Types of Listening Different situations require different types of listening.

We may listen to obtain information, improve a relationship, gain appreciation for something, make discriminations, or engage in a critical evaluation. While certain skills are basic and necessary for all types of listening (receiving, attending, and understanding), each type requires some special skills. hapter ! discusses those special skills and presents guidelines to improve listening behavior in all situations. "ut before #e can fully appreciate the skills and apply the guidelines, #e must understand the different types of listening. $nformative Listening $nformative listening is the name #e give to the situation #here the listener%s primary concern is to understand the message. Listeners are successful insofar as the meaning they assign to messages is as close as possible to that #hich the sender intended. $nformative listening, or listening to understand, is found in all areas of our lives. &uch of our learning comes from informative listening. 'or e(ample, #e listen to lectures or instructions from teachers)and #hat #e learn depends on ho# #ell #e listen. $n the #orkplace, #e listen to understand ne# practices or procedures)and ho# #ell #e perform depends on ho# #ell #e listen. We listen to instructions, briefings, reports, and speeches* if #e listen poorly, #e aren%t equipped #ith the information #e need. +t times, careful informative listening is crucial)remember the aircraft landing report in chapter ,. +t other times, careless listening results in only aggravation or misunderstanding)remember my misunderstanding of my daughter, &issy, as presented in chapter -. Whatever the case, effective informative listening demands that you concentrate squarely on the message )and kno# its source. There are three key variables related to informative listening. .no#ing these variables can help you begin to improve your informative listening skills* that is, you #ill become increasingly successful in understanding #hat the speaker means. ,. /ocabulary. The precise relationship bet#een vocabulary and listening has never been determined, but it is clear that increasing your vocabulary #ill increase your potential for better understanding. +nd it%s never too late to improve your vocabulary. 0aving a genuine interest in #ords and language, making a conscious effort to learn ne# #ords, breaking do#n unfamiliar #ords into their component parts)all these things #ill help you improve your vocabulary.

+nother good #ay to improve your vocabulary is to be sensitive to the conte(t in #hich #ords are used. 1ometimes, unfamiliar #ords appear #ith synonyms2 0er attractive, #insome personality #on us over. +t other times, a contrast is dra#n2 0e is usually quite energetic, but today he seemed lethargic. 3ccasionally, an unfamiliar #ord is used to summari4e a situation or quality2 0e passed for over -55 yards, ran for !5 more, and his three punts averaged over 6! yards* he turned in a stellar performance. Look for these and other conte(tual clues to help you learn ne# #ords and improve your vocabulary. -. oncentration. oncentration is difficult. 7ou can remember times #hen another person #as not concentrating on #hat you #ere saying)and you probably can remember times #hen you #ere not concentrating on something that someone #as saying to you. 1ome years ago my oldest daughter, Teri, interrupted my reading of the ne#spaper to ask, 8$s it 3. if $ take your car over to a friend%s house to spend the night9 $%ll be home before you go to #ork in the morning.: Without concentrating on #hat she #as asking, $ said, 81ure, go ahead.: 1everal minutes later, $ reali4ed #hat she had said. 1he #as not coming home that night, and $ had to leave the house earlier than usual the ne(t morning. $ had to drive from &ontgomery to &obile, #here $ #as to give a speech)and all my notes and visual aids #ere in my automobile. 'ortunately for me, Teri had left the telephone number of her friend, and $ #as able to retrieve my automobile. There are many reasons people don%t concentrate #hen listening. 1ometimes listeners try to divide their attention bet#een t#o competing stimuli. +t other times, listeners are preoccupied #ith something other than the speaker of the moment. 1ometimes listeners are too ego;involved, or too concerned #ith their o#n needs to concentrate on the message being delivered. 3r perhaps they lack curiosity, energy, or interest. &any people simply have not learned to concentrate #hile listening. 3thers <ust refuse to discipline themselves, lacking the motivation to accept responsibility for good listening. oncentration requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility. =. &emory. &emory is an especially crucial variable to informative listening* you cannot process information #ithout bringing memory into play. &ore specifically, memory helps your informative listening in three #ays. a. $t allo#s you to recall e(periences and information necessary to function in the #orld around you. $n other #ords, #ithout memory you #ould have no kno#ledge bank. b. $t establishes e(pectations concerning #hat you #ill encounter. 7ou #ould be unable to drive in heavy traffic, react to ne# situations, or make common decisions in life #ithout memory of your past e(periences.

c. $t allo#s you to understand #hat others say. Without simple memory of the meaning of #ords, you could not communicate #ith anyone else. Without memory of concepts and ideas, you could not understand the meaning of messages. >elationship Listening The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to improve the relationship bet#een people. Therapeutic listening is a special type of relationship listening. Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations #here counselors, medical personnel, or other professionals allo# a troubled person to talk through a problem. "ut it can also be used #hen you listen to friends or acquaintances and allo# them to 8get things off their chests.: +lthough relationship listening requires you to listen for information, the emphasis is on understanding the other person. Three behaviors are key to effective relationship listening2 attending, supporting, and empathi4ing. ,. +ttending. &uch has been said about the importance of 8paying attention,: or 8attending: behavior. $n relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate that the listener is focusing on the speaker. ?onverbal cues are crucial in relationship listening* that is, your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are attending to the speaker) or that you aren%t@ Aye contact is one of the most important attending behaviors. Looking appropriately and comfortably at the speaker sends a message that is different from that sent by a frequent shift of ga4e, staring, or looking around the room. "ody positioning communicates acceptance or lack of it. Leaning for#ard, to#ard the speaker, demonstrates interest* leaning a#ay communicates lack of interest. 0ead nods, smiles, fro#ns, and vocali4ed cues such as 8uh huh,: 8$ see,: or 8yes:)all are positive attending behaviors. + pleasant tone of voice, gentle touching, and concern for the other person%s comfort are other attending behaviors. -. 1upporting. &any responses have a negative or nonsupportive effect* for e(ample, interrupting the speaker, changing the sub<ect, turning the conversation to#ard yourself, and demonstrating a lack of concern for the other person. Biving advice, attempting to manipulate the conversation, or indicating that you consider yourself superior are other behaviors that #ill have an adverse effect on the relationship. 1ometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a 8sounding board,: not a 8resounding board.: Wise relationship listeners kno# #hen to talk and #hen to <ust listen)and they generally listen more than they talk. Three characteristics describe supportive listeners2 (,) discretion)being careful about #hat they say and do* (-) belief)e(pressing confidence in the ability of the other person* and (=) patience)being #illing to give others the time they need to e(press themselves adequately.

=. Ampathi4ing. What is empathy9 $t is not sympathy, #hich is a feeling for or about another. ?or is it apathy, #hich is a lack of feeling. Ampathy is feeling and thinking #ith another person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go into the #orld of another)to see as the other sees, hear as the other hears, and feel as the other feels. 3bviously, the person #ho has had more e(perience and lived longer stands a better chance of being an effective empathic listener. The person #ho has never been divorced, lost a child to death, been bankrupt, or lost a <ob may have a more difficult time relating to people #ith these problems than one #ho has e(perienced such things. >isk is involved #ith being an empathic relationship listener. 7ou cannot be an effective empathic listener #ithout becoming involved, #hich sometimes means learning more than you really #ant to kno#. "ut commanders can%t command effectively, bosses can%t supervise skillfully, and individuals can%t relate interpersonally #ithout empathy. +braham Lincoln is reported to have said, 8$ feel sorry for the man #ho cannot feel the stripes upon the back of another.: Truly, those #ho cannot feel #ith another person are at a disadvantage in understanding that person. Ampathic behavior can be learned. 'irst, you must learn as much as you can about the other person. 1econd, you must accept the other person)even if you can%t accept some aspects of that person%s behavior. Third, you must have the desire to be an empathic listener. +nd you must remember that empathy is crucial to effective relationship listening. +ppreciative Listening +ppreciative listening includes listening to music for en<oyment, to speakers because you like their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film. $t is the response of the listener, not the source of the message, that defines appreciative listening. That #hich provides appreciative listening for one person may provide something else for another. 'or e(ample, hard rock music is not a source of appreciative listening for me. $ #ould rather listen to gospel, country, <a44, or the 8golden oldies.: The quality of appreciative listening depends in large part on three factors2 presentation, perception, and previous e(perience. ,. Cresentation. $ <ust mentioned that $ prefer gospel music to hard rock. "ut $ don%t en<oy all gospel. 'or e(ample, $ don%t en<oy gospel music #hen it is presented in a 8glit4y: setting)or #hen it is performed by someone #ho fails to demonstrate an understanding of the music%s meaning. ($ might add that $ don%t usually en<oy gospel #hen it is off;key or poorly done)but there are e(ceptions, such as the time $ heard a ,5=;year;old man sing 8+ma4ing Brace.: ?ever have $ en<oyed it more@) $ en<oy gospel music #hen $ hear it in the little churches of rural +labama. $ also en<oy it #hen it is presented in the large church $ attend in &ontgomery. $

also very much en<oy presentations of gospel music on radio, on television, or in concert by #ell;kno#n performers #ho understand its meaning. $ en<oy hearing good speakers, speakers #hom $ admire, and speakers #ho have e(pertise. $ frequently attend lectures at +ir Dniversity by speakers #ho have all three of these characteristics. +mong the speakers $ have heard there recently2 Beneral harles 8 huck: 0orner, the air component commander of Desert 1torm)a #ar dominated by airpo#er* Deputy 1ecretary of Defense, Dr Eohn White* former hairman of the Eoint hiefs of 1taff, Beneral olin Co#ell* and D1 +mbassador to the D?, Eeanne .irkpatrick. $ have heard many other outstanding speakers at +ir Dniversity, of course)these four simply came to mind readily as e(amples of speakers #ho had all three of the characteristics mentioned above2 all #ere good speakers* all had my admiration* and all had a great deal of e(pertise. Cresentation encompasses many factors2 the medium, the setting, the style and personality of the presenter, to name <ust a fe#. 1ometimes it is our perception of the presentation, rather than the actual presentation, that most influences our listening pleasure or displeasure. Cerception is an important factor in appreciative listening. -. Cerception. 'or years, $ did not care to listen to <a44 music. $ had al#ays believed that people like me)from a conservative rural mid#estern background)#ouldn%t like <a44. Then $ started to #ork for a ne# boss)a general officer #ho en<oyed <a44. $ admired him very much. &y mind #as no# open to listen to <a44. &y perception #as changing, and $ began to en<oy <a44 music. A(pectations play a large role in perception. $f $ attend a concert under duress #ith no e(pectation of en<oying the music (perhaps my #ife insists that $ attend, or my position in the community makes it the thing to do), $ may be pleasantly surprised. "ut $ stand a lot better chance of en<oying the concert if $ e(pect to en<oy it. Cerceptions)and the e(pectations that drive them)have their basis in attitudes. 3ur attitudes determine ho# #e react to, and interact #ith, the #orld around us. There #as a time, not many years ago, #hen $ did not #ant a personal computer (C ) in my office. $ did not #ant to even be around a C . $ did not en<oy #orking #ith computers. 1i( years ago, $ #rote a book called 1peaking Affectively2 + Buide for +ir 'orce 1peakers.F The book you are no# reading is a companion volume to that one. $ #rote the first book in longhand* $%m composing this one on my C . 'ortunately for me, my attitude to#ard computers has changed. $f my attitude had changed si( years sooner, $ could have #ritten the earlier book in less time)and saved both time and effort for the publisher. GGGGGGGGGG

FEohn +. .line, 1peaking Affectively (&a(#ell +'", +la.2 +ir Dniversity Cress, ,HIH). Cerceptions influence all areas of our lives. ertainly, they are crucial determinants as to #hether or not #e en<oy or appreciate the things #e listen to. 3bviously, perceptions also determine #hat #e listen to in the first place. +s #e said earlier, listening is selective. =. Crevious e(perience. The discussion of perception makes it clear that previous e(perience influences #hether #e en<oy listening to something. $n some cases, #e en<oy listening to things because #e are e(perts in the area. 1ometimes, ho#ever, e(pertise or previous e(perience prevents us from en<oying a presentation because #e are too sensitive to imperfections. Crevious e(perience plays a large role in appreciative listening. &any people en<oy the sounds of large;city traffic. Cerhaps their gro#ing up in a large city #as a happy e(perience for them. The blare of horns honking, the sound of roaring engines accelerating, even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing the air)all these things may remind them of pleasant times in their lives. They appreciate hearing these sounds. 3thers, having gro#n up on a farm or in a small to#n, have learned to en<oy the sounds of nature. 'or them, a #alk in the country produces sounds of en<oyment2 the rustle of leaves in the bree4e, the song of a robin, the babble of a brook. Dsually, if #e associate a sound or other e(perience #ith pleasant memories, then #e appreciate or en<oy it. 0o#ever, if the sound or e(perience is associated #ith unpleasant memories, #e probably #ill not appreciate or en<oy it. "ut #e can change@ Let%s return to the e(ample of ho# $ learned to en<oy listening to <a44. $ did not en<oy <a44 music #hen $ first heard it. Then $ #orked for a man #ho en<oyed it. &ore than once #hen #e #ere TD7, $ sat #ith him in the evenings listening to <a44 combos or <a44 pianists . . . and $ learned to like <a44. We should not shut our minds to the fact that #e can learn to like, en<oy, and appreciate ne# and different things. We can learn to be better appreciative listeners. ritical Listening The ability to listen critically is essential in a democracy. 3n the <ob, in the community, at service clubs, in places of #orship, in the family)there is practically no place you can go #here critical listening is unimportant. Coliticians, the media, salesmen, advocates of policies and procedures, and our o#n financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual needs require us to place a premium on critical listening and the thinking that accompanies it.

The sub<ect of critical listening deserves much more attention than #e can afford it here. "ut there are three things to keep in mind. These three things #ere outlined by +ristotle, the classical Breek rhetorician, more than -,555 years ago in his treatise, The >hetoric.F They are as follo#s2 ethos, or speaker credibility* logos, or logical arguments* and pathos, or psychological appeals. GGGGGGGGGG F+ristotle, +rt of >hetoric (?AW 73>.2 /iking Cenguin, ,HH-). ,. Athos. redibility of the speaker is important. The t#o critical factors of speaker credibility are e(pertness and trust#orthiness. + speaker may be e(pert or competent and still not be trust#orthy. 'or e(ample, an autocratic dictator of a certain third #orld country might be an e(pert on the question of his country%s possession of nuclear arms* but $ #ould not trust him to tell me. 3n the other hand a person might be trust#orthy, but not be an e(pert on the sub<ect. $ trust my best friend* he #ould tell me the truth about nuclear arms in that third #orld country, if he kne# and $ asked him. "ut his information #ould be of questionable validity since he is simply not an e(pert in such things. When listening to a message that requires a critical <udgment or response, ask yourself, 8$s the speaker a credible source, one #ho is both an e(pert on the sub<ect and one #ho can be trusted to be honest, unbiased, straightfor#ard9: >emember that a person may have personality or charisma. "ut these do not take the place of credibility. + person may even be highly competent and an e(pert in one area and simply not be informed in another. >eturning to the e(ample of speakers at +ir Dniversity, $ trust Beneral 0orner. 0e is an e(pert on the use of airpo#er, and he is trust#orthy. $ listen intently #hen he speaks on the sub<ect. "ut $ #ould not e(pect him to be an e(pert on buying used cars, knitting, or nutrition. 0e may be an e(pert on any or all of these things, but $ #ould #ant to 8check it out: before $ put too much stock in his ideas on these sub<ects. Affective critical listening requires careful <udgment about the e(pertness and trust#orthiness of the speaker. $n fact, ethos or speaker credibility may be the most important single factor in critical listening and thinking. 0o#ever, ethos #ithout logos is not enough. -. Logos. Aven speakers #ith high ethos often make errors in logic, not by intention, but by accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis. ritical listeners have a right to e(pect #ell supported arguments from speakers, arguments that contain both true propositions and valid inferences or conclusions. When evaluating arguments, listeners should ask several questions about the proposition or statements made2 a. +re the statements true9

b. +re the data the best that can be obtained9 c. +re the sources of the data kno#n to the listeners9 $n other #ords do listeners kno# #here the information came from9 d. $s the data accurately portrayed9 e. $s the data representative9 That is, #ould all the data, or at least a preponderance of it sho# the same thing9 The above questions may all be ans#ered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may be faulty. 'or perhaps the data do not lead to or <ustify the inferences or conclusions dra#n. Listeners should ask themselves the follo#ing questions2 a. $s the conclusion a certainty or are e(ceptions possible9 b. Were all cause;effect relationships established beyond doubt9 c. Does the data <ustify the inference dra#n or the conclusion given9 d. Does the inference or conclusion 8follo#: from the data, or is there a non sequitur, #hich means literally, 8it does not necessarily follo#:9 e. $s there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker9F GGGGGGGGGG F$n 1peaking Affectively (&a(#ell +'", +la.2 +ir Dniversity Cress, ,HIH), $ discuss the concept of logical thinking in more detail than is given here. "oth ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. "ut reliance on <ust these t#o elements #ithout consideration of pathos #ould be akin to attempting to sit on a three;legged stool #ith one leg missing. Cathos is the third leg. =. Cathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often misunderstood and misused. 1imply said, speakers often use psychological appeals to gain an emotional response from listeners. Affective critical listeners carefully determine the focus of the speaker%s message. 1peakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are important to us including2 adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity, companionship, guilt, independence, loyalty, po#er, pride, sympathy, altruism. There are many others, of course* the list is a long one. There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves #hen assessing the pathos element2 a. $s the speaker attempting to manipulate rather than persuade me9 b. What is the speaker%s intent9

c. $s the speaker combining logos #ith pathos9 d. +m $ responding merely to the pathos9 e. ?e(t #eek or ne(t year #ill $ be satisfied #ith the decision $ am making today9 Affective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of the message in the analysis and in perspective2 ethos, or source credibility* logos, or logical argument* and pathos, or psychological appeals. Discriminative Listening The final type of listening is discriminative listening. $t may be the most important type, for it is basic to the other four. "y being sensitive to changes in the speaker%s rate, volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of difference in meaning. "y sensing the impact of certain responses, such as 8uh huh,: or 8$ see,: relationship listening can be strengthened. Detection of differences bet#een sounds made by certain instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella vocal group, enhances appreciative listening. 'inally, sensitivity to pauses, and other vocal and nonverbal cues, allo#s critical listeners to more accurately <udge not only the speaker%s message, but his intentions as #ell. 3bviously, many people have good discriminatory listening ability in some areas but not in others. 3ur middle daughter, ?anette, has al#ays been very adept at picking up minute differences in a person%s voice that might signal feelings. 1he has a gift for discriminating and applying #hat she hears to relationship listening. "ut her ability to discriminate among the different sounds that come from an automobile engine is practically nil. 3ne #eekend she pulled into the drive#ay, fan belt squealing. $ said, 8?anette, can%t you hear that9 7ou%re #earing out a belt. 7ou%re lucky you got home.: 83h that,: she said. 8$ #ondered #hat that #as. $ had no idea.: +lthough discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening, there are three things to consider about this type of listening. ,. 0earing ability. 3bviously, people #ho lack the ability to hear #ell #ill have greater difficulty in discriminating among sounds. 3ften this problem is more acute for some frequencies, or pitches, than others. 'or e(ample, a person may be less able to discriminate #hen the sound is coming from a bass voice than from a higher pitched one. -. +#areness of sound structure. ?ative speakers become quite proficient at recogni4ing vo#el and consonant sounds that do or do not appear at the beginning, middle, or end of #ords. 'or e(ample, a listener might hear 8this sandal: #hen #hat the speaker said #as 8this handle:* but since Anglish #ords do not begin #ith 8sb,: one #ould not mistake 8this bean: for 8this sbean.:

+ttention to the sound structure of the language #ill lead to more proficient discriminatory listening. + person #ho pays attention to sound structure #ould recogni4e that a rapidly spoken 8$drankitfirst: could mean either 8$ drank it first: or 8$%d rank it first.: >ecognition of the t#o meanings #ould cause the listener to seek clarification.F F$ am indebted for these e(amples and other ideas to +ndre# Wolvin and arolyn B#ynn oakley, Listening (&adison, Wis.2 "ro#n and "enchmark, ,HHJ).Ben Eohn &. Loh, 8What $t Takes to "e a ommander,: +ir 'orce Times, ,K 3ctober ,HH6, 6,. =. $ntegration of nonverbal cues. The previous chapter pointed out ho# action, nonaction, and vocal factors #ere important in understanding messages. ?o#here is attention to these factors more important than in effective discriminative listening. Words don%t al#ays communicate true feelings. The #ay they are said, or the #ay the speaker acts, may be the key to understanding the true or intended meaning. Affective listening, #hether informative, relational, appreciative, critical, or discriminative, requires skill. $n some cases, the skills are the same for the various types of listening* in some cases, they are quite different. The ne(t chapter #ill give you guidelines for better listening. $t #ill also tell you #hich skills are especially critical for each type of listening.