Flat-Plate Solar Collectors

The Absorption of Solar Radiation

A flat-plate solar collector usually has a non-selective or a selective black plate with one or two glass covers a few centimeters above the black plate, and a well insulated back. The length of the plate is typically about 2m. Edge effects are usually small. The transmittance ( of a glass cover for solar radiation depends on the angle of incidence . Typical values for clear glass are given in Table !. Table !. Transmittance of a "lass #over. : $% &$% '$% ($% )$% (): $.) $.( $.&* $.+* $ The absorptance ( of the black plate for solar radiation also depends on the angle of incidence . Table 2 shows typical values for ( and the product ( .( . Table 2. Absorptance of a ,lack -late. )$ : $% &$% '$% ($% % $.) $.( $.' $.& (): $ 2 * * $ $.( $.& $.. $.2 ().(): $ + ( ) ! The solar irradiance /in incident on the cover glass is given by /in 0 /b cos 1 /d, where /b is the beam solar irradiance, is the angle of incidence, and /d is the diffuse irradiance. /f there is one glass cover the solar irradiance on the black plate is ( ./b cos 1 m/d, where m is the mean value of ( . The solar radiation flu2 3abs absorbed by the black plate is given by 3abs 0 ( .( /b cos 1 (. m/d, where (. m is the mean value of ( .( . The mean value of ( .( can be found by means of integrals over the hemispherical sky as follows4 (.
m

0 5$62 ( .( .sin .cos .d( 7 6 5$62 sin .cos .d( 7.

m

8or one glass cover the result is appro2imately (.

0 $.'$.

Heat Losses
The glass cover behaves nearly as a black body for long-wave radiation. 9e can assume that the emittance c of the glass cover is $.)*. The emittance b of the black plate for long-wave radiation depends on whether the surface is non-selective or selective. Typically we have 0 $.)2 for a non-selective surface, b 0 $.!$ for a selective surface.
b

9e shall consider a collector with one glass cover. :et Ta 0 ambient temperature, Tb 0 black plate temperature, Tc 0 glass cover temperature, where absolute temperatures must be used for radiation calculations. ;eat is lost by conduction through the back insulation. /t can be reduced to a low rate by ine2pensive insulation materials. Typically the back loss might be given by the formula hba(Tb Ta , where the heat transfer coefficient is hba 0 $.+96m2<. ;eat is lost from the black plate to the glass cover by convection and radiation. E2perience has shown that, for free convection the =usselt number =u in air spaces between parallel plates with "rashof numbers "r in the range !$. to !$', we have =u 0 $.!*2 "r$.2(! for hori>ontal plates, =u 0 $.$)+ "r$.+!$ for plates tilted at an angle .*%. ;ere "r 0 g.(Tb Tc :+62, where we assume as a typical e2ample for air4 g 0 acceleration of gravity 00 ).(m6s2, 0 coefficient of thermal e2pansion 0 !6T, T 0 &$%# 0 +++<, Tb Tc 0 ($%# .$%# 0 .$<, : 0 spacing 0 *$mm 0 $.$*m, 0 kinematic viscosity 0 $.!).?!$.m26s. This gives "r 0 +.)!?!$*, which is within the range !$. to !$' mentioned above. Assume a tilt angle !*%. Then we estimate, by interpolation, =u 0 $.!+2 "r$.2)! 0 *.*'2. Also since =u 0 h:6k, where h 0 heat transfer coefficient, : 0 $.$*m, k 0 thermal conductivity of air 0 $.$2'*$96m<,

we have h 0 +.$&96m2<. This calculation shows that in general the heat transfer coefficient h is a function of Tb and Tc. 8or the heat loss by radiation between the black plate and the glass cover we have the e2pression 5.(Tb. Tc. 7 6 5b! 1 c! !7 0 bc.(Tb. Tc. , where is the @tefan-,olt>man constant *&.'?!$)96m2<.. Thus the total heat loss 3ba from the black plate can be written 3ba 0 hba(Tb Ta 1 hbc(Tb Tc 1 bc..(Tb. Tc. , .....(! where hbc depends on Tb and Tc, and on the angle of tilt of the collector. The heat loss from the glass cover to the surroundings must be the same, in the steady state, as the heat loss from the black plate to the glass cover. 9e have for the heat loss from the glass cover 3ca 0 hca.(Tc Ta 1 c..Tc. c.:, .....(2 where the convection heat transfer coefficient hca is difficult to estimate because it is partly due to free convection and partly due to forced convection by wind blowing over the collector. The following formula is recommended4 hca 0 2.( 1 +.$A 96m2<, where A is the wind speed in meters per second. The second term c..Tc. in e3uation (2 is the long-wave radiation from the glass cover, and the third term c.: is the long-wave radiation absorbed by the glass cover from the sky.

Collector Efficienc in the Stead State

9e must calculate the temperatures Tb and Tc from the radiation flu2es and the ambient temperature Ta. 8irst assume a value for 3ca and solve e3uation (2 for Tc. =ow e3uation (! shows that 3ca 0 hbc(Tb Tc 1 bc(Tb. Tc. , .....(+ from the heat balance of the glass cover in the steady state. This e3uation is solved for Tb. 8inally 3ba is found from e3uation (! . Bepeat the calculation for different values of 3ca to obtain 3ba as a function of Tb. This is easy to do numerically with a programmable calculator. :et 3out be the heating power output of the collector per unit area. /t can be varied within the feasible limits by controlling the operating conditions of the collector. The heat balance for the black plate gives 3abs 0 3ba 1 3out, where 3abs depends on /b, , and /dC and the heat loss rate 3ba is known as a function of Tb. The o!erall efficienc 0 3out63in is therefore known as a function of the radiation flu2es and the black plate temperature Tb.

Si"plifications in the Theor

/n practical flat-plate solar collectors the temperature of the flat plate is not uniform. /n tube-in-sheet designs the temperature of the sheet between the tubes is higher than the temperature of the tubes. 8urthermore, the temperature of the tubes is higher at the outlet ends than at the inlet ends. The use of a single black plate temperature Tb is therefore a simplification. Another simplification is to put 3abs 0 .3in, where is the optical efficienc , which is e3ual to the mean transmittance-absorptance product (. m. The heat balance e3uation is then written 3out 0 .3in D(Tb Ta , where D is the o!erall heat loss coefficient between the black plate and the surroundings. The efficiency is now given by 0 3out63in 0 D(Tb Ta 63in. Thus is the efficiency when Tb 0 Ta. Eften D is assumed to be constant, and the sta#nation te"perat$re Tma2 obtained when no heat is e2tracted from the collector is estimated to be Tma2 0 Ta 1 .3in6D. /n reality, because of the non-linear relations between the heat losses and the temperature differences, D varies with Tb Ta. 9ith good appro2imation we can write 3out 0 .3in D!(Tb Ta D2(Tb Ta and 0 D!(Tb Ta 63in D2(Tb Ta 263in, where D2 is small compared with D!. The graph of versus (Tb Ta is slightly curved. (@ee 8ig. !.
2

8ig. !. The efficiency of a flat plate collector. /f the solar radiation falling on the collector changes rapidly, due to the passage of clouds, the collector will take time to change its temperature because of its heat capacity. This may be important and re3uire separate analysis. The theory of non-steady state processes in solar collectors is very complicated, and is ignored in steady state calculations.

Practical Collector Perfor"ance Para"eters

/n practice it is convenient to use the fluid temperature Tf instead of the black plate temperature Tb. The total heat e2traction rate Fout from a collector of area A is then written Fout 0 A8G5.3in D(Tf Ta 7, .....(! where 8G is called the collector efficienc factor. /n good designs 8G is nearly unity. 8G. is the effective transmittance-absorptance productC and 8GD is the heat loss coefficient between the fluid and its surroundings. 9e may define the thermal resistance B between the black plate and the fluid by the e3uation 3out 0 (Tb Tf 6B, and derive e3uation (! from the heat balance e3uation between the black plate and the surroundings. /t is then found that 8G 0 !6(! 1 BD . #onsider a fluid with mass flow rate m and specific heat capacity c flowing a total distance : through a collector of area A. The heating of the fluid with respect to distance 2 through the collector is given by mc(dT(2 6d2 0 (A.8G6: 5.3in D(T(2 Ta 7. Assume D is constant. Then this is a first order non-homogeneous linear differential e3uation. /t can be solved to give the basic e3uation relating the inlet and outlet fluid temperatures Tin and Tout as follows4 5.3in D(Tin Ta 7e2p(A8GD6mc 0 5.3in D(Tout Tin 7. .....(2 Eften the performance of a collector is written in terms of the fluid inlet temperature Tin and a heat re"o!al factor 8B, as follows Fout 0A8B5.3in D(Tin Ta 7. .....(+ 9riting Fout 0 mc(Tout Tin , and eliminating Tout with the help of (2 , shows that 8B 0 (mc6AD 5! e2p(A8GD6mc 7. .....(. 8or small flow 8B is small and the fluid temperature approaches the stagnation temperature Tma2. 8or large flow 8B is large, but the rise in fluid temperature is small.

The Collector as a Heat E%chan#er

8ig. 2. The flat-plate collector as a heat e2changer. A solar collector may be regarded as a conventional heat e2changer transferring heat from solar radiation at a constant temperature Tma2 to the collector fluid (see 8ig. 2 . 8irst we define the lo# "ean te"perat$re difference :HTI by the e3uation :HTI 0 (Tout Tin 6log5(Tma2 Tin 6(Tma2 Tout 7. .....(* Then, putting Tma2 0 Ta 1 .3in6D, and Fout 0 mc(Tout Tin , we obtain from e3uation (2 4 Fout 0 A8GD(:HTI . .....(& Another method uses the heat e%chan#er effecti!eness E 0 Fout6Fma2, .....(' where Fma2 is the heat transfer rate when Tout 0 Tma2. -utting Fout 0 mc(Tout Tin , Fma2 0 mc(Tma2 Tin , Tma2 0 Ta 1 .3in6D, we obtain from e3uation (2 4 E 0 ! e2p(A8GD6mc . @tandard theory for this type of heat e2changer gives E 0 ! e2p(= , .....(( where = is the n$"ber of heat transfer $nits. Therefore in the collector = 0 A8GD6mc. .....() =ote that (. , (( , and () give the following relation between the different measures of performance4 8B= 0 8GE. By R. H. B. Exell, 2000. King Mongkut's University of Technology Thon uri.