle of travel between receivers. "Short cycle skipping" where the near receiver is triggered a cycle too late can also occur, resulting in an abnormally short traveltime.
A unit
of permeability;
the permeability
.cm_.__n__s t_e: Awel 11 og madte a sonde designed to correct out unwan ed with effects. The
compensated density log (FDC) uses the signal
correct for the from a secondary detector to effect of mud cake and small
irregularities in the borehole wall. The compensated sonic log (BHC) uses a special arrangement of the transto correct
size and sonde
which will allow a flow of one milliliter per second of fluid of one centipoise viscosity through one square centimeter under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter. The commonly used unit is the millidarcy or 1/1000 darcy.
_DarcJL_s law'
rate q.
kA
A relationship
flow
ducers
hole
for
irregularities
tilt.
in
bore-
QJ]_cLc_t_i_v_i: The ability of a material to conduct electrical current. See m. ho per meter. Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Formation
water.
.d9...si]_ = densi.
Atl as tradename.
Densilog
is a Dresser
_ec_t.OL:
against
Bi rdwel
A microloE
borehole
the
.dei_...t._.. :
A well
CVL i s a
are analyzed
gamma-ray source
_Q..e _n_a_l:
for porosity, permeability, fluid content and identification, lithology, and structure (fractures, cross bedding, etc.). Results are often illustrated on a log or coregraph on which porosity, permeability, water saturation, oil saturation, and lithology are graphed against
depth.
so shielded that it records backscattered gamma rays from the formation. This secondary radiation depends on the density of electrons, which is roughly proportional to the bulk density. The source and detector are on a skid
tion density. Th logging tool consists ofa e.g., Cs?) and a detector
which
is
pressed
against
the borehole
wall.
The
compensated density
logging
tool
(FDC) includes
._r_:
a secondary detector which responds more to the mud cake and small borehole irregularities; the response of the second detector is used to correct the readings of the main detector. Density is related to porosity by the equation
c.q._=__5_l.,._i_g_ez: device using bades which cuts aA triangular corediamondt-edged abou one inc on
a side
of a
and up to three
borehole.
feet
side
smooth
c r_r:
in
ferent wells.
which
of equivalence
in difof char. acter
one well to
stratigraphic
of
formations
in the
from
well
tures
of distinctive
either in the
feasame
(2)
hotS.
See Figure
3.
wel I data
wells.
a__tur
.rossplotz:
A graph to determine
the relationship
between two different measurements. A crossplot of porosity measured from a sonic log against porosity from a density log, for example, is used to show secondary porosity effects.
rect for measuring conditions which differ from standard. Such curves, for example, might correct for differences in temperature, hole diameter, mud type, adjacent beds, invasion, etc.
curve:
de?thof
cross-section.
ep.th of investJ.gation:
13
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played
back to obtain
._.d_e_t.i: A borehole log plotted at a scale larger than conventional (1 inch per 100 ft);
specifically,
inches per
dual inducti'
of two
induction
curves
An induction
with
different
log consisting
deoths
of
an electric
100 ft.
log at a scale
of 5
investigation. Usually run with a focused resistivity device with a shallow depth of investigation, such as a shallow laterolog.
eLi:
See drift,
tradename.
= deep well
temperature
thermometer:
logs,
_d_iP_.og = dieter.
magnitude and azimuth can be determined. The resistivity dipmeter includes three or four microresistivity readings made using sensors distributed in azimuth about the logging sonde and a reading of the azimuth of one of these; a reading of the hole deviation or drift angle and its bearing; and one or two caliper measurements. The microresistivity curves are
correlated to determine the differences in
_5?c.n_t.e '._:
against
elastic
sonic
the
wave.
w__a_v_e. = acoustic
elec-
depth of bedding markers on.different sides the hole. (2) Other types of dipmeter use
three SP curves, three wall scratchers, etc.
of
e]_e_c]ric 1%=
which
is
: electrolog:
consists
Atlas
A borehole log
logs.
usually
resistivity
(3)
lated stick
dips
calcuplot or
from the above, such as a tadpole plot. See Figure 4 and HDT.
and
e_]eCrochem:
dire_ti_o]
azimuth
sur_e:
inclination
Measurements of drift,
of a borehole
with
the
The component of the SP comprised of the sum of the liquid-junction potential and the shale potential, both of which are
the
determined
formation
by the ratio
water to that
of the activits.
of the mud filtrate.
of the
vertical.
times
A directional
measurements are
survey
made at
is
often
made
levels
The liquid
junction
potential
is produced in
with
a photoclinometer.
the formation at the contact between the invasion filtrate and the formation water as a result of the differences in ion diffusion rates from the more concentrated to the more dilute
dir_fw = shaly:
shale dispersed in the interstices. Such shale lowers the permeability and effective porosity and affects the readings of many types of logs.
Containing appreciable
amount of
mobility
tential
solution ("concentration cell"). The negatively charged chloride ions have greater than the positive sodium ions and an excess negative charge tends to cross the boundary, resulting in an emf. The shale poresults because the shale bed acts as
down. hole_____ground: A long electrode often attached to the logging cable some distance (perhaps 100
ft) above an electrical just below the casing, logging sonde or hung used as the reference
electrode at of bad SP interfacilities or electrode instead of a reference the surface, Used in the case ference from electrical surface
tell uric currents.
a cationic membrane permitting the sodium cations to flow through it but not the chloride anions. The liquid junction potential and
shale potential
are additive.
__.f.t_:
the
The attitude
axis
of
and
a borehole.
the vertical;
The drif
-fon fluid
Variations
in
is the angle
between
the drift
azimuth through
plane
?i]]ing___bak: An increase in the penetration speed of the drill bit caused by a change in
formation,
a porous
ion concentration produced by the processes which generate the electrochemical SP tend to be swept along by the movement of the invading fluid and this flow of charge results i n the el ectrokinetic potential. The electrokinetic potenti al i s usual 1 y cons i dered smal 1 compared to the electrochemical SP and is often neglected when estimating formation water resistivity from
the SP.
often
zone.
indicative
of
penetration
into
elecron.__denit:
See density
1og.
!]...ling
a unit
%jm]_O:
thickness
of
with air
d__i._]__l_p_i_p_e Awell obtained from a logging lo_: instrument wog ic hwich as a is self-contained
recording mechanism. The log consists of an SP and short and long normals. The tool is lowered through the drill pipe and the flexible electrode assembly is pumped through a port in the bit. The log is recorded by a tape recorder within the tool during the process of coming out
e__:
A s ne
1og.
See neutron loq.
survey.
e=oo_ithe_r_m .1.n:
E..S : electrical
1132
Sheriff
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F__&_] : formation
Gas
with
respect
to normal
water"
Sometimes
sea
F_F__= = free
if l_,?,
fluid
index:
water (which is 35,000 parts of dissolved salts per million), sometimes used comparing formation
water mud flitrate. "Fresh has less
than
= mud cake.
2000
ppm dissolved
salts.
satura-
1]ion of
some part
of
the
measuring
system.
of through
it is
q:NN===__,:
m._=.r__]g: radioactivity,
reflects shale
See de ns__i_ty.
A well log uhich records the natural (1) In sediments the log mainly
content because minerals contain-
].O].e_.r A device which measures the flow fluid. Sometimes the flowmeter is lowered
the flow stream in a borehole; sometimes
a packer.
ion
See inner
ing
radioactive
isotopes
(the
most common of
which is potassium)
See format
See invaded
tend to concentrate
in clays
imZ,:
,.[_:
tester.
and shales. Volcanic ash, qranite wash, and some salt deposits may also give significant gamma-ray readings. The log often functions
as a substitute for the SP for correlation
l_!d
zone.
__e__.....,].,.: Often refers to la[erolo or guard log. Sometimes refers [o induction lo.
purposes in cased holes, in nonconductive muds in open holes, and for thick carbonate intervals.
See Figures
tion for
3, 7, and ll,
minerals.
(2)
Used in explora-
radioactive
"'--
sity
-''stivity
based on induction
weight-
ing factor for determining how the conductivities of each medium in the vicinity of a sonde affect the apparent conductivity measurement, especially used with the induction log.
pretation
in terms
of v'"'i-'i--log data,
of nature are to of
drillstem
the formations if
tests,
and
etc.
$r.]!j__qz.a_qetn: A device for determining the density of the wellbore fluid by measuring the
pressure on two bellows tical pressure gradient. and therefore the ver-
their
tion
fluid
evaluation
content.
The
objectives
of
forma-
ascertain
commerci-
ally productive hydrocarbons are present and the best means for their recovery and to derive lithology and other information on formation characteristics for use in further exploration.
_o0_ = F: The
it
and the
resistivity
zones,
of
based
both
invaded
in-
uncontaminated
on a dual
ratio
is
of
the
resis-
tivity
the
of a formation
water with which
to the resistivity
saturated.
of
While
and a proximity
log or micro-
formation
factor
is,
strictly
speaking,
de-
fined
sands (for
which it is nearly independent of the fluid resistivity), it is often used without this restriction. Apparent formation factor is a function of porosity, pore structure and size distribution, and clay content. See Archie's
formu 1 a.
Electrodes
current
is
focused
into
: focused log:
.[mimo_$__Le_:
A tool
run on a wireline
_: _e]o:
tude tool zone
the
See microlaterolo,
Welex tradename.
= high resolution
dipmeter:
A dipmeter
which
A well log of the cumulative ampliof the wave arrivals from a sonic logging during a certain gate time. A fracture attenuaCes the acoustic energy and delays
arrival of the shear wave.
records four high resolution micrOresirstivity curves and has an additional electrode on one pad which yields another curve at displaced depth. The displaced depth curve is used to correct for
variations in sonde velocity.
.Ce,.fluid id = FFI: The percent of the bulk volume occupied by fluids which are free to flow
_h_ot wi]_e_: A device used to detect hydrocarn gases returned to the surface by the drilling mud. Basically a Wheatstone bridge, two
1133
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arms of which are kept at a high temperature. Hydrocarbon gases become oxidized as they pass over one arm, which increases its temperature,
the pressure
that of the
of
the mud is
fluids.
kept
A
great,'r
"rilud
.han
cke"
formation
changes its resistance, and unbalances the bridge. The hot wire analyzer response is sometimes plotted as a well log.
Directly
zone"
behind
iFom ,lcn
Humbl_e.fo_rmula: A special
applicable in granular
form of Archio's
(sucrosic)--6's:
formula,
formation water and most of the h'/drecarbc, ns have been displaced by filate. ThL, invasion process alters the distribution of resis-
F = 0.62
where
is
ure
F = formation
with
factor
and = porosity.
tivities and other pro,,Jerties and tensefluently the value which logs read. The "depth of vasion" is the equivalent depth in an delzed
modl rather
which
of
.,b__ri__....]_e: A scale
linear
7.
used with
for
laterclogs
reciprocal
filtrte.
trate
the
fli-
resistivity
1o,; resistivities
may [ush
a bank
of
ware, ahead
and linear
with
conductivity
(the
resistivity)
=h===ro e:
response ume filled
deep iFesigating
pared with
that
water.
Neutron
depends with
on hydrogen
maximum hydrocarbon saturation. It represents water trapped by adhering to rock surfaces, trapped in smaller pore spaces and narrow interstices: etc., which has not been displaced by hydrocarbons. Irreducible water saturation is
an equilibrium situation. It differs from "residual water saturation," the value measured by core analysis, because of filtrate invasion and the gas expansion ttat occurs when
the core is removed to the surface. froIll the bottom of the hole
S.
IEL = induction
electrical
survey:
A bore-
hole log which usually includes SP, 16 inch nor____-_ a m 1, and deep-investigation induction loq._.s.
]LL_d = deep i nvesti gati on i nducti on 1 oq.. I_L_nl : medium investigation induction loq.
inclin_or_t_e_.r.: A device for measuring hole inclination and azimuth. See directional survez.
l__a__te_r.9]_: A resistivity
and an electrode
tential trodes,
log.
A constant
while
current
the po-
surface
A on the bridle
difference is measured across two elecM and N, located on the sonde; see
principles.
of constant
the in
A high-frequency
intensity
This
alternating
current
current"
current
induces
"Foucault
Figure 12.
current
feet
formation.
to the "spacing,"
electrode
between the
between
sometimes
the potential
8 inches.
electrodes,
typically
about 18
electrodes are usually below tte current electrode but on the reciprocal sonde the functions
so that
the
the potential
electrode.
fluid
base
is
current
lateroloq.
i ntersti ces or
= guard
log : focused
log:
A resis-
?]_L,..s,_t_j.._tJ_a.l__,L.,L_: Water
i n the
pressional
tance, P-wave usually
hence proportional to the reciprocal of velocity. Measured in the sonic log, in microseconds per foot.
tivity log made with a sonde that is focused by use of guard or bucking electrode arrangements, which force the "surveying current" to flow nearly at right angles to the logging sonde. One type uses three electrodes and guard electrodes. In the lateroleg-7, sufficient current is fed into the bucking electrodes, A and A, above and below the current
electrode so that the current from the current
i nt r i ns_r m a 1 n__e__u_t_Q_n__d_e_C___. _te__: The t r ue decay time of the formation as opposed to the measured decay time which is sub3ect to hole and
diffusion effects. See neutron lifetime loq.
electrode
A flows
out
nearly
in the
a sheet bucking
condition
current
at elecexists.
elec-
this
below
flow
the
inva.ded zone: The portion about a wellbore into which drilling fluid has penetrated, displacing
some of the formation fluids. This nvasion
The lateroleg-3
above
and guard
trademark,
trode.
See Fiqures
7 and 5.
takes
place
Schlumburqer tent-':
l_iu i dZu_nc_jt ion_=_==p_Q_$]t i]_a_!_ = 1i quid boundary poSee el ectrochemi cal SP,
1134
Sheriff
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lttle
s_la
= small
slam.
See we!l
log.
m..ini].:
lo.j. normal: A normal resistivity log made with the A and M electrodes in the sonde (usually)
64 inches apart.
_mmho : mil!imho:
A unit of electrical
of ohm.
conduction,
Izo=v_o_ble_l .. : MOP: A well log calculated from other logs on which three "porosity" curves are plotted: "total porosity," qt, such as is derived
__: Subscript used with log terms to indicate values appropriate to the rock matrix.
from the sonic log; "apparent water-filled sity" derived from a deep investigation tivity device such as the microlaterolog.
between the first two curves
pororesis-
_.r_oic .i_Q_=: Resistivity perpendicular to the bedding which differs froin resistivity parallel to the bedding because of the inclusion of interbeds of markedly different resistivity. __= millidarcy
: Subscript
values for the
zparent water fialled porosity of theflusheid one" xo from shallow investigation res sThe
cares the volume fraction of hydrocarbons in the noninvaded zone and the separation between the last two curves indicates the volume fracresidual
= 1/1000
used with
darcy.
log terms to indicate
hydrocarbons cake:
as
zone. on
mud filtrate.
See Figure
A unit
of a
of
m__u_d___c_a_ke : filter
the borehole wall
deposited
filtrate
being
the
conductivity
a meter c ube of which offers a resisone ohm t o current flow between op-
pos ire
faces.
Rec iprocal
of ohm-meter.
See microlo.
: min ifocused
mud._.cu: A container
tivity.
log = FoRxo = t-- .' A microresistivity log of the !aterolog type wit h a bucking electrode and two monitor electrodes arranged concentrically on a pad which is pressed against the formation
so that the curren
ELUJL.f._i_]_C2Lt_: Fluid which enters permeable formations from the mud, leaving a mud cake on the
borehole wall. See also invaded zone.
flow
is
concentrated
into
is of a small volume of formation in front of the pad. For the proximity log the electrodes are mounted on a wider pad and the focusing is such that
gradually flaring tube. Since the spacing small, the log responds to the resistivity
=:
sures
ditions.
thicker
mark.
8.
Micro!aterolog
is a Schlumberger trade-
See Figure
j:
fluid
fluids
signs of
forma-
icrolo_ : contact log : minilog: A type of microresistivity log using three button electrodes spaced in a line one inch apart and located on
a pad which is
wall. The lower
by fluogas, and
a
pressed
against
is
the borehole
the A current
other ways. The mud is also monitored for salinity and viscosity to indicate water loss
include
electrode
electrode. The potential of the upper electrode with respect to a reference electrode on the
surface gives a 2 inch micronormal and the dif-
sample
time
of
curve.
):jp.]
to
. .......
_t.ool: A device
the direction
run in a borehole
the borehole at
ference between the two upper electrodes gives a 1 inch microinverse (lateral type measure-
measure
several
levels,
See directional
survey.
ment).
ciably
the
smaller
microinverse
read
micro-
normal
present.
This
dif-
ference
(called
"separation")
indicates
a perre-
neutro.Q lifetime
time log.
cross-section.
!og:
Similar
meable formation. A caliper log is usually corded at the same time. Microlog is a Schlumberger trademark. See Figure 8.
A well
which
log of thermal
A Van de Graaff
capture
genera-
tor
of
time
releases
formation
burst,
a burst
and begin
measure-
enter
the
.m_cronormal:
See microlog.
At two discrete
micm. oresisti.vitv lo): Awell log to m-easur6 he-Fs'ivity of the f esigned ushed zone
ments are made of the gamma rays which result from the capture of neutrons by nuclei in the
thermal decay time log, whereas measurements are
35
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made
of
the
thermal
neutrons
in
the
neutron
by
of
time,
sometimes,
to
the
fall
time
to
for
the
value,
thermal
called
neutron
the
popu-
half
neutron
I i fetime
cross-section 7., whichis derivable fro t-h e foregoing (2 = 4.55/ : 3.!5/L). Thermal neutrons are
captured mainly by the chlorine present and hence this log responds to the amount of salt in formation waters. Hydrocarbons result in longer decay times than salt water. Log readings are porosity dependent and sensitive to clay content and permeability changes. This log is used in cased holes where resistivity logs cannot be run or to monitor reservoir changes to optimize production. It resembles a resistivity log with which it is generally corre!atable. Dresser Atlas trademark. See Figure 10.
neutron lost: A well log of hydrogen density. Fast
L; sometimes
the
macroscopic
cap_ture
fluid
(the
hydrogen in free
Gas gives
fluid
hydrocarbons
because of
and water).
a low reading
its low hydrogen density. Sometimes thermal relaxation time, the rate of polarization buildup as a function of polarizing time, is measured to distinguish between water and oil.
T='meter, being th i
cube which offers a resistance
vity of a meter
of one ohm to the
neemitted by a source in the tool are slowed to thermal speed by collisions with (mainly) hydrogen atoms. The thermal neutrons are then captured by atomic nuclei of the surrounding mate-
opposite
faces.
Recip-
rial
(mainly chlorine
log
[a__d_ = sidewall
arm which
pad:
A footing
against the
on the end of an
borehole wall.
presses
gammarays (n -y), thermal neutrons (n - n), or epithermal neutrons (those just above thermal speed). A low hydrogen density indicates low liquid-filled porosity. Porosity calculated from
the neutron
tion matrix
_pt.j ti?_._.n___qas__c. h__r_o_m_a_t9_q=r_r .a .h_: A de v i ce f or q ua n t i tative analysis of hydrocarboq constituents. A fixed quantity of sample is carried ,;ith a stream of sweep gas through a partition column packed with an inert sol i d coated with a nonvolatile organic liquid. The lighter fractions
traverse the column faster than the heavier
log is affected
and by the
presence
logs are used in crossplots to detect gas and determi ne 1 i thol ogy. Neutron 1 ogs are sometimes scaled in API units, sometimes in porosity units assuming a limestone matrix. See also sidewall neutron log. The neutron log can be recorded in cased hol es See Figure 11.
fractions ately at
can be
so that the components aF,?ear separthe column exit, where their amounts
measured.
_.._ r_fo_cat!:
a formation formation
so into
r:
formation
Measured in millidarcy
(1/1000
darcy)
units.
reference
electrode
is
at the
for
used
surface
normal.
the
(electrodes
A spacing
normal
M
of
and
and N).
about
The "spacing"
is the distance
the
for short
between the
See
A and M electrodes
16 inches
ph_h_O_t_oclin.me__Jze. J?_: A well loggin device '-p-h'o-togr'aphiCally records the ngle andwhich azimuth
of borehole deviation from the vertical. Com-
normal.
pare potecIinometer.
gamma rays,
sonde and in the
)l_..ql ear cemen%I oR: A wel 1 1og of scattered gamma rays, differing from the density loll in that the gamma-ray source and detector are so spaced as to
be sensitive
nulus. fluids
to the density of material in the anUsed for distinguishing between cement and behind casing. Can be run in empty hole.
differing from a densit1o in that tile is not pressed against the borehole wall hence is especially sensitive to changes hole diameter or density of the fluid in
borehole.
fluid
log'
__: Often
lp...
indicated y th symbo . Porosity is determined from sonic loqs using the [,]zllie rela-
oresi
.
is the additional porosity created by such chemical changes, especially fissures, frac-
Downloaded 02/17/14 to 199.6.131.16. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
tures, solution vugs, and porosity created by dolomitization. "Effective porosity" is the porosity available to free fluids, excluding unconnected porosity and space occupied by
bouncJ :ate' and disseminated shale.
_r_l_d_ioa..c__i_l=q::A well log of natL, ral or induced radiation. Usually refers to qamma ra_y_ 1_o but sometimes also 'a a dens., neutron l, neutron lifetime 1o, or other types of logs,
,:-o.qi
ferent
overlay:
logs
?orosity
on top
values
based on dif-
jc,a:
plotted
of each other.
acous
tic
,ave.
A surface
wave in a borehole.
See
a log
arm
A device for measuring the angle of borehole deviation continuously run. A pendulum moves a variable
so tat the resistance so that a2imuth, is a measure resisrun
ytp_..._sp.: A sonde witn the current and measuring trodes interchanged. See lateral.
.e.,:
drill fluid
cf
the
angle
with
the
vertical
and a compass
another Often
amount cut.
needle tanc
i'
dipmeters.
Con,pare otoclinometer.
_:
which
To adjust
makes them
a borehole
di ffi cult to
log for
correl
true
ate
ver-
J.! = pars
per million.
tical depth. Logs in slant holes are usually recorded in distance measured along the hole,
with
.howing ,'Lffective porosity and the percent q of the total porosity occupied by clay. Low clay content and high fluid-filled porosity suggest good permeability.
other logs which intersect ferently. Also sometimes for formation dip.
]LO....dJt.j...,9_]],: A well
or
injection well. Small diameter sondes are used so that they can be lowered through 2 inch ID tubing. Devices include continuous flowmeter, packer flot,meter, gradiomanometer, manometer, densimeter, watercutmeter, thermometer,
_.f_n_: An increase in resistivity ing as the upper (A) electrode of a lateral sonde (see Figure 12) passes a thin highresistivity formation. of hole deviation _elat[e b9__ i: Azimuth respect to the reference
read-
with sonde
tracer collar
_t.i.:
The ability
of a porous
j::=:
trademark.
A microresistivity
log similar
to
used for
mea-
medium to permit fluid flow through it when there are two or three phases present in the pore space. The relative permeability is the ratio of the permeability for a given phase compared with the permeabi 1 i ty when only that one phase is present and depends on the fraction of the pore space occupied by that phase. Since the various phases inhibit the flow of each other, the sum of the relative permeabilities of all phases present is always less than unity.
surzment R a at different
N,here Rxo = flushed
contaminated geometrical
sand. Static
invasion depths:
Rt : un-
sti
of a material
= specific
which
resistance:
resists the
The property
flow of elec-
tri
cal
current.
The
reciprocal
See also
e..EdOS]_O:.],_c_. = PSP:
. : porosity unit
The "static
a clean
SP"of
sand.
a shaly
re_3_.t]]
= Ro/Rt:
The ratio
water.
of the reSee
sistivity of a formation bearing hydrocarbons to the resistivity it would have if 100 percent saturated with Archie' s formulas. formation
= 1 percent
porosity.
their readings from 10 to 100 ft of material about the sonde. Microresistivity...].O_9..s on the
hand derive
inches of
lo
from
a few
material
borehole
_a.j_O...t]_V.__tn.ac._e_r__],_: A 1og i nvo1v i ng t he de tection water of radioactive or oil to detect materials movement dissolved of fluids. in A
.sit:
readings
ity.
Irregularity
of logging
of a borehole
tools which
wall.
The
be held
have to
slug of radioactive material might be injected into the fluid and movement of the slug monitored to detect casing lea';<s or points of fluid entry or exit; or points where fluid enters formations might be shown by residual radioacti vi ty at those 1 evel s,
in contact with the hole wall (such as density and microresistivity logs) are affected by rugos-
sal_n_t:
Refers to total
salts
in solution
1137
Downloaded 02/17/14 to 199.6.131.16. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
(sodium, potassium,
chloride,
sulfate,
shale
etc.)
or
from
of thick
shales
log.
_$_a.,d count:
---permeable
other of
meabl e
effective
Often
thickness of
streaks
shale.p..ot_en._ti.Ll:
A part
of the electrochemical
SP.
excluding
impermeable
zones.
determined
electrical
separate
in a
sands separated
dominantly nonshale formation. The degree to which ion exchange processes contribute to
in shales is an ion exchange process whereby electrons move between exchange sites on the surface of clay particles. See dirt/.
See acoustic wave.
-thimum
water
drill
sand line:(1) Alinethat can berawn through deflections for thic , clean sands
on an SP log in a section where the formation
is of constant salinity. See SP and
often
tools
inside
the
_s_b_e_r wave:
pipe.
_s.ho.r];o_mal:
with the
A n_.orm_.9_at - resistivity
M electrodes in the
log made
sonde about
A and
saturation sawtooth
fresh
formula. salt
tends
16 inches
shoulder bed
apart.
effect : adjacent bed effect: Effect
When a very
water
to ac-
sand containing
mud filtrate,
a shaly
the
streak
filtrate
is invaded by
streak, setting
cumulate
to develop
below
the
shaly
up an electrochemical
a sawtooth
cell
appearance.
5_C]3_m.d ''
indicates
tance from the
A polar plot
dip or drift
origin indicates
of adjacent beds on a log reading. For example, high resistivity beds adjacent to a low resistivity bed may result in more current flowing in the low resistivity bed than if the high resistivity bed were not present, thus changing the apparent resistivity of the low resistivity
bed.
direction
drift magnitude. In the "modified Schmidt diagram" used for plotting low dips, zero dip is on the outside and dips become larger toward
the diagram center.
&ddeall_:
a wire
drical
A formation
tool
is fired into
sample obtained
a hollow
the
with
and
line
bullet
from which
cylinThe to
formation
5_e.c..ondary_ porosity.:
alteration of the
Porosity
formation
resulting
such as
from the
by frac-
retrieved by cable attached to the bullet. type of bullet and size of charge is varied optimize recovery in different formations.
tures,
ti on,
vugs,
etc.
solution
channels,
dolomitiza-
$.i.dewall_ neutron
the borehole
cake to
lo
- SNP'
An epithermal
neutron
is a
into
the mud
SNP
minimize
effects.
calculated
with
A measure of the
from sonic log
density or
See Figure
11.
conjunction
either
sonic
from a densit f (or neutron log and calneutron log values. qD is theorosity
is the porosity
calculated
from a sonic
sidertall pad: A measuring device which is pressed against the side of a borehole, such as used with microresistivity logs, density logs, many radioactivity logs, etc. idewall., samoler: 'i dbwall c e' A wireline device for taking
: borehole
televiewer.
Birdwell
A unit
of measure of
capture
cross-secti
on.
= SP.
single.hot tool: A device to obtaln one measureskin e..ffec...t.: (1) The tendency of alternating
currents to flow near the surface of a con-
different
5 and 8).
becomes
depths of investigation
Low resistivity
thicker where formations
ductor. magnetic
meable,
shallow
of a
that of
a deeper measurement, a situation called "positive separation." See also movable oil
plot_.
shadow zone: See blind zone.
results in a phase shift which shows up as a reduction in apparent conductivity. In induction logging in high conductivity formations,
a correction is made for this effect.
o:
(1) A line drawn through the
of imper-
m l__sl__5.]_.: A log combination and computation procedure for calculating the resistivity of
minimum dctions
characteristic
which
is used as the reference in making measurements to determine the characteristics of sands and
the invaded zones, the true resistivity, the diameter of invasion, and the water saturation based on a dual induction-laterolog and a
porosity
often
a sonic
log.
lo_9.. .
1138
She,iff
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:
sequence.
A poorly
consolidated
sand-shale
The
ratio
of
actual
SP
to
,t_iC_t__9__k = sedimentary rock: Usedto distinguish between mining (hardrock) and petroleum (softrock) objectives. &Jzz]_d_:A logging
= tatic
be
recorded
self
ehole
acti vi ty,
to record resistivity,
tool
such as is lowered
sonic, radio-
into
position well ins idea very thick, porous, permeable, clean sand to a point well within thick shale The electrochemical SSP (the
el ectroki neti c SP
is often
neglected)
is
approximately
giv en by:
(transit
= acoustic velocity
log = continuous
waves over .a unit
SSP = -K log
velocity log:
lO[aw/amf] '
between activity equation can be
traveltime.
averaging
two transmitters
the measurements
errors
or changes in hole
size.
three-D 1,
the-wall
the borehole.
this separation.
(2)
device
or pro-
of a movable electrode in the borehole and a fixed reference electrode at the surface. The SP results from electrochemical SP and electro-
: spontaneous potential
: self potential:
ducing
satic
SP = SS_.__P = static
self
potential.
results a line 1 onto dip in segments.
to shale. In impermeable shales, the SP is fairly constant at the "shale base line" value
kinetic potentia which' a'e--prn t at the inter;face between permeable beds and adjacent
(se Fiqure 14). In ermeable formations
depends on the contrast
A presentation of dipmeter well bore is represented by to the projection of the wel plane and the components of are indicated by short line
the deflection
between
$:t.oe]e_v..a..:
See acoustic
wave.
the ion content of the formation water and the drilling fluid, the clay content, the bed
etc.
s_te_amng potentia.l:
str!p:]:O:
See electrokinetic
in colors
potential.
and symbols)
A record (often
formations, containing
constant
will
A unit
for
static
be recorded.
fresher
SSP.
The SP is
fluids
vnet: that
A combination of data elements such more information is apparent from the comthan from the elements treated inde-
See also
bination
pendently.
trademark.
Synergetic
Log is a Schlumberger
J;L: The separation of certain electrodes or sensors on logging sondes. In nuclear devices usually the distance from the source to the detector. See Figures 3 and 12. See a 1so
A plot
of dipmeter or
_&J3: The separation of certain sensors on logas spacing is the distance from transmitter to
ging sondes. On the sonic sonde, span is the distance between two receivers of a pair where-
drift results where the dip angle is plotted versus depth as the displacement of a dot. A line segment points from the dot in the direction of dip using the usual map convention of north being up. See Figure 4.
tel, eviewer:
See borehole
televiewer.
s_D_an ad.iustment: tA calculation ofof a log W''dha'e rsul ed row heuse a which different from the one actually used.
sp_inner. survej:
specified levels
.._kp__Cjl_tu re l og: A w "'m de wi ''h- a-fe s i s t a nce th rmometer (thermistor). Used for locating t he top of cement behind casing (because the setting of cement i s exothermic and hence r aises temperature), interval s which are prod uci ng gas (because the the borehole expansion of gas as i t enters
soontan.e.ou.s. potential
1139
Downloaded 02/17/14 to 199.6.131.16. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
of The
differential temperature log records the difference between two thermometers usually about 6 ft apart and is especially sensitive to very small changes in temperature gradient.
.%enl; old:
resulting
Sudden deflections
of a sonic log
sticking.
''
water
from
cut:
a well.
of water
produced
measurements as a function
Distinction is
DT is a Schlumberger
trademark.
1o.
between a log as an entire record which may contain curves showing several measurements and
the individual curves themselves, which are also
_ii_hmlr_:
log.
called logs. (1) Wireline logs are recorded by means of sondes carrying sensors which are
lowered into the hole by a cable. Examples
Drilling
include logs which record electrical measurements (SP, resistivity, etc.), acoustic measurements (sonic, three-D, etc.), nuclear measurements (natural radioactivity, neutron
1;hree-D loQ = microseismogram log = variable density log' A display of the seismic or
acoustic wave train received a short distance
-3 to fl) from a sonic wave transmitter. See also character log., cement bond lo, and sonic lo__.. Birdwell tradename. See Figure 15.
:
ime
Having very
1 ow permeabi 1 i ty.
over which readings are
logs, etc.), and miscellaneous measurements (hole size, temperature, etc.). (2) Other types of well logs are made of data collected at the surface; examples are core logs, drilling time logs, etc. (3) Still other logs show quantities calculated from other measurements; examples are movable oil plots, synergetic
logs, etc.
con_stLD_iL: A time
fluctuations,
wi_r__elin:
is lowered
Well
into
log recorded
hole
by a sonde which
the
by a cable.
W l=!Ree ]Jtt_jo.nh:
calculating
times:
porosity
transit
time:
wave
The traveltime
over one-ft
of
a compressional
See sonic
acoustic
distance.
1.
At - Atma
are concentric about the current so that the current flow is concen-
um?.e[:
trated
electrodes electrode
A microlateroloq,
qb : &tf - Ztma'
where /t : observed interval transit tie,
5tf = transit time in the pore fluid, and Atma= transit time in the rock matrix This
in a tube which
gradually
formations
ltralq..g.l=p],,].9
600, or 1000 ft. sured resistivities ties calculated
long normal borehole log mounted on a 5000-ft bridle. The A to M spacings can be made 75,
= ULSEL: A modified
150,
reflect the secondary porosity; and in unconsolidated formations, this relationship may
In vuggy formations,
overestimate porosity. In such cases the formula may be empirically modified to give
better values.
logs indicate
Used to
flank.
define
nearby resistivity
anomalies.
dome
borehole.
log = three-
l.ocimeter_:
a fl owmeter.
flow;