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Aq6 &&'6 ?4'< =&? m9m?. k7'O&-? 9%n% ':@ 7:- & : 9<'% 8 6/ 9:8'7 8@ & mO @:&O 9:8&&n m9m? 7:-8? & :8@O 9% ' &'=-? 6&9-? n. u8 &8 9% &<? :%@ 88& '7 8 &@q&8 9<'. *9& 6 7&- %n%8- 7:- & %&- 9&- ''A&8- '. ) &8 ''A&m? & &9'O:@A&7 9-/ 9'@8. %& . n=% 8 &&'6 98- &87:-8- &9m'& & &8&8@Aq 9<'. i:@&7/ )8%A 8 &@/ 9&@ 9;. t. $'/ 6@ <-O 9%s78'- 9%'- 9:. ) &'@ 6& <s :'= 8 6 % &% &n: : @9q 9<'@. *- 89&- .' =7 8 6/ / 9/ 9<' &&? &@@- &'8 &.7 6 '&4&&n 88. k@6 - 9'@' %'=6 &-7/ / 9/ 9% :7 6 9-/ 6&'6&? &9 :7/ 7 m/ %- &&'%87 :?. ~: @6 &&'%8'?/ @9-n 8 <. * = 8 &/ 8 <<'6; 8'% &8&n &&'68/ <- -n/ 948%@/ ' :- 8@/ n7 8 &8&? &&'6 9'@- <' :'O- :@'O- 8 '&&? <? &/ m/ 7% :%'8 &&&? & %@6n <'&7n. (= 9%&8O <' &8. 88% 8 &&'6A/ '. -n %&8/ <' 9'/ 9& <' ? %'6&? &8 9&'%8'O 98%7q m'&@A :<@A &&'6&@A m9mA 8 & &9&8' & - 8:6'7% 9 @ %%&n %&n <8?/ 9%s78'7-n @<? '@. h% % n 9/ 9 ? @< &:%/ + &:% 6 8 @&'87n/ 6% &7'&O &8- 977 &&'6/ %' &8& 9&/ + 6 t. $' = 9& &@A 9'O:@. ) &7q 9:% 6'?& 7:-/ &<= 9%&'8 / :< 9'O-? 8 &9'O:87 6 %'7 &8&6 '7. ) 8% 6 %&@&7, 0) &@% ;@'O8 %'? 6'?&6 7:- 8 &8 @<6 9&<7 @& '&'6 &? 6 6'?&6 7:-/ = @& 88%7 8 7:-: <q6 7:-:7 3) &@% &9 7:-8-n &9m'O&? 8 &8 &9m'O? @? '@- 9 @&@ &6 7:- (6'?&6 7:- &8? &9m'O&) X) @'7 6'?&6 7:- 8 &8 9&<7 9 &<:8A 98-.A 8';m. &- :% 9'@ &'O .? @6 '? &= 9& 9'O:@ %8 88% 8 &&'6A/ ' %'7 7 &9m'O? @? '@- 9 :@ 6'?&6 7:-. & 6 8&9:8%&7 & :'O- &q7 9 6'?&@ :%A (F. R. Palmer. Semantics. A Te V"tline. CamDriEFe GniHersitI Press/ 01JK 9:% = 8 01JJ 01J1 6). 56 %9' 9%&'8/ 8- &9& &8? %@? '@-. *8-? &9& '@- 9%8 &<=7 %&@9& 'A @<- n :%7. 5? 97&7 &- 9'=7 6/ @ '7 9 %'O- 9<' &&'6 @:-8 9 %9''O@A '@@. k ;''6&n @ (. ). *

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UMis D!!Y is DaseE "L!n a series !R lect"res !n Semantics FiHen at tMe ainF"istic Snstit"te in tMe State GniHersitI !R Te w!rY/ e"RRal! in 01J0. St Decame clear tMat tMere as n! elementarI Iet iEe ranFinF !rY s"itaDle as a HerI Rirst intr!E"cti!n t! tMe s"Dgect eitMer R!r tMe st"Eent !r tMe interesteE laIman. UMe aim !R tMis D!!Y is t! Lr!HiEe s"cM an intr!E"ct!rI !"tline.

I STURVWGCUSVT

S]^ATUSCS is tMe tecMnical term "seE t! reRer t! tMe st"EI !R meaninF. GnR!rt"natelI/ meaninF c!Hers a HarietI !R asLects !R lanF"aFe/ anE tMere is n! HerI Feneral aFreement eitMer aD!"t Mat meaninF is !r aD!"t tMe aI in MicM it sM!"lE De EescriDeE. S sMall trI t! inEicate D!tM Mat t!Lics are incl"EeE in semantics anE s!me !R tMe aIs in MicM tMeI MaHe Deen/ !r can De/ ManEleE. e"t Deca"se !R tMe nat"re !R tMe s"Dgect anE tMe HarietI !R Hie s aD!"t it/ S cann!t M!Le t! E! m!re/ in tMis little D!!Y/ tMan t! Lr!HiEe an intr!E"ct!rI s"rHeI. 1.1. The terms 'semantics' and 'meaning'. UMe term semantics is a recent aEEiti!n t! tMe ]nFlisM lanF"aFe. (F!r a EetaileE acc!"nt !R its Mist!rI see ReaE 01Z2.) AltM!"FM tMere is !ne !cc"rrence !R semantick in tMe LMrase semantick philosophy t! mean EiHinati!n in tMe seHenteentM cent"rI/ semantics E!es n!t !cc"r "ntil it as intr!E"ceE in a LaLer reaE t! tMe American PMil!l!Fical Ass!ciati!n in 021Z entitleE ReRlecteE meaninFs, a L!int in semantics. UMe FrencM term simantique MaE Deen c!ineE Rr!m tMe breeY in tMe LreHi!"s Iear DI ^. ereal. Sn D!tM cases tMe term as n!t "seE simLlI t! reRer t! meaninF/ D"t t! its EeHel!Lment 4 itM Mat e sMall later call Mist!rical semantics. Sn 01``/ M! eHer/ tMere aLLeareE ereals D!!Y Semantics: studies in the science of meaning; tMe FrencM !riFinal MaE aLLeareE tMree Iears earlier. UMis is a s"LerD little D!!Y/ n! saElI neFlecteE D"t ell !rtM reaEinF. St is !ne !R tMe earliest D!!Ys !n linF"istics as e "nEerstanE it t!EaI/ in tMat/ Rirst/ it treateE semantics as tMe science !R meaninF/ anE sec!nElI/ tMat it as n!t LrimarilI c!ncerneE itM tMe Mist!rical cManFe !R meaninF (see 0.Z). wet tMe term semantics EiE n!t catcM !n R!r s!me time. Vne !R tMe m!st Ram!"s D!!Ys !n semantics is The meaning of meaning DI . 5. VFEen anE S. A. RicMarEs/ Rirst L"DlisMeE in 013X. wet semantics E!es n!t !cc"r in tMe main D!EI !R tMe D!!Y itselR. [! eHer/ it aLLears in an aLLenEid/ MicM is itselR a classic in tMe RielE/ entitleE The problem of meaning in primitive languages, ritten DI tMe antMr!L!l!Fist/ e. ^alin! sYi. VtMer terms DesiEes semantics MaHe Deen "seE. [. b. fells in The shape of things to come sLeaYs !R tMe science !R signifies, D"t Me saIs tMat it as l!st siFMt !R anE n!t reHiHeE "ntil tMe t entI4Rirst cent"rI. VtMer names tMat MaHe Deen "seE incl"Ee semasiology, semology, semiotics, sememics anE semics, tM!"FM scM!lars MaHe !Rten "seE s!me !R tMese terms t! s"it tMeir ! n interests anE !rientati!n/ anE in D!tM iEer anE narr! er senses tMan !"r semantics ill MaHe Mere. UMe term meaning is/ !R c!"rse/ m"cM m!re Ramiliar t! "s all. e"t tMe Eicti!narI ill s"FFest a n"mDer !R EiRRerent meaninFs !R meaning, !r/ m!re c!rrectlI/ !R tMe HerD mean, anE VFEen anE RicMarEs ere aDle t! list n! less tMan sidteen EiRRerent meaninFs tMat MaHe Deen RaH!"reE DI reL"taDle scM!lars. St is n! Lart !R a D!!Y !R tMis YinE t! inHestiFate all tMese L!L"lar anE scientiRic

EeRiniti!ns !R tMe term/ n!r t! asY iR all tMe meaninFs !R mean anE meaning MaHe s!metMinF in c!mm!n. e"t a DrieR l!!Y at s!me !R tMe c!mm!n "ses maI De ill"minatinF/ R!r e can asY MicM/ iR anI/ !R tMese c!mes cl!se t! tMe "se !R tMe terms tMat e neeE in semantics. U! DeFin itM/ e sM!"lE n!t see a cl!se linY Det een tMe sense e re"ire anE tMe sense !R intenE tMat e RinE in # mean to be there tomorrow. St is siFniRicant/ LerMaLs/ tMat e cann!t/ in tMis c!ntedt/ talY aD!"t mI meaninF/ t! reRer t! Mat S mean t! E!. ^"cM nearer t! tMe sense e neeE is tMat !R Those clouds mean thunder !r A red light means stop . F!r mean Mere (anE meaning t!!) is "seE !R siFns/ D!tM nat"ral anE c!nHenti!nal/ siFns tMat inEicate s!metMinF tMat is MaLLeninF !r ill MaLLen/ !r s!metMinF tMat Mas t! De E!ne. S"cM siFns Lr!HiEe inR!rmati!n !r FiHe instr"cti!ns/ anE it is easI t! ass"me tMat lanF"aFe c!nsists !R siFns !R a similar YinE. fMen/ M! eHer/ e l!!Y at tMe "se !R tMe terms mean anE meaning t! reRer t! lanF"aFe e RinE tMat tMeI selE!m/ iR eHer/ s"FFest tMis n!ti!n !R siFn (tM!"FM e sMall s!!n see tMat manI linF"ists MaHe R!ll! eE tMe anal!FI tMr!"FM). UMe m!st releHant "se !R tMe terms R!r !"r L"rL!ses is R!"nE in s"cM sentences as !hat does calligraphy mean" #alligraphy is beautiful handwriting. UMe reLlI t! s"cM "esti!ns is in terms !R !tMer !rEs tMat tMe sLeaYer tMinYs tMe Mearer can "nEerstanE. UMis is/ !R c!"rse/ cMaracteristic !R Eicti!naries. UMeI Lr!HiEe EeRiniti!ns DI s"FFestinF !rEs !r LMrases MicM/ e are FiHen t! "nEerstanE/ MaHe tMe same meaninF/ tM!"FM Mat is same4ness is a Lr!Dlem tMat e sMall n!t De aDle t! escaLe (Z.0). UMe edtent t! MicM meaninF is Eealt itM in terms !R tMe e"iHalence !R terms is eHen m!re clearlI Dr!"FMt !"t Men e Eeal itM R!reiFn lanF"aFes. F!r iR e are asYeE Mat chat means in FrencM e sMall alm!st certainlI reLlI cat. St is interestinF t! n!tice tMat e !"lE n!t asY Mat cat means in FrencM/ edLectinF tMe reLlI chat. SnsteaE/ e MaHe t! saI !hat is the $rench for cat%" Sn statinF meaninF/ tMen/ e are !DliFeE t! Lr!E"ce a term tMat is m!re Ramiliar tMan tMe !ne M!se meaninF is DeinF "esti!neE. fe translate Rr!m !Dsc"re terms/ tecMnical terms/ !r a R!reiFn lanF"aFe int! !rEs tMat can De easilI "nEerst!!E. St is !DHi!"s/ M! eHer/ tMat tMis ill n!t Fet "s HerI Rar in !"r st"EI !R meaninF/ R!r/ tM!"FM tMe LrinciLles !R Eicti!narI maYinF maI De releHant t! !"r en"iries/ e are n!t s!lelI/ !r cMieRlI c!ncerneE itM ritinF Eicti!naries. A EiRRerent "se !R meaning is R!"nE in s"cM sentences as St asnt Mat Me saiE/ D"t Mat Me meant ae is Carr!ll maEe LlaI itM tMe EiRRerence Det een saIinF anE meaninF in Alice s Adventures in !onderland: UMen I!" sM!"lE saI Mat I!" mean/ tMe ^arcM [are ent !n. S E!/ Alice MastilI reLlieE at least 4 at least S mean Mat S saI 4 tMats tMe same tMinF/ I!" Yn! . T!t tMe same tMinF a Dit/ saiE tMe [atter. UMis is a c"ri!"s "se R!r/ iR !"r !rEs MaHe a meaninF/ M! can e Rail t! saI Mat e mean/ !r/ ratMer/ M! can tMe !rEs Rail t! mean Mat tMeI mean UMe ans er is/ !R c!"rse/ tMat e isM t! s"FFest tMat tMe !rEs E! n!t mean Mat tMeI miFMt m!st !DHi!"slI De tM!"FMt t! mean/ tMat tMere is s!me !tMer meaninF DesiEes tMe literal meaninF !R tMe !rEs. UMere are a n"mDer !R "ite EiRRerent aIs !R acMieHinF tMis. fe can "ite simLlI "se s"cM Reat"res as int!nati!n !r eHen LerMaLs n!n4linF"istic siFns s"cM as a inY t! inEicate tMat tMe !rEs m"st n!t De taYen literallI. Sn tMis resLect tMere is !ne int!nati!n t"ne in ]nFlisM tMat is Lartic"larlI interestinF 4 tMe Rall4rise/ in MicM tMe int!nati!n Ralls anE rises !n tMe accenteE !rE in a sentence. F!r tMis t"ne edLresses reserHati!ns it saIs D"t .... F!r instance/ itM She s very clever it maI ell saI (i. e. imLlI) tMat sMe is n!t HerI M!nest/ !r n!t HerI attractiHe/ Mile itM # think so it !"lE s"FFest tMat S E! n!t reallI Yn! ( Mereas a EiRRerent int!nati!n !"lE edLress c!nRiEence in mI DelieR). SimilarlI S can saI/ itM sarcasm/ That s very clever t! mean UMats HerI st"LiE/ anE iR S inY Men S saI That s mine, S Lr!DaDlI intenE t! s"FFest tMat it is n!t. Sec!nElI/ m"cM !R Mat e saI Lres"LL!ses a Freat Eeal. UMe classic edamLle is !hen did you stop beating your wife" MicM Lres"LL!ses tMat I!" Deat Mer at !ne time itM!"t act"allI saIinF it. UMis/ t!!/ e sMall MaHe t! Eisc"ss in Eetail later.

All in all/ it seems tMat e sMall n!t maYe m"cM Lr!Fress in tMe st"EI !R meaninF DI simLlI l!!YinF at c!mm!n !r eHen scM!larlI "ses !R tMe releHant terms. RatMer e m"st attemLt t! see Mat meaninF is/ !r sM!"lE De/ itMin tMe Rrame !rY !R an acaEemic !r scientiRic EisciLline. Semantics is a Lart !R linF"istics/ tMe scientiRic st"EI !R lanF"aFe. 1.2. Semantics and linguistics. aet "s n! trI t! Llace semantics itMin linF"istics anE see Mat tMat imLlies. U! DeFin itM/ e can ass"me tMat semantics is a c!mL!nent !r leHel !R linF"istics !R tMe same YinE as LM!netics !r Frammar. ^!re!Her/ nearlI all linF"ists MaHe/ edLlicitlI !r imLlicitlI/ acceLteE a linF"istic m!Eel in MicM semantics is at !ne enE anE LM!netics at tMe !tMer/ itM Frammar s!me Mere in tMe miEEle (tM!"FM n!t necessarilI tMat tMere are g"st tMese tMree leHels). UMe Lla"siDilitI !R tMis is !DHi!"s en!"FM. aanF"aFe can De Hie eE as a c!mm"nicati!n sIstem tMat relates s!metMinF t! De c!mm"nicateE itM s!metMinF tMat c!mm"nicates/ a messaFe !n tMe !ne ManE itM a set !R siFns !r sImD!ls !n tMe !tMer. UMe S iss linF"ist/ FerEinanE Ee Sa"ss"re/ reRerreE t! tMese as tMe SSbTSFS]R &signifiant' anE tMe SSbTSFS]W &signifi('. ([e/ "nR!rt"natelI/ "seE tMe term SSbT t! reRer t! tMe ass!ciati!n !R tMese t !/ D"t s!me !R Mis m!re recent R!ll! ers MaHe/ m!re reas!naDlI/ "seE it R!r tMe siFniRier al!ne.) ]damLles !R c!mm"ni4 cati!n sIstems/ all !R tMem n! E!"Dt m"cM simLler tMan lanF"aFe/ are n"mer!"s. F!r instance/ traRRic liFMts "se a sIstem !R c!l!"rs anE c!l!"r c!mDinati!ns t! instr"ct EriHers t! F! !r t! st!L (anE als! t! arn tMat s"cM instr"cti!ns are aD!"t t! De FiHen). SimilarlI/ animals maYe n!ises t! c!mm"nicate. UMe FiDD!ns/ R!r instance/ MaHe a set !R calls t! inEicate tMe Eisc!HerI !R R!!E/ EanFer/ RrienElI interest/ Eesire R!r c!mLanI/ anE tMeI MaHe !ne call tMat is intenEeE merelI t! estaDlisM L!siti!n anE s! LreHent tMe DanE Rr!m sLreaEinF t!! Rar aLart. AltM!"FM it is reas!naDle t! see lanF"aFe as DasicallI a c!mm"nicati!n sIstem/ e m"st n!t L"sM tMe anal!FI itM !tMer sIstems t!! Rar/ R!r seHeral reas!ns. First/ lanF"aFe E!es n!t al aIs MaHe a messaFe/ in anI real sense/ certainlI n!t in tMe sense !R a Liece !R inR!rmati!n Lart !R its R"ncti!n is c!ncerneE itM s!cial relati!nsMiLs (see 3.Z/ X.3)/ tM!"FM tMis is als! tr"e !R tMe animal c!mm"nicati!n sIstems t!!. Sec!nElI/ in lanF"aFe D!tM tMe siFns anE tMe messaFes (tMe siFniRiers anE tMe siFniRieE) are tMemselHes en!rm!"slI c!mLled anE tMe relati!nsMiL Det een tMem is !R eHen Freater c!mLleditI. F!r tMis reas!n it Mas Deen c!nHincinFlI arF"eE tMat M"man lanF"aFe EiRRers in YinE ratMer tMan in EeFree Rr!m !tMer lanF"aFes. UMirElI/ in lanF"aFe it is edtremelI EiRRic"lt/ LerMaLs eHen imL!ssiDle/ t! sLeciRI LreciselI Mat tMe messaFe is. Sn !tMer c!mm"nicati!n sIstems tMere is n! Lr!Dlem Deca"se tMe messaFe can De inEeLenEentlI iEentiRieE in terms !R lanF"aFe !r/ ratMer/ !R A lanF"aFe s"cM as ]nFlisM/ e. F. )ed means stop . F!r lanF"aFe in Feneral e MaHe n! s"cM easI s!l"ti!n/ R!r e cann!t EeRine meaninF (tMe messaFe) inEeLenEentlI !R lanF"aFe. fe can !nlI state !ne set !R meaninFs in terms !R an!tMer set/ !nlI EescriDe lanF"aFe in terms !R lanF"aFe. S MaHe s"FFesteE tMat linF"istics is tMe scientiRic st"EI !R lanF"aFe. Vne essential re"irement is tMat it sM!"lE De emLirical. SR semantics is Lart !R linF"istics it t!! m"st De n! less scientiRic. PreciselI Mat scientiRic !r emLirical means is a matter !R s!me EeDate/ D"t !ne essential re"irement !R a scientiRic st"EI is tMat statements maEe itMin it m"st/ in LrinciLle at least/ De HeriRiaDle DI !DserHati!n. St is easI en!"FM t! aLLlI tMis t! LM!netics/ R!r e can !DserHe Mat is MaLLeninF 4 e can listen t! a Lers!n sLeaYinF. fe can/ m!re!Her/ EescriDe tMe !Lerati!ns !R tMe H!cal !rFans/ !r/ itM tMe aiE !R scientiRic instr"ments/ can meas"re LreciselI tMe LMIsical cMaracteristics !R tMe s!"nEs tMat are emitteE. e"t tMere is/ "nR!rt"natelI/ n! similar/ simLle/ aI !R EealinF itM semantics. F"rtMerm!re/ iR linF"istics is scientiRic/ it m"st De c!ncerneE n!t itM sLeciRic instances/ D"t itM Feneralisati!ns. UMis L!int as maEe/ tM!"FM in a ratMer EiRRerent c!nceLt"al Rrame !rY/ DI Ee Sa"ss"re in Mis Eistincti!n Det een aATbGAb] &langue' anE SP]A_STb &parole'. UMis Eistincti!n Mas reaLLeareE in tMe !rYs !R T!am CM!msYI anE Mis R!ll! ers as CV^P]U]TC]

anE P]RFVR^ATC]. (CM!msYI EiRRers FreatlI Rr!m Ee Sa"ss"re !n tMe nat"re !R tMe linF"istic sIstem itMin lanF"aFe !r c!mLetence/ D"t tMe tMe!retical Eistincti!n is tMe same.) e!tM are c!ncerneE essentiallI/ as are e/ t! edcl"Ee Mat is L"relI inEiHiE"al anE acciEental (sLeaYinF !r LerR!rmance)/ anE t! insist tMat tMe Lr!Ler st"EI !R linF"istics is lanF"aFe !r c!mLetence. e"t R!r D!tM Ee Sa"ss"re anE CM!msYI/ lanF"aFe !r c!mLetence is s!me YinE !R iEealiseE sIstem itM!"t anI clear emLirical Dasis/ anE S LreRer t! tMinY ratMer in terms !R Feneralisati!ns. UMe L!int is clear en!"FM in LM!netics. UMe LM!netician is n!t LrimarilI c!ncerneE itM tMe Lartic"lar s!"nEs tMat are maEe at a Lartic"lar time DI a Lartic"lar Lers!n. [e maI ell st"EI tMe Lr!n"nciati!n !R e. F. book, D"t in !rEer t! E! s! Me ill listen t! a n"mDer !R inEiHiE"al "tterances !R tMis !rE anE ill maYe a FeneraliseE statement !n tMe Dasis !R tMese. SnEeeE/ it is L!ssiDle t!EaI/ itM tMe MelL !R a c!mL"ter/ t! Lr!E"ce an aHeraFe "tterance/ c!mL"teE DI tMe c!mL"ter anE Lr!E"ceE DI e"iLment tMat can reLr!E"ce M"man sLeecM s!"nEs. fMat MaLLens at eacM time a Lers!n sLeaYs is n!t "s"allI !R interest in itselR it is ratMer Lart !R tMe eHiEence R!r tMe Feneralisati!ns. UMe same m"st De tr"e !R semantics. fe sMall n!t n!rmallI De c!ncerneE itM tMe meaninF anI inEiHiE"al isMes t! Llace !n Mis !rEs. fe maI recall ae is Carr!ll !nce aFain &Through the *ooking+,lass': fMen S "se a !rE/ ["mLtI W"mLtI saiE in a ratMer sc!rnR"l t!ne/ it means Mat S cM!!se it t! mean 4 neitMer m!re n!r less. An inEiHiE"als meaninF is n!t Lart !R tMe Feneral st"EI !R semantics. VR c!"rse/ it is interestinF !r imL!rtant R!r s!me L"rL!ses t! see M! anE MI an inEiHiE"al EiHerFes Rr!m tMe n!rmal Lattern. UMis is necessarI in tMe st"EI !R literat"re 4 tMe L!et maI ell n!t mean Mat I!" anE S !"lE mean. St is !DHi!"slI imL!rtant t!! in LsIcMiatric st"Eies Mere tMe inEiHiE"al is aLLarentlI "naDle t! "se Mis lanF"aFe in tMe same aI as !tMers. e"t it is imL!rtant t! realise tMat neitMer tMe literarI n!r tMe LsIcMiatric st"Eies !R tMe inEiHiE"al !"lE De L!ssiDle itM!"t tMe FeneraliseE n!rmal Latterns t! maYe c!mLaris!ns itM. A "seR"l Eistincti!n Mas Deen maEe Det een GUU]RATC]S anE S]TU]TC]S s! tMat e can EistinF"isM Det een tMe "tterance UMere is a D!!Y !n tMe taDle anE tMe sentence There is a book on the table. UMis maI at Rirst aLLear s"rLrisinF anE/ "nR!rt"natelI/ tMe Eistincti!n is !Rten l!st Deca"se e talY !R Le!Lle "tterinF !r sLeaYinF in sentences. e"t tMe L!int is tMat an "tterance is an eHent in time 4 it is Lr!E"ceE DI s!me!ne anE at s!me Lartic"lar time/ Mile a sentence is an aDstract entitI tMat Mas n! edistence in time/ D"t is Lart !R tMe linF"istic sIstem !R a lanF"aFe. UMe Eistincti!n is/ !DHi!"slI/ relateE t! tMat !R lanF"aFe !r c!mLetence anE sLeaYinF !r LerR!rmance/ tMe sentence Del!nFinF essentiallI t! tMe R!rmer/ anE tMe "tterance t! tMe latter. St is imL!rtant Deca"se Men e talY aD!"t s!metMinF tMat s!me!ne Mas saiE e n!rmallI EescriDe it in terms tMat are aLLr!Lriate t! tMe sentence. Sn !tMer !rEs e "se !"r linF"istic Yn! leEFe (incl"EinF Mat a sentence is) t! talY aD!"t it. F!r instance/ S reRerreE t! tMe "tterance UMere is a D!!Y !n tMe taDle/ MicM maI MaHe Deen "ttereE DI s!me!ne at s!me time. e"t in !rEer t! reRer t! it S MaHe t! rite it E! n in !rEs itM all tMe c!nHenti!ns !R sLellinF anE L"nct"ati!n. Sn s! E!inF S iEentiRI it as an edamLle !R tMe sentence There is a book on the table. Sn !rEer t! talY aD!"t an "tterance/ tMat is t! saI/ S MaHe t! treat it as an edamLle !R tMe FeneraliseE/ m!re aDstract/ entitI/ tMe sentence. (UMe !nlI aI t! aH!iE tMis c!mLletelI !"lE De t! MaHe tMe "tterance !n taLe/ R!r eHen ritinF it E! n in a LM!netic scriLt !"lE Lr!DaDlI ass"me s!me !R tMe cMaracteristics !R tMe sentence.) Sn Lartic"lar Men S rite it E! n S iEentiRI tMe !rEs/ D"t !rEs are n!t a FiHen Lart !R tMe "tterance. UMeI are n!t accessiDle DI Eirect !DserHati!n D"t are tMe res"lt !R s!me RairlI s!LMisticateE linF"istic tMinYinF (3.\). St R!ll! s Rr!m tMis tMat semanticists ill n!t De (anE cann!t reallI eHer De) c!ncerneE itM tMe meaninF !R "tterances/ D"t !nlI itM tMe meaninF !R sentences/ anE it e"allI R!ll! s tMat e cann!t st"EI semantics itM!"t ass"minF a Freat Eeal aD!"t Frammar anE !tMer asLects !R tMe str"ct"re !R

lanF"aFe. 1.3. The s !"en language. Vne imL!rtant cMaracteristic !R tMe linF"istic aLLr!acM t! arEs tMe st"EI !R lanF"aFe is tMat it is n!t c!ncerneE merelI itM tMe ritten lanF"aFe/ D"t als! (anE "s"allI itM Freater emLMasis) itM tMe sL!Yen. UMere are at least R!"r aIs in MicM tMe sL!Yen lanF"aFe is Lri!r t!/ !r m!re Dasic tMan/ tMe ritten, (i) UMe M"man race MaE sLeecM l!nF DeR!re it MaE ritinF anE tMere are still manI lanF"aFes tMat MaHe n! ritten R!rm/ (ii) UMe cMilE learns t! sLeaY l!nF DeR!re Me learns t! rite/ (iii) fritten lanF"aFe can/ t! a larFe edtent/ De c!nHerteE int! sLeecM itM!"t l!ss. e"t tMe c!nHerse is n!t tr"e iR e rite E! n Mat is saiE e l!se a Freat Eeal/ (iH) SLeecM LlaIs a Rar Freater r!le in !"r liHes tMan ritinF. fe sLenE Rar m!re time sLeaYinF tMan ritinF !r reaEinF. UMe tMirE L!int neeEs s!me edLlanati!n. UMere are a Re Reat"res !R tMe ritten R!rm tMat are n!t easilI (!r n!t at all) reLresenteE in sLeecM. F!r instance/ tMe "se !R italics in tMis D!!Y t! reRer t! edamLles !"lE n!t De inEicateE iR it ere reaE al!"E. T!r !"lE tMe LaraFraLMs/ tM!"FM tMat miFMt n!t De a Freat l!ss. e"t tMe sL!Yen lanF"aFe Mas Rar m!re striYinF cMaracteristics tMat cann!t De easilI sM! n in tMe ritten R!rm. Sn Lartic"lar it Mas Mat are Yn! n as PRVSVWSC anE PARAaSTbGSSUSC Reat"res. UMe Lr!s!Eic Reat"res incl"Ee LrimarilI Mat is "s"allI ManEleE "nEer int!nati!n anE stress. fe MaHe alreaEI n!teE tMe "se !R a Rall4rise int!nati!n t! s"FFest '#ut.../ anE anI sLeaYer !R ]nFlisM can easilI Dec!me a are !R tMe Freat "se maEe !R int!nati!n R!r a M!le HarietI !R L"rL!ses/ larFelI !R an attit"Einal YinE. UMe term SUR]SS is "seE R!r seHeral LMen!mena incl"EinF tMe EiRRerences Det een e. F. tMe HerD convict anE tMe n!"n convict, D"t R!r !"r L"rL!se tMe m!st interestinF "se is tMat MicM is s!metimes reRerreE t! as ACC]TU (TVU in tMe sense !R tMe EiRRerent accents/ i. e. Eialect Reat"res tMat Le!Lle maI MaHe in EiRRerent Larts !R a c!"ntrI)/ in MicM tMe accent maI Rall !n Hari!"s !rEs in a sentence. C!nsiEer/ R!r edamLle/ -s .ary going to wear that hat" UMe accent maI Rall !n anI !rE (edceLt/ LerMaLs/ to' itM HarIinF imLlicati!n 4 !n wear it miFMt s"FFest tMat sMe sM!"lE eat it insteaE UMis YinE !R accent c!"lE/ !R c!"rse/ De inEicateE in tMe ritinF DI italics !r DI "nEerlininF/ D"t e selE!m res!rt t! tMese EeHices anE/ in anI case/ tMe "se !R accent is n!t "ite as simLle as tMis edamLle !"lE s"FFest. UMe semantics !R int!nati!n anE stress is a mag!r s"Dgect in its ! n riFMt. e"t meaninF is als! carrieE DI LaralinF"istic Reat"res s"cM as rMItMm/ temL!/ l!"Eness (sM!"tinF anE MisLerinF are HerI meaninFR"l). Sn aEEiti!n Men e are talYinF e "se manI n!n4linF"istic siFns (tMe term paralinguistic is s!metimes "seE R!r tMese t!!) 4 a smile !r a inY maI De as F!!E an inEicati!n tMat e E! n!t reallI mean Mat e saI as a sarcastic int!nati!n t"ne. [! eHer/ S sMall n!t Eisc"ss tMe semantics !R tMese Reat"res in tMis D!!Y R!r tMree reas!ns 4 tMat tMe s"Dgect is a Hast !ne/ tMat it is an edtremelI EiRRic"lt !ne/ since tMe meaninFs !R tMe Lr!s!Eic anE LaralinF"istic Reat"res are n!t!ri!"slI EiRRic"lt t! EeRine/ anE tMat (Deca"se !R tMese t ! reas!ns) tMere is still little aFreement am!nF scM!lars aD!"t tMe aI t! ManEle tMem. wet S c!nRess tMat tMis is an "nR!rt"nate !missi!n. erieR menti!n !R tMem ill De maEe Mere tMeI are EirectlI releHant t! s!me semanticallI EeRineE cateF!ries. Snt!nati!n cann!t De leRt !"t !R tMe Lr!Dlem !R sLeecM acts (2.3)/ Mile stress is inH!lHeE in t!Lic anE c!mment (2.X). ^anI LaralinF"istic Reat"res t!! sM!"lE De inH!lHeE in tMe "esti!n !R sLeecM acts/ D"t as Iet n!4!ne Mas attemLteE t! c!rrelate tMe t !. ]Hen aLart Rr!m tMe Lr!s!Eic anE LaralinF"istic Reat"res/ e MaHe t! rec!Fnise tMat tMe R!rm !R sL!Yen lanF"aFe anE tMe L"rL!ses R!r MicM it is "seE are HerI EiRRerent Rr!m tM!se !R tMe ritten. C!ncentrati!n !n tMe ritten lanF"aFe Mas misleE Frammarians 4 tMeI MaHe !Rten RaileE t! see tMat tMe sL!Yen lanF"aFe is EiRRerent Rr!m tMe ritten anE MaHe/ misleaEinFlI/ attemLteE t! EescriDe tMe

sL!Yen lanF"aFe in terms aLLr!Lriate t! tMe ritten. St Mas Deen eHen m!re misleaEinF R!r semanticists. F!r tMe ritten lanF"aFe is larFelI narrati!n !r tMe Lresentati!n !R Ract"al inR!rmati!n !r arF"ments. UMis Mas leE t! tMe ass"mLti!n tMat meaninF is larFelI c!ncerneE itM inR!rmati!n/ itM Mat LMil!s!LMers MaHe calleE Lr!L!siti!ns. e"t tMe main R"ncti!n !R lanF"aFe/ esLeciallI tMe sL!Yen lanF"aFe/ is n!t t! inR!rm. St LerR!rms !tMer anE "ite EiRRerent R"ncti!ns as e sMall see later (3.Z). 1.$. %ist!rical semantics. UMere ill De Hirt"allI n! Eisc"ssi!n in tMis D!!Y (edceLt in tMis secti!n) !R Mist!rical semantics/ tMe st"EI !R tMe cManFe !R meaninF in time. wet a Freat Eeal !R !rY tMat Mas Deen E!ne !n semantics Mas Deen !R a Mist!rical YinE/ anE it as n!teE earlier tMat tMe term semantics as Rirst "seE t! reRer t! tMe EeHel!Lment anE cManFe !R meaninF. CertainlI tMe st"EI !R tMe cManFe !R meaninF can De RascinatinF. fe can start DI attemLtinF t! classiRI tMe YinEs !R cManFe tMat !cc"r. UMe Freat American linF"ist/ a. el!!mRielE/ n!teE a n"mDer !R tILes/ eacM FiHen a traEiti!nal name. UMese/ t!FetMer itM an edamLle anE tMe earlier meaninF/ ere, Tarr! inF fiEeninF ^etaLM!r meat bird bitter R!!E nestlinF DitinF

^et!nImI (nearness in sLace !r time) /aw cMeeY

SInecE!cMe ( M!le#Lart relati!n) town Rence stove MeateE r!!m [ILerD!le (str!nFer t! eaYer meaninF) astound striYe itM tM"nEer ait!tes ( eaYer t! str!nFer meaninF) WeFenerati!n ]leHati!n kill knave knight t!rment D!I D!I

fe sMall als! trI t! RinE reas!ns R!r tMe cManFes. S!me are n! m!re tMan R!rt"it!"s. UMe !rE money is relateE t! aatin moneo arn (cR. admonish', Deca"se m!neI as maEe at R!me in tMe temLle !R tMe F!EEess "n! ^!neta. UMe tanYs !R m!Eern arRare are s! calleE Deca"se !R a sec"ritI Eecisi!n in tMe 010Z402 ar t! EeceiHe tMe bermans int! tMinYinF tMat ater4tanYs ere DeinF EesLatcMeE. VtMer cManFes arise Rr!m ne neeEs. UMe !rE car as an !Ds!lete L!etic !rE R!r cMari!t/ "ntil tMe m!t!r4car as inHenteE. ^!st scientiRic !rEs MaHe ac"ireE sLecialiseE meaninFs tMat MaHe n! cl!se relati!nsMiL t! tMe n!n4scientiRic "se mass anE energy in LMIsics are n!t Mat tMeI are t! tMe laIman. A ca"se !R Rast cManFe is taD!! 4 a !rE tMat is "seE R!r s!metMinF "nLleasant is reLlaceE DI an!tMer anE tMat t!! is aFain reLlaceE later. UM"s ]nFlisM Mas MaE tMe terms privy, !. #, lavatory, toilet, bathroom, etc. [ist!rical cManFe is Lr!LerlI an area !R c!mLaratiHe anE Mist!rical linF"istics/ !r Mat is m!re

c!mm!nlI calleE CV^PARAUSv] P[SaVaVbw/ MicM attemLts D!tM t! rec!nstr"ct tMe Mist!rI !R lanF"aFes anE/ Hia tMeir Mist!rI/ t! relate lanF"aFes aLLarentlI c!minF Rr!m a c!mm!n s!"rce !r ancest!r. Vne !R tMe aims !R tMe s"Dgect is t! estaDlisM s!"nE la s/ t! sM! R!r instance tMe c!rrelati!n !R p in R!mance lanF"aFe itM # in bermanic lanF"aFes (tMis is an asLect !R Mat is Yn! n as brimms aa ). UMis can De ill"strateE in ]nFlisM Mere Lairs !R !rEs c!me Rr!m R!mance anE bermanic/ e. F. father0paternal, feather 0pen, fish 0piscatorial. e"t tMe estaDlisMment !R s!"nE la s EeLenEs !n Yn! inF tMat tMe !rEs e c!mLare are tMe same in tMe sense tMat tMeI can De s"LL!seE t! MaHe a c!mm!n !riFin/ anE tMis can !nlI De E!ne !n tMe Dasis !R tMeir meaninF. UMis is !DHi!"s en!"FM in tMe case !R tMe edamLles aD!He (rememDer tMat Lens ere !riFinallI "ills). St is n! s"rLrise tMat e can relate ewe t! aatin ovis sMeeL anE ]nFlisM ovine, !r acre t! aatin ager RielE anE aFric"lt"re. St maI De m!re s"rLrisinF (D"t !nlI Rr!m tMe s!"nE/ n!t tMe meaninF) tMat cow anE beef are als! relateE (tM!"FM in a m!re c!mLled aI). aess liYelI in terms !R meaninF is tMe c!mm!n !riFin !R guest anE hostile, "ntil it is rememDereE tMat stranFers miFMt De treateE eitMer as RrienEs !r enemies. benerallI tMe less !DHi!"s iEentiRicati!ns !R meaninF are ell s"LL!rteE DI tMe eHiEence !R s!"nE la s. fe RinE !rEs tMat !"FMt DI tMe s!"nE la s t! De relateE/ anE tMen l!!Y R!r reas!naDle semantic relati!nsMiLs. GnMaLLilI tMis is n!t L!ssiDle itM all Fr!"Ls !R lanF"aFes. Sn manI Larts !R tMe !rlE tMe lanF"aFe relati!nsMiLs are EiRRic"lt t! estaDlisM/ larFelI Deca"se e MaHe n! ancient rec!rEs. UM"s sLec"lati!n maI taYe !Her. S MaHe seen attemLts t! relate !rEs Rr!m EiRRerent ARrican lanF"aFes Deca"se !R s!me LM!netic similaritI/ D"t n! s!"nE la s/ !n tMe Dasis !R tMe meaninFs EaI/ s"n/ Rire/ anE/ similarlI/ sYI/ aD!He/ rain. Gnless tMe iEentiRicati!n in terms !R s!"nE la s is c!nHincinF (anE it is n!t)/ s"cM iEentiRicati!ns are n!t HerI Lers"asiHe. ALart Rr!m tMe scientiRic st"EI !R tMe cManFe !R meaninF/ it is an !DHi!"s Ract tMat Le!Lle are interesteE in ]Uw^VaVbw/ tMe Eisc!HerI !R earlier meaninFs !R !rEs (!r/ iR e R!ll! tMe etIm!l!FI !R etymology, tMe Eisc!HerI !R tMeir tr"e meaninFs). SnEeeE Eicti!naries attemLt t! satisRI tMis interest DI "!tinF at least tMe m!st recent !riFin !R eacM !rE. Snterest in etIm!l!FI F!es DacY R!r cent"ries. UMe Rirst seri!"s Eisc"ssi!n is in Plat!s #ratylus; manI !R tMe s"FFesteE etIm!l!Fies tMere are LreL!ster!"s/ D"t a n"mDer !R tMem are DasicallI c!rrect. Part !R tMe EiRRic"ltI R!r tMe laIman is tMat !rEs are !Rten n!t Mat tMeI seem. ,ooseberry Mas n!tMinF t! E! itM Feese/ anE strawberry is n!t EirectlI c!nnecteE itM tMe "se !R stra t! Lr!tect tMe Rr"it (tM!"FM D!tM straw+ in strawberry anE straw are Rr!m a c!mm!n !riFin relatinF t! stra Derries stre inF tMemselHes anE stra DeinF stre n). e"t Re !"lE edLect hysterical t! De c!nnecteE itM tMe !mD (in breeY)/ !r R!r lord anE lady t! MaHe anItMinF t! E! itM loaf (!R DreaE). ]tIm!l!FI R!r its ! n saYe is !R little imL!rtance/ eHen iR it Mas c"ri!sitI Hal"e/ anE tMere reallI sM!"lE De n! Llace R!r a smatterinF !R it in Eicti!naries. UMe cMieR EiRRic"ltI is tMat tMere can De n! tr"e !r !riFinal meaninF since M"man lanF"aFe stretcMes DacY t!! Rar. St is temLtinF/ R!r instance/ t! saI tMat nice R]Aaaw means Lrecise/ as in a nice distinction. e"t a st"EI !R its Mist!rI sM! s tMat it !nce meant silly (aatin nescius iFn!rant)/ anE earlier it m"st MaHe Deen relateE t! ne n!t anE sc+ Lr!DaDlI meaninF c"t as in scissors anE shears. AnE DeR!re tMat fe cann!t Yn! . ClearlI/ tMen/ tMere is n! Llace R!r a seri!"s Eisc"ssi!n !R etIm!l!FI Mere. As S saiE at tMe DeFinninF !R tMis secti!n/ tMere ill De n! R"rtMer Eisc"ssi!n !R Mist!rical semantics. UMis maI De s"rLrisinF/ anE LerMaLs eHen EisaLL!intinF/ t! tMe reaEer M! Mas Deen leE t! DelieHe DI L!L"lar D!!Ys anE DI tMe Lractice !R m!st Eicti!naries t! tMinY !R meaninF in terms !R cManFe !R meaninF. e"t linF"ists MaHe FenerallI c!me t! acceLt tMe Eistincti!n maEe edLlicit DI Ee Sa"ss"re Det een WSAC[RVTSC anE SwTC[RVTSC linF"istics/ tMe Rirst DeinF c!ncerneE itM lanF"aFe tMr!"FM time/ tMe sec!nE itM lanF"aFe as it is/ !r as it as at a Lartic"lar time. AltM!"FM tMere are s!me tMe!retical Lr!Dlems aD!"t Era inF a clear line Det een tMese t ! tILes !R st"EI/ in Lractice it can De Era n anE a Freat Eeal !R c!nR"si!n can De aH!iEeE iR e are clear MetMer a linF"istic statement is a sIncMr!nic !r EiacMr!nic !ne. F!r instance ought is tMe Last tense !R owe%,

dice is tMe Ll"ral !R die% are c!nR"seE statements. As sIncMr!nic Racts aD!"t m!Eern ]nFlisM tMeI are "ntr"e tMeI maI De EiacMr!nicallI tr"e 4 D"t in tMat case tMe HerD sM!"lE De as n!t is. ainF"ists MaHe in recent Iears c!ncentrateE !n tMe sIncMr!nic st"EI !R lanF"aFe. St can/ m!re!Her/ De arF"eE tMat tMe sIncMr!nic st"EI m"st l!FicallI LreceEe tMe EiacMr!nic st"EI/ R!r e cann!t st"EI cManFe in a lanF"aFe "ntil e MaHe Rirst estaDlisMeE Mat tMe lanF"aFe as liYe at tMe times E"rinF MicM it cManFeE. S! t!! in semantics e cann!t Eeal itM cManFe !R meaninF "ntil e Yn! Mat meaninF is. GnR!rt"natelI/ Deca"se tMeI MaHe n! clear tMe!rI !R semantics/ scM!lars interesteE in Mist!rical cManFe MaHe inE"lFeE in HaF"e statements !R tMe YinE e c!nsiEereE earlier. UMis al!ne/ S Reel/ is s"RRicient reas!n R!r c!ncentratinF/ in a D!!Y !R tMis sie/ !n sIncMr!nic matters. 1.&. Semantics in !ther disci lines. ainF"ists are n!t tMe !nlI scM!lars M! MaHe Deen interesteE in semantics. Sn Lartic"lar tMe s"Dgect Mas Deen !R interest t! LMil!s!LMers anE LsIcM!l!Fists. St is imL!ssiDle t! Era a clear line Det een Mat is a linF"istic aLLr!acM t! tMe st"EI !R semantics anE Mat is a LMil!s!LMical !r LsIcM!l!Fical aLLr!acM/ D"t e maI L!int !"t s!me L!ssiDle aIs in MicM tMeI maI EiRRer. UMere is a c!nsiEeraDle !HerlaL Det een tMe LMil!s!LMical anE tMe linF"istic aLLr!acM t! meaninF/ anE a Freat Eeal !R Mat LMil!s!LMers MaHe saiE/ esLeciallI in tMe last tMirtI !r R!rtI Iears/ is !R interest t! linF"ists. e"t e can iEentiRI s!me areas !R EiHerFence. First/ tMe linF"ist is n!t/ !r sM!"lE n!t De/ LrimarilI interesteE in iEealiseE sIstems !R tMe YinE R!"nE in s!me l!Fical !rY. UMe l!Ficians Lr!L!sals MaHe ranFeE Rr!m tMe c!mLaratiHelI simLle sIll!Fism !R All men are mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore Socrates is mortal t! tMe MiFMlI inH!lHeE l!Fical sIntad !R R"E!lLM CarnaL. fMat tMeI MaHe in c!mm!n is tMat tMeI are n!t DaseE "L!n !DserHaDle lanF"aFe/ D"t are essentiallI selR4c!Merent anE internallI c!nsistent m!Eels !R an iEealiseE YinE similar t! tM!se !R matMematics. Sn matMematics/ !R c!"rse/ tMere is a Eistincti!n Det een L"re anE aLLlieE/ D"t tMere is little eHiEence !R tMe L!ssiDle aLLlicati!n !R l!Fical sIstems t! lanF"aFe anE tMe linF"ist sM!"lE De riFMtlI s"sLici!"s !R talY aD!"t tMe l!Fical Dasis !R lanF"aFe. fe sMall in later secti!ns Eisc"ss s!me l!Fical !r semi4l!Fical aLLr!acMes/ D"t sM!"lE al aIs retain reserHati!ns aD!"t tMe EeFree t! MicM s"cM aLLr!acMes can Lr!LerlI De maEe. Sec!nElI/ tMere is a Eistincti!n t! De maEe Det een science anE tMe LMil!s!LMI !R science anE Mere tMe aLLr!acMes !R tMe scientist anE tMe LMil!s!LMer ill De HerI EiRRerent. A ratMer striYinF edamLle !R tMis maI De R!"nE in "ant"m mecManics. St can De stateE tMat an electr!n is eitMer at L!siti!n A !r at L!siti!n e/ Iet it cann!t De asYeE/ eHen in LrinciLle/ MicM !R tMe t ! L!siti!ns it !cc"Lies 4 MetMer it is at A anE n!t e/ !r at ) anE n!t A. SimilarlI it can De saiE tMat an electr!n LasseE a Darrier itM t ! M!les c anE w/ anE tMat it LasseE tMr!"FM c !r w/ D"t it is n!t LermissiDle t! asY MicM M!le it LasseE tMr!"FM/ !r t! saI tMat iR it EiE n!t Lass tMr!"FM c it m"st MaHe LasseE tMr!"FM w/ anE Hice Hersa. UMis maI seem t! tMe !rEinarI man t! De an edtra!rEinarI state !R aRRairs/ D"t it is !R n! "se R!r Mim t! saI t! tMe scientist/ [! can tMat L!ssiDlI De UMe scientist ill merelI reLlI DI saIinF St is. SR LresseE Me can E! n! m!re tMan edLlain itM tMe aLLr!Lriate sImD!ls anE arF"ments MI Me reFarEs Mis statements t! De tr"e. fMat tMe !rEinarI man ants/ !R c!"rse/ is n!t a scientiRic g"stiRicati!n/ D"t an edLlanati!n !R tMe c!nceLt"al Rrame !rY itMin MicM tMe scientiRic statements are maEe. fMat sense E!es it maYe t! saI s"cM tMinFs is tMe YinE !R "esti!n Me maI asY. F!r an ans er Me m"st t"rn n!t t! tMe scientist D"t t! tMe LMil!s!LMer !R science M! ill attemLt t! edLlain tMe nat"re !R scientiRic tMe!rI in Feneral anE !R tMe Lartic"lar m!Eel !R "ant"m mecManics. St is !rtM n!ticinF tMat tMere are t ! YinEs !R edLlanati!n Mere. First/ tMe scientist edLlains tMe !Dgects !R Mis st"EI DI Lr!E"cinF scientiRic r"les R!r tMem. Sec!nElI/ tMe LMil!s!LMer edLlains M! tMe scientiRic edLlanati!ns can tMemselHes De "nEerst!!E. UMe Eistincti!n Det een science anE LMil!s!LMI !R science is less easI t! maYe in linF"istics Deca"se tMe Racts are s! intanFiDle/ esLeciallI in tMe area !R semantics. SnEeeE Mat e c!nsiEer as

Racts ill t! a larFe edtent EeLenE !n tMe Rrame !rY/ i. e. tMe m!Eel itMin MicM e EescriDe tMem. e"t tMe Eistincti!n is still ell !rtM YeeLinF in minE/ R!r it is all t!! easI t! EeciEe Rirst "L!n tMe m!Eel anE tMen state tMe Racts itMin it/ ratMer tMan attemLtinF Rirst t! maYe emLirical statements anE tMen c!nsiEerinF Mat YinE !R m!Eel is inH!lHeE. SnEeeE a Freat Eeal !R tMe arF"ments itMin tMe s"Dgect res"lt Rr!m aLLr!acMinF tMe Lr!Dlems !R semantics in tMis aI. UMere ill/ nat"rallI/ De HerI/ little L!int !R c!ntact iR !ne scM!lar starts itM !ne m!Eel anE an!tMer itM an!tMer/ insteaE !R eacM/ ratMer m!re M"mDlI/ attemLtinF t! see Mat Rirst can De saiE anE !nlI s"Dse"entlI D"ilEinF Mis m!Eel. Sn Lartic"lar/ R!r instance/ tMere is s!metMinF terriDlI r!nF itM a semantic m!Eel tMat simLlI edcl"Ees tMe "se !R lanF"aFe in c!ntedt (see CMaLter \). PsIcM!l!Fists MaHe tacYleE semantics in seHeral aIs. Vne edamLle is t! De R!"nE in tMe !rYs !R CMarles ^!rris/ e. F. Mis D!!Y/ Signs, language and behavior, L"DlisMeE in 01ZK. Sn tMis D!!Y Me is c!ncerneE itM siFns anE Mat tMeI Een!te !r siFniRI. UM"s iR a E!F is traineE t! edLect R!!E Men a D"er F!es/ tMe R!!E is Een!teE DI tMe D"er (tM!"FM iR n! R!!E is Lr!HiEeE it is n!t Een!teE D"t merelI siFniRieE). fe sMall ret"rn t! Eisc"ss in Eetail tMis DeMaHi!"rist aLLr!acM t! meaninF later (X.X). St is s"RRicient Mere t! n!te tMat ^!rris c!mLares tMe E!F # R!!E edamLle itM a man M! LreHents a EriHer Rr!m F!inF al!nF a r!aE Mere tMere Mas Deen a lanEsliEe. [ere tMe mans !rEs are tMe siFn/ tMe lanEsliEe Mat is Een!teE/ anE tMe c!nEiti!n !R DeinF a lanEsliEe at tMat Llace Mat is siFniRieE. e"t S RinE it HerI EiRRic"lt t! iEentiRI tMe "se !R tMe terms sign, denote, signify Mere itM tMeir "se in tMe edamLle !R tMe E!F anE its R!!E. A HerI EiRRerent/ anE less releHant/ aLLr!acM is R!"nE in a D!!Y entitleE The measurement of meaning DI ]. VsF!!E/ b. . S"ci anE P. [. UannenDa"m. UMeI attemLt t! meas"re tMe meaninF !R !rEs s"cM as father in terms !R semantic sLace/ tMis sLace DeinF EeRineE in terms !R a t entI4 "esti!ns4liYe "i, Ss it MaLLI !r saE/ Ss it MarE !r s!Rt/ Ss it sl! !r Rast UMe res"lts are Ll!tteE !n a FriE. e"t clearlI tMis tells "s little aD!"t meaninF in Feneral. St maI saI s!metMinF aD!"t em!tiHe !r c!nn!tati!nal meaninF (see 3.Z) s"cM tMat politician ill rate l! anE statesman MiFM !n tMe F!!E#DaE scale/ D"t tMat is all. UMere are/ !R c!"rse/ manI aIs in MicM LsIcM!l!Fists can !DserHe Le!Lles reacti!ns t! Hari!"s linF"istic items 4 !rEs/ R!r edamLle/ in !rEer t! meas"re EeFrees !R similaritI/ ass!ciati!n/ etc. UMe linF"ist/ M! eHer/ ill Reel tMat Me is m!re interesteE in Mat act"allI MaLLens in eHerI EaI sLeecM tMan in tMe artiRicial c!nEiti!ns !R LsIcM!l!Fical edLeriments. F!r eHen iR tMe s"Dgects E! react in certain aIs/ M! is tMis t! De relateE t! tMeir n!rmal "se !R lanF"aFe A m!re Lr!misinF aLLr!acM miFMt at Rirst siFMt De R!"nE in an alt!FetMer EiRRerent EisciLline/ c!mm"nicati!n tMe!rI. Sn tMis tMe!rI e MaHe seHeral Ramiliar c!nceLts tMat are EeRineE tecMnicallI. UMe c!mm"nicati!n sIstem carries STFVR^AUSVT anE tMe sIstem can De g"EFeE acc!rEinF t! tMe eRRiciencI itM MicM it transmits tMe inR!rmati!n. Sn Lartic"lar an eRRicient sIstem ill MaHe minim"m R]WGTWATCw (Larts !R tMe messaFe tMat can De rem!HeE itM!"t rem!HinF anI inR!rmati!n) anE minim"m TVSS] (anItMinF at all tMat interReres itM transmissi!n). Sn lanF"aFe tMere is a Freat Eeal !R reE"nEancI anE a l!t !R n!ise. A simLle ill"strati!n !R tMe reE"nEancI in tMe ritten lanF"aFe is tMat iR tMe D!tt!m MalR !R a line !R Lrint is c!HereE tMe line can still De reaE. T!ise maI De g"st n!ise in tMe "s"al sense/ R!r tMat interReres itM c!mm"nicati!n/ D"t it can e"allI De l!ss !R MiFM Rre"encies !n tMe teleLM!ne !r raEi!/ DaE en"nciati!n !r DaE ManE ritinF !r/ in tMe edamLle aD!He/ tMe c!HerinF !R tMe D!tt!m MalR !R tMe line !R Lrint. Sn Ract/ tMere m"st De reE"nEancI iR a messaFe can still De "nEerst!!E Men tMere is n!ise. Sn semantics n!ise maI c!nsist !R tMe EiscreLancies Det een tMe sLeaYers anE tMe Mearers "nEerstanEinF 4 R!r tMis ill interRere itM tMe transmissi!n !R tMe inR!rmati!n. e"t tMis tMe!rI ill n!t MelL "s a Freat Eeal itM semantics/ R!r inR!rmati!n in tMe tecMnical sense is n!t meaninF. St is n!t tMe eRRectiHeness !R tMe transmissi!n !R inR!rmati!n tMat c!ncerns "s in semantics/ D"t LreciselI Mat tMat inR!rmati!n is intenEeE t! De. UMe M"man sLeaYer/ "nliYe tMe c!mm"nicati!n sIstem/ E!es n!t merelI transmit tMe messaFe Me als! creates it/ anE e cann!t eHen DeFin t! talY aD!"t inR!rmati!n in tMis sense

LreciselI Deca"se e cann!t "antiRI !r sLeciRI LreciselI Mat it is tMat is DeinF transmitteE.

II

U[] SCVP] VF S]^ATUSCS Sn tMis cMaLter S sMall attemLt t! clear tMe aI R!r tMe c!nsiEerati!n// in later cMaLters/ !R tMe Hari!"s asLects !R semantics/ Rirst/ DI Eisc"ssinF (anE EismissinF) t ! "nsatisRact!rI Hie s !R semantics MicM/ tM!"FM Lrima Racie Lla"siDle/ Lr!HiEe n! s!l"ti!n t! semantic Lr!Dlems anE/ sec!nElI/ DI attemLtinF t! set !"t s!me !R tMe m!re imL!rtant Eistincti!ns tMat MaHe t! De/ maEe. 3.0. TaminF. Sn an earlier secti!n it as s"FFesteE tMat lanF"aFe miFMt De tM!"FMt !R as a c!mm"nicati!n sIstem itM !n tMe !ne ManE tMe siFniRier/ !n tMe !tMer tMe siFniRieE. e"t a Dasic Lr!Dlem is t! estaDlisM tMe nat"re anE relati!nsMiL !R tMese t !. Vne !R tMe !lEest Hie s/ R!"nE in Plat!s Eial!F"e #ratylus, is tMat tMe siFniRier is a !rE in tMe lanF"aFe anE tMe siFniRieE is tMe !Dgect in tMe !rlE tMat it stanEs R!r/ reRers t! !r Een!tes (S sMall "se tMese terms itM!"t Eistincti!n 4 tM!"FM s!me scM!lars MaHe s"FFesteE tMat a "seR"l Eistincti!n can De maEe). f!rEs/ tMat is t! saI/ are names !r laDels R!r tMinFs. UMis is/ Lrima Racie/ an attractiHe Hie R!r it is s"relI tr"e tMat tMe cMilE learns manI !R Mis !rEs LreciselI DI a Lr!cess !R naminF. [e is !Rten FiHen names !R !Dgects DI Mis Larents anE Mis Rirst attemLt at lanF"aFe ill incl"Ee saIinF Wa Ea Men Me sees Mis RatMer !r in Lr!E"cinF Mis name R!r train/ D"s/ cat/ etc./ !n seeinF tMe releHant !Dgects in real liRe !r in a D!!Y. UMere are/ M! eHer/ manI EiRRic"lties itM tMis Hie . U! DeFin itM it seems t! aLLlI !nlI t! n!"ns inEeeE traEiti!nal Frammar !Rten EeRines tMe n!"n/ as Eistinct Rr!m tMe aEgectiHe/ HerD/ LreL!siti!n/ etc./ as tMe name !R a Lers!n !r tMinF. St is EiRRic"lt/ iR n!t imL!ssiDle/ t! edtenE tMe tMe!rI !R naminF t! incl"Ee tMese !tMer Larts !R sLeecM. St is L!ssiDle/ n! E!"Dt/ t! laDel c!l!"rs/ as is E!ne in c!l!"r cMarts/ anE tM"s it maI De tMat tMe c!l!"r !rEs (aEgectiHes) can De reFarEeE as names. e"t tMis is n!t at all Lla"siDle R!r m!st !R tMe !tMer aEgectiHes. Since tMe DeFinninF !R tMis secti!n S MaHe "seE tMe aEgectiHes early, attractive, true, relevant, traditional, difficult anE plausible. [! manI !R tMese c!"lE De "seE as a laDel t! iEentiRI s!metMinF tMat tMeI Een!te UMe L!int is eHen m!re !DHi!"s itM HerDs. St is Hirt"allI imL!ssiDle t! iEentiRI Mat is nameE DI a HerD. ]Hen iR e taYe a HerD liYe run anE attemLt t! ill"strate it itM a D!I r"nninF (eitMer in a still !r m!HinF Lict"re) tMere is n! !DHi!"s aI in MicM e can is!late tMe r"nninF Lart !R it. fitM a n!"n e can !Rten Era a Lict"re !R tMe !Dgect tMat is Een!teE. e"t tMis is EiRRic"lt/ iR n!t imL!ssiDle/ itM HerDs. F!r let "s c!nsiEer tMe HerD run anE an attemLt t! ill"strate Mat it Een!tes itM a Lict"re !R a D!I r"nninF. UMere are t ! EiRRic"lties tMat arise (eHen iR e MaHe a m!HinF Lict"re). First/ e are n!t LresenteE seLaratelI itM a D!I anE itM r"nninF. fe neeE a RairlI s!LMisticateE metM!E !R seLaratinF tMe t !. Sec!nElI/ eHen in s! Rar as e can EistinF"isM tMe D!I anE Mat Me is E!inF/ it is Rar m!re EiRRic"lt t! iEentiRI LreciselI Mat are tMe essential cMaracteristics !R Mat is Een!teE DI tMe HerD tMan Mat is Een!teE DI tMe n!"n. F!r instance/ E!es r"nninF inH!lHe !nlI tMe m!Hement !R tMe Reet !r are tMe arms inH!lHeE t!! W!es it necessarilI inH!lHe a cManFe !R L!siti!n Ss tMe sLeeE releHant ClearlI tMere is n!t s!metMinF tMat can easilI De rec!FniseE anE iEentiRieE as r"nninF. UMe Lr!Dlem is !DHi!"slI eHen m!re EiRRic"lt itM remember, like !r see. Similar c!nsiEerati!ns M!lE R!r LreL!siti!ns 1up, under' anE c!ng"ncti!ns 1when, because', Mile Lr!n!"ns (#/ he' raise eHen m!re seHere Lr!Dlems/ since tMeI Een!te EiRRerent tMinFs at EiRRerent times.

Can e/ M! eHer/ retain tMe tMe!rI !R naminF/ D"t aLLlI it t! n!"ns al!ne An !DHi!"s Lr!Dlem/ t! DeFin itM/ is tMat s!me n!"ns/ e. F. unicorn, goblin, fairy relate t! creat"res tMat E! n!t edist tMeI E! n!t/ tMereR!re/ Een!te !Dgects in tMe !rlE. Vne aI !"t !R tMis EiRRic"ltI is t! EistinF"isM t ! YinEs !R !rlE/ tMe real !rlE anE tMe !rlE !R RairI st!ries. e"t tMis is/ !R c!"rse/ t! aEmit tMat !rEs are n!t g"st names !R tMinFs/ anE it m"st inH!lHe s!me RairlI s!LMisticateE edLlanati!n !R tMe aI in MicM e can/ DI s!me YinE !R anal!FI/ m!He Rr!m FiHinF names t! !Dgects in tMe !rlE t! FiHinF names t! !Dgects tMat E! n!t edist. S"cM an edLlanati!n is L!ssiDle/ D"t s"cM !rEs are eHiEence !R tMe Ract tMat !rEs are n!t simLlI names !R tMe !Dgects !R !"r edLerience. UMere are !tMer n!"ns tMat/ Mile n!t reRerrinF t! imaFinarI items/ E! n!t reRer t! LMIsical !Dgects at all. UM"s e cann!t iEentiRI tMe !Dgects t! De nameE DI love, hate, inspiration, nonsense. fMen tMe Frammarians sLeaY !R n!"ns DeinF names !R tMinFs e can asY MetMer love, hate, etc./ are tMinFs. SR tMeI are inclineE t! saI wes/ D"t tMeI are aDstract tMinFs/ it Dec!mes clear tMat tMe !nlI reas!n MI tMeI isM t! call tMem tMinFs is tMat tMeI MaHe n!"ns c!rresL!nEinF t! tMem. e"t tMen tMe M!le EeRiniti!n is circ"lar/ since tMinFs are Mat are nameE DI n!"ns (see J.3). ]Hen Mere tMere are LMIsical !Dgects tMat are iEentiRiaDle/ it is DI n! means tMe case tMat tMe meaninF is tMe same as its Een!tati!n (tMe !Dgect it stanEs R!r !r reRers t!). Vne !R tMe Dest4Yn! n edamLles t! ill"strate tMis L!int is tMat !R the evening star anE the morning star. UMese can MarElI De saiE t! MaHe tMe same meaninF/ Iet tMeI Een!te a sinFle !Dgect/ tMe Llanet ven"s. wet an!tMer EiRRic"ltI is tMe Ract tMat eHen iR e restrict !"r attenti!n t! !rEs tMat are linYeE itM HisiDle !Dgects in tMe !rlE ar!"nE "s/ tMeI !Rten seem t! Een!te a M!le set !R ratMer EiRRerent !Dgects. CMairs/ R!r instance/ c!me in all sMaLes anE sies/ D"t LreciselI Mat is it tMat maYes eacM !ne a cMair ratMer tMan a settee !r a st!!l VRten tMe EiHiEinF line Det een tMe items reRerreE t! DI !ne !rE anE tM!se reRerreE t! DI an!tMer is HaF"e anE tMere maI De !HerlaL. F!r Men is a Mill a Mill anE n!t a m!"ntain Vr a stream a riHer Sn tMe !rlE !R edLerience !Dgects are n!t clearlI Fr!"LeE t!FetMer reaEI/ s! t! sLeaY/ t! De laDelleE itM a sinFle !rE. UMis is a Lr!Dlem tMat Mas D!tMereE LMil!s!LMers Rr!m tMe time !R Plat!. UMere are t ! edtreme/ D"t clearlI "nMelLR"l/ edLlanati!ns. Vne is tMe realist Hie tMat all tMinFs calleE DI tMe same name MaHe s!me c!mm!n Lr!LertI 4 tMat tMere is s!me YinE !R realitI tMat estaDlisMes Mat is a cMair/ a Mill/ a M!"se. UMe sec!nE/ tMe n!minalist Hie / is tMat tMeI MaHe n!tMinF in c!mm!n D"t tMe name. UMe sec!nE Hie is !DHi!"slI Ralse Deca"se e E! n!t "se chair !r hill R!r !Dgects tMat are c!mLletelI EiRRerent 4 tMe !Dgects s! nameE MaHe s!metMinF in c!mm!n. e"t tMe Rirst Hie is n! less inHaliE. F!r tMere are n! clearlI EeRineE nat"ral classes !R !Dgects in tMe !rlE ar!"nE "s/ simLlI aitinF R!r a laDel t! De aLLlieE t! tMem Lart !R tMe Lr!Dlem !R semantics is t! estaDlisM Mat classes tMere are. ]Hen iR tMere are n! nat"ral classes/ it miFMt De arF"eE tMat tMere are "niHersal classes/ classes c!mm!n t! all lanF"aFes. e"t tMis is n!t s!. UMe classiRicati!n !R !Dgects in terms !R tMe !rEs "seE t! Een!te tMem EiRRers Rr!m lanF"aFe t! lanF"aFe. SR/ R!r .instance/ e taYe tMe ]nFlisM !rEs stool, chair, arm+ chair, couch, sofa, e sMall n!t RinE Lrecise e"iHalents in !tMer lanF"aFes. UMe FrencM !rE fauteuil miFMt seem t! De e"iHalent t! ]nFlisM arm+chair, D"t Mereas tMe Lresence !R arms is Lr!DaDlI an essential cMaracteristic R!r arm+chair, tMis is n!t necessarilI s! R!r fauteuil. Similar c!nsiEerati!ns M!lE R!r chest of drawers, side+board, cup+board, ward+robe, tallboy, etc. UMe c!l!"r sIstems !R lanF"aFes aLLear t! EiRRer t!! ( e sMall Eisc"ss tMis in m!re Eetail later)/ in sLite !R tMe aLLarentlI nat"ral sIstem !R tMe rainD! . UMe !rEs !R a lanF"aFe !Rten reRlect n!t s! m"cM tMe realitI !R tMe !rlE/ D"t tMe interests !R tMe Le!Lle M! sLeaY it. UMis is clear en!"FM iR e l!!Y at c"lt"res EiRRerent Rr!m !"r ! n. UMe antMr!L!l!Fist ^alin! sYi n!teE tMat tMe Ur!DrianE SslanEers MaE names R!r tMe tMinFs tMat ere "seR"l t! tMem in tMeir EailI liRe tMat EiE n!t c!rresL!nE t! !rEs in ]nFlisM (see X.3). An!tMer antMr!L!l!Fist/ e.a.fM!rR/ L!ints !"t tMat tMe ]sYim!s MaHe tMree !rEs R!r sn! EeLenEinF !n MetMer it as RallinF/ lIinF !n tMe Fr!"nE !r "seE R!r iFl!!s/ D"t tMe [!Li "se !nlI !ne !rE t! reRer t! Rlier/ De it an aer!Llane/ a Lil!t !r an insect (see X/Z). fe can/ "nR!rt"natelI/ De misleE DI scientiRic termin!l!FI R!r Mere e !Rten RinE tMat tMere

AR] nat"ral classes. SR e F! t! tMe !!/ e sMall RinE tMat eacM creat"re Mas a Lartic"lar name/ anE tMat n! creat"re can De laDelleE in t ! EiRRerent aIs/ n!r is tMere anI !HerlaL Det een tMe classes. A F!rilla is a F!rilla/ a li!n a li!n. UMe same is tr"e/ !r HerI larFelI tr"e/ !R tMe names !R insects/ Llants anE eHen !R cMemical s"Dstances. e"t tMese scientiRic classiRicati!ns are n!t tILical !R eHerIEaI edLerience. ^!st !R tMe tMinFs e see E! n!t Rall strictlI int! !ne class !r an!tMer. ^!re!Her/ e sM!"lE n!t De misleE int! tMinYinF tMat e can anE sM!"lE tiEI "L !"r termin!l!FI DI seeYinF tMe aEHice !R tMe scientist. VR c!"rse/ as literate anE eE"cateE DeinFs e ill De inRl"enceE DI scientiRic Yn! leEFe anE maI ell reRrain Rr!m callinF a Male a RisM !r a Dat a DirE (tM!"FM MI c!"lE n!t fish simLlI mean a creat"re tMat s ims in tMe ater anE bird a HerteDrate tMat Rlies). e"t e can F! t!! Rar. el!!mRielE arF"eE tMat salt c!"lE De clearlI EeRineE as s!Ei"m cMl!riEe/ !r TaCl. [e as r!nF t! E! s!. Salt, R!r !rEinarI lanF"aFe/ is tMe s"Dstance tMat aLLears !n !"r taDles. St is n! less salt iR its cMemical c!mL!siti!n is n!t LreciselI tMat !R tMe cMemists EeRiniti!n. Salt R!r m!st !R "s Del!nFs itM LeLLer anE m"starE/ MicM E! n!t lenE tMemselHes t! anI simLle scientiRic sLeciRicati!n 4 anE neitMer sM!"lE salt in its eHerIEaI "se. VrEinarI lanF"aFe EiRRers Rr!m scientiRic lanF"aFe LreciselI in tMe Ract tMat its terms are n!t clearlI EeRineE anE its classes n!t riF!r!"slI estaDlisMeE. Vne L!ssiDle aI !"t !R all !"r EiRRic"lties is t! saI tMat !nlI SV^] !rEs act"allI Een!te !Dgects 4 tMat cMilEren learn SV^] !R tMem as laDels. UMe remainEer are "seE in s!me aI EeriHeE Rr!m tMe m!re Dasic "se. UMis is in essence tMe Lr!L!sal !R eertranE R"ssell M! s"FFesteE tMat tMere are t ! YinEs !R !rE/ !Dgect !rE anE Eicti!narI !rE. VDgect !rEs are learnt !stensiDlI/ i. e. DI L!intinF at !Dgects/ Mile Eicti!narI !rEs MaHe t! De EeRineE in terms !R tMe !Dgect !rEs. UMe !Dgect !rEs tM"s MaHe VSU]TSSv] W]FSTSUSVTS. wet m"cM !R Mat e MaHe alreaEI saiE sM! s tMat tMis can De n! s!l"ti!n. F!r in !rEer t! "nEerstanE an !stensiHe EeRiniti!n e MaHe t! "nEerstanE LreciselI Mat is DeinF L!inteE at. SR S L!int t! a cMair anE saI UMis is a cMair/ it is Rirst !R all necessarI t! realise tMat S am L!intinF t! tMe M!le !Dgect/ n!t t! !ne !R its leFs/ !r t! tMe !!E it is maEe !R. UMat maI De RairlI easilI estaDlisMeE/ D"t it is als! necessarI t! Yn! Mat are tMe cMaracteristics !R a cMair iR tMe EeRiniti!n is t!. De !R anI Hal"e. F!r s!me!ne M! E!es n!t Yn! alreaEI Mat a cMair is maI ell ass"me Rr!m tMe !stensiHe EeRiniti!n tMat a st!!l !r a settee is a cMair. [e miFMt n!t eHen De s"re MetMer tMe !rE chair aLLlieE e"allI t! a taDle/ since tMe !stensiHe EeRiniti!n E!es n!t eHen estaDlisM tMat e are L!intinF at a cMair as s!metMinF t! De sat !n/ ratMer tMan as a Liece !R R"rnit"re. P!intinF t! an !Dgect itselR inH!lHes tMe iEentiRicati!n !R tMe !Dgect/ tMe sLeciRicati!n !R tMe "alities tMat maYe it a cMair !r a taDle. St re"ires a s!LMisticateE "nEerstanEinF/ LerMaLs eHen tMe "nEerstanEinF !R tMe entire cateF!risati!n !R tMe lanF"aFe c!ncerneE. As tMe LMil!s!LMer/ a.fittFenstein/ c!mmenteE/ S m"st alreaEI De tMe master !R a lanF"aFe t! "nEerstanE an !stensiHe EeRiniti!n. U! ret"rn t! tMe cMilE/ it is clear en!"FM tMat Me E!es n!t simLlI learn tMe names !R tMinFs. F!r iR Me EiE Me !"lE De "naDle t! ManEle all tMe c!mLledities tMat e MaHe Deen Eisc"ssinF. AD!He all/ learninF a lanF"aFe is n!t learninF g"st UMis is a ... eHen less is it saIinF D!!Y MeneHer Me sees a D!!Y. fe sMall n!t s!lHe Lr!Dlems !R semantics DI l!!YinF at a cMilE learninF lanF"aFe/ R!r an "nEerstanEinF !R Mat Me E!es raises LreciselI tMe same Lr!Dlems as tM!se !R "nEerstanEinF Mat aE"lts E! in tMeir n!rmal sLeecM. S! Rar in tMis secti!n e MaHe talYeE aD!"t tMe meaninF !R !rEs. e"t e sMall als! MaHe t! Eisc"ss tMe meaninF !R sentences (CMaLter K). St is en!"FM Mere t! L!int !"t tMat a naminF tMe!rI R!r sentences is n! m!re satisRact!rI tMan !ne R!r !rEs. fe cann!t EirectlI relate tMe meaninF !R a sentence t! tMinFs anE eHents in tMe !rlE. UMe str!nFest Hie MicM relates sentences t! act"al tMinFs anE eHents/ s"cM tMat There is a horse on the lawn means tMat tMere is a M!rse !n tMe la n/ is !DHi!"slI "ntenaDle/ since e can tell lies !r maYe mistaYes (tMere maI De n! M!rse !n tMe la n). A eaYer Hie is t! see meaninF in terms !R tMe c!nEiti!ns "nEer MicM a sentence !"lE De tr"e 4 tMe meaninF !R There is a horse on the lawn DeinF tM"s stateE in terms !R tr"tM c!nEiti!ns inH!lHinF a

certain YinE !R animal DeinF at a Lartic"lar time !n a sLeciallI LreLareE area !R Frass. e"t tMis Fets "s n! Mere. F!r tMe tr"tM c!nEiti!ns can De m!st easilI stateE in tMe same !rEs as tMe sentence 4 There is a horse on the lawn is tr"e iR tMere is a M!rse !n tMe la n (alternatiHelI There is a horse on the lawn means UMere is a M!rse !n tMe la n). UMe ta"t!l!FI is !DHi!"s 4 e are saIinF n!tMinF at all. P"ttinF tMe tr"tM c!nEiti!ns int! !tMer !rEs/ m!re!Her/ e. F. LaraLMrasinF in terms !R an e"ine "aEr"LeE E!es n!t MelL it merelI traEes !n s!me !R tMe semantic relati!ns itMin lanF"aFe (Det een horse, equine, quadruped' anE t!tallI Rails/ as E!es tMe naminF tMe!rI !R !rEs/ t! sLeciRI meaninFs in terms !R edternal tMinFs anE eHents. 3.3. C!nceLts. UMe Hie e MaHe g"st Deen criticisinF relates !rEs anE tMinFs EirectlI. A m!re s!LMisticateE anE/ at Rirst siFMt/ m!re Lla"siDle Hie is !ne tMat relates tMem tMr!"FM tMe meEiati!n !R c!nceLts !R tMe minE. UMis Hie in all its essentials Mas Deen MelE DI s!me LMil!s!LMers anE linF"ists Rr!m ancient times riFMt "L t! tMe Lresent EaI. U ! !R tMe Dest4Yn! n Hersi!ns are tMe siFn tMe!rI !R Ee Sa"ss"re anE tMe semi!tic trianFle !R VFEen anE RicMarEs. Acc!rEinF t! Ee Sa"ss"re/ as e MaHe seen/ tMe linF"istic siFn c!nsists !R a siFniRier anE a siFniRieE tMese are/ M! eHer/ m!re strictlI a s!"nE imaFe anE a c!nceLt/ D!tM linYeE DI a LsIcM!l!Fical ass!ciatiHe D!nE. e!tM tMe n!ises e maYe/ tMat is t! saI/ anE tMe !Dgects !R tMe !rlE tMat e talY aD!"t are mirr!reE in s!me aI DI c!nceLt"al entities. VFEen anE RicMarEs sa tMe relati!nsMiL as a trianFle. 'hought or (eference

)*mbol

(eferent

UMe sImD!l is/ !R c!"rse/ tMe linF"istic element4tMe !rE/ sentence/ etc./ anE tMe reRerent tMe !Dgect/ etc./ in tMe !rlE !R edLerience/ Mile tM!"FMt !r reRerence is c!nceLt. Acc!rEinF t! tMe tMe!rI tMere is n! Eirect linY Det een sImD!l anE reRerent (Det een lanF"aFe anE tMe !rlE) 4 tMe linY is Hia tM!"FMt !r reRerence/ tMe c!nceLts !R !"r minEs. UMis tMe!rI aH!iEs manI !R tMe Lr!Dlems !R naminF 4 tMe classiRicati!ns/ R!r instance/ neeE n!t De nat"ral !r "niHersal/ D"t merelI c!nceLt"al. e"t it als! raises a c!mLletelI ne Lr!Dlem !R its ! n. F!r Mat LreciselI is tMe ass!ciatiHe D!nE !R Ee Sa"ss"re !r tMe linY Det een VFEen anE RicMarEs sImD!l anE c!nceLt UMe m!st naiHe ans er t! tMe "esti!n is t! saI tMat it is a LsIcM!l!Fical !ne/ tMat Men e tMinY !R a name e tMinY !R tMe c!nceLt anE Hice Hersa/ i. e. tMat meaninF c!nsists !R !"r aDilitI (anE inEeeE !"r Lractice) !R ass!ciatinF !ne itM tMe !tMer/ !R rememDerinF tMat chair reRers t! tMe c!nceLt cMair. UMis Hie is t!tallI "nsatisRact!rI. St is n!t clear Mat edactlI is meant DI tMinYinF !R a c!nceLt. S!me scM!lars MaHe act"allI s"FFesteE tMat e MaHe s!me YinE !R imaFe !R a cMair Men e talY aD!"t cMairs. e"t tMis is certainlI Ralse. S can His"alise a cMair in mI minEs eIe/ D"t S E! n!t E! s! eHerI time S "tter tMe !rE chair. SR tMis ere a necessarI Lart !R talYinF/ it !"lE De imL!ssiDle t! FiHe a lect"re !n linF"istics. F!r LreciselI Mat !"lE S His"alise UMe Lr!Dlem is/ !R c!"rse/ tMat !R names anE tMinFs all !Her aFain. ^!re reas!naDlI/ LerMaLs/ Mat is meant is tMat S relate mI "tterance !R tMe !rE chair t! s!me m!re aDstract c!nceLt. e"t tMat ill n!t MelL eitMer. F!r Mat is tMis aDstract c!nceLt 4 Mat c!l!"r is tMis cMair/ Mat sie !r sMaLe Sn anI case e !"FMt n!t t! De interesteE in Mat MaLLens !n eacM !ccasi!n/ D"t itM tMe m!re Feneral "esti!n !R tMe meaninF !R chair. As a LM!netician/ S sM!"lE n!t De interesteE in tMe Lrecise artic"lati!n !R chair

edceLt as material R!r manI m!re Feneral statements !R LM!netics anE LM!n!l!FI. SimilarlI/ as a semanticist/ S ant t! Yn! aD!"t tMe Feneral meaninF !R chair, n!t Mat S maI !r maI n!t E! eHerI time S "tter tMe !rE. As e saiE earlier e are n!t c!ncerneE itM "tterance meaninF. A m!re s!LMisticateE Hersi!n sees tMe linY n!t as s!metMinF e maYe eHerI time e "se a !rE/ D"t as s!me YinE !R Lermanent ass!ciati!n st!reE in tMe minE !r in tMe Drain. UMe EiRRic"ltI itM tMis Hie is tMat it reallI saIs n!tMinF at all. F!r M! can e/ eHen in LrinciLle/ estaDlisM Mat tMe c!nceLts are UMere is n! !DHi!"s aI in MicM e can l!!Y int! !"r minEs t! rec!Fnise tMem/ anE still less a aI in MicM e can l!!Y int! tMe minEs !R !tMers. Sn eRRect all tMis tMe!rI is E!inF is t! set "L/ in s!me inaccessiDle Llace/ entities tMat are ew W]FSTSUSVT mirr!r imaFes !R tMe !rEs tMat tMeI are s"LL!seE t! edLlain. fMereHer e MaHe a !rE tMere ill De a c!nceLt 4 anE tMe c!nceLt ill De tMe meaninF !R tMat !rE. UMis is/ !DHi!"slI/ a c!mLletelI circ"lar EeRiniti!n !R meaninF. St inH!lHes Mat is s!metimes calleE a FM!st4in4tMe4macMine arF"ment. fe isM t! acc!"nt R!r tMe !rYinF !R a macMine anE Lresent a t!tal edLlanati!n in mecManical terms/ D"t R!r s!me MIL!tMetical Lers!n tMis is n!t en!"FM 4 Me cann!t "nEerstanE M! tMis macMine c!"lE !rY "nless tMere is s!me YinE !R EisemD!EieE FM!st !r sLirit insiEe it. S"cM an arF"ment acc!"nts R!r tMe LMen!mena DI settinF "L an entitI M!se edistence is g"stiRieE s!lelI as s!metMinF tMat edLlains tMe LMen!mena. Science Mas MaE manI edamLles !R tMis YinE in its l!nF Mist!rI. Vnce scM!lars edLlaineE Rire DI L!sitinF tMe edistence !R tMe s"Dstance LMl!Fist!n. VR c!"rse e can neHer EisLr!He tMe edistence !R s"cM entities. fe can !nlI L!int !"t tMat tMeI edLlain n!tMinF at all/ anE tMat/ tMereR!re/ n!tMinF is FaineE DI arF"inF R!r tMem. St is/ LerMaLs/ MarElI necessarI t! L!int !"t tMat/ as itM naminF/ tMe sentence is n! m!re satisRact!rilI EeRineE in terms !R c!nceLts tMan tMe !rE. TeitMer tMe naiHe !r tMe m!re s!LMisticateE Hersi!n !R tMe tMe!rI is at all MelLR"l. CertainlI Men S saI There is a horse on the lawn, tMere is n! reas!n t! s"FFest tMat S act"allI tMinY !R tMe c!nceLt/ Mile a EeRiniti!n in terms !R m!re aDstract/ timeless c!nceLts is !nce aFain t! saI n!tMinF at all D"t merelI t! interLret meaninF DI its mirr!r4 imaFe/ L!st"lateE in an inaccessiDle Llace. SaElI/ tMere are manI linF"ists t!EaI M! acceLt in M!le !r in Lart a c!nceLt"al Hie !R meaninF. UMis Mas stemmeE Rr!m a ne mentalism ass!ciateE itM T. CM!msYI anE Mis R!ll! ers M! MaHe/ in Lartic"lar/ insisteE tMat int"iti!n anE intr!sLecti!n m"st LlaI a larFe Lart in !"r inHes4 tiFati!n !R lanF"aFe. St is a sM!rt anE LerMaLs ineHitaDle steL t! see meaninF in terms !R tMe mental entities calleE c!nceLts. e"t tMis m"st De regecteE R!r tMree reas!ns. First/ tMe FM!st4in4tMe4macMine !Dgecti!n is !Her MelminF 4 n!tMinF is saiE DI m!HinF meaninF DacY !ne steL t! tMe Drain !r tMe minE. Sec!nElI/ eHen iR tMere ere c!nceLts in tMe minE tMeI are in LrinciLle inaccessiDle t! anI!ne D"t tMe inEiHiE"al/ anE e are leRt tMereR!re itM t!tallI s"DgectiHe Hie s/ since S can neHer Yn! Mat I!"r meaninFs are. (VR c!"rse/ iR e MaE tMe Yn! leEFe t! inHestiFate tMe Drain scientiRicallI anE c!"lE acc!"nt R"llI R!r lanF"aFe in tMe str"ct"re !R Drain cells/ D!tM !R tMese !Dgecti!ns miFMt De/ tMereDI/ !Herc!me/ D"t e are cent"ries a aI Rr!m s"cM Yn! leEFe.) UMirElI/ tMe arF"ments aD!"t int"iti!n anE intr!sLecti!n are irreleHant. fe CAT intr!sLect 4 anE asY !"rselHes "esti!ns aD!"t !"r lanF"aFe itM!"t act"allI aitinF R!r emLirical Eata/ act"al rec!rEinFs !r tedts. e"t in s! E!inF e E! n!t learn m!re aD!"t !"r lanF"aFe !r its str"ct"re e merelI Lr!E"ce R!r !"rselHes s!me m!re edamLles !R !"r lanF"aFe. As .R. FirtM saiE/ e F! RisMinF in !"r ! n tanY. fMat e E! TVU E! DI tMis Lr!cess is estaDlisM tMe LM!n!l!Fical !r Frammatical r"les !r str"ct"res tMis c!mes Rr!m tMe inHestiFati!n anE c!mLaris!n !R a Freat Eeal !R Eata (eHen iR tMat Eata is all intr!sLectiHe). UMe same m"st De tr"e !R semantics/ anE it R!ll! s tMat e sM!"lE n!t DelieHe tMat tMere are c!nceLts tMat can merelI De Eisc!HereE iR e l!!Y in tMe riFMt Llace. St is LerMaLs !rtM c!nsiEerinF tMat iR scientists MaE c!ntin"eE t! relI !n reas!n (i. e. t! l!!Y R!r ans ers t! tMeir Lr!Dlems itMin tMemselHes anE tMeir ! n rati!nal Lr!cesses) ratMer tMan !DserHati!n/ e sM!"lE still De searcMinF R!r tMe LMil!s!LMers st!ne t! t"rn leaE int! F!lE/ ratMer tMan De !n tMe eEFe !R s"cceeEinF tMr!"FM n"clear LMIsics.

FinallI/ in tMis secti!n it is !rtM n!tinF tMat t! s!me edtent WGAaSS^/ tMe Hie !R lanF"aFe EescriDeE Mere anE in tMe LreHi!"s secti!n tMat sees meaninF as Lart !R tMe siFniRieE#siFniRier relati!n/ is enc!"raFeE DI tMe term meaning itselR anE DI tMe statement tMat !rEs (anE sentences) [Av] meaninF. F!r iR tMis is s! it is !DHi!"slI leFitimate t! asY Mat YinE !R entitI meaninF is/ anE t! l!!Y R!r it eitMer in tMe !rlE !r in Le!Lles minEs. e"t t! saI tMat a !rE Mas meaninF is n!t liYe saIinF tMat Le!Lle MaHe leFs !r tMat trees MaHe leaHes. fe are easilI misleE DI tMe HerD have anE tMe Ract tMat meaning is a n!"n int! l!!YinF R!r s!metMinF tMat SS meaninF. Sn Lractice e all Yn! Mat it is R!r a !rE t! MaHe meaninF. _n! inF tMe meaninF !R a !rE means tMat e can E! a n"mDer !R tMinFs 4 e can "se it Lr!LerlI/ e can edLlain it t! !tMers in terms !R LaraLMrases !r sIn!nIms. e"t it E!es n!t R!ll! Rr!m tMat tMat tMere is an entitI tMat SS meaninF !r a M!le Fr!"L !R entities tMat AR] tMe meaninF !R !rEs. F!r a !rE t! mean s!metMinF is similar in s!me aI t! a n!ti!n tMat a siFnL!st L!ints s!me Mere e can "nEerstanE tMe meaninF !R a !rE g"st as e can reaE tMe siFnL!st. e"t it E!es n!t maYe sense t! asY Mat it is tMat !rEs mean anI m!re tMan t! asY Mat it is tMat siFnL!sts L!int t!. St is n!t sense/ tMat is t! saI/ t! asY ST b]T]RAa Mat !rEs mean !r siFnL!sts L!int t!. St is sense !nlI t! asY fMat E!es U[SS !rE mean/ fMat E!es U[SS siFnL!st L!int t! UMe Lr!Dlem !R semantics is n!t/ tMen/ n!r can it De/ tMe searcM R!r an el"siHe entitI calleE meaninF. St is ratMer an attemLt t! "nEerstanE M! it is tMat !rEs anE sentences can mean at all/ !r Detter LerMaLs/ M! tMeI can De meaninFR"l. SR e are talYinF !R MaHinF meaninF/ it is ratMer liYe talYinF aD!"t MaHinF lenFtM. [aHinF lenFtM is DeinF s! manI Reet !r incMes l!nF lenFtM is n!t s!metMinF !Her anE aD!He tMis. SimilarlI/ meaninF is n!t s!me entitI tMat !rEs !r anI !tMer linF"istic entities MaHe/ in anI literal sense !R MaHinF. fittFenstein saiE/ W!nt l!!Y R!r tMe meaninF !R a !rE/ l!!Y R!r its "se. UMis is n!t a HerI MelLR"l remarY since e are LerMaLs n!t m"cM clearer aD!"t tMe "se !R a !rE tMan e are aD!"t its meaninF. e"t it Mas s!me Hal"e e can inHestiFate "se/ anE e are less liYelI t! tMinY !R "se as s!metMinF tMat !rEs MaHe in anI literal sense/ anE less liYelI t! aste !"r time in an attemLt t! Eisc!Her LreciselI Mat it is. 23. Sense and re'erence. S MaHe alreaEI "seE tMe term R]F]R]TC] in talYinF aD!"t tMe Een!tati!n !R !rEs in 3.0. St is als! "seE in a "seR"l/ D"t iEer sense/ t! c!ntrast itM S]TS]/ t! EistinF"isM Det een t ! HerI EiRRerent/ tM!"FM relateE/ asLects !R meaninF. ReRerence Eeals itM tMe relati!nsMiL Det een tMe linF"istic elements/ !rEs/ sentences/ etc./ anE tMe n!n4linF"istic !rlE !R edLerience. Sense relates t! tMe c!mLled sIstem !R relati!nsMiLs tMat M!lE Det een tMe linF"istic elements tMemselHes (m!stlI tMe !rEs) it is c!ncerneE !nlI itM intra4 linF"istic relati!ns. St miFMt seem reas!naDle t! arF"e tMat semantics is c!ncerneE !nlI itM tMe aI e relate !"r lanF"aFe t! !"r edLerience anE s! t! saI tMat reRerence is tMe essential element !R semantics. wet sense relati!nsMiLs MaHe R!rmeE an imL!rtant Lart !R tMe st"EI !R lanF"aFe. F!r c!nsiEer tMe !rEs ram anE ewe. UMese !n tMe !ne ManE reRer t! Lartic"lar YinEs !R animals anE EeriHe tMeir meaninF in tMis aI. e"t tMeI als! Del!nF t! a Lattern in ]nFlisM tMat incl"Ees cow0bull, sow 0boar, etc. VlEer Frammars !R ]nFlisM treateE tMis as a Lart !R Frammar/ Deca"se it as clearlI relateE t! sed/ anE sed as s"LL!seElI a matter !R FenEer (since sed anE FenEer are relateE in s!me EeFree in aatin). e"t tMere are !tMer YinEs !R relateE !rEs/ e. F. duck 0duckling, pig0piglet (inH!lHinF aE"lt anE I!"nF)/ !r Det een father0son, uncle 0nephew (inH!lHinF RamilI relati!nsMiLs)/ anE tMese are n!t "s"allI tM!"FMt t! De Frammatical. UMeI are ratMer a Lart !R tMe semantic str"ct"re !R ]nFlisM. UMere are manI !tMer YinEs !R sense relati!ns/ t!!/ e. F. tM!se edemLliRieE DI narrow 0wide, male0female, buy 0sell; tMese e sMall Eisc"ss in s!me Eetail later. UMe Eicti!narI is "s"allI c!ncerneE itM sense relati!ns/ itM relatinF !rEs t! !rEs/ tM!"FM m!st Eicti!naries state s"cM relati!ns in a m!st "nsIstematic aI (CMaLter Z). St c!"lE De arF"eE/ tM!"FM/ tMat tMe "ltimate aim !R tMe Eicti!narI is

t! s"LLlI its "ser itM reRerential meaninF/ anE tMat it E!es s! DI relatinF a !rE M!se meaninF is "nYn! n t! a !rE !r !rEs M!se reRerence is alreaEI "nEerst!!E. fe MaHe/ tMen/ t ! YinEs !R semantics/ !ne tMat Eeals itM semantic str"ct"re anE tMe !tMer tMat Eeals itM meaninF in terms !R !"r edLerience !"tsiEe lanF"aFe. e"t tMe sit"ati!n sM!"lE n!t s"rLrise tMe linF"ist/ since Me Mas a similar sit"ati!n at tMe !tMer enE !R Mis lanF"aFe m!Eel/ Mere e MaE tentatiHelI LlaceE LM!netics (0.3). F!r linF"ists EistinF"isM Det een P[VT]USCS/ MicM Eeals itM sLeecM s!"nEs as s"cM anE EescriDes tMem in terms !R tMeir a"Eit!rI !r ac!"stic cMaracteristics !r !R tMe artic"lati!ns !R tMe sLeecM !rFans/ anE P[VTVaVbw/ MicM Eeals itM tMe s!"nE sIstems !R lanF"aFes in terms !R tMe internal relati!ns Det een s!"nEs. fe miFMt ell l!!Y R!r a similar Eistincti!n Det een semantics anE sem!l!FI. S sMall n!t/ M! eHer/ "se tMese terms Deca"se reference anE sense are in c"rrent "saFe. T!r !"lE S L"sM tMe anal!FI t!! Rar. St is en!"FM t! see tMat tMere maI De t ! YinEs !R semantics/ !ne tMat relates t! n!n4linF"istic entities/ anE !ne tMat is intra4linF"istic. Sn recent Iears s!me linF"ists MaHe attemLteE t! limit semantics/ D!tM in tMe!rI anE in Lractice/ t! sense relati!ns. Vne edamLle is t! De R!"nE in a ell4Yn! n article DI .._at anE .A. F!E!r entitleE. UMe str"ct"re !R a semantic tMe!rI. (_at anE F!E!r talY aD!"t sentences/ Mereas e MaHe Deen larFelI c!ncerneE itM tMe meaninF !R !rEs/ D"t tMeir tMe!rI is DaseE "L!n !rE meaninF 4 anE tMe "esti!n MetMer tMe !rE !r tMe sentence is tMe Dasic element !R semantics ill De leRt "ntil K.0.) UMeI state/ A semantic tMe!rI EescriDes anE edLlains tMe interLretiHe aDilitI !R sLeaYers, DI acc!"ntinF R!r tMeir LerR!rmance in EetermininF tMe n"mDer !R reaEinFs !R a sentence DI EetectinF semantic an!malies 4 DI EeciEinF "L!n LaraLMrase relati!ns Det een sentences anE DI marYinF eHerI !tMer semantic Lr!LertI !r relati!n tMat LlaIs a r!le in tMis aDilitI. StriLLeE !R its garF!n tMis statement means tMat a semantic tMe!rI m"st acc!"nt R!r amDiF"itI/ an!malI anE LaraLMrase (tMese ill De edLlaineE anE edemLliRieE sM!rtlI). UMe last sentence !R tMe "!tati!n is a m!st "nR!rt"nate !ne. St is a catcM4all "aliRicati!n tMat eRRectiHelI all! s "s t! incl"Ee in semantics all YinEs !R "nsLeciRieE semantic Lr!Lerties !r relati!ns/ D"t e maI/ Lres"maDlI/ ass"me tMat eHerI !tMer semantic Lr!LertI !r relati!n is !R tMe same YinE as tMe tMree tMat are FiHen. _at anE F!E!r FiHe s!me edamLles !R tMese/ D"t a m!re c!mLlete anE !rEerlI list !R semantic Lr!Lerties is t! De R!"nE in an article DI ^. eier iscM. [e arF"es (R!ll! inF _at anE F!E!r) tMat a semantic tMe!rI m"st edLlain s"cM sentences as &2' 3is typewriter has bad intentions. &4' .y unmarried sister is married to a bachelor. &5' 6ohn was looking for the glasses. (Z) (a) The needle is too short. (D) The needle is not long enough. (\) (a) .any of the students were unable to answer your question. (D) 7nly a few students grasped your question. (K) (a) 3ow long did Archibald remain in .onte #arlo" (D) Archibald remained in .onte #arlo for some time. (0) is an edamLle !R an an!mal!"s sentence/ (3) !R a c!ntraEict!rI !ne anE (X) !R an amDiF"!"s !ne (_at anE F!E!r !"lE saI it Mas t ! reaEinFs) (Z) ill"strates LaraLMrase !r sIn!nIm!"s sentences in (\) !ne sentence R!ll! s Rr!m tMe !tMer/ Mile in (K) tMe Rirst imLlies !r Lres"LL!ses tMe sec!nE. _at anE F!E!r "ite sLeciRicallI edcl"Ee Rr!m a semantic tMe!rI anI reRerence t! tMe settinFs !R sentences. Semantics is n!t/ !r cann!t De/ c!ncerneE itM tMe aI !rEs anE sentences are "seE in relati!n t! tMe !rlE ar!"nE "s. eier iscM/ M! eHer/ talYs aD!"t (i) tMe interLretati!n !R sentences anE (ii) M! tMese interLretati!ns are relateE t! tMe tMinFs sL!Yen aD!"t/ D"t Me FiHes n!

inEicati!n M! e can Lr!ceeE Rr!m tMe !ne t! tMe !tMer. S!me linF"ists MaHe eHen R"rtMer restricteE semantics anE EeRineE it in terms !R tr"tM4relati!ns Det een sentences/ i. e. tM!se inH!lHinF l!Fical anE analItic tr"tM (see K.Z). VnlI s!me !R tMe s"FFesteE sense relati!ns ill still Del!nF t! semantics. All meaninF tMat E!es n!t Del!nF t! semantics is LraFmatics. UMis is a reallI edtra!rEinarI state !R aRRairs. fMat seemeE at Rirst t! De tMe essential asLect !R meaninF/ tMe relati!n Det een lanF"aFe anE tMe !rlE/ is t! De iFn!reE !r FiHen sec!nE Llace. ^!re!Her/ !nlI a tinI Lart !R Mat is "s"allI t! De reFarEeE as meaninF can L!ssiDlI De stateE. F!r altM!"FM Eicti!naries are c!ncerneE itM EeRininF !ne !rE in terms !R !tMers anE s! itM sense/ !nlI a min"te Lart !R Eicti!narI EeRiniti!n c!"lE De ManEleE in terms !R tMe sense relati!ns e MaHe listeE (D"t see CMaLter Z). SaElI/ !ne is temLteE t! c!ncl"Ee tMat Men scM!lars MaHe c!ncentrateE !n sense t! tMe edcl"si!n !R reRerence (in its iEest sense)/ tMeI MaHe E!ne s! Deca"se it is easI t! EescriDe. St Mas str"ct"re anE can De acc"ratelI anE LreciselI EetermineE. e"t tMis reminEs !ne !R tMe Er"nY M! l!st Mis YeI at Mis Rr!nt E!!r D"t as R!"nE l!!YinF R!r it "nEer tMe street4lamL ten IarEs a aI Deca"se its liFMter Mere. UMere are s!me R"rtMer EiRRic"lties. St is n!t al aIs L!ssiDle t! EistinF"isM clearlI Det een sense anE reRerence R!r tMe simLle reas!n tMat tMe cateF!ries !R !"r lanF"aFe c!rresL!nE/ t! s!me EeFree at least/ t! real4 !rlE Eistincti!ns. fMetMer lanF"aFe Eetermines tMe sMaLe !R tMe !rlE !r Hice Hersa is Lr!DaDlI a cMicYen anE eFF Lr!Dlem/ tM!"FM it ill De Eisc"sseE in X.Z. UMe Ract tMat e MaHe ram0ewe, bull0cow maI De Lart !R tMe semantic str"ct"re !R ]nFlisM/ D"t it als! clearlI relates t! tMe Ract tMat tMere are male anE Remale sMeeL anE cattle. e"t e MaHe t! rememDer (0) tMat n!t all lanF"aFes ill maYe tMe same Eistincti!ns/ (3) tMat tMere is c!nsiEeraDle inEeterminacI in tMe cateF!risati!n !R tMe real !rlE 4 as e sa in !"r Eisc"ssi!n !R names/ s!me tMinFs (e. F. tMe mammals) Rall int! RairlI nat"ral classes/ !tMers E! n!t. St is Deca"se !R tMis tMat e can (a) EistinF"isM sense anE reRerence/ Iet (D) m"st all! tMat tMere is no aDs!l"te line Det een tMem/ Det een Mat is in tMe !rlE anE Mat is in lanF"aFe. S!me scM!lars MaHe Deen HerI c!ncerneE DI tMe Ract tMat iR e Eeal itM meaninF in terms !R tMe !rlE/ tMen semantics m"st incl"Ee tMe s"m t!tal !R M"man Yn! leEFe anE R!r tMis reas!n MaHe restricteE tMeir attenti!n t! sense. UMis arF"ment is Eisc"sseE in Eetail in X.0/ Mere it is arF"eE tMat tMe Lr!Dlem !R tMe s"m t!tal M"man Yn! leEFe is n! less a Lr!Dlem R!r sense. ^!re!Her/ tMere are s!me terms !R lanF"aFe tMat are n!t reE"ciDle t! !tMer terms/ D"t interLretaDle VTaw in terms !R tMe eHents ar!"nE "s. ^!st imL!rtant are tMe W]SCUSCS ( Mat LMil!s!LMers MaHe calleE inEedical edLressi!ns)/ tMe Lr!n!"ns/ #/ you, etc./ tMe Eem!nstratiHes this anE that anE time marYers s"cM as now anE tomorrow (J.Z). F!r tMese cann!t De LaraLMraseE DI anI !tMer R!rms tMat E! n!t tMemselHes inEicate tMe real !rlE/ tMe Lresent time !r tMe releHant sLeaYers anE Mearers. A tMe!rI !R meaninF in terms s!lelI !R sense/ !R intra4linF"istic relati!ns/ cann!t eHen in LrinciLle ManEle tMese terms. VnlI a tMe!rI tMat acceLts tMe relati!n !R lanF"aFe t! tMe !rlE can E! s!. UMere is/ !R c!"rse/ tMe aEEeE D!n"s tMat s"cM a tMe!rI can ManEle !tMer YinEs !R meaninF t!! (nedt secti!n). 2.$. (inds !' meaning. SmLlicit in tMe Hie !R semantics as a st"EI !R sense relati!ns (anE eHen m!re !DHi!"slI as a st"EI !R tr"tM c!nEiti!ns) is tMe ass"mLti!n tMat it is c!ncerneE itM Ract"al inR!rmati!n !r itM Lr!L!siti!ns tMat can De eitMer tr"e !r Ralse. T! E!"Dt tMis is !ne !R tMe asLects !R meaninF tMat Mas t! De c!nsiEereE Mat Mas Hari!"slI Deen calleE c!FnitiHe/ iEeati!nal/ Een!tati!nal/ !r Lr!L!siti!nal meaninF. e"t it is DI n! means tMe !nlI YinE !R meaninF anE it is n!t eHen clear tMat it is tMe m!st imL!rtant. CertainlI e sM!"lE n!t isM t! saI tMat tMe Lrime !r !nlI R"ncti!n !R lanF"aFe is t! Lr!HiEe inR!rmati!n/ t! inR!rm Mearers !r reaEers !R Racts tMat tMeI E! n!t alreaEI Yn! (tM!"FM s!me linF"ists anE LMil!s!LMers MaHe DelieHeE tMis). A Freat Eeal !R !"r meaninF is n!t iEeati!nal at all/ D"t is inter4Lers!nal !r s!cial/ relatinF !"rselHes t! !tMers. UMere are a n"mDer !R aIs (n!t all Eistinct) in MicM e can see tMat lanF"aFe is n!t simLlI a matter !R Lr!HiEinF Ract"al inR!rmati!n.

First/ e E! n!t merelI maYe statements e als! asY "esti!ns anE FiHe !rEers. SnEeeE/ tMe Frammars !R m!st/ iR n!t all/ lanF"aFes reRlect tMese Eistincti!ns DI MaHinF "esti!n R!rms anE imLeratiHes (tM!"FM tMe Frammatical R"ncti!n E!es n!t al aIs c!rresL!nE itM tMe Eistincti!n Det een statinF/ asYinF anE !rEerinF 4 Mat is FrammaticallI a statement can De semanticallI an !rEer/ e.F. 8ou re coming tomorrow'. St seems easI en!"FM t! ManEle "esti!ns in terms !R inR!rmati!n/ since tMeI are !DHi!"slI re"ests R!r inR!rmati!n tMeI can tM"s/ in Lart/ MaHe an iEeati!nal meaninF. e"t it is m"cM less clear M! e can ManEle !rEers in a similar aI tMeI are c!ncerneE itM FettinF acti!n/ n!t inR!rmati!n. Sec!nElI/ tMere are a HarietI !R Mat t!EaI are calleE sLeecM acts. fe Lers"aEe/ e arn/ e insin"ate e "se lanF"aFe/ tMat is t! saI/ t! inRl"ence !tMer Le!Lle in manI EiRRerent aIs. UMis is tMe Rirst asLect !R lanF"aFe tMat a cMilE learns 4 Me Eisc!Hers tMat DI "sinF Mis cries Me can attract attenti!n anE tMen tMat tMe aLLr!Lriate sLeecM ill maniL"late aE"lts int! FiHinF Mim R!!E/ LlaIinF itM Mim/ etc. UMis asLect !R lanF"aFe Mas recentlI c!me t! interest linF"ists/ D"t its relati!n t! iEeati!nal meaninF is n!t at all clear Iet (see 2.3). UMirElI/ m"cM !R Mat e saI is n!t a statement !R Ract D"t an eHal"ati!n. S!me semanticists MaHe maEe a Freat LlaI itM tMe em!tiHe EiRRerence Det een politician anE statesman, hide anE conceal, liberty anE freedom, eacM imLlIinF aLLr!Hal !r EisaLLr!Hal. UMe R"ncti!n !R s"cM !rEs in lanF"aFe is/ !R c!"rse/ t! inRl"ence attit"Ees. UMere ill De s!me R"rtMer Eisc"ssi!n !R tMis in tMe secti!n !n sIn!nIms (Z.0). F!"rtMlI/ lanF"aFe is !Rten EeeLlI c!ncerneE itM a HarietI !R s!cial relati!ns. fe can De r"Ee !r L!lite/ anE tMe Eecisi!n t! De !ne !r tMe !tMer maI EeLenE "L!n tMe s!cial relati!nsMiL itM tMe Lers!n t! M!m e are sLeaYinF. UM"s e maI asY R!r silence itM Shut up, 9e quiet, !ould you please be quiet", !ould you keep your voice down a little please" UMe cM!ice EeLenEs !n MetMer e isM t! De r"Ee !r n!t 4 anE tMis relates t! tMe stat"s !R tMe Lers!n aEEresseE. S!me Larts !R lanF"aFe are M!llI s!cial anE carrI n! inR!rmati!n (eHen iR e incl"Ee FiHinF !rEers/ etc./ itMin inR!rmati!n) at all. ]damLles are ,ood morning, 3ow are you", anE ail tMe ]nFlisMmans remarYs aD!"t tMe eatMer. Sn m!st s!cieties reLlies anE "esti!ns are !Rten aD!"t tMe RamilI/ D"t n! real inR!rmati!n is DeinF s!"FMt 4 tMe sLeaYer E!es n!t ant t! Yn! aD!"t tMe MealtM !R tMe iRe !R tMe man Me is talYinF t!/ D"t is simLlI maYinF s!cial c!ntact. ]Hen a Freat Eeal !R small talY at Larties is reallI !R tMe same YinE. St is n!t intenEeE t! transmit inR!rmati!n/ D"t is simLlI Lart !R tMe s!cial actiHitI. As f. S.bilDert saiE &:atience': UMe meaninF E!esnt matter SR its !nlI iEle cMatter VR a transcenEental YinE. FiRtMlI/ as e MaHe alreaEI n!teE/ e neeE n!t mean Mat e saI. fe can DI tMe aLLr!Lriate "se !R int!nati!n De sarcastic/ s! tMat That s very clever means/ UMats n!t HerI cleHer. fe can als! itM tMe aLLr!Lriate int!nati!n imLlI Mat is n!t saiE. UM"s # don t like coffee itM a Rall4rise int!nati!n maI ell imLlI # like tea anE She s very clever maI s"FFest She s rather ugly. UMe m!ral !R tMis is tMat semantics cann!t R"llI s"cceeE itM!"t an inHestiFati!n !R tMe Lr!s!Eic anE LaralinF"istic Reat"res !R lanF"aFe (see 0.X anE 2.3). SidtMlI/ tMere is tMe YinE !R meaninF R!"nE in tMe n!t!ri!"s !hen did you stop beating your wife" F!r tMis Lres"LL!ses tMat I!" !nce Deat Mer/ tM!"FM it n! Mere states tMat I!" EiE. SimilarlI it Mas Deen arF"eE tMat The ;ing of $rance is bald Lres"LL!ses tMat tMere is a _inF !R France anE tMat Lres"LL!sinF Mis edistence E!es n!t assert it. Pres"LL!siti!n is tM"s Eistinct Rr!m asserti!n. UMe s"Dgect !R Lres"LL!siti!n ill De Eealt itM in 2.Z. UMere maI/ !R c!"rse/ De !tMer YinEs !R meaninF. T!tice als! tMat iR s!me!ne saIs There s a house over there, S maI asY/ !hat does that mean", i.e. !hat am - to conclude from that" AltM!"FM tMis is cl!se t! tMe Rirst sense !R meaninF tMat e Eisc"sseE in 0.0/ it ill De clear n! tMat tMis YinE !R meaninF is s"relI !"tsiEe semantics. St is c!ncerneE itM tMe aI e maI "se inR!rmati!n/ D"t

in Lartic"lar cases/ anE s! is a matter essentiallI R!r "tterance4meaninF. 2.&. The )!rd as a semantic unit. St is n!rmallI ass"meE tMat Eicti!naries are c!ncerneE itM !rEs anE tMat tMereR!re tMe !rE is/ in s!me sense at least/ !ne !R tMe Dasic "nits !R semantics. wet tMere are s!me EiRRic"lties. First/ n!t all !rEs seem t! MaHe tMe same YinE !R meaninF. A HerI Ramiliar Eistincti!n is tMat maEe DI tMe ]nFlisM Frammarian/ [enrI S eet/ Det een R"ll !rEs anE R!rm !rEs. ]damLles !R R"ll !rEs are tree, sing, blue, gently anE !R R!rm !rEs it, the, of, and. VnlI R"ll !rEs seem t! MaHe meaninF !R tMe YinE e MaHe Deen interesteE in s! Rar. UMe R!rm !rEs seem t! Del!nF t! Frammar ratMer tMan t! semantics m!re strictlI tMeI Del!nF t! Frammar ratMer tMan t! ledic!n (see J.0). UMeI can still De saiE t! MaHe meaninF/ D"t meaninF !R a Frammatical YinE. wet tMis is n!t s! m"cM tMe meaninF !R tMe !rE itselR D"t ratMer its meaninF in relati!n t! tMe !tMer !rEs/ anE LerMaLs t! tMe M!le sentence. fe sM!"lE n!t/ R!r tMat reas!n/ isM t! l!!Y R!r tMe meaninF !R s"cM !rEs in is!lati!n/ D"t !nlI itMin tMe sentence. (Wicti!naries !Rten attemLt t! EeRine tMem/ D"t itM little s"ccess.) Sec!nElI/ it is n!t at all clear tMat tMe !rE is a clearlI EeRineE "nit/ edceLt as a c!nHenti!nal !ne res"ltinF Rr!m tMe r"les R!r ritinF tMat e all MaHe learnt at scM!!l. f!rEs as e Yn! tMem are tMe ritten items Det een MicM e MaHe learnt t! L"t sLaces. e"t e maI ell "esti!n MetMer tMis is necessarilI an inEicati!n !R a ell4EeRineE linF"istic element. Sn AraDic tMe EeRinite article is ritten as Lart !R tMe !rE in ]nFlisM it is n!t. UMere are n! clear criteria R!r EeciEinF MicM !R tMese is tMe m!re aLLr!Lriate. Vr let "s c!mLare greenhouse itM !hite 3ouse (in The !hite 3ouse'. ALart Rr!m !"r c!nHenti!ns !R sLacinF are tMere F!!E reas!ns R!r saIinF tMat tMe R!rmer is !ne !rE/ tMe latter t ! el!!mRielE !RRereE a s!l"ti!n DI s"FFestinF tMat tMe !rE is tMe minim"m Rree R!rm/ tMe smallest R!rm tMat maI !cc"r in is!lati!n. e"t tMis all EeLenEs !n Mat is meant DI in is!lati!n. F!r e sMall n!t n!rmallI saI the, is, by in is!lati!n. fe miFMt/ !R c!"rse/ Lr!E"ce tMese !rEs in reLlI t! a "esti!n s"cM as !hat is the second word here" !r <id you say a or the " e"t tMis g"st DeFs tMe "esti!n. fe learn t! "tter in is!lati!n g"st tM!se items tMat e MaHe learnt t! rec!Fnise as !rEs. el!!mRielE ent !n t! iEentiRI an element smaller tMan tMe !rE/ a "nit !R meaninF 4 tMe ^VRP[]^], edamLles are +berry in blackberry !r +y in 6ohnny. aater linF"ists ere m!re interesteE in tMe stat"s !R s"cM !rEs as loved Mere tMeI c!"lE iEentiRI tMe m!rLMemes love+ anE +d. [ere tMe t ! elements seem clearlI t! MaHe tMe Eistinct meaninFs !R aE!re anE Last. e"t Lr!Dlems s!!n ar!se esLeciallI itM !rEs s"cM as took, MicM aLLears t! De D!tM taYe anE Last/ Iet cann!t easilI De EiHiEeE. UMe L"relI Frammatical stat"s !R s"cM !rEs is n!t !"r c!ncern/ D"t e m"st rec!Fnise tMat tMere are t ! inEeLenEent Dits !R meaninF. UMe Dest aI t! ManEle tMis is n!t in terms !R m!rLMemes (i. e. Larts !R !rEs)/ D"t ratMer DI reEeRininF tMe term word in a EiRRerent/ tM!"FM n!t "nRamiliar aI. fe MaHe Deen "sinF tMis term in tMe sense tMat love anE loved are EiRRerent !rEs. e"t e c!"lE als! saI tMat tMeI are R!rms !R tMe same !rE 4 tMe HerD t! l!He ( MicM/ !EElI en!"FM/ e iEentiRI DI "sinF t ! !rEs/ to anE love'. A tecMnical term R!r tMe !rE in tMis sec!nE sense is a]c]^]. St is ledemes tMat "s"allI Lr!HiEe Eicti!narI MeaEinFs. UMere ill n!t De t ! entries R!r love anE loved, D"t !ne !nlI (anE tMis maI eHen incl"Ee tMe n!"n love as ell as tMe HerD/ tM!"FM e maI n!t isM t! edtenE tMe term le=eme in a similar aI). SR e Lr!ceeE !n tMese lines e can talY aD!"t tMe meaninF !R !rEs (i. e. ledemes)/ anE inEeLenEentlI !R tMe meaninF !R Frammatical elements s"cM as Ll"ral !r Last tense. SnsteaE !R treatinF loved us tMe t ! m!rLMemes love anE d, e sMall analIse it in terms !R tMe ledeme love anE tMe Frammatical cateF!rI !R tense. UMis s!l"ti!n leaHes "s itM tMe !rE (EeRineE as tMe ledeme) as tMe "nit R!r !"r Eicti!narI. e"t e are still leRt itM tMe meaninF !R tMe Frammatical element. S!metimes it maI seem t! De RairlI simLle anE inEeLenEent/ e. F. Ll"ral MicM means m!re tMan !ne (D"t see J.3). e"t !Rten tMis is n!t s!. Case in aatin larFelI marYs relati!ns itMin sentences 4 tMe s"Dgect/ tMe !Dgect/ etc.

benEer/ t!!/ in aatin is !nlI s"LerRiciallI c!ncerneE itM tMe LMIsical Reat"re !R sed/ anE its main R"ncti!n is t! inEicate Frammatical relati!ns 4 tMat a certain aEgectiHe m!EiRies a certain n!"n/ etc. (see J.X). UMe stat"s !R tMese elements is tM"s !Rten n!t HerI EiRRerent Rr!m tMat !R tMe R!rm !rEs e Eisc"sseE earlier. UMirElI/ tMere is a Lr!Dlem itM Mat MaHe Deen calleE URATSPAR]TU anE VPAG] !rEs (Gllmann/ 01K3). UransLarent !rEs are tM!se M!se meaninF can De EetermineE Rr!m tMe meaninF !R tMeir Larts/ !La"e !rEs tM!se R!r MicM tMis is n!t L!ssiDle. UM"s chopper anE doorman are transLarent/ D"t a=e anE porter are !La"e. C!mLaris!n itM !tMer lanF"aFes/ berman in Lartic"lar/ is interestinF. Sn ]nFlisM thimble, glove anE linguistics are !La"e (tMe same is tr"e !R tMe e"iHalent FrencM !rEs/ t!!) in berman tMe c!rresL!nEinF !rEs are all transLarent 4 $ingerhut (RinFer4Mat)/ 3andschuh (ManE4sM!e)/ Sprachwissenschaft (lanF"aFe4science). UMis s"FFests n!t !nlI tMat !ne !rE maI De seen as c!nsistinF !R seHeral Dits !R meaninF/ D"t als! tMat tMe n"mDer !R Dits is arDitrarI. (W! e l!!Y R!r elements !R meaninF in thimble Deca"se !R tMe berman !rE) UMere are Lr!Dlems !R Eetail t!!. SR e EeciEe tMat cM!LLer is t! De interLreteE in terms !R chop anE +er (inEicatinF tMe instr"ment)/ Mat E! e saI !R hammer" Ss tMis transLarent UMe +er sM! s tMat it is an instr"ment/ D"t Mat is MamminF UMere is/ tMen/ n! Lrecise aI !R EetermininF tMe semantic elements itMin a !rE. F!"rtMlI/ tMere are manI !rEs in ]nFlisM tMat are calleE P[VTA]SU[]USC/ in MicM !ne Lart/ !Rten tMe initial cl"ster !R c!ns!nants/ FiHes an inEicati!n !R meaninF !R a ratMer sLecial YinE. UM"s manI !rEs DeFinninF itM si+ are sliLLerI in s!me aI 4 slide, slip, slither, slush, sluice, sludge, etc./ !r else tMeI are merelI Leg!ratiHe 4 slattern, slut, slang, sly, sloppy, slovenly, etc. UMe sk+ !rEs reRer t! s"rRaces !R s"LerRicialitI 4 skate, skimp, skid, skim, skin, etc. UMe reaEer maI c!nsiEer als! tMe meaninF !R !rEs DeFinninF itM sn+, str+, sw+, tw+, etc. An am"sinF set is tMat MicM enEs in +ump; alm!st all reRer t! s!me YinE !R r!"nEisM mass 4 plump, chump, rump, hump, stump, anE eHen LerMaLs dump anE mumps. e"t e cann!t Feneralise t!! Rar. T!t eHerI !rE itM tMese LM!n!l!Fical cMaracteristics ill MaHe tMe meaninF s"FFesteE/ anE/ m!re!Her/ e cann!t seLarate tMis Lart anE state tMe meaninF !R tMe remainEer/ e.F. tMe meaninF !R +ide in slide !r +ate in skate. FiRtMlI/ semantic EiHisi!n seems t! !HerriEe !rE EiHisi!n. C!nsiEer/ R!r edamLle/ heavy smoker anE good singer. SemanticallI tMese are n!t heavy > smoker (a sm!Yer M! is MeaHI) anE good > singer (a sinFer M! is F!!E). UMe meaninF ratMer is !ne M! sm!Yes MeaHilI !r sinFs ell. fe can EiHiEe/ iR e insist/ D"t tMe Rirst EiHisi!n Mas t! De Det een heavy smok+ anE +er, goodsing+ anE +er, iR e ant t! retain tMe Larallelism Det een tMe R!rm anE tMe meaninF. F"rtMer am"sinF edamLles tMat MaHe Deen s"FFesteE are artificial florist anE criminal lawyer. SidtMlI/ altM!"FM e MaHe ram0ewe, stallion0mare, e MaHe n! similar Lairs R!r giraffe !r elephant. fe MaHe t! saI male giraffe, female giraffe, !r iR e Yn! tMe c!rrect term elephant bull and elephant cow. S"cM c!nsiEerati!ns/ t!FetMer itM tMe Ract tMat e MaHe tMe !rEs cow anE calf, maI leaE "s t! EeRine bull as male adult bovine animal anE t! see tMis as an inEicati!n !R R!"r Eistinct elements !R meaninF in tMe same !rE. FinallI e MaHe tMe Lr!Dlem !R iEi!ms. eI an SWSV^ is meant a se"ence !R !rEs M!se meaninF cann!t De LreEicteE Rr!m tMe meaninFs !R tMe !rEs tMemselHes. Familiar edamLles are kick the bucket, fly off the handle, spill the beans, red herring. UMe L!int is clear iR e c!ntrast kick the table, fly off the roof, spill the coffee, red fish. SemanticallI/ iEi!ms are sinFle "nits. e"t tMeI are n!t sinFle Frammatical "nits liYe !rEs/ R!r tMere is n! Last tense ?kick the bucketed. UMere ill De a m!re EetaileE Eisc"ssi!n !R iEi!ms in \.X. All tMese c!nsiEerati!ns maI leaE "s t! aDanE!n tMe iEea tMat tMe !rE is a nat"ral "nit R!r semantics/ M! eHer "seR"l it maI De R!r tMe Eicti!narI maYer. . j. eaell c!mmenteE/ U! seeY a semantic "nit itMin tMe D!"nEaries !R tMe !rE simLlI Deca"se tMese D!"nEaries are clearer tMan !tMers is liYe l!!YinF R!r a l!st Dall !n tMe la n simLlI Deca"se tMe tMicYet Lr!HiEes L!!r Fr!"nE R!r s"cM a searcM.

wet e m"st De careR"l. fe m"st n!t c!ncl"Ee Rr!m all tMis tMat e can simLlI iFn!re tMe !rEs !R tMe lanF"aFe anE insteaE l!!Y R!r inEeLenEent meaninFs/ R!r semantic entities/ tMat is t! saI/ tMat are t!tallI "nrelateE t! !rEs. (Vn s"cM a Hie it is !nlI Men e MaHe E!ne tMe semantic analIsis tMat e ill attemLt t! relate !"r semantic "nits t! tM!se !R tMe Frammar/ incl"EinF !rEs.) UMat tMis is "ite "nacceLtaDle is sM! n DI tMe Eisc"ssi!n in tMis D!!Y. F!r tMr!"FM!"t e MaHe Deen estaDlisMinF meaninF DI c!mLaris!n !R linF"istic R!rms/ alm!st al aIs inH!lHinF !rEs. SEi!ms are n!taDle !nlI Deca"se tMeI c!nsist !R seHeral !rEs D"t R"ncti!n liYe !ne/ Mile in Eisc"ssinF m!rLMemes/ transLarent !rEs/ LM!naestMetics anE all tMe rest e ere nearlI al aIs c!mLarinF !rEs itM !rEs. fe sMall s!metimes MaHe semantic "nits larFer tMan tMe !rE anE !Rten semantic "nits smaller tMan it (!r at least all! tMat !ne !rE maI MaHe m!re tMan !ne Dit !R meaninF). e"t e sMall neHer Fet a aI Rr!m tMese linF"istic R!rms t! s!me EisemD!EieE meaninFs. F!r c!nsiEer bull aFain. UMere is n!tMinF Mere t! inEicate sie/ eiFMt/ c!l!"r/ sLeeE/ Ritness/ etc./ Iet tMese c!"lE all De reFarEeE as releHant t! its meaninF. St is/ ratMer/ !nlI tM!se Reat"res tMat are Dr!"FMt !"t DI c!ntrast itM cow anE calf tMat are releHant t! semantics/ i.e. !nlI tM!se tMat EeLenE "L!n !rE c!ntrasts. CMaLter Z ill De calleE *e=ical structure. UMis is t! emLMasise tMe L!int S MaHe g"st Deen maYinF. UMe alternatiHe title Semantic structure miFMt s"FFest tMat e can l!!Y R!r meaninFs anE relati!ns Det een tMem EiH!rceE Rr!m tMe R!rms !R lanF"aFe.