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C, while
alcohol freezes at a point far below -100
C. So,
alcohol is used to measure lower temperatures.
Similarly, mercury boils at 357
C, while alcohol
boils at 78
(
(
)
Example: What is the value of 51 +52 +53 + +100 ?
Sol uti on. 51 +52 + 33 +... +100 =(1 +3 ++100) (1 +2 +3 +... +50)
=
100 101 50 51
2 2
+ +
=5050 1275 =3775
Different Types of Numbers
Even Numbers: Numbers which are exactly divisible by 2 are called even numbers.
eg, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4
Sum of first n even numbers =n (n +1)
Odd Numbers: Numbers which are not exactly divisible by 2 are called odd numbers.
eg, 5, 3, 1, 0, 1, 3, 5
Sum of first n odd numbers =n
2
Prime Numbers: Numbers which are divisible by one and itself only are called prime numbers.
eg, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11
2 is the only even prime number.
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1 is not a prime number because it has two equal factors.
Every prime number greater than 3 can be written in the form of (6K +1) or (6K 1) where K is an integer.
There are 15 prime numbers between 1 and 50 and l0 prime numbers between 50 and 100.
Relative Prime Numbers: Two numbers are said to be relatively prime if they do not have any common
factor other than 1.
eg, (3, 5), (4, 7), (11, 15), (15, 4)
Twin Primes: Two prime numbers which differ by 2 are called twin primes.
eg, (3, 5), (5, 7), (11, 13),
Composite Numbers Numbers which are not prime arc called composite numbers
eg, 4, 6, 9, 15,
1 is neither prime nor composite.
Perfect Number: A number is said to be a perfect number, if the sum of all its factors excluding itself is
equal to the number itself. eg, Factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3 and 6.
Sum of factors excluding 6 =1 +2 +3 =6.
6 is a perfect number.
Other examples of perfect numbers are 28, 496, 8128 etc.
Rules for Divisibility
Divisibility by 2: A number is divisible by 2 when the digit at ones place is 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
eg, 3582, 460, 28, 352, ....
Divisibility by 3: A number is divisible by 3 when sum of all digits of a number is a multiple of 3.
eg, 453 =4 +5 +3 =12.
12 is divisible by 3 so, 453 is also divisible by 3.
Divisibility by 4: A number is divisible by 4, if the number formed with its last two digits is divisible by 4. eg,
if we take the number 45024, the last two digits form 24. Since, the number 24 is divisible by 4, the number 45024
is also divisible by 4.
Divisibility by 5: A number is divisible by 5 if its last digit is 0 or 5.
eg, 10, 25, 60
Divisibility by 6: A number is divisible by 6, if it is divisible both by 2 and 3.
eg, 48, 24, 108
Divisibility by 7: A number is divisible by 7 when the difference between twice the digit at ones place and
the number formed by other digits is either zero or a multiple of 7.
eg, 658
65 2 8 =65 16 =49
As 49 is divisible by 7 the number 658 is also divisible by 7.
Divisibility by 8: A number is divisible by 8, if the number formed by the last 3 digits of the number is
divisible by 8. eg, if we take the number 57832, the last three digits form 832. Since, the number 832 is divisible
by 8, the number 57832 is also divisible by 8..
Divisibility by 9: A number is divisible by 9, if the sum of all the digits of a number is a multiple of 9.
eg, 684 =6 +8 +4 =18.
18 is divisible by 9 so, 684 is also divisible by 9.
Divisibility by 10: A number is divisible by 10, if its last digit is 0. eg, 20, 180, 350,.
Divisibility by 11: When the difference between the sum of its digits in odd places and in even places is
either 0 or a multiple of 11.
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eg, 30426
3 +4 +6 =13
0 +2 =2
13 2 =11
As the difference is a multiple of 11 the number 30426 is also divisible by 11.
Smart Facts
If p and q are co-primes and both are factors of a number K, then their product p x q will also be a factor of r. eg,
Factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 prime factors of 24 are 2 and 3, which are co-prime also. Product of
2 3 = 6, 6 is also a factor of 24.
If p divides q and r, then p also divides their sum or difference. eg, 4 divides 12 and 20. Sum of 12 and 20 is 32
which is divisible by 4. Difference of 20 and 12 is 8 which is divisible by 4.
If a number is divisible by another number, then it must be divisible by each of the factors of that number. 48 is
divisible by 12. Factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12. So, 48 is divisible by 2, 3, 4 and 6 also.
Division on Numbers
I n a sum of division, we have four quantities.
They are (i) Dividend, (ii) Divisor, (iii) Quotient and (iv) Remainder. These quantities are connected by a
relation.
(a) Dividend =Divisor Quotient +Remainder.
(b) Divisor =(Dividend Remainder) Quotient.
(c) Quotient =(Dividend Remainder) Divisor.
Example 2: I n a sum of division, the quotient is 110, the remainder is 250, the divisor is equal to the sum of
the quotient and remainder. What is the dividend ?
Sol uti on. Divisor =(110 +250) =360
Dividend =(360 110) +250 =39850
Hence, the dividend is 39850.
Example 3: Find the number of numbers upto 600 which are divisible by 14.
Sol uti on. Divide 600 by 13, the quotient obtained is 46. Thus, there are 46 numbers less than 600 which are
divisible by 14.
Factors and Multiples
Factor: A number which divides a given number exactly is called a factor of the given number,
eg, 24 =1 24, 2 12, 3 8, 4 6
Thus, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are factors of 24.
1 is a factor of every number
A number is a factor of itself
The smallest factor of a given number is 1 and the greatest factor is the number itself.
I f a number is divided by any of its factors, the remainder is always zero.
Every factor of a number is either less than or at the most equal to the given number.
Number of factors of a number are finite.
Number of Factors of a Number: I f N is a composite number such that N =a
m
b
n
c... where a, b, c ... are
prime factors of N and m, n, o ... are positive integers, then the number of factors of N is given by the expression
(m +1) (n +1) (o +1)
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1. Evaluate:
93 5 54 10
3 5 242
(a) 9/10 (b) 8/17
(c) 16/19 (d) 4/7
2. The sum of three consecutive natural numbers
each divisible by 3 is 72. What is the largest
among them?
(a) 25 (b) 26
(c) 27 (d) 30
3. 55% of a number is more than one-third of that
number by 52. What is two-fifth of that number?
(a) 96 (b) 240
(c) 144 (d) 142
4. The digits of a two-digit number are in the ratio
of 2 : 3 and the number obtained by interchanging
the digits is bigger than the original number by
27. What is the original number?
(a) 63 (b) 48
(c) 96 (d) 69
5. What least number would be subtracted from
427398 so that the remaining number is divisible
by 15?
(a) 13 (b) 3
(c) 16 (d) 11
ANSWER
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b)
EXPLANATIONS
1.
+
9 3 5 5 4 10
3 5 2 4 2
=
+ +
+
9 2 5 4 10
3 5 8 2
=
18 2
15 4
=
16
19
2. 3x +(3x +3) +(3x +6) = 72
9x +9 =72 =9x =72 9
or x =
63
9
= 7
The largest of them = 27.
3. Let the number be x.
55
100
x
=
1
52
3
x
13
60
x
=52 x =240
2
5
x
=
2
240
5
=96
4. Let the number be 10x y
x : y =2 : 3
(10y + x) (10x + y) = 27 ...(i)
9y 9x =27 y x =3 y = x + 3
Putting this value of y, in (i)
3
x
x
=
2
3
x =6 y = 9
Hence the number is 69.
5. Apply the divisibility tears of 3 and 5.
Example 4: Find the number of factors that 224 has.
Sol uti on. 224 =2
5
7
1
Hence, 224 has (5 +1) (1 +1) =6 2 =12 factors.
Multiple: A multiple of a number is a number obtained by multiplying it by a natural number eg,
Multiples of 5 are 5, 10, 15, 20
Multiples of 12 are 12, 24, 36, 48
Every number is a multiple of 1.
The smallest multiple of a number is the number itself.
We cannot find the greatest multiple of a number.
Number of multiples of a number are infinite.
EXERCISE
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I n simplification of an expression there are certain laws which should be strictly adhered to. These laws are
as follows:
VBODMAS Rule
This rule gives the correct sequence in which the mathematical operation are to be executed so as to find out
the value of a given expression.
Here, V stands for Vicnaculum (or Bar), B stands for Brcket, O stands for Of, D stands for Division, M
stands for Multiplication, A stands for Addition and S stand for Subtraction.
(a) Here, VBODMAS gives the order of simplification. Thus, the order of performing the mathematical
operations in a given expression are
First : Virnaculum or line bracket or bar
Second: Bracket
Third: Of
Fourth: Division
Fifth: Multiplication
Sixth: Addition &
Seventh: Subtraction
The above order should strictly be followed.
(b) There are four types of brackets.
(i) Square brackets [ ]
(ii) Curly brackets {}
(iii) Circular brackets ( )
(iv) Bar or Virnaculum
Thus, in simplifying an expression all the brackets must be removed in the order , ( ), {} and [ ].
Modulus of a Real Number
The modulus of a real number x is defined as
=x, if a >0
| x|
=x, if a <0
Simplification
CHAPTER 5
Basic Formulae
(i) (a + b)
2
= a
2
+2ab + b
2
(ii) (a b)
2
=a
2
2ab + b
2
(iii) (a + b)
2
(a b)
2
=4ab
(iv) (a + b)
2
+(a b)
2
=2(a
2
+ b
2
)
(v) (a
2
b
2
) = (a + b) (a b)
(vi) (a + b + c)
2
= a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
+2(ab + bc + ca)
(vii) (a
3
+ b
3
) = (a + b) (a
2
ab + b
2
)
(viii) (a
3
b
3
) = (a b) (a
2
+ ab +b
2
)
(ix) (a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
3abc) = (a + b + c), (a
2
+ b
2
+ c
2
ab bc ca)
(x) a
3
+ b
3
+ c
3
=3abc, if a + b + c = 0
Example 1: Simplify 1005 +500 10 80.
Sol uti on. 1005 +500 10 80 =1005 +490 80 =1495 80 =1415
Example 2: I f a * b =2(a +b), then what is the value of 5 * 2?
Sol uti on. 5 * 2 =2(5 +2) =2 7 =14
Example 3: I f x =
1 1
3 3
3 3
=
23
30
x
Example 5: Simplify (2
10
2
9
) (2
8
2
7
).
Sol uti on. (2
10
2
9
) (2
8
2
7
) =2
9
(2 1).2
7
(2 1) =2
9+7
=2
16
Example 6: I f
x
y
=
3
2
find the value of
2 2
2 2
x y
x y
+
.
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1. What is
1
th
6
of 3?
(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 1/2 (d) 1/3
2. What is 10 _ _ 8 equal to?
(a) 2 (b) 18 (c) 10 (d) 8
3. Multiply 0.932 by 100.
(a) 932 (b) 9.32 (c) 93.2 (d) 9320
4. Divide 0.045 by 100.
(a) 0.0045 (b) 0.00045
(c) 0.000045 (d) 0.45
5. I f 2x =5 and 3y =8, then
4
9
x
y
is equal to
(a)
5
18
(b)
5
16
(c)
5
12
(d)
5
8
Sol uti on.
2 2
2 2
x y
x y
+
=
2
2
2
2
1
1
x
y
x
y
+
=
2
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
+
=
9
1
4
9
1
4
+
=
13
4
5
4
=
13
5
=
3
2
5
Example 7: Simplify
0.3 0.3 0.03 0.03 0.6 0.03
0.54
+
Sol uti on. 0.3 0.3 +0.03 0.03 0.6 0.03 =0.3 0.3 +0.03 0.03 0.03 is of the form (a
2
+b
2
2ab) =
(a b)
2
a =0.3 and b =0.03 =(0.3 0.03)
2
=(0.27)
2
Given expression
0.27 0.27
0.54
=0.135
EXERCISE
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c)
EXPLANATIONS
1.
1
th
6
of 3 =
1
3
6
=
1
2
2. 10 _ _ 8 =10 +8 = 18
3. 0.932 100 =93.2
4.
0.045
100
=0.00045
5. 2x =5, 3y = 8
4
9
x
y
=
2(2 )
3(3 )
x
y
=
2 5
3 8
=
5
12
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Average
The average of a given number of quantities of the same kind is expressed as
Average =
Sumof thequantities
Number of thequantities
Average is also called the Arithmetic Mean.
Also, Sum of the quantities =Average Number of the quantities
Number of quantities =
Sumof thequantities
Average
I f all the given quantities have the same value, then the number itself is the average.
I f all the given quantities are not all the same, then the average of the given quantities is always
greater, then the smallest number and always less than the largest number. Equivalently, atleast one
of the numbers is less than the average and atleast one is greater then the average.
I f each of the given quantities is increased by a constant p, then their average is also increased by p.
I f each of the given quantities is decreased by a constant p, then their average is also decreased by p.
I f each of the given quantities is multiplied by a constant p, then their average is also multiplied by p.
Whenever the given quantities form an arithmetic sequence and if the given quantities has odd terms,
then the average is the middle term in the sequence and if the given quantities has even terms, then
the average of the sequence is the average of the middle two terms.
I n order to calculate the weighted average of a set of numbers, multiply each number in the set by the
number of times it appears, add all the products and divide by the total number of numbers in the set.
I f the speed of an object from A to B is x km/h and from B to A is y km/h,then the average speed during
the whole journey is
2
km/h
xy
x y +
.
I f the average of N
1
quantities is x and N
2
quantities is y then the average of total (N
1
+ N
2
) quantities
is given by
1 2
1 2
( ) N x N y
N N
+
+
Average
CHAPTER 9
Example 1: What is the average of first five even numbers.
Sol uti on. The first prime even numbers are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
Average =
2 4 6 8 10
5
+ + + +
=
30
5
=6
Example 2: The average of five consecutive even numbers is 50. What is the largest of these numbers?
Sol uti on. Let the numbers be x 4, x 2, x, x +2, x +4.
Average =
Sumof thequantities
Number of thequantities
=
4 2 2 4
5
x x x x x + + + + + +
=50
5
5
x
=50
x =50
So, the numbers are 46, 48, 50, 52, 54.
The largest of these numbers is 54.
Example 3: Average weight of 32 students of a class is 30.5 kg. I f weight of a teacher is also included then
average weight is increased by 500 g. What is the weight of the teacher?
Sol uti on. Total weight of 32 students =30.5 32 =976 kg
Average weigth of (32 students +1 teacher) =(30.5 +0.5) =31 kg
Total weight of (32 students +1 teacher) =31 33 =1023 kg
Weight of teacher =(1023 976) kg =47 kg
Example 4: The average salary per head of all the employees of an institution is Rs 60. The average salary
per head of 12 officers is ` 400 and average salary per head of the rest is ` 56. Find the total number of employees
in the institution.
Sol uti on. Let the total number of employees be x.
Then, 60 =
Total salary of all employees
x
60 =
12 400 ( 12) 56 x
x
+
60x =12 400 +(x 12) 56 =4800 +56x 672
60x 56x =4800 672
4x =4128 x =1032
Hence, the total number of employees is 1032.
Example 5: I f the average of p and q is 58 and the average of q and 5 is 64, what is the value of s p?
Sol uti on. Given,
2
p q +
=58 p +q =116 ...(i)
Also,
2
q s +
=64 q +s =128 ...(ii)
Subtracting Eq. (i) from (ii), we get
(q +s) (p +q) =128 116 s p =12
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1. The average weight of 8 persons increases by 2.5
kg when a new person comes in place of one of
them weighing 65 kg. What might be the weight
of the new person?
(a) 82 kg (b) 85 kg
(c) 76.5 kg (d) 80 kg
2. Sumitra has an average of 56% on her first 7
examinations. How much she should make on her
eighth examination to obtain an average of 60%
on 8 examinations?
(a) 88% (b) 78%
(c) 92% (d) 68%
3. Ages of A and B are i n the rati o of 2 : 3
respectively. Six years hence the ratio of their ages
will become 8 : 11 respectively. What is Bs present
age?
(a) 18 years (b) 28 years
(c) 27 years (d) 25 years
4. The total age of A and B is 12 years more than
that of total age of B and C. C is how many years
younger than A?
(a) C is elder than A (b) 26
(c) 12 (d) 25
5. The average marks fetched by Mohan in History,
Geography, Science and Mathematics is 10 more
than the marks fetched in Mathematics. I f he has
got 110 marks aggregate i n Hi story and
Geography, what will be the aggregate marks
fetched in Science and Mathematics?
(a) 90 (b) 70
(c) 75 (d) 85
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d)
EXPLANATIONS
1. By short cut: The weight of the new person =8
2.5 +65 =85 kg
2. By given condition,
56 7 +x =60 8
x =480 392 =88%
4. By given condition, A + B
=12 +B +C A C =12
C is 12 years younger than A.
5. By givern condition,
History + Geography + Science + Maths
4
=10 +Maths
(History +Geography) +Science 3 = 40
110 +Science 3 Maths = 40
3 Maths Science = 70
Since there is no relation given between Maths
and Science therefore the question cannot be
solved.
Example 6: 12 men went to a restaurant. 11 of them spent ` 5 each and the 12th person spent ` 11 more
than the average expenditure of all. Find the total money spent by them?
Sol uti on. Let the average money spent by the 12 men =` x
Money spent by the 12th man =` (x +11)
Money spent by the other 11 men =` (11 5) =` 55
Total money spent by the 12 men =` (55 +x +11) =` (x +66)
x =
66
12
x+
12x =x +66 11x =66 x =` 6
Total money spent by the 12 men =6 12 =` 72.
EXERCISE
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Percentage
Per cent means per hundred. I t is given by % symbol. Here x% means x per hundred or
.
100
x
Thus, any
percentage can be converted into an equivalent fraction by dividing it by 100.
eg 20% =
20 1
;
100 5
150% =
150 3
100 2
Also, any fraction or decimal can be converted into its equivalent percentage by multiplying with 100.
eg
1 1
100
5 5
=20%;
3 3
100
2 2
=150%.
Important Formulae
1. Percentage increase =
I ncrease
100
Original value
2. Percentage decrease =
Decrease
100
Original value
3. I f the price of the commodity increases by r% then the reduction in consumption so as not to increase the
expenditure is
100 %
100
r
r
1
1
+
]
4. I f the price of the commodity decreases by r% then the reduction in consumption so as not to increase the
expenditure is
100 %
100
r
r
1
]
5. I f As income is r% more than Bs income then Bs income is less than As income by
100 %
100
r
r
1
1
+
]
.
6. I f As income is r% less than Bs income then Bs income is more than As income by
100 %
100
r
r
1
]
.
Percentage
CHAPTER 10
7. Let the population of a town be P and it increases at the rate of r% per annum, then
(a) Population after n years =
1
100
n
r
P
_
+
,
(b) Population n years ago =
1
100
n
P
r _
+
,
8. Let the present value of the machine be P and if it depreciates at the rate of r% per annum.
(a) Value of machine after n years =
1
100
n
r
P
_
,
(b) Value of machine n years ago =
1
100
n
n
r
P
_
,
Example 1: Express 3/2 as rate per cent.
Sol uti on.
3
2
=
3
100 %
2
_
,
=150%
Example 2: Find 25% of 1000.
Sol uti on. 25% of 1000 =
25
1000
100
=250
Example 3. What per cent of 6 is 144?
Sol uti on. Required percentage =
144
100 %
6
_
,
=2400%
Example 4: What per cent of 2.5 kg is 15 g?
Sol uti on. Required percentage =
15
100 %
2.5 1000
_
,
=0.6%
Example 5. I f the price of tea falls by 12%, by how much pr cent must a house holder increase its consumption,
so as not to decrease its expenditure on tea?
Sol uti on. (Short cut method)
I ncrease % in consumption =
100 %
100
r
r
' ;
)
=
12
100 %
100 12
' ;
)
=
12
100 %
88
_
,
=
150
%
11
=
7
13 %
11
Example 6: The value of a machine depreciates at the rate of 10% per annum. I f its present value is
` 162000, what was the value of the machine 2 year ago?
Sol uti on. Value of machine 2 year ago =`
2
162000
.
10
1
100
Rs
1
1
1
1
_
1
1
, ]
=`
10 10
. 162000
9 9
Rs
_
,
=` 200000
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Example 7: Due to a reduction of 5% in prices of sugar, a man is able to buy 1 kg more for ` 95. Find the
original and reduced rate of sugar.
Sol uti on. Let the original rate be ` x per kg.
Reduced rate =`
1
(100 5)
100
x
=`
95
100
x
95 95
1
95
100
x
x
5
1
x
x =5
Original rate = ` 5 per kg
Reduced rate =`
19 5
.
20 1
Rs
_
,
per kg =`
19
.
4
Rs
=4.75 er kg
Example 8: I f the price of 1 kg cornflakes is increased by 25%, the increase is ` 10. Find the new price of
cornflakes per kg.
Sol uti on. Original price =
Differencein price
100
Differencein per cent
=
10
100
25
=400
New price =
125
40
100
=` 50
EXERCISE
1. The difference of two numbers is 20% of the larger
number. I f the smaller number is 20, then the
larger number is:
(a) 25 (b) 46
(c) 27 (d) 82
2. When any number is divided by 12, then dividend
becomes 1/4th of the other number. By how much
percent first number is greater than the second
number?
(a) 165 (b) 200
(c) 300 (d) 400
3. I f one number is 80% of the other and 4 times the
sum of their squares is 656, then the numbers
are:
(a) 6,8 (b) 8, 10
(c) 16, 20 (d) 10, 15
4. Two numbers A and B are such that the sum of
5% of A and 4% of B is two-third of the sum of 6%
of A and 8% of B. Find the ratio of A : B.
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 3 : 1
(c) 3 : 4 (d) 4 : 3
5. Three candi dates contested an el ection and
received 1136, 7636 and 11628 votes respectively.
What percentage of the total votes did the winning
candidate get?
(a) 57% (b) 77% (c) 80% (d) 90%
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a)
EXPLANATIONS
1. Let the larger number be x.
Then, x 20 =
20 1
20
100 5
x x x
4
5
x
=20 x =
5
20
4
' ;
)
=25%
2. Let the numbers be x and y. Then,
3 .
12 4
x y
x y
Required percentage =
100 %
x y
y
_
,
=
2
100 %
y
y
_
,
=200%
3. Let one number =x. Then, other number = 80%
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of x =
4
5
2
2
4
4
5
x x
1
_
+
1
,
1
]
=656
x =
2 2
16
25
x x +
=164
2
41
25
x
=164
x
2
=
164 25
41
_
,
=100
x =100
So, the numbers are 10 and 8.
4. 5% of A +4% of B =
2
3
(6% of A +8% of B)
5 4 2 6 8
100 100 3 100 100
A B A B
_
+ +
,
1 1 1 4
20 25 25 75
A B A B + +
1 1 100 4
100 75 75 3
A
A B
B
+
5. Total number of votes polled
=(1136 +7636 + 11628) =20400.
Required percentage =
11628
100 %
20400
_
,
=57%.
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Relation between Time, Speed and Distance
Distance covered, time and speed are related by
Time =
Distance
Speed
...(i)
Speed =
Distance
Time
...(ii)
Distance =Speed Time ...(iii)
Distance is measured in metres, kilometres and miles.
Time in hours, minutes and seconds.
Speed in km/h, miles/h and m/s.
1. To convert speed of an object from km/h to m/s multiply the speed by
5
18
.
2. To convert speed of an object from m/s to km/h, multiply the speed by
18
5
.
Average Speed
I t is the ratio of total distance covered to total time of journey.
Average speed =
Total distancecovered
Total timeof journey
General Rules for Solving Time & Distance Problems
Rul e 1
I f a certain distance is covered with a speed of x km/h and another equal distance with a speed of y km/h,
then the average speed for the whole journey is the harmonic mean of the two speeds.
Average speed =
2
km/h
1 1
x y
+
=
2
km/h
xy
x y
+
Time and Distance
CHAPTER 16
Rul e 2
I f three equal distances are covered by three different speeds x, y and z km/h, then average speed for the
whole journey is given by
Average speed =
3
km/h
1 1 1
x y z
+ +
=
3
km/h
xy yz zx
+ +
Rul e 3
I f a certain distance is covered with a speed of x km/h and another distance with a speed of y km/h but time
interval for both journeys being same, then average speed for the whole journey is given by
Average Speed =
km/h
2
x y +
Rul e 4
I f a certain distance is covered with a speed of x, y and z km/h, but time inverval for the three journey being
equal, then average speed is given by
Average speed =
km/h
3
x y z + +
Rul e 5
I f the ratio of speeds A and B is x : y, then the ratio of times taken by them to cover the same distance is
1 1
: .
x y
Relative Speed
(i) I f two bodies are moving in the same direction at x km/h and y km/h, where (x > y), then their relative speed
is given by (x y) km/h.
(ii) I f two bodies are moving in opposite direction at x km/h and y km/h, then the their relative speed is given
by (x + y) km/h.
General Rules for Solving Train Problems
Rul e 1 Trai n Vs Stati onary Obj ect of no Length
Time taken by a train of length l metre to pass a stationary object such as a pole, standing man or a building
is equal to the time taken by the train to cover l metre.
Speed of the train =
Length of thetrain
Timetaken to cross thestationary object
Rul e 2 Trai n Vs Stati onary Obj ect of Certai n Length
Time taken by a train of length l metre to pass a stationary object of length a metre such as another
standing train, bridge or railway platform is equal to the time taken by the train to cover (l +a) metre.
Speed of the train =
Length of thetrain+Lengthof thestationary object
Timetaken tocross thestationary object
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Rul e 3 Trai n Vs Movi ng Obj ect of no Length
Time taken by the train of length l metre to pass a man moving is equal to the time taken by the train to
cover l metre
(i) When the train and man move in the same direction with speeds of x m/s and y m/s. Then,
(x y) =
Length of thetrain
Timetaken to cross each other
(ii) When the train and man move in opposite directions with speeds of x m/s and y m/s. Then,
(x +y) =
Length of thetrain
Timetaken to cross each other
Rul e 4 Trai n Vs Movi ng Obj ect of Certai n Length
Time taken by the train of length l metre to pass a moving object of length a metre such as another moving
train is equal to the time taken by the train to cover (l +a) metre.
(i) When the two trains move in the same direction with speeds of x m/s and y m/s, (x > y), then
(x y) =
Length of thetrain +Length of train two
Timetaken to cross each other
(ii) When the two tains move in opposite directions with speeds of x m/s and y m/s. Then,
(x +y) =
Length of thetrain one+Length of train two
Timetaken to cross each other
Rul e 5 Two Movi ng Trai n
I f two trains start at the same time from points A and B towards each other and after crossing they take a and
b second in reaching B and A respectively. Then, (As speed) : (Bs speed) =
: b a
.
General Rules for Solving Boats and Streams Problem
Downstream Motion
When an object is moving against (opposite) direction in which the water in the stream is flowing, then the
bject is said to be moving upstream.
Upstream Motion
When an object is moving against (opposite) direction in which the water in the stream is flowing, then the
object is said to be moving upstream.
Motion in Still Water
When an object is moving in water where there is no motion in water, the object can move in any direction
with a uniform speed, then the object is said to be moving in still water.
Rul e 1 Downstream and Upstream Speed
Let the speed of the boat in still water =x km/h and speed of the stream be y km/h, then
Speed of the boat with stream downstream speed =(x +y) km/h
Speed of the boat against stream = upstream speed =(x y) km/h
As, when the boat is moving downstream, the speed of the water aids the speed of the boat and when the boat
is moving upstream, the speed of the water reduces the speed of the boat.
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Rul e 2 Speed of Boat i n Sti l l Water & Speed of Stream
I f the downstream speed of boat is a km/h and the upstream speed of boat is b km/h, then
Speed of boat in still water =
1
( )km/h
2
a b +
Speed of stream =
1
( )km/h
2
a b
General Rules for Solving Circular Tracks
Rul e 1
When two people are running around a Circular Track starting at the same point and at the same time, then
whenever the two people meet the person moving with a greater speed covers one round more than the person
moving with lesser speed.
Rul e 2
When two people with speeds of x km/h and y km/h start at the same time and from the same point in the
same direction around a circular track of circumference c km, then
The time taken to meet for the first time anywhere on the track =
h
c
x y
The time taken to meet for the first time at the starting point =LCM of
,
c c
h
x y
Rul e 3
When two people with speeds of x km/h and y km/h respectively start at the same time and from the same
point but in opposite direction around a circular track of circumference c km, then
The time taken to meet for the first time anywhere on the track =
h
c
x y +
The time taken to meet for the first time at the starting point =LCM of
, h
c c
x y
Example 1: Convert 90 km/h into m/s.
Sol uti on. 90 km/h =
5
90 m/s
15
=25 m/s
Example 2: Convert 10 m/s into km/h.
Sol uti on. 10 m/s =
18
10 m/s
5
=36 km
Example 3: A man can cover a certain distance in 1 h 30 min by covering one-third of the distance at 6 km/
h and the rest at 15 km/h. Find the total distance.
Sol uti on. Let the total distance be x km. Then,
2
3 3
6 15
x x
+
=
3
2
2
18 45
x x
+
=
3
2
9
90
x
=
3
2
10
x
=
3
2
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x =
(3 10)
2
=15
Total distance =15 km
Example 4: An aeroplane started one hour later than the scheduled departure from a place 1200 km away
from its destination. To reach the distination on time, the pilot had to increase its speed by 200 km/h. What was
the normal speed of the aeroplane?
Solution. Let the time taken by the aeroplane in second case be x hour. Then,
1200
x
=
1200
200
1 x
+
+
6
x
=
6
1
1 x
+
+
6x +6 = 6x +x
2
+x x
2
+x 6 =0
(x +3) (x 2) =x x =2h (
Q
=3 is not possible)
Time taken in second case =2 h
So, Speed =
1200
2
=600 km/h
Hence, normal speed =600 200 =400 km/h
Example 5: The current of a stream runs at 1 km/h. A motor boat goes 35 km upstream and back again at
the starting point in 12 h. What is the speed of motor boat in still water?
Sol uti on. Let speed of boat in still water be x km/h. Then,
35 35
1 1 x x
+
+
=12 35 (x +1 +x 1) =12 (x
2
1) 6x
2
35x 6 =0
(x 6) (6x +1) =0 x =6 (Q x =1/6 is not possible)
So, speed of boat in still water =6 km/h
Example 6: A train of length 100 m crosses a man who is coming to the train from opposite direction, in 6 s.
What is the speed of train?
Sol uti on. Let speed of train =x km/h
Then, speed of tain relative to man =(x +5) km/h
=
5
( 5) m/s
18
x+
100
5
( 5)
18
x+
=6
1800
5( 5) x+
=6
x +5 =60 x =55 km/h
Example 7: Speed of three cars are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 4. What is the ratio of time taken by them in covering
the same distance.
Sol uti on. Let speed of three cars be 2x, 3x and 4x km/h. I f covered distance be d, then ratio of time taken by
them
=
; ;
2 3 4
d d d
x x x
=
1 1 1
: :
2 3 4
=6 : 4 : 3
Example 8: A man can row 6 km/h in still waer. When the river is running at 4 km/h, it takes him 2 h 15 min
to row to a place and back. How far is the place?
Sol uti on. Speed downstream =(6 +4) km/h =10 km/h
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Speed upstream =(6 4) km/h =2 km/h
Let the required distance be x km.
Then,
10 2
x x
+
=
9
4
x =
9 10
4 6
=3.75 km
Example 9: Two men A and B start together from the same point to walk round a circular path 8 km long. A
walks 2 km and B walks 4 km an hour. When will they next meet at the starting point, if they walks in the same
direction?
Solution. Time to complete one revolution by A and B is
8
h
2
and
8
h
4
or 4 h and 2h.
The required time is the LCM of 4 and 2 which is 4 h.
Thus, they will next time at the starting point after 4 h.
EXERCISE
5. A, B and C are on a trip by a car. A drives during
the first hour at an average speed of 50 km/hr. B
drives during the next 2 hours at an average
speed of 48 km/hr. C drives for the next 3 hours
at an average speed of 52 km/hr. They reached
their destination after exactly 6 hours. Their mean
speed was:
(a) 50 km/hr (b)
1
50
3
km/hr
(c) 51 km/hr (d) 52 km/hr
ANSWERS
1. (d) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b)
EXPLANATIONS
1. Speed from A to B =
2
250
11
mph =
500
11
mph.
Speed from B to A =
2
250
9
mph =
500
9
mph.
Average speed =
500 500
2
11 9
500 500
11 9
+
mph
=
500000
4500 5500
+
mph =50 mph.
1. Mac travels from A to B a distance of 250 miles in
5 hours. He returns to A in 4 hours 30 minutes.
His average speed is:
(a) 42 mph (b) 49 mph
(c) 48 mph (d) 50 mph
2. A boy goes to his school from his house at a speed
of 3 km/hr and returns at a speed of 2 km/hr. I f
he takes 5 hours in going and coming, the distance
between his house and school is:
(a) 8.5 km (b) 5.5 km
(c) 6 km (d) 9 km
3. The average speed of a trai n i n the onward
journey is 25% more than that in the return
journey. The train halts for one hour on reaching
the destination. The total time taken for the
complete to and for journey is 17 hours, covering
a distance of 800 km. The speed of the train in
the onward journey is:
(a) 50 km/hr (b) 53 km/hr
(c) 52 km/hr (d) 56.25 km/hr
4. I started on my bicycle at 7 a.m. to reach a certain
place. After going a certain distance, my bicycle
went out of order. Consequently, I rested for 35
minutes and came back to my house walking all
the way. I reached my house at 1 p.m. I f my
cycling speed is 10 kmph and my walking speed
is 1 kmph, then on my bicycle I covered a distance
of:
(a)
61
4
66
km (b)
4
13
3
km
(c)
3
5
6
km (d)
7
15
8
km
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2. Average speed =
2 3 2
3 2
+
km/hr =
12
5
km/hr.
Distance travelled =
12
5
5
km =12 km.
Distance between house and school
=
12
2
=6 km.
3. Let the speed in return journey be x km/hr.
Then, speed in onward journey =
125
100
x
=
5
4
x
km/hr.
Average speed =
5
2
4
5
4
x x
x x
+
km/hr
=
10
9
x
km/hr.
9
800
10x
=16
x =
800 9
16 10
=
7200
160
=45.
So, speed in onward journey
=
5
45
4
km/hr.
=
225
4
=56.25 km/hr.
4. Time taken =5 hrs 25 min =
65
12
hrs.
Let the required distance be x km.
Then,
10 1
x x
+
=
65
12
11x=
650
12
x =
325
66
=
61
4
66
km.
5. Total distance traveled
=(50 1 +48 2 +52 3) km
=(50 +96 +156) km =302 km.
Total time taken =6 hrs.
Mean speed =
302
6
km/hr
=50
1
3
km/hr.
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Probability
Probability is used to indicate a possibility of an event to occur. I t is often used synonymously with chance.
(i) I n any experiment if the result of an experiment is unique or certain, then the experiment is said to be
deterministic in nature.
(ii) I f the result of the experiment is not unique and can be one of the several possible outcomes then the
experiment is said to be probabilistic in nature.
Various Terms Used in Defining Probability
(i) Random Experiment: Whenever an experiment is conducted any number of times under identical
conditions and if the result is not certain and is any one of the several possible outcomes, the experiment is
called a trial or a random experiment, the outcomes are known as events.
eg, When a die is thrown is a trial, getting a number 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 is an event.
(ii) Equally Likely Events: Events are said to be equally likely when there is no reason to expect any one of
them rather than any one of the others.
eg, When a die is thrown any number 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or 5 or 6 may occur. I n this trial, the six events are
equally likely.
(iii) Exhaustive Events: All the possible events in any trial are known as exhaustive events. eg, When a die
is thrown, there are six exhaustive events.
(iv) Mutually Exclusive Events: I f the occurrence of any one of the events in a trial prevents the occurrence
of any one of the others, then the events are said to be mutually exclusive events. eg, When a die is thrown
the event of getting faces numbered 1 to 6 are mutually exclusive.
Classical Definition of Probability
I f in a random experiment, there are n mutually exclusive and equally likely elementary events in which n
elementary events are favourable to a particular event E, then the probability of the event E is defined as P (E)
P(E) =
Favourabel Events
Total number of Events
=
( )
( )
n E
m
n S n
=
I f the probability of occurrence of an event E is P(E) and the probability of non-occurrence is P ( ) E , then,
Probability
CHAPTER 25
P(E) + P ( ) E =1. Hence, P ( ) E =
1 ,
m n m
ie
n n
=
the sum of the probabilities of success and failure is 1.
Also, 0 P(E) 1 and 0 P ( ) E 1.
I f P(E) = 1, the event E is called a certain event and if P(E) = 0, the event E is called an impossible event.
I f E is an event, then the odds in favour of E are defined as P(E) : P(E) and the odds against E are defined
as P(E): P ( ) E . Hence, the odds in favour of E are
( )
( ) : : ,
n m
m
m n m
n n
=(n m):m
Addition Theorem on Probability
I f E
l
and E
2
are two events in a sample space S, then P (E
l
E
2
) =P (E
l
) +P (E
2
) P (E
l
E
2
). I f E
1
and E
2
are
mutually exclusive events (disjoint), then P(E
l
E
2
) =P (E
l
) +P (E
2
) . (
Q
P(E
l
E
2
) =)
Independent and Dependent Events
Two or more events are said to be independent if the happening or non-happening of any one does not
depend (or not affected) by the happening or non-happening of any other. Otherwise they are called dependent
events.
eg, Suppose a card is drawn from a pack of cards and replaced before a second card is drawn. The result of the
second drawn is independent of the first drawn. I f the first card drawn is not replaced, then the second drawn is
dependent on the first drawn.
I f E
l
and E
2
are independent events, then
P(E
l
E
2
) =P(E
l
) P(E
2
)
Simple Event
An event which cannot be further split is called a simple event. The set of all simple events in a trial is called
a sample space.
Compound Event
When two or more events occur in relation with each other, they are called compound events.
Conditional Event
I f E
l
and E
2
are events of a sample space S and if E
2
occurs after the occurrence of E
l
, then the event of
occurrence of E
2
after the event E
l
is called conditional event of E
2
given E
l
. I t is denoted by E
2
/E
l
.
Conditional Probability
I f E
l
and E
2
are the events in a sample space S and P(E
l
) 0, then the probability of E
2
after the event E
l
has
occurred is called conditional probability of E
2
given E
l
. I t is denoted by
2
1
E
P
E
and we define,
2 2 2 1 2
1 1 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
E P E E n E E
P
E P E n E
= =
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Smart Facts
When a die is rolled six events occur. They are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6}
When two dice are rolled 36 events occur. They are [(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2),
(2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1),
(5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)]
When a coin is tossed 2 events occur. They are {H, T}
When two coins are tossed 4 events occur. They are {HH, HT, TH, T T}
When three coins are tossed 8 events occur. They are {HHH HHT, HTH, HT T, T HH, THT, T TH, T
T T}
I n a pack of 52 cards there are 26 red cards and 26 black cards. The 26 red cards are divided into 13
heart cards and 13 diamond cards. The 26 black cards are divided into 13 club cards and 13 spade
card. Each of the colours, hearts, diamonds, clubs and spades is called a suit. I n a suit, we have 13
cards (ie, A, K, Q, J , 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2)
Example 1: I n a toss of a coin, find the probability of getting a tail.
Solution. Here, S =[H, T] and E =[T] P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
1
2
Example 2: Two unbiased coins are tossed, what is the probability of getting both heads.
Sol uti on. Here, S =[HH, HT, TH, TT] and E =[HH]
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
1
4
Example 3: I n a simultaneous throw of a pair of dice, find the probability of getting a total more than 9.
Sol uti on. Here n(S) =6 6 =36
Let E =Event of getting a total more than 9 =[(4, 6), (5, 5), (5, 6), (6, 5), (6, 4), (6, 6)]
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
6
36
=
1
6
Example 4: I n a simultaneous throw of a pair of dice, find the probability that the sum of numbers shown on
the two faces is divisible by 5 or 6.
Sol uti on. Here, n(S) =6 6 =36
Let E =Event of getting a sum of numbers shown on the two faces divisible by 5 or 6.
=[(1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (4, 1), (4, 2), (5, 1), (5, 5), (6, 4), (6, 6)]
N(E) =12
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
12
36
=
1
3
Example 5: A card is drawn from a well shuffled pack of cards. Find the probability that it is a (i) queen (ii)
a red card (iii) a space.
(i) Let E be event of drawing a queen card. Then, one queen card can be drawn from 4 queens in
4
C
1
ways.
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
1
52
1
C
C
=
4 1
52 13
=
(ii) Let E be the event of drawing a spade card. Then, one spade card can be drawn from 13 spade cards in
13
C
1
ways.
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P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
26
1
52
1
C
C
=
13 1
52 4
=
(iii) Let E be the event of drawing a spade card. Then, one spade card can be drawn from 13 spade cards in
13
C
1
ways.
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
13
1
52
1
C
C
=
13 1
52 4
=
Example 6: I f three cards are drawn simultaneously from a pack of well shuffled cards, then find the
probability of them being (i) all queens (ii) all red cards (iii) all spades.
Sol uti on. The total number of ways of selecting three cards from 52 cards is
53
C
3
ways.
(i) Let E be event of drawing the queen cards. Then, three queen cards can be drawn from 4 queen cards in
4
C
3
ways.
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
3
52
3
C
C
=
4 1
22100 5525
=
(ii) Let E be event of drawing the red cards. Then, three red cards can be drawn from 26 red cards i
26
C
3
ways.
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
26
3
52
3
C
C
=
2600 26
22100 221
=
(iii) Let E be event of drawing spade cards. Then, three spade cards can be drawn from 13 spade cards in
13C3 ways.
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
13
3
52
3
C
C
=
286
22100
=
143
11050
Example 7: A card is drawn at random from a normal pack of cards. What is the probability that it is either
a diamond or a king?
Sol uti on. Out of 52 cards one card can be drawn in
52
C
1
ways.
Let E
1
be the event that the card drawn is a diamond, E
2
be the event that the card drawn is king and (E
1
E
2
) be the event that the card drawn is both diamond the king and S be the sample space.
P(E
1
) =
1
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
13
1
52
1
13
52
C
C
=
P(E
2
) =(
2
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
1
52
1
4
52
C
C
=
P (E
1
E
2
) =
1
1
52
1
1
52
C
C
=
P (E
1
E
2
) =P(E
1
) +P(E
2
) P (E
1
E
2
)=
13 4 1
52 52 52
+
=
16 4
52 13
=
Example 8: A bag contains 4 red balls and 5 white balls. a ball is drawn at random. Find the probability that
it is a red ball or a white ball.
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P(E
1
) =
1
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
1
9
1
C
C
=
4
9
P(E
2
) =
2
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
5
1
9
1
C
C
=
5
9
P(E
1
) = 0
P(E
1
E
2
) =P(E
1
) +P(E
2
) =
4 5
9 9
+
=
9
1
9
=
Example 9: A bag contains 4 red balls and 4 white balls. Two balls are drawn in succession from the bag
with replacement, what is the probability that the two balls are of different colours?
Sol uti on. Let E
1
and E
2
denote the events of drawing balls of different colours in the first and the second
draw with replacement and S be the sample space.
P(E
1
) =
1
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
1
8
1
C
C
=
4 1
8 2
=
P(E
2
) =
2
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
4
1
8
1
C
C
=
4 1
8 2
=
P(E
1
E
2
) =P(E
1
) P(E
2
) =
1 1 1
2 2 4
=
Example 10: A family has two children. What is the probability that both the children are boys given that at
least one of them is a boy?
Sol uti on. Let b stand for boy and g for girl. The sample space of the experiement is
S ={(b, b), (g, b), (b, g), (g, g)}
Let E and F denote the following events:
E : both the children are boys
F : at least one of the child is a boy
Then, E ={(b, b)}and F ={(b, b), (g, b), (b, g)}
Now, E F ={(b, b)}
Thus, P(F) =
3
and ( )
4
P E F
=
1
4
Therefore, P(E| F) =
( )
( )
P E F
P F
=
1
4
3
4
=
1
3
Example 11: I n a school, there are 1000 students, out of which 430 are girls. I t is known that out of 430,
10% of the girls study in class XI I . What is the probability that a students choosen randomly studies in Class XI I
given that the choosen student is a girl?
Sol uti on. Let E denote the event that a student choosen randomly studies in Class XI I and F be the event
that the randomly choosen student is a girl. We have to find P(E| F).
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Now, P(F) =
430
1000
=0.43 and P(E F) =
43
0.043
1000
=
[
Q
no. of girls studying in XI I 10% of 430 =43]
Then, P(E| F) =
( )
( )
P E F
P F
=
0.043
0.43
=0.1
Example 12: A person has undertaken a construction job. The probabilities are 0.65 that there will be
strike, 0.80 that the construction job will be completed on time if there is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction
job will be completed on time if there is no strike, and 0.32 that the construction job will be completed on time if
there is a strike. Determine that probability that the construction job will be completed on time.
Sol uti on. Let a be the event that the construction job will be completed on time, and B be the event that
there will be a strike. We have to find P(A).
We have P(B) =0.65, P(no strike) =P(B) =1 P(B) =1 0.65 =0.35
P(A| B) =0.32, P(A| B) =0.80
Since events B and B form a partition of the sample space S therefore, by theorem on total probability, we
have
P(A) =P(B) P(A| B) +P(B) P(A| B)
=0.65 0.32 +0.35 0.8 =0.208 +0.28 =0.488
Thus, the probability that the construction job will be completed in time is 0.488.
EXERCISE
1. Which of the following cannot be the probability
of an event ?
(a) 1/4 (b) 20% (c) 1.2 (d) 0.3
2. I f P(E) =0.03, what is the probability of not E?
(a) 0.90 (b) 0.97 (c) 0.07 (d) 0.70
3. A bag contains orange flavoured candies only. A
girl takes out one candy without looking into the
bag. What is the probability that she takes out
an orange flavoured candy ?
(a) 1 (b) 0
(c) 1/2 (d) 1/4
4. A bag contains orange flavoured candies only. A
girl takes out one candy at random from the bag.
What is the probability that she takes out a
strawberry flavoured candy ?
(a)
1
3
(b) 1 (c) 0 (d)
1
2
5. An unbiased die is thrown once. What is the
probability of getting a prime number ?
(a)
1
2
(b)
1
4
(c)
2
3
(d)
1
3
ANSWERS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a)
EXPLANATIONS
1. 1.2 cannot be the probability of an event because
0 P (E) 1
2. Probability of not E
P (not E) =
( ) p E
=1 P(E) =1 0.03 =0.97
3. Probability that the girl takes out an orange
flavoured candy is 1 because the bag contains
orange flavoured candies only.
4. Probabi l ity that she takes out a strawberry
flavoured candy is 0 because the bag contains only
orange flavoured candies.
5. Here, n(S) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}and E =Event of
getting a prime number ={2, 3, 5)
P(E) =
( )
( )
n E
n S
=
3
6
=
1
2
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Sets
A set is a collection of well defined objects.
The objects of the sets are called elements.
(i) Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C,..., X, Y, Z.
(ii) The elements of the sets are denoted by small letters like a, b, c,..., x, y, z etc.
Representation of Sets
Sets are usually described into two ways.
(i) Tabular form or roster form, in this form, all the elements of the set are separated by commas and enclosed
between the bracket {}.
For example
(a) The set of vowels of English Alphabet as
A ={a, e, i, o, u)
(b) The set of numbers on a clock face is written as
B =(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
(ii) Set builder from: We define a set by stating properties which its elements must satisfy. For example the
set of all even integers. Then, we use the letters usually x, and we write
A ={x | x is an even integer}
This is to be read as A is a set of numbers x such that x is an even integer. The vertical line | to be read as
such that some times we use x in place of vertical line.
A ={x : x is an even integer}
eg, C ={1,,
2
}= {x | x
3
1 =0}
I f an object x is an element of a set A, we write x A which is read as x belong to A and if an object x is not
a member of A we write x A and read as x does not belong to A.
Some Important Terms
(i) Empty or Null set The set which contains no elements is called the empty set or the null set. The empty
set is written as .
Thus, ={}as there is no element in the empty set.
For example; the set of odd numbers divisible by 2 is the null set.
Set Theory,
Venn Diagrams,
Functions & Relations
CHAPTER 27
(ii) Singleton set A set containing only one element is called a singleton for example, {1}, {4}are singleton
sets.
(iii) Equality of sets. The sets A and B are equal if they have same members that is if every elements of A is
an element of B and every element of B is an element of A, then A = B
eg, if A ={l, 3,5,7}and B ={7, 3, 1, 5}, then A = B
I f the two sets are not equal we write A B
Important Formulae
1. A set does not change if its elements, are repeated.
2. A set does not change even if the order of its elements is different.
(iv) Finite and Infinite set. The set which contains a definite number of elements is called a finite set. The set
which contains an infinite number of elements is called an infinite set.
eg, (I ) The set of days in a week.
eg, (I I ) The set of natural numbers.
(v) Disjoint set. Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint, if they do not have any element in common.
eg, A ={1, 2, 3}, B ={4, 5, 6}are disjoint sets.
(vi) Subset. I f every element in set A is also an element of another set B. Then A is called a subset of B. Also B
is said to be super set of A.
Symbolically, we write
A B (ie, A contained in B)
B A (ie, B contains A)
More specifically A B if x A x B
eg, (I ) Let A ={2, 4, 7}, B ={1, 2, 3, 4, 7}
Then, A B since every element of A is in B.
eg, (I I ) A ={x | x a real number}and B ={x | x is an integer}Then, A B
1. I f there is at least one element of A which is not in B, then A is not a subset of B written as A B.
2. Every set is a subset of itself ie, A A.
3. I f A B and B c A, then A =B.
(vii) The Null set is a subset of every set A.
(viii) Proper Subset: A is a proper subset of B. if A B and A B and is written as A B ie, if B contains at least
one element more than A, then A is a proper subset of B
(ix) Power set: Set of all the subsets of a set is called the power set
eg, A ={a, b, c}subsets of A are , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c,a}, {a, b, c}
Hence, P(A) = [, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}]
I f n is the number of elements of a set A, then the number of subset of A ie, the number of elements of P (A)
=2
n
.
(x) Universal set: I f all the sets under consideration are the subsets of a fixed set U, then U is called the
Universal set.
Union of sets
Union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements which belongs to A or B (or to both) and is written as
A B (ie, A union B)
The same is defined in set builder form as
A B ={x| x A or x B}
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I f A ={1, 3, 5, 7, 9}and B ={2, 4, 5, 6, 9}
Then, A B ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}
1. From the definition of Union of sets A u B =B u A (Commutative Law)
I f A is any set, then A A = A and A =A
2. I f A and B are any two sets, then A (A B) and B (A B)
I f x A B,then x A or x B and if x A B,then x A and x B.
3. I f A, B, C are three sets, then A (B C) = (A B) C
Intersection of Sets
I f A and B are any two sets, then intersection of A and B is the set of all elements which are in A and also in
B. I t is written as A B and is read as A intersection B
I f A ={2, 4, 6, 8}and B ={4, 5, 6, 9}
Then A B ={4, 6}
1. From the definition of the intersection, it follows A B = B A (Commutative Law)
2. I f A is any set, then A A =A and A f ) = f
3. For any two sets A and B.
A B =A and A B B
4 I f A and B have no elements in common ie, A and B are disjoint, then A B =
I f x A B =x A and x B
eg, (I ) I f A ={2, 3, 6, 8, 9}and B =(1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9}, then A B ={3, 6, 9}
eg,(I I ) I f A ={x1| <x <4 }and B ={x| 2 <x <5}, then A B ={x| 2 <x <4}
I f A, B, C are three sets, then
(i) (A B) C = A (B C) Associative Law
(ii) A (B C) = (A B) (A C) Distributive Law
Difference of Sets
The difference of two sets A and B is set of elements which belongs to A but do not belong to B. This is written
as A B
A B ={x| x A and x B}
1. Set A B subset of A ie, A B A
2. Set (A B) and B are disjoint ie, (A B) B =
3. A B =(A B) (A B)
Symmetric Difference of Sets
The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is (A B) (B A) and is written as A B
Thus, A B =(A B) (B A)
I n the set builder form A B ={x | x A or x B, but x A B}
Demorgan Laws
I f A, B, C are three sets, then
(i) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
(ii) A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
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Complement of a Set
Let A be a subset of universal set U, then the complement of A is denoted by A
C
is defined by
A
C
={x U, x A} x A
C
x A
eg, (I ) I f U ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}and A ={1, 3, 5}, then A
C
={2, 4, 6}
eg, (I I ) U be the set of all letters in English alphabet and A is a set of all vowels, then A
C
is the set of all
consonants.
1. (A B)
C
= A
C
B
C
2. (A B)
C
= A
c
B
C
Venn Diagrams
A simple way of explaining the relation between sets is by a diagram which is called Venn diagram. I n this a
set is generally represented by a circle and its elements by points in the circle.
CaseI: A U and B U and A B
A B
U
Here A and B are represented by a circle.
A B is the lined region
B A is dotted region and A B is plane region.
Case II: A ={a, c, e}, B ={b, d}
f
g
a b
c
d
e
A B
A B = and A B =A and B A =B
Case III: When A B U
I n adjoining figure, in Venn diagram
A
B
U
A B =B, A B =A and A B =
Some results from the Venn diagram
(i) n(A B) =n (a) +n(B) n(A B)
(ii) n(A B) = n (a) +n(B), when A B =
(iii) n(A B) + n (A B) = n(A)
(iv) n(B A) + n (A B) = n(A)
(v) n(A B) + n (A B) + n (B A) = n (A B)
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Example 1: I f in a factory of 30 workers, 10 take tea but not coffee and 14 take tea. Then how many take
only coffee ?
Sol uti on. Total number of workers =n (T C) =30
Number of workers who take tea n(T) =14
n(T)
10 4 x
n
U = 30
( ) c
Who take tea but not coffee =n(T C) =10
Who drinks both coffee and tea =n (T) n (T C) =14 10 =4
Who takes only coffee =n (C T) =x
From the figure =x +4 +10 =30 =x =30 14 =16
The worker who drinks only coffee =16
Example 2: An elocution competition was held in English and Hindi. Out of 80 students, 45 took part in
English, 35 in Hindi, 15 in both English and Hindi, then for the number of students.
(a) Who took part in English but not in Hindi.
n(E) = 45
n(H) = 35
only E only H
(b) Who took part in Hindi but not in English.
(c) Who took part in either English or Hindi.
(d) Who took part in neither.
Sol uti on. Suppose E is the set of students who took part in English, His the set of students who took part in
Hindi, then E n H gives the set of students who took part in both English and Hindi.
(a) The number of students who took part in English but not in Hindi
=n(E) =n(E H) = 45 15 = 30
(b) The number of students who took part in Hindi but not in English
=n(H) n(E H) = 35 15 = 20
(c) The number of students who took part either in English or in Hindi is
n(E H) = n(E) + n(H) n(E H) = 45 + 35 15 = 65
(d) The number of students who took part neither in English nor in Hindi
=n (S) n (T H) = 80 65 = 15
Ordered Pair
I f a, b be any two objects, then the pair (a, b) is called the ordered pair. The object a is called the first
coordinate (or first number) and b is called the second coordinate (or second number) of the ordered pair (a, b).
1. The ordered pair (a, b) (b, a)
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are said to be equal, if and only if a = c and b = d.
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Cartesian Product of Sets
I f A and B be any two sets, then cartesian product of A and B is the set of all ordered pair (a, b), where a
and b B
Cartesian product of A and B is written as A B (ie, A cross B)
ie A B ={(a, b) | a A and b B}
eg, I f A ={a, b, c}and B ={1, 2}, then
A B ={(a, 1), (a, 2),(b, 1),(b, 2),(c, 1),(c, 2)}
B A ={(1, a),(1, b),(1, c),(2, a),(2, b),(2, c)}
Thus, A B B A
A A ={(a, a), (a, b), (a, c),(b, a),(b, b),(b, c) (c, a),(c, b),(c, c)}
B B ={(1, 1), (1, 2),(2, 1),(2, 2))
1. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
2. A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Relations
A relation is a set of ordered pairs. I f (x, y) is a member of a relation R, we write it as x R y (ie relation R to y).
eg, I f R is the ordered pairs of positive integers where R ={(x, y)| x
2
=y}The relation is y is a square of x and
the set is {(1, 1), (2, 4),(3, 9),(4, 16),...}
Types of Relations
(i) Reflexive: A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive for every x A
(x, x) R
(ii) Symmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric if x R y y R x
(x, y) R =(y,x) R
eg, Let A ={1, 2, 3}and R ={(1, 1), (2, 2),(1, 3),(3,1)}
Clearly, R is a symmetric relation.
(iii) Transitive Relation: A relation R in a set A is called transitive if x R y and y R z x R z
eg, Let R be a relation in the real number defined by x less than y then
x <y and y <z =x <z
(iv) Equivalence Relation A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is a equivalence relation.
Functions
I f each element of a set A is associated with exactly one element in the set B, then this association is called a
function from A to B.
The set A is called the domain and the set B is called the co-domain of the function.
Consider : A ={1, 2}, and B =(3, 4, 5, 6), then {(1, 4),(2, 5)) is a function
{(1, 4),(2, 5),(2, 6)}is not a function since element 2 in the set A have two images 5 and 6 in the set B
1. Each element of A must be associated with exactly one element in the set B.
2. All the elements of the set B need not have the association.
3. The set of elements of B which are associated with the elements of the set A is called the range of the
function.
4. The range is the subset of the co-domain.
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Types of Functions
(i) One-one Function (injection): A function f : A B is said to be a one-one function elements of A have
different images in B ie,
f(x) =zx, x {1, 2, 3}
f ={(1, 2),(2, 4),(3, 6)}
(ii) Many-one Function: A function f : A B is said to be a many-one function if two are n of A have the
same images in B.
(iii) Onto Function: A function f : A B is called an onto function if every element of B is an image of some
elements of A ie, if co-domain =range.
eg, Let A ={a, b, c, d}and B ={1, 2, 3}
f ={(a, 3),(b, 2),(c, 2),(d, 1))
(iv) Into Function: A function f: A B is called an into function if co-domain range.
Example 3: A is set of prime numbers less than 20, write A in Roster form.
Sol uti on. Prime numbers Less than 20 are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11; 13, 17, 19 set A in Roster form.
A ={2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}
Example 4: Let A ={4, 5, 6, 7}and B ={6, 4, 7, 5}, then
Sol uti on. {4, 5, 6, 7}={6, 4, 7, 5}, since each of the elements 4 , 5, 6, 7 belongs to Band each of the elements
6, 4, 7, 5 belongs to A, then A =B.
The set does not change if its elements are rearranged.
Example 5: A ={x
2
=16, x is odd}, then
Sol uti on. A is a empty set.
x
2
=16 x =+4 or x =4, but x is not odd
A does not contain any element, A =
Example 6: Rewrite the following statements using set notations.
(a) x does not belongs to A (b) A is not a subset of B
(c) H does not include D (d) d is a member of E.
Sol uti on.
(a) x A (b) A B
(c) H D (d) d E
Example 7: Let A ={a, b, c}; ie, A contains the elements a, b, c, state whether each of the four statements is
correct or incorrect tell why.
(a) a A (b) a A
(c) {a} A (d) {a} A
Sol uti on.
(a) a A, correct.
(b) I ncorrect. The symbol must connect two set it indicates that one set a subset of other. Therefore,
a A is incorrect since a is a member of A, not a subset.
(c) I ncorrect. The symbol a connects an objects to a set. I t indicates that object is a member of the set.
Therefore, {a} A is incorrect since {a}is a subset of A.
(d) Correct.
Example 8: I f S be the universal set of English alphabet and let A ={a, b, c}, then complement of A is
Sol uti on. A
C
={d, e, f x, y, z}
Example 9: I f A ={1, 2, 3, 4}and B ={2, 4, 6, 8}, find A B, B A and A B.
Sol uti on. A B ={1, 3},
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(A B) contains the elements of A but not the elements of B. Similarly, B A =16,81
(B A) contains the elements of B but not the elements of A.
A B =(A B) (B A) ={1, 3, 6, 8}
Example 10: I f S ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A={1, 2, 4}, B={2, 4, 5}
Find
(a) A B (b) A B (c) B
C
(d) B A
(e) A
C
B (f) A B
C
(g) A
C
B
C
(h) B
C
A
C
(i) (A B)
C
(j) (A B)
C
Sol uti on.
(a) A B ={1, 2, 4, 5}
(b) A B ={2, 4}
(c) The complement of B consists of letters which are in S but not in B, therefore B
C
={1, 3}
(d) B A consisted of elements in B which are not in A ie, B A ={5}
(e) A
C
={3, 5}and B ={2, 4, 5}, therefore, A
C
B ={2, 3, 4, 5}
(f) A ={1, 2,4) and B
C
={1, 3}, therefore, A B
C
={1, 2,3,4}
(g) A
C
={3, 5}, and B
C
={1, 3}; therefore, A
C
B
C
={3}
(h) B
C
={1, 3}, and A
C
=(3,5); therefore, B
C
A
C
={1}
(i) A B ={2, 4}, therefore, (A B)
C
={1, 3,5}
(j) A B ={1, 2, 4, 5}; therefore, (A B)
C
={3}
Example 11: A ={1, 2, 3}and B ={a, b}, then find A B and B A
Sol uti on. A B ={{1, a}, {1, b}, {2, a}, {2, b), {3, a}, {3, b}}and B A ={{a,1}, {a, 2}, {a, 3}, {b, l}, {b, 2}, {b, 3}}
A B B A since the ordered pair (1, a) (a, 1)
Example 12: I f the set A contains 4 elements and set B contains 3 elements, then A B contains
Sol uti on. The set A B contains 12 elements.
EXERCISE
1. The set in set builder form of vowels of English
alphabet is
(a) {a, e, i, o, u}
(b) A ={x | x is a vowel in English alphabet)
(c)
(d) {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
2. I f A ={5}which of the following statement is
correct?
(a) A =5 (b) 5 A
(c) {5} A (d) 5 A
3. I f A ={a, (b, c), d)}, which of the following is a
subset of A.
(a) {a, b} (b) {b, c}
(c) {c, d} (d) {a, d}
4. I f A B = nd A and B are two sets, then
(a) A B (b) B A
(c) A B (d) A and B are disjoint
5. I f n(A B) =13, n(A) =20, n(B) =44, then n(A
B) = ?
(a) 27 (b) 13 (c) 75 (d) 51
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d)
EXPLANATIONS
1. Set builder form of vowels of English alphabet is
A = {x | x is a vowel in English alphabet}
2. The set A contains an element 5, therefore 5 A
3. Clearly, {a, d}is a subset of {a, (b, c), d}
4. I f A and B are disjoint sets, then A and B have no
common elements A B =f
5. n (A B)=n (A) + n (B) n (A B)
=20 +44 13 = 51
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Arithmetic Progression (AP)
An arithmetic progression is a sequence in which terms increase or decrease by a constant number called the
common difference.
(i) The sequence 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22 is an arithmetic progression whose first term is 2 and common difference
4.
(ii) The sequence
5 7
2, ,3, ,4
2 2
is an arithmetic progression whose first term is 2 and common
difference .
An arithmetic progression is represented by a,(a +d), (a +2d), (a +3d) a +(n 1)d
Here, a =first term
d =common difference
n =number of terms in the progression
The general term of an arithmetic progression is given by T
n
=a +(n - 1) d.
The sum of n terms of an arithmetic progression is given by S, =
2
n
[2a +(n 1) d] or S
n
=2 [a +l]
where l is the last term of arithmetic progression.
I f three numbers are in arithmetic progression, the middle number is called the arithmetic mean of the
other two terms.
I f a, b, c are in arithmetic progression, then b =
2
a c +
where b is the arithmetic mean.
Similarly, if n terms a
l
, a
2
, a
3
a
n
are in AP, then the arithmetic mean of these n terms is given by
AM =
1 2 3
.
n
a a a a
n
+ + ++
I f the same quantity is added or multiplied to each term of an AP, then the resulting series is also an AP.
I f three terms are in AP, then they can be taken as (a d), a, (a + d).
I f four terms are in AP, then they can be taken as (a 3d), (a d), (a + d), (a +3d).
I f five terms are in AP, then they can be taken as (a 2d), (a d), a, (a + d), (a +2d).
Sequences & Series
CHAPTER 29
Geometric Progression (GP)
A geometric progression is a sequence in which terms increase or decrease by a constant ratio called the
common ratio.
(i) The sequence 1, 3, 9, 27, 81is a geometric progression whose first term is 1 and common ratio 3.
(ii) The sequence
1 1 1 1
1, , , , ,
3 9 27 81
when r < 1
( )
1
,
1
n
a r
r
when r > 1
I f three numbers are in geometric progression, the middle number is called the geometric mean of the other
two terms.
I f a, b, c are in geometric progression, then b ac where b is the geometric mean.
Similarly, if n terms a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
,a
n
are in geometric progression, then the geometric mean of 1 these n
terms is given by GM =( )
1
1 2 3
. n
n
a a a a
For a decreasing geometric progression the sum to infinite number of terms is
,
1
a
S
r
is a harmonic progression as
3 2 7
, ,
4 3 12
is in arithmetic progression.
I f a, b, c are in harmonic progression, then b =
2ac
a c +
where b is the harmonic mean.
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Sum of Natural Series
The sum of the first n natural numbers =
( ) 1
2
n n +
The sum of the square of the first n natural numbers =
( )( ) 1 2 1
6
n n n + +
The sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers =
( )
2
2
1
4
n n+
The sum of first n even numbers =n(n +1)
The sum of first n odd numbers =n
2
Example 1: Find the nth term and the fifteenth term of the arithmetic progression 3, 9, 15, 21
Sol uti on. I n the given AP we have a =3, d =(9 3) =6
T
n
=a +(n 1)d =3 +(n 1)6 =6n 3
T
15
=(6 15 3) =87
Example 2: Find the 10th term of the AP 13, 8, 3, 2,
Sol uti on. I n the given AP, we have a =13, d =(8 13) =5
T
n
=a +(n 1)d =13 +(n 1)(5) =18 5n
T
10
=18 5 (10) =32
Example 3: The first term of an AP is -1 and the common difference is -3, the 12th term is
Sol uti on. T
1
=a =1, d =3
T
n
=a +(n 1)d =1 +(n 1)(3) =2 3n
T
12
=2 3 12 =34
Example 4: Which term of the AP 10, 8, 6, 4 is 28?
Sol uti on. We have, a =10,d =(8 10) =2, T
n
=28
T
n
=a +(n 1)d 28 =10 +(n 1)(2) =n =20
Example 5: The 8th term of an AP is 17 and the 19th term is 39. Find the 20th term.
Sol uti on. T
8
=a +7d =17 ...(i)
T
19
=a +18d =39 ... (ii)
On subtracting Eq. (i) from Eq. (ii), we get 11d =22 d =2
Putting d =2 in Eq. (i), we get a +7(2) =17 =a =(17 14) =3
First term =3, Common difference =2
T
20
=a +19d =3 +19(2) =41
Example 6 Find the sum of the first 20 terms of the AP, 2,1, 4,7,
Sol uti on. Here, a =5, d =(12) =3 and n =20
S
n
= ( ) 2 1
2
n
a n d 1 +
]
( )( )
20
20
20 5 20 1 3 470
2
S 1 +
]
Example 7: Find the sum of the series 5, 10, 15, 20,125.
Sol uti on. Here, a =5, T
n
=125, d =(10 5) =5
T
n
=a +(n 1)d 125 =5 +(n 1) 5 n =25
S
n
= [ ] [ ]
25
5 125 1625
2 2
n
a l + +
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Example 8: Find three numbers in AP whose sum is 36 and product is 1620.
Sol uti on. Let the numbers be (a d), a, (a +d). Then, (a d) +a +(a +d) =36 3a =36 a =12
(a d) a (a +d) =1620 (12 d) l2 (12 +d) =1620
(144 d
2
) 135 d
2
9 d =3
Numbers are 9, 12, 15 or 15, 12, 9.
Example 9: Find the nth term and 8th term of the GP 3, 6, 12, 24,48,
Sol uti on. I n the given GP, we have a =3, r =
6
2
3
T
n
=ar
n1
=(3)(2)
n1
T
8
=(3)(2)
81
=(3)(2)
7
=384
Example 10: The n
th
term of GP is 3/2
n
. Find the ratio of 5th to 10th term.
Sol uti on. I n the given GP, we have
3
2
n
n
T
5
5 10 5 10
5 10 5 10 5
3 3 3 3 1
, , : : 1: 2 :1 32:1
2 2 2 2 2
T T T T
Example 11: Determine the 9th term of GP whose 8th term is 192 and common ratio 2.
Sol uti on. I n the given GP, we have r =2, T
8
=ar
7
=192
a(2)
7
=192 a =
192 3
128 2
T
9
=ar
8
= ( )
( )
8
7
3
2 3 2 384
2
Example 12: The first term of a GP is 50 and the 4th term is 1350. Determine the 6th term.
Sol uti on. Let a be first term and r be the common ratio.
Then, a =50 ...(i)
T
4
=ar
3
=1350 ...(ii)
On dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we get r
3
=27 r =3
Example 13: Find the sum to infinity for the GP
1 1 1
, , ,
4 16 64
Sol uti on. I n the given GP, we have a =
1 1/16 1
, ,
4 1/ 4 4
r
1 1
1 4 1
4 4
5 1 4 5 5 1
1
4
4
a
S
r
1 _
1
, ]
Example 14: I n a certain colony of cancevous cells, each cell divides into two every minute. How many cells
will be produced from a single cell, if the rate of division continues for 12 min?
Sol uti on. Total number of cells =2 +(2
2
+2
3
+2
4
+...+2
12
)
=2
1
+2
2
+2
3
+....+2
12
=
( )
12
2 2 1
8190
2 1