ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH METHODS

Lecturer:

Professor June Prill-Brett

College of Social Sciences University of the Philippines Baguio

OUTLINE

I. Recap II. History of ethnographic research III. thnographic research !etho"s I. II. Participant-o#servation $ey infor!ant intervie%ing Use of genealogical !etho" &athering of cases 'life-histories( conflict cases)* +ther e!ergent !etho"s,strategies in co!!unity stu"ies

-ata .nalysis Strategies /or0shop 1o"ule

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RECAP

Quantitative vs Qualitative Approaches 2 Quantitative research is use" to ans%er 3uestions a#out relationships a!ong !easure" varia#les %ith the purpose of e4plaining( pre"icting( an" controlling pheno!enon. 2 5ualitative research ans%ers 3uestions a#out the co!ple4 nature of pheno!ena( %ith the purpose of "escri#ing an" un"erstan"ing the pheno!ena fro! the participants6 point of vie% 'emic)7also referre" to as the interpretive( constructivist( or post-positivist approach. Purpose: 2 Quantitative research see0s explanations an" predictions for purposes of generalization to other persons or places. 2 Qualitative research see0s a #etter un"erstan"ing of co!ple4 situations( often e4ploratory in nature( an" !ay use their o#servations to #uil" fro! the groun" up.

Which approach should you use?

Use this approach if: 4. If you %elieve that: Quantitative There is an o%3ective reality that can %e #easured. 0a#iliar-su!!ortive of /uantitative studies 'onfir#atory-!redictive )elatively short 'overs a lot of %readth "ediu# or low High Deductive reasoning Technical scientific writing Qualitative There are #ulti!le 2ossi%le realities constructed %y 0a#iliar with-su!!ortive different of /ualitative studies individuals +,!loratory inter!retive )elatively long Involves in&de!th High work with !eo!le Low Inductive reasoning Literary, narrative writing attention to detail

1. Your audience is: .. Your research /uestion is: *. The availa%le literature is: (. Your research focus: $. Your a%ility and desire to work with !eo!le is: . Your desire for structure is: 8. You have skills in areas of: 9. Your writing skills are strong in the area of:

Reference: Paul -. Le""y an" Jenne llis +r!on". 899:. Linking Data and Research Methodology ( in Practical Research Plannin an! Desi n.

TECHNIQUES AN

TOOLS IN QUALITATI!E RESEARCH

Co!!on types of 3ualitative research !etho"s,approaches :. thnographic research 'Case stu"y)* 8. Historical stu"y ;. Content analysis <. !ergent strategies,approaches: RR.( PR.( =&-( =ar!ing Syste!s( -iscourse analysis( a!ong others. In these e4a!ples the research !etho"s( techni3ues an" tools usually e!ploye" are: 2 Intervie%ing 'se!i-structure" an" 0ey infor!ant)* 2 +#servational techni3ue( inclu"ing participant o#servation 2 Case stu"y 2 Participatory .ction an" Learning techni3ue 2 &roup process !etho"s

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HISTOR" O# ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnography "eals %ith the stu"y of the "iversity of hu!an cultures in their particular cultural settings. >his !etho" has "evelope" in early anthropological fiel" research carrie" out in non-%estern cultures.

O"#ectives: >o e4pose the stu"ent,researcher to the ethnographic research !etho" that has a long history in the stu"y of non-%estern societies in their o%n cultural conte4ts. 2 >o intro"uce the "ifferent ethnographic research !etho"s,approaches 2 >o allo% the researcher to appreciate the "ifferent ethnographic !etho"s,approaches use" in un"erstan"ing "iverse cultures( their #eliefs an" practices as their co!!unities respon" to a transfor!ing %orl" in the conte4t of "evelop!ent.

Histor$ o% ethno raphic research

19th century context of the Social Sciences (Economics, Political Science, Psychology, Sociology) Eurocentric development of concepts, theories and methods Age of exploration and discovery !ravelers, "issionaries, Explorers, Ship #aptains $iscovery of exotic people, %savages&, %primitives&, %heathens&, %uncivili'ed& (acial and cultural diversity explanations and theories Unilineal evolutionary theory (Savagery, )ar*arism, #ivili'ation) +rom armchair to field,or- (Anthropologists traveled to study non ,estern cultures) "alino,s-i. +ield,or- in the !ro*riand /slands and the formali'ation of ethnographic field research methods. extended residence in the village, learning the native language, participant o*servation, genealogical mapping, Anthropology as a discipline studies cultural *ehavior *y using the holistic, historical and comparative methods0

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HISTOR" O# ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH

POINTS TO RE%E%&ER IN OIN$ QUALITATI!E RESEARCH The researcher an! the researche! as &eanin ' ivin su"#ects

2 >hey are conscious beings 2 People give !eaning to things an" act as such to %hat he,she sees or hears( an" cannot #e free" fro! i!purities an" "efects in the sa!e %ay a physical instru!ent of research can #e sterili?e" or perfecte".
The %iel!(or)er as a hu&an "ein

2 >he social scientist is her,his o%n chie research instrument. 2 >his research instru!ent is "efective 7it can #e perfecte" #ut can never #e perfect. 2 /e "o not go to the fiel" as a tabula rasa( the "efectiveness or conta!ination %e #ring to the fiel" ste!s fro! !ainly three sources:
!he degree o our natural endo"ments to o#serve an" recor" #ur theoretical bias: color our perceptions #ur meta-theoretical biases: these are the unrecogni?e" an" une4a!ine" assu!ptions

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HISTOR" O# ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH

POINTS TO RE%E%&ER IN OIN$ QUALITATI!E RESEARCH

The people: our in%or&ants

2 People "o not al%ays !ean %hat they say( or say %hat they !ean( or even 0no% %hat they are tal0ing a#out 're!e!#er( people are !eaning-giving su#@ects) 2 .si"e fro! outright "eception( co!!on are !e!ory an" revie%( co!poun"e" %hen %e "eal %ith oral tra"itionsA %hat is trans!itte" fro! generation to generation ten"s to #e affecte" #y loss of "etail.

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Wha' is (ield)or*?
thnographic fiel"%or0 entails the e4ten"e" resi"ence of the researcher in a fiel" setting 'e.g.( co!!unity( village( institution)( participating an" o#serving the "aily activities an" #ehavior of the people %here research is carrie" out.

Wha' is par'icipa+' o,ser-a'io+?

In P+ the researcher shares as inti!ately as possi#le in the life an" activities of the setting un"er stu"y. >his entails an e4ten"e" resi"ence perio". >he purpose is to "evelop an insi"er6s vie% of %hat is happening.

Who are .ey I+(or/a+'s 0..I.1?

$.I. are the 0no%le"gea#le persons %ho are consi"ere" as authorities pertaining to the history an" culture of the co!!unity,institution,place. 'selection( rapport( !arginal people)*

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Participant'O"server Roles :. 8. ;. <. Co!plete o#server 'overt( covert)* Participant as o#server '!ore as an o#server than a participant)* +#server-as-participant '!ore as a participant than o#server)* Co!plete participant
Han"-out

O"servation

:. Scientific in3uiry using o#servational !etho"s re3uires "iscipline" training an" rigorous preparation 8. People "on6t Bnaturally6 0no% ho% to "o syste!atic research o#servations ;. +#servation entails the syste!atic noting an" recor"ing of events( #ehaviors( an" artifacts 'o#@ects) in the chosen setting

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Recor!in O"servations :. 8. ;. <. D. F. $eep fiel" note#oo0 >a0e notes on your o#servations as you o#serve /rite "o%n notes as soon as possi#le Cotes shoul" inclu"e e!pirical o#servations an" interpretations Cross files Efill in "ates an" ti!es you !a"e o#servations. .naly?e an" interpret your o#servations( "iscerning patterns of #ehavior( fin"ing the un"erlying !eanings in the thing you o#serve"

In'Depth Intervie(in :. Learn to listen( thin0 an" tal0 al!ost at the sa!e ti!e. 8. Pro#e Eho% is thatG In %hat %ayG Ho% "o you !eanG /hat %oul" #e an e4a!ple of thatG ;. Revie% notes every night Eo#serve activities,#ehavior HgapsI that !ust #e further o#serve". <. Co!#ine" %ith o#servation( intervie%s allo% the researcher to un"erstan" the !eanings people hol" for their every"ay activities.

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

* General Cate ories o% Intervie(s :. Infor!al conversational intervie% E3ualitative in-"epth intervie% are !ore li0e the conversations than for!al events %ith pre"eter!ine" response categories. 8. >he general intervie% gui"e approach an" the ;. Stan"ar" open-en"e" intervie% +iel! Notes 2 Cote#oo0: "o not rely on !e!ory 2 Cotes shoul" #e "ocu!ente" right a%ay 2 $eep a research "iary to "ocu!ent ho% %or0 is procee"ing( an" the ti!e spent

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2

ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

T$pes,Sta es o% +iel! Notes $ubstantive fiel" notes focus on the !ain o#servations( conversations( e4periences an" intervie%s Methodological infor!ation "ocu!ents the su#@ective i!pressions of the researcher o#serve" in the "ata-gathering conte4t. %nalytic ield notes contain preli!inary stages of analysis. Here "ata are sorte"( co"e"( an" analy?e" for the first ti!e E gaps can #e a""resse" an" 3uestions can #e follo%e"-up. -ata sheet shoul" inclu"e "ate( place( an" source of infor!ation

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

HISTORICAL ANAL"SIS 2 Historical analysis is a !etho" of "iscovering fro! recor"s an" accounts %hat happene" in the past 2 Particularly useful in 3ualitative stu"ies for esta#lishing a #aseline or #ac0groun" prior to participant o#servation or intervie%ing Sources o% Data 2 &rimary sources Einclu"e the oral testi!ony of eye%itnesses( "ocu!ents( recor"s( relics. 2 $econdary sources Einclu"e reports of persons %ho relate the accounts of actual eye%itnesses an" su!!aries( as in history #oo0s an" encyclope"ias Collection of historical "ata pertaining to: 2 Life histories 2 Co!!unity settle!ent histories 2 Conflict cases >he use of genealogical reckoning and mapping to esta#lish un0no%n "ates of historical events

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

HISTORICAL ANAL"SIS Other Sources Conte!porary recor"s inclu"ing instructions( stenographic recor"s( #usiness an" legal papers( personal letters( pu#lic reports( ne%spaper reports( !e!oirs( an" auto#iographies( 3uestionnaires( govern!ent "ocu!ents( inclu"ing archives an" regulations,or"inances( opinions( e"itorials( speeches( fictions( songs( poetry( !yths( an" fol0lore Historical Anal$sis -se%ulness Historical research tra"itions "e!an" proce"ures to verify the accuracy of state!ents a#out the past( to esta#lish relationships an" to "eter!ine the "irection of cause-an"-effect relationships

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Caution

2 A-oid 'he i/posi'io+ o( /oder+ 'hou2h' pa''er+s i+ a+ earlier era 2 Se+si'i-i'y should ,e 2i-e+ 'o 'he i+'erpre'a'io+ o( 'he s'a'e/e+' o( o'hers3 2 His'orical a+alysis ca++o' use a direc' o,ser-a'io+ approach a+d 'here is +o )ay 'o 'es' a his'orical hypo'hesis. 2 There are )ea*+esses i+ 'he classi(ica'io+ o( his'orical da'a4
%ay ,e su,5ec' 'o i+correc' i+'erpre'a'io+s o+ 'he par' o( 'he recorder. Words a+d phrases used i+ old records /ay +o) ha-e di((ere+' /ea+i+2s ocu/e+'s /ay ,e (alsi(ied deli,era'ely The /ea+i+2 o( relics are percei-ed a+d i+'erpre'ed ,y 'he i+-es'i2a'or. Errors i+ recordi+2 as )ell as (rauds6 hoa7es6 a+d (or2eries pose pro,le/s i+ deali+2 )i'h 'he pas'

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

#IL%S6 !I EOS AN PHOTO$RAPHS Have a long history in anthropology( calle" visual anthropology( or ilm ethnography. It relies on fil! an" photographs to capture "aily life of the group un"er stu"y.
2 =il!s provi"e visual recor"s of passing natural events an" !ay #e use" as per!anent resources. 2 >he concept an" !etho" of the research fil! have e!erge" an" are co!pati#le %ith the variety of research !etho"s an" have #een use" to "escri#e ho% people navigate in pu#lic places an" the use of space. 2 Research fil!ing is a po%erful tool for in3uiry into past events. =il! has the a#ility to capture visi#le pheno!ena see!ingly yet al%ays fro! the perspective of the fil!!a0er. 2 Research fil! !etho"ology re3uires the "ocu!entation of the ti!e( place( an" su#@ect of the fil!ing as %ell as the photographer6s intent an" interest.

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

#IL%S6 !I EOS AN PHOTO$RAPHS Stren ths :. It captures on "ocu!ent life crises an" cere!onies( trans!its cultural events to successive generations( an" "ocu!ents social conflicts. 8. >he fil! researcher is li!ite" only #y %hat the !in" can i!agine an" the ca!era can recor". vents are "ocu!ente" in the natural setting. ;. =il! is valua#le for "iscovery an" vali"ation. It "ocu!ents non-ver#al #ehavior an" co!!unication such as facial e4pressions an" e!otions. <. =il! preserves activity an" change in original for!. It can #e use" in the future to ta0e a"vantage of ne% !etho"s of seeing( analy?ing( an" un"erta0ing the process of change. D. =il! allo%s for the preservation an" stu"y of "ata fro! non-recurring( "isappearing( or rare events. F. /ith fil!s( another researcher can vali"ate interpretation of infor!ation. J. =ee"#ac0 can #e o#taine" on the authenticity of interpretation an" can #e reta0en to correct errors.

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

#IL%S6 !I EOS AN PHOTO$RAPHS .ea)nesses an! Issues :. -oes the fil! !anipulate realityG 8. /hat is the nature of truthG ;. Concern e4ists a#out professional #ias an" the interests of the fil!!a0er <. Consi"eration !ust #e given to the ethics of ethnographic fil!ing 'nee"s the infor!e" consent of the su#@ect)

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.INESICS

ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

>he stu"y of #o"y !ove!ents,!otion an" its acco!panying !essages is a co!!unication techni3ue 0no%n as 0inesics. >he !otion is analy?e" syste!atically in a %ay that allo%s the researcher to see an" !easure significant patterns of the co!!unication process. Bir"%histel la#els four channels of the co!!unicative process: vocal( visual( olfactory( an" tactile.
2 Bo"y language can e4press unconscious thoughts that !ay #e essential for o#servers to "eci"e if they are to analy?e situations accurately. 2 1easuring "evices are availa#le for researchers to use not only in gaining a further un"erstan"ing of 0inesics #ut also in learning ho% to interpret #o"y !ove!ents.
H!ong %o!en

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies
.INESICS Stren ths
2 It provi"es a vie% into unconscious thoughts an" provi"es a !eans for triangulation of ver#al "ata. 2 . researcher can #e !ore confi"ent a#out the accuracy of infor!ation provi"e" #y a su#@ect if the spea0er6s #o"y language is congruent %ith his %or"s.

/i&itations
2 Bo"y language is not universal. So!e gestures signal "ifferent !eanings in "ifferent cultures: e4a!ple: the up an" "o%n hea" no" signifies HnoI an" the Hsi"e-to-si"eI !ove!ents of the hea" !eans HyesI. 2 Bo"y !ove!ents !ust #e interprete" in conte4t

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

PRO8E%ICS >he stu"y of people6s use of space an" its relationship to culture. 2 >he researcher focuses on space( ranging fro! interpersonal "istance to the arrange!ent of furniture an" architecture. .nthropologists have use" pro4e!ics to "eter!ine the territorial custo!s of particular cultures 'e.g.( !ar0ing social "istance). Pro4e!ics has #een use" in the stu"y of the #ehavior of stu"ents in the classroo!s an" the !arital partners un"ergoing counseling.

Corthern $an0anaey %o!en

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PRO8E%ICS

ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

A!vanta es 2 2 2 2 2 Uno#trusive an" usually "ifficult for the su#@ect to !islea" the o#servers "eli#erately since it "oes not re3uire the cooperation of the su#@ects. Because pro4e!ics is concerne" %ith non-ver#al #ehavior( su#@ects %oul" have to #e s0ille" in or"er to HlieI a#out their feelings. Pro4e!ics is useful for stu"ying the %ay in"ivi"uals react to others regar"ing space an" the invasion of their territory. Pro4e!ics can #e use" for cross-cultural stu"ies( #ecause people6s use of personal space varies greatly fro! one culture to the ne4t. =inally( Pro4e!ics analyses is useful for stu"ents in such areas as the effects of seating arrange!ents on stu"ent #ehavior or the effect of cro%"ing on %or0place pro"uctivity.

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ETHNO$RAPHIC RESEARCH %ETHO S

Other &etho!s,strate ies in co&&unit$ stu!ies

THE RE!IEW O# OCU%ENTS 0Co+'e+' A+alysis19 2 >he gathering an" analy?ing of "ocu!ents can supple!ent participant o#servation( intervie%ing( an" o#servation. >he revie% of "ocu!ents is an uno#trusive !etho". >he use of "ocu!ents often entails an approach calle" content analysis E the syste!atic e4a!ination of for!s of co!!unication to "ocu!ent patterns o#@ectively. >he ra% !aterial of content analysis !ay #e any for! of co!!unication( usually %ritten !aterials 'te4t#oo0s( novels( ne%spapers)( !usic( pictures( or political speeches.

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ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

Process o% Data Anal$sis Strate ies

Refers to the process of #ringing or"er( structure( an" !eaning to the !ass of collecte" "ata. It is a !essy( a!#iguous( ti!e-consu!ing( creative( an" fascinating process.

Description0 Anal$sis an! Interpretation

2 2 Description a""resses the 3uestion: H%hat is going on hereGI -ata consists of o#servations !a"e #y the researcher an",or reporte" to the researcher #y others. %nalysis a""resses the i"entification of essential features an" the syste!ic "escription of interrelationships a!ong the!Kho% things %or0. In ter!s of state" o#@ectives( analysis !ay also #e e!ploye" to a""ressK%hy a syste! is not %or0ing or ho% it !ight #e !a"e to %or0 H#etter.I 'nterpretation a""resses processual 3uestions of !eanings an" conte4tsKHHo% "oes it all !eanGI H/hat is to #e !a"e of it allGI

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Anal$tic Proce!ures

ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

:. +rgani?ing the "ata. 8. &enerating categories( the!es( an" patterns. ;. >esting the e!ergent hypothesis against the "ata. <. Searching for alternative e4planations of the "ata. D. /riting the report.

Or ani1ation o% Data
:. Rea"ing E an" rea"ing once !ore through the "ata forces the researcher to #eco!e fa!iliar %ith those "ata in inti!ate %ays 8. Co"ing of "ata E list on note car"s,in"e4 car"s the "ata availa#le 'color an" nu!#er co"ing)* ;. Perfor! the !inor e"iting necessary to !a0e fiel" notes retrieva#le( an" generally Hclean-upI %hat see!s over%hel!ing an" un!anagea#le. <. +rgani?e co"es into !ore inclusive an" a#stract "o!ains such as !etho"ological notes( analytic !e!os( theoretical notes( case su!!aries( "iagra!s( charts( an" "u!!y ta#les. D. nter the "ata into one of the several soft%are progra!s for the !anage!ent an",or analysis of 3ualitative "ata.

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ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

Ra( !ata have no inherent !eaningA the interpretive act #rings !eaning
to those "ata an" "isplays that !eaning to the rea"er through the %ritten report.

Me&os an! Dia ra&s are %ritten recor"s of analysis that !ay vary in
type an" for!.

Me&o %or&s inclu"e co"e notes( theoretical notes( an" operational

notes.

Co!e notes are !e!os containing the actual pro"ucts of the three types
of co"ing. 2 2 2 !heoretical notes: sensiti?ing an" su!!ari?ing !e!os that contain an analyst6s thoughts an" i"eas a#out theoretical sa!pling an" other issues. #perational notes: !e!os containing proce"ural "irections an" re!in"ers( Diagrams( visual devices that "epict the relationship a!ong concepts.

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ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

Technical %eatures o% &e&os an! !ia ra&s

:. 1e!os an" "iagra!s shoul" #e "ate".
2 2 Shoul" inclu"e references to "ocu!ents fro! %hich i"eas %ere "erive". ach reference shoul" inclu"e the co"e nu!#er of the intervie%( o#servation or "ocu!ent( "ate on %hich "ata %ere collecte"( an" page nu!#er.

:. 1e!os an" "iagra!s shoul" contain hea"ings "enoting the concepts or categories to %hich they pertain.
2 1e!os an" "iagra!s that relate t%o or !ore categories to each other or to su#categories shoul" cross-reference the concepts in the hea"ings.

:. >he title or hea"ing shoul" "escri#e the type of !e!o #eing %ritten. 8. >he analyst coul" !o"ify the content !e!o an" "iagra!s as ne% "ata lea" to increase" insights. 2 >he analyst shoul" #e conceptual rather than "escriptive %hen %riting !e!os. 1e!os are not a#out people or even a#out events or inci"ents as such. Rather( they are a#out the conceptual i"eas "erive" fro! these.

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Conceptual Or!erin

ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

General cate ories0 the&es an! patterns 2 >his phase is the !ost "ifficult( co!ple4( a!#iguous( creative( an" fun. I"entifying salient the!es( recurring i"eas or language an" patterns of #elief that lin0 people an" settings together is the !ost intellectually challenging phase of "ata analysis an" one that can integrate the entire en"eavor. >he process of category generation involves noting regularities in the setting of people chosen for stu"y. .s categories of !eaning e!erge( the researcher searches for those that have internal convergence an" e4ternal "ivergence Ethe categories shoul" #e internally consistent #ut "istinct fro! one another.

2 2

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Conceptual Or!erin
E'ic6 E/ic a'a A+alysis

ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

>he researcher !ay use in"igenous typologies 'e!ic) or Hanalyst-constructe" typologiesI 'etic) to reflect a classification sche!e use" #y the people in the setting un"er stu"y. Usually presente"

in !atri4 for!at.
2 2 'ndigenous typologies are those create" an" e4presse" #y participants an" are generate" through analyses of the local use of language. %nalyst-constructed typologies are those create" #y the research as reflecting "istinct categories #ut not generative of separate language categories. In this case the researcher applies a typology to naturally occurring variations in o#servations. >his process entails uncovering patterns( the!es( an" categories. .n" !ay %ell #e su#@ect to the legiti!ate charge of i!posing a %orl" of !eaning on the participants that #etter reflects the o#server6s %orl" than the %orl" un"er stu"y.

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ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

.hat Strate ic Choices can (e appl$ that can enhance a stu!$2s enerali1a"ilit$3
Tria+2ula'io+ E!ultiple sources of "ata. >he act of #ringing !ore than one source of "ata to #ear on a single point '"erive" fro! navigation science). -ata fro! "ifferent sources can #e use" to corro#orate( ela#orate( or illu!inate the research in 3uestion. >his inclu"es !ultiple cases( !ultiple infor!ants( !ore than one "ata gathering !etho" Euse" to strengthen the stu"y6s usefulness for other settings.

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ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

.hat Strate ic Choices can (e appl$ that can enhance a stu!$2s enerali1a"ilit$3
!alidi'y: es'a,lish 'he ;'ru'h -alue< o( 'he s'udy:'he 'rus')or'hi+ess o( 'he da'a.
Cre!i"ilit$: Ho% cre"i#le are the fin"ings of the stu"yG By %hat criteria can %e @u"ge the!G
>he in3uiry6s goal is to "e!onstrate that the in3uiry %as con"ucte" in such a !anner as to ensure that the su#@ect %as accurately i"entifie" an" "escri#e".

Trans%era"ilit$: Ho% transfera#le an" applica#le are these fin"ings to another setting or group of peopleG
>he #ur"en of "e!onstrating the applica#ility of one set of fin"ings to another conte4t rests !ore %ith the investigator %ho %oul" !a0e the transfer than %ith the original investigator.

Depen!a"ilit$4 Ho% can %e #e reasona#ly sure that the fin"ings %oul" #e replicate" if the stu"y %ere con"ucte" %ith the sa!e participants in the sa!e conte4tG
>he researcher atte!pts to account for changing con"itions in the pheno!enon chosen for stu"y as %ell as changes in the "esign create" #y increasingly refine" un"erstan"ing of the setting.

Con%or&a"ilit$4 Ho% can %e #e sure that the fin"ings are reflective of the su#@ects an" the in3uiry itself rather than a creation of the researcher6s #iases or pre@u"icesG
.s0 %hether the fin"ings of the stu"y coul" #e confir!e" #y another. >he assu!ption of an unchanging social %orl" is in "irect contrast to the 3ualitative interpretive assu!ption that the social %orl" is al%ays #eing constructe"( an" the concept of replication is itself pro#le!atic.

I.

ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

.hat are the strate ies %or "alancin "ias in interpretation3

2 -evil6s a"vocate: a research partner or a person %ho critically 3uestions the researcher6s analysis. 2 . constant search for negative instances. 2 Chec0ing an" rechec0ing the "ata an" purposeful e4a!ination of possi#le rival hypotheses. 2 Practicing value-free note-ta0ing( then( ta0ing t%o sets of notes Eone %ith !ore o#@ective o#servation an" another that allo%s the researcher to i!pose so!e conceptual sche!e or !etaphor( an" to #e creative %ith the "ata in %ays that !ight prove useful for !ore for!al analysis. 2 -evise tests to chec0 analyses an" applying the tests to the "ata( as0ing 3uestions of the "ata. 2 =ollo% the gui"elines of previous researchers to control for "ata 3uality. 2 Con"ucting an au"it of the "ata collection an" analytic strategies. 2 5ualitative "ata "oes not preten" to #e replica#le

I.

ATA ANAL"SIS STRATE$IES

/evels o% A"straction -se! in Presentation

2 -escriptive narration : the focus is usually on groups an" their activities that change over ti!e. >he narration( in lay language( is a story of events( #ase" on the co!!on sense e4planations of the participants( that synthesi?es the reasons the events occurre" as they "i". . "escriptive narration closely rese!#les that of an investigative reporting. >he stu"y contri#utes to 0no%le"ge #y preserving a recor" of a past event !a"e #y a traine" o#server. >his "escription !ay #e use" in su#se3uent research. -escriptive- analytical interpretation: . secon" level of a#straction is one of "escription( analysis( an" interpretation. >he ethnographer selectively analy?es aspects of hu!an actions an" events to provi"e e4planations. >he co!ple4ity of the interrelationships of the events( an" their influence on hu!an lives are e!phasi?e". >he stu"y contri#utes to 0no%le"ge #y provi"ing an un"erstan"ing of the pheno!ena stu"ie". >his type of stu"y also ena#les others to anticipate( #ut not pre"ict( %hat !ay occur in si!ilar situations. 2 &roun"e"-theory research: +ther stu"ies go #eyon" "escriptive analysis to a"" a theoretical "i!ension. Concepts in"uce" fro! o#servations are "erive" fro! "ata an" therefore( are calle" groun"e" theory. &roun"e" theory "iffers fro! 3uantitative research %here theoretical constructs are "e"uce" fro! theory i"entifie" in the literature revie%.

I.
Intro!uction
2 2 2 2

WOR.SHOP %O ULE

1ost of the participants in this training %or0shop are currently %or0ing %ith institutions that are concerne" %ith the general %elfare of the In"igenous Peoples in their respective countries. .l!ost all have( in so!e %ay( #een engage" in research a!ong the IPs in their ho!e region. So!e of the participants have #een e4pose" to for!al an" infor!al research !etho"s an" a fe% have %ritten an" pu#lishe" their reports. >his training %or0shop provi"es the opportunity for our guest participants to enrich their research 0no%le"ge an" s0ills through their participation in this research training %or0shop.

.or)shop Or ani1ation an! Instructions

:. +rgani?e yourselves into < groups. 8. Choose a !e!#er fro! your group %ho %ill #e assigne" to report the group6s output "uring the plenary session. ;. Lou are given : hour to "iscuss a!ong yourselves( co!pare e4periences( an" react to the 3uestions #y %riting the! "o%n in the !anila paper. <. ach group is given :D !inutes to present their collective ans%ers to the 3uestions.

I.
.or)shop O"#ectives

WOR.SHOP %O ULE

=or this %or0shop on thnographic .pproaches %e hope: :. >o ena#le participants to share their various e4periences in relation to their %or0 %ith( an" a!ong the IPs in their respective countries. /hat 0in"s of researches have you #een involve" inG /hat research !etho"s have you e!ploye",use"G /hat %ere the pro#le!s,issues,o#stacles that you an",or your group %ere face" %ith in relation to your research %or0G Ho% "i" you confront these pro#le!sG :. &iven the "ifferent research e4posures---"o you feel that you coul" have enriche" your research #y incorporating other !etho"s,approachesG /hat research !etho"s %oul" these #eG In the lecture presente" on ethnographic research approaches --have you foun" any usefulness an" applica#ility of the concepts( !etho"s or approaches to your current or future researchesG /hich particular !etho"s( for e4a!pleA an" ho% can these #e applie"G /hich !etho"s,approaches "o you consi"er as !ost an" least useful in your research %or0G 4plain %hy( or %hy notG

8.

S$nthesis
Supplies Cee"e": !anila paper( !as0ing tape( pentel pens