Chapter 26

-The Origins of the Cold War-

The Cold War

US distrust of the USSR went all the way back to the turn of the century Democracy and Communism could not coexist In the closing days of WWII, the Big Three: Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill met in Yalta There they agreed to work out the future of Germany and Poland

The Cold War

At the conference, Roosevelt worked closely with Stalin They agreed to partition Germany There would be four zones in Germany divided by the victors Roosevelt also needed soviet help to defeat Japan He agreed to give the USSR two Japanese islands for their help

The Cold War

The next nation they discussed was Poland Stalin wanted to create a buffer state between the USSR and Germany He wanted the nation to be communist but he reluctantly agreed to allow political elections at wars end Roosevelt felt he had power over Stalin Only Churchill realized the wily wit of Josef Stalin

The Cold War

The nal issue at Yalta was the issue of international peace The League of Nations was transformed into the UN Its purpose was to prevent worldwide conict In 1945, delegates from 50 nations adopted a charter that effectively created the United Nations

The Cold War

On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt died Harry S. Truman took charge and saw the end of the War in Europe In July of 1945, following the War, the Big 3 met again at Potsdam, Germany This was a new group from what had met in Yalta Stalin remained, but Roosevelt was replaced by Truman and Churchill by Clement Atlee

The Cold War

During the Potsdam conference, Truman was made aware of the atomic bomb Truman informed Stalin who brushed it off Stalin began to renege on his earlier promise of elections in Poland Truman hastened his plans to destroy Japan without soviet help China and Korea would not be so lucky

The Cold War

The US and USSR grew further and further apart The US sought to treat Europe with kindness and spread democracy The Soviets wanted to protect Russia and sought to build up satellite nations These were nations that would be inuenced by the soviets It would protect the USSR from further incursions

The Cold War

Elections did not take place in Poland for two more years When they did, the Soviets had purged all political opposition They used Poland as a template to take over other European nations By 1948 they had Albania and Bulgaria That same year the Czech Republic adopted communism

The Cold War

In Finland, a treaty was signed that allowed mutual cooperation The Fins had to remain neutral in foreign affairs and were allowed to rule themselves In Yugoslavia, a communist dictator came into power Tito He opposed Stalin and adopted a form of communism separate from the USSR

The Cold War

In 1946, Stalin predicted that communism would take over the earth That same year, Winston Churchill traveled to the US He spoke to Americans in Fulton, Missouri There he condemned the division of Europe and the spread of communism He told Americans that an Iron Curtain had descended upon Europe Stalin and Churchills speeches set the tone for the Cold War

Chapter 26
-The Cold War Heats Up-

The Cold War

In 1946, George Kennan, an American Diplomat in Russia sent a telegram to the US He outlined his belief that the US and USSR could not co-exist He stated that victory over communism would not come easily and that the US needed to be patient He advocated that the US try to halt the spread of communism across the world

The Cold War

Taking Kennans advice, the US adopted a policy of containment The US acknowledged they had lost eastern Europe but vowed communism would spread no further The policy was one of patience and rmness Kennan saw that within the USSR were the seeds of its own decay It turned out he would be right

The Cold War

The containment policy soon took effect with Turkey The USSR had made threats of invading Turkey since the end of WWII Stalin wanted control of the Dardanelles, a narrow strait that would give the Soviets ports on the Black Sea Turkey and Greece had been under the control of Great Britain It was key that this territory of the world not fall to communism

The Cold War

In February of 1947, Britain announced they could no longer support the area They asked the US to take charge in the region That month the US accepted The US inherited the job of world leader with all of its burdens and glory The US quickly acted to assist Greece and Turkey and prevent a communist takeover

The Cold War

Truman spoke to congress and started a new policy called the Truman Doctrine He pledged the US would send $400 million to Turkey and Greece It was a pledge to help the free people of the world resist the spread of communism Any nation that asked for help, the US would give it

The Cold War

The US and its allies sought a new plan to help Europe The purpose was to prevent a similar mistake that occured following WWI They also wanted to prevent the spread of communism Nations who were nancially weak were viewed as being at risk 21% of Europe was homeless following the War

The Cold War

1 out of every 5 houses was destroyed or damaged Industry and transportation was in ruins The world was on the brink of another economic collapse US Secretary of State George C. Marshall told congress they needed to send more nancial aid to Europe With money, the US would bring back Europe, strengthen democracy and prevent communism

The Cold War

In 1948 the Marshall Plan was approved Over the next 4 years, 13 billion dollars in grants and loans owed into Europe from the US Anyone in Europe who applied for help, received it It was even open to the USSR though they refused Economies were quickly restored and the US gained strong trading partners

The Cold War

The Allies did now know what to do with Germany In March of 1948 they combined their territories into one The area would be re-united to create a Republic called West Germany The Soviet Union responded by calling their occupied sector East Germany It would be communist

The Cold War

Berlin became a war ground West Berlin would become part of West Germany The USSR also countered Many in East Berlin ed to the western side, others to Europe and the US Stalin looked for a way to stop the exodus When the US introduced a new currency for West Germany, Stalin seized the opportunity and shut Berlin off from the West

The Cold War

The blockade threatened allied supplies into East Germany All shipments to Berlin had to pass through East Berlin to which the US did not have access East Berlin had depended on US goods for survival At risk were 2.5 million people Transporting goods by road would risk war with the USSR

The Cold War

Truman decided the best decision would be to airlift food and supplies to West Berlin During the next 15 months, British and American planes made 2000 ights and supplied 13,000 tons of food Gail Halverson would toss candy from the plane via small parachutes to German children The Airlift made the Americans heroes to the German people and the Soviets enemies

The Cold War

Realizing what the Airlift was doing, Stalin ended the blockade Berlin had been saved but was not yet safe The US had won the rst ght of the Cold War The issue of Berlin would remain at the center of the US, USSR conict until the end of the Cold War

Chapter 26
-The Red Scare-

The Cold War

Following WWII, the creation of the UN was a great step forward Major nations on the UN board had the power to veto certain actions One of the major member nations was the USSR The US continually sought to hold the Soviets in check in the UN but they vetoed their initiatives A movement began to grow for a new council to deal with the communists

The Cold War

Americans especially expressed great interest in a new council Some however contended against a new council They said its purpose would not be peace but war In April of 1949, the US, Canada, Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway and Portugal formed NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The Cold War

All of these nations were democratic and bent of stopping the spread of communism They agreed on member security, that an attack on one by the USSR would be viewed as an attack on all The US was now fully involved in the affairs of Europe The Soviet Union countered NATO with a council of its own COMECON or the Warsaw Pact joined communist nations against democratic

The Cold War

In 1949 the Soviet Union detonated its rst atomic bomb The US was no longer the only superpower in the world The US was alarmed at how fast the Soviets had developed their bomb The only way the Soviets could have that technology would have been through espionage A new Red Scare gripped the nation

The Cold War

People became obsessed with rooting out communist spies Prior to WWII a committee was established to root out spies The committee was called, HUAC, The House of Un-American Activities Committee This committee was re-evisioned during the Cold War It would now be used to root out communists within the US

The Cold War

HUAC rst went after the movie industry They felt movies had a strong inuence of people and socialist sympathies would not be tolerated Many actors were active members of the communist party HUAC produced a number of actors and movies producers they claimed had radical political views They became known as the Hollywood Ten

The Cold War

HUAC put them on trial and asked them to confess if they were members of the communist party The Hollywood 10 refused to answer the questions and were put in jail Studios compiled Blacklists, lists of names of people accused of being communists More people joined the Hollywood 10 Paranoia continued to spread

The Cold War

In 1948, HUAC accused a top government ofcial of espionage Alger Hiss was tossed into federal prison on shaky charges Months after Hisss trial, two more people were accused of espionage Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a married couple, were accused of passing atomic secrets to the USSR The trial was highly controversial

The Cold War

In the end, both Julius and Ethel were found guilty in 1953 and put to death For years people debated the legitimacy of the trial Careful work by historians has revealed that Julius Rosenberg and Alger Hiss were guilty of their crimes, not Ethel During the Rosenberg Trial, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy held up a piece of paper and declared it contained 205 names of communists in the US Gov.

The Cold War

It increased the already great hysteria across America No one knew whose names were on the list Edward Murrow challenged McCarthy and proved it was more of an attention scheme than reality McCarthy developed a new type of smear tactic Just being accused by McCarthy caused people to lose their jobs and reputations

The Cold War

McCarthy went so far as to accuse Secretary of State George Marshall a communist He charged the army to be full of communists after his friend was sent to the Korean War He received national attention as his accusations against the military were televised across the country On TV, the American public saw him for the fraud he was and he lost his credibility

The Cold War

Capitalizing on the hysteria, in 1952, Congress passed the McCarran-Walter Act [Truman tried to veto] The Act determined that immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe were mostly communist It enacted a quota to limit people coming to the US from designated nations Truman remarked it was one of the most un-American Acts in history The Red Scare had ofcially peaked

Chapter 26
-Conict in Asia and the Korean War-

The Cold War

Most of Americas attention was devoted to Europe and stopping the spread of communism Meanwhile, war torn China had a huge crisis on their hands In 1911, Chinas last dynasty crumbled A massive power vacuum ensued as people vied to control the nation Many European powers dominated China as a puppet state and proclaimed it a republic

The Cold War

The people of China were torn over what kind of government to adopt They had little control due to European imperialism Some wanted democracy and they rallied around the young leader Chiang Kai Shek Other wanted communism They saw communism as the cure to Chinas economic woes They rallied around Mao Zedong

The Cold War

As the two political idealists fought to control China, War enveloped the world Imperial Germany held vast amounts of territory in China Following WWI, German territories were passed to Japan Japanese power spread across China like an infection during WWII They even went so far as to seize Korea

The Cold War

Following WWII, Mao and Chiang resumed their ght for the political future of China Chiang sought the support of the US to defend against communism The US was occupied with re-building Europe and paid little attention to China In addition, Chiangs regime grew more and more corrupt He raised taxes and persecuted people who opposed his rule

The Cold War

Chiangs corruption led the US to stop supporting his democratic movement Russia meanwhile continued to support Mao Promising to end the corruption and redistribute wealth and land, the people sided with Mao In 1949 the communists defeated Chaing Kai Shek and his democratic regime ed to Taiwan

The Cold War

In Korea, the Japanese were exceedingly harsh They forced the Korean to abandon their traditions and language They forced them to take Japanese names Many women were taken as Service Women for the Japanese men occupying China Following WWII, the US and USSR agreed to divide Korea in half

The Cold War

Soviets accepted Japanese surrender along the 38th parallel This became the border between the occupying forces of the US and USSR It was meant to be temporary but as the Cold War started, both sides fought to control Korea The South, with its capital of Seoul became a pro-american/democratic nation The North, with its capital of Pyongyang became a communist nation

The Cold War

In 1948, American and Russian forces pulled out of a divided Korea Koreans on both sides wanted the nation to be re-united though they differed in their political views In June of 1950, the North Koreans decided to invade the south and unify it under communism They were led by the bold Kim Il Sung Americans thought that Russia was to blame for the invasion

The Cold War

President Truman took a strong stand He spoke to the UN and sought action against North Korea The UN voted in the Americans favor and called on member nations to defend south Korea and restore peace The UN made the US the commanding nation of the effort 16 Nations took part in the Korean War but the US represented 80% of the force

The Cold War

The US acted swiftly by sending the navy and air force to protect South Korea Within a matter of weeks, the North Koreans had captured Seoul and pushed deep into South Korea Truman gave command of the US forces to WWII hero Douglas McArthur McArthur landed UN forces in the southernmost part of Korea, Pusan Then he orchestrated one of the greatest tactical movements in history

The Cold War

McArthur realized the North Koreans would attempt to take Pusan He knew their supply lines would be stretched thin He took the Navy north near the 38th parallel He invaded at Inchon, caught the North Koreans by surprise and took back Seoul The Koreans found themselves trapped between two opposing forces

The Cold War

Like a vice, forces began to surround the North Koreans Many found an escape route and moved back across the 38th parallel The UN had a critical choice to make Should they be content and end the war as it had started? Or should they invade the north and end communism in Korea?

Chapter 26
-The Korean War-

The Cold War

At the 38th parallel, US and S. Korean forces considered invading the North China was alarmed at the discussion They were a new communist nation and did not want democracy on their doorstep Douglas McArthur did not care about China On November 24, 1950 US and S. Korean forces poured across N. Koreas border

The Cold War

The N. Koreans reeled under the American invasion Soon, American forces approached the Yalu River Seeing the Americans so close and fearing an invasion, China joined the war The US was unprepared for a war against China Chinese and North Korean forces pushed the US back across the 38th parallel

The Cold War

With American forces now reeling, the US sent in General Matthew Ridgeway Ridgeway helped clean up McArthurs mess and pushed back to the original 38th parallel McArthur pushed to open a new front in order to win the war He pushed Truman to support Chiang Kai Sheks return to power He wanted to use Chaings forces in a landing of the Chinese mainland

The Cold War

McArthur even went so far as to consider dropping atomic bombs on China Truman strongly opposed McArthurs plans McArthur then went to the House Minority Leader and attacked Trumans policy He sought to circumvent the president of the US The letter was made public and Truman red McArthur for insubordination

The Cold War

McArthur returned back home to the US with a grand heros welcome Most Americans supported McArthur over Truman Following McArthurs removal, the war stalemated at the 38th parallel Truman tried to negotiate peace but it continued to fail In 1952, Dwight Eisenhower became president

The Cold War

Eisenhower wanted to see the war end in a truce He, like McArthur, threatened China with atomic bombs least they negotiate peace In 1953 a truce was signed dividing Korea in half A demilitarized zone was built on the boarders The War caused a great deal of frustration at home

The Cold War

Americans had a hard time justifying the death of 53,000 Americans and another 103,000 wounded Many questioned how devoted the US was to stopping communism Would the US always adopt a policy of limited warfare [not using the a-bomb] There were a great deal of changes to US policy following the War

The Cold War

It was the rst time in history that African Americans and White Americans fought in the same units The Korean War led to an increase in military spending Where it used to take up less than 1/3 the budget, it swelled to over 1/2 The US began stationing troops in foreign nations around the world

The Cold War

The War led to a powerful Miltaryindustrial-complex The military developed links to science and business The Korean War led the US to sign a peace treaty with Japan It poisoned the US relationship with Japan The two nations would continue thereafter to affront one another

Chapter 26
-The Arms Race-

The Cold War

American policy changed when Dwight Eisenhower became president in 1953 The Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles was a harsh anti-communist He believed Trumans policy of containment was too lenient Dulles called for a policy to roll back communism from areas in which it had spread Eisenhower had to constantly keep Dulless radicalism in check

The Cold War

In 1953, East Germany revolted. The US kept its distance In 1956, a rebellion erupted in Poland and in Hungary. Again the US stayed out of it Eisenhower feared action would lead to world conict In 1953, chaos ensued when Josef Stalin abruptly died

The Cold War

Stalin had been busy collecting names for a future purge That night, as he retired to bed, he suffered a stroke He informed his guards before bedtime not to disturb him No one dared enter until nearly 24 hours had passed Stalin was found in poor condition and died of a brain hemorrhage 3 days later

The Cold War

The Cold War also played out in the Middle East The jews, since the turn of the century, had been returning to Jerusalem In 1947, the UN took control of Palestine and partitioned it creating Israel Arabs attacked the new state and lost Israel gained support from the US while the Arabs sought Soviet support

The Cold War

At risk was oil for both the US and Soviet Union In Iran, elections voted in a pronationalist leader The US feared he would side with the Soviets so they supported his overthrow The Shah, or king, was placed back in power This decision would eventually come back to haunt the US

The Cold War

In 1956, Abdel Nasser of Egypt seized the Suez Canal from Britain That year, British and French forces attacked in order to take the canal back The Soviets threatened the US, and coerced them to stay out of the ght The US and NATO backed off and the Suez was turned over to the Egyptians In 1958, US troops landed in Lebanon and put down an uprising to remove the pro-American government

The Cold War

The US got its hands dirty in Latin America as well Since the turn of the century, American businesses had dominated the affairs of Latin America The United Fruit Company had purchased most of the land in Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua Business manipulated political campaigns and even carried out assassinations

The Cold War

The Sandinistas attacked American holdings In 1954, when the president of Guatemala threatened the US by turning communist, the US intervened The CIA overthrew the government and took back conscated property Such actions angered the USSR In addition, it alienated many Latin American nations The OAS was formed in attempt to keep peace and promote democracy

The Cold War

The 1950s saw an incredible surge in the creation of nuclear arms When the Soviet Union tested its rst nuclear bomb, the US raced to build a better bomb The original atomic bombs operated on ssion, splitting the atom It was thought fusion, smashing atoms together, would generate a more powerful bomb

The Cold War

In 1952, the US detonated the rst fusion bomb which they named Ivy Mike The Fat Boy was a 16 kiloton bomb Ivy Mike was a 12 megaton bomb It was an incredible explosion that once again put power back in American hands It was short lived however In 1953, the USSR tested its rst H-Bomb America was rife with spies

The Cold War

These two incidents kicked off the arms race, a race between the USSR and US to gain weapon superiority The US adopted a new policy of Deterrence It was thought that the US could regain superiority in weapons and scare anyone from the idea of attacking them Between 1954 and 1958 the US tested 19 hydrogen bombs

The Cold War

The bomb tests threatened the world with radioactive contamination Fisherman in Japan suffered burns from the atomic blasts In 1956, Dulles explained that the US would go the to verge of nuclear war in order to get what it wanted The idea became known as Brinkmanship Bring your enemy to the brink of nuclear war In essence, it was Russian Roulette

The Cold War

Both nations now had incredible power to destroy The problem was delivery Both nations raced to develop ICBMs [Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles] The USSR gained the upper hand due to captured German scientists In 1957, the USSR sent a small satellite called Sputnik into space While the satellite was of little worry, the rocket that launched it was

The Cold War

Where the Soviets had rocket superiority, the Americans had better planes The US and created a new airplane called the U2 It could y so high into the atmosphere that no Soviet craft could reach it They Americans could spy and the Soviets could do nothing to stop them

The Cold War

In 1960, US Pilot Gary Powers was shot down in his U2 plane They Soviets had used a guided missile to reach him In created an international crisis Powers was supposed to take cyanide but chickened out The US had to acknowledge it was spying It would take the US a decade to take the technological lead back from the USSR

Chapter 27
-The Postwar Economy/Innovations-

The Cold War

WWI taught America a great deal Dont be harsh in your punishment of opposing nations Dont treat veterans poorly The US improved in both regards Life for Americans was incredible following WWII Returning soldiers came back with a renewed value for life and family

The Cold War

From 1945 to 1960 the per capita income in the US jumped from $1,223 to $2,219 New businesses boomed GM, Ford and Chrysler overshadowed all competitors in the auto industry GE and Westinghouse did the same for electricity Businesses had also learned from the previous age, the Great Depression

The Cold War

Businesses realized that it was better to diversify their products in order to survive economic downturns This gave rise to conglomerates, businesses that were made up of 2 or more unrelated businesses International telephone service purchased Avis car rental In San Bernardino, California, a revolution took place in the restaurant business

The Cold War

In 1940, Richard and Maurice McDonald started applying assembly line techniques to their restaurant They simplied the menu, made items cheap and most importantly, fast The idea blossomed, they could hardly keep up with all their orders Ray Kroc sold multi-mixers and his sales were plummeting He noticed that one small company in California had purchased 8

The Cold War

Upon further investigation, he discovered the booming McDonalds restaurant A single McDonalds had 8 multi-mixers and made 40 milkshakes at a time Kroc gured if he purchased the business, he could open more and sell more multimixers Kroc bought the business, its name and its assembly line technology Kroc then spread the restaurant through the idea of franchising

The Cold War

A franchise is locally owned and operated but relies on goods and services from the parent company Franchise owners assume less risk as the product is well known and presumable liked by consumers The franchise system ourished in the 1950s Other businesses took advantage of McDonalds assembly line process

The Cold War

Technology developed during the War made its way into American homes During the 1920s and 30s technology for television emerged However, during the depression no one could afford it After the War, television became enormously popular By 1955, Americans averaged 3.5 hours in front of the tv each day

The Cold War

Children grew up on, Howdy Doody and Mickey Mouse Club Teenagers watched American Bandstand Other popular programs were I Love Lucy and Father Knows Best TV brought families together, offered cheap babysitting, spread advertising, and saved money by offering cheap entertainment

The Cold War

Computers technology also grew In the 1950s businesses began buying the rst computers to simplify tasks dealing with numbers Grace Hopper at Harvard pioneered the use of software to run hardware She introduced the term, debugging when a large computer shutdown after a moth was caught in a computer relay Transistors were born in 1947 and made technology smaller

The Cold War

Nuclear technology did not just destroy Nuclear power could be harnessed though the generation of heat This inexpensive reaction could power factors and cars Many were optimistic about the potential of nuclear energy In 1954, the US tested the rst nuclear submarine

The Cold War

The US also made great gains in medicine In 1954, Dr. Jonas Salk and Thomas Francis conducted the rst successful vaccination Polio killed more than 20,000 children in the US each year Their vaccinations ended polio as well as other dangerous diseases

The Cold War

In 1928, penicillin was discovered as an antibiotic Advancements lead to widespread antibiotic use The War also pioneered new surgical techniques Doctors could now treat heart defects They also toyed with replacement hip surgery

Chapter 27
-Attitudes During the 1950s-

The Cold War

Following the War, Americans had a greater appreciation for life Returning soldiers wanted to get married and have a family The result was a massive Baby Boom Prior to the War there were 19 births per 1000 people Following the War the number soared to above 25 per 1000

The Cold War

The US learned a great deal following WWI It determined to treat its servicemen better In 1944, the government passed the GI Bill This gave servicemen low interest mortgages and educational stipends Most veterans went to college and earned high paying careers

The Cold War

Prior to WWII, most Americans were blue collar, jobs that depended on manual labor With the GI Bill, veterans became college graduates and moved into more white collar jobs By 1956, most Americans had become white collar workers With many Americans hard at work, there was a 33% rise in unions

The Cold War

William Levitt realized there was money to be made from the GI Bill Many veterans sought homes to purchase with their new low interest rate mortgages Levitt built massive urban communities called suburbs These houses were built quickly, using mass production techniques Levittown on Long Island had 17,000 homes

The Cold War

Urban sprawl communities impacted other realms of the economy Many needed reliable cars to commute to the city More automobiles were produced to meet demands In 1956 the Highway Act saw the construction of several interstates across the nation Part of its purpose was War

The Cold War

America saw the rise of car culture Car sales soared by 50% Each year, new models of cars were produced Gas stations, restaurants and drive ins followed Americans across the country People used their new found automotive freedom to travel, go camping and visit amusement parks

The Cold War

With Americans buying cars and appliances to furnish homes, affordable credit emerged It was similar in style to cheap credit of the 1920s By the end of the 1950s American Express, Diners Credit and Visa appeared Credit debt went from $8 billion in 1946 to $56 billion in 1960

The Cold War

The previous generation of American youth sought individuality During the 1950s conformity ruled Everyone dressed alike and had similar haircuts TV shows such as Leave It to Beaver and Father Knows Best displayed how the youth was to act and dress Girls wore bobby socks and poodle skirts Boys wore lettermans jackets

The Cold War

New magazines appeared, Seventeen and Teen These magazines showed the youth how conformity was best and what was cool Most girls married right after high school Close to half of all brides in the US were in their teens

The Cold War

Religion also saw a huge revival during the 1950s During the 1930s many Americans drifted away from religion After the War, religion was king In 1954, congress added Under God to the pledge of allegiance In God We Trust was added to all currency Family prayer was common and 95% of all Americans said they were part of a religious organization

The Cold War

Men and Women developed strong roles in the family Men were to go to school, get a college education and support their families Women were to support their husbands They were to keep the house clean, cook meals and raise children Few strayed away from the norm

The Cold War

Many women had taken important jobs during WWII While most turned their jobs back to men following the War, some stayed in the workplace In 1950, 24% of American women held jobs Most held jobs as teachers, nurses, secretaries and sales clerks

The Cold War

In 1963, Betty Friedan wrote the Feminine Mystique It lashed out at the culture that had subjugated women to being housewives It was a growing movement that receive more momentum in the coming decade In the late 1950s many of the youth began to lash back at conformity James Dean embodied rebellion in his movie Rebel Without a Cause

The Cold War

In 1951, Alan Freed began hosting a radio show in Cleveland, Ohio He aired black rhythm and blues Freed was wildly popular amongst teenagers His show, Moondog Rock n Roll Party gave rise to Rock n Roll music New musicians arose, such as Chuck Berry, Little Richard, The Comets, Jerry Lewis and Buddy Holly

The Cold War

The best known Rock n Roll singer was Elvis Presley His amboyant style attracted the attention of young teenage girls Rock n Roll spread to Europe and Asia No band however was more popular than The Beatles Their early music was highly inspired by American Rock n Roll

The Cold War

Members of this generation of music revolution were called Beatniks Beatniks were traveling musicians and poets The most popular was Jack Kerouac They stressed spirituality and release from money and property Beatniks challenged conformity They used drugs, practiced unbridled sexuality They gave rise to the later Hippie movement of the 60s

Chapter 27
-Domestic Politics and Policy of the 1950s-

The Cold War

President Truman had large boots to ll following Roosevelts death He saw the War through and made the decision to drop the atomic bomb With the War at and end, many wondered what Trumans policies would be Trumans rst policy was Re-conversion He wanted to make a smooth economic and social transition from war to peacetime

The Cold War

Truman brought most soldiers home from abroad by 1946 The economy proved more challenging Most Americans had to sacrice during the War Following the War they wanted to purchase goods, and they wanted sanctions lifted and production to resume Many manufacturers wanted an increase in wages, when they didnt get it they went on strike

The Cold War

Truman fought strikes in many ways A railroad strike in 1946 was ended by drafting the strikers into the army and forcing them to work In 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act If strikes hurt American industry, the president could call for an 80 day cooling off period This period would force workers back to the job while a deal was worked out

The Cold War

Truman started his own agenda which he called, The Fair Deal It aimed to help raise wages, give unemployment benets, provide housing, put forth a national health insurance program and limit nuclear energy The program was a scattershot and not concise It fell under sever scrutiny by both congressional parties

The Cold War

Truman fought to end discrimination He fought discriminatory practices in hiring He also ordered and end to discrimination in the army In 1948, Truman ran for a second term Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey The Democrats, in many ways, turned their back on Truman He ran anyway, though considered a longshot

The Cold War

Trumans campaign centered on attacking congress as do-nothings especially the republicans His campaign hit a chord and despite being an underdog, he won re-election Democratic control angered republicans They sought to instate a term limit on the presidency In 1951, the 22nd amendment limited the president to two terms in ofce

The Cold War

Four years later, Truman decided not to run again [he could have technically sought a 3rd term] Dwight Eisenhower, commander of the allied forces ran on the republican ticket Eisenhower had an easy going manner, opposed to the scrappy nature of Truman He was a talented diplomat, who effectively put together several peace negations during WWII

The Cold War

Eisenhower focused on a simple K1C2 initiative K1 was Korea, C 1 was communism and C 2 was corruption Eisenhowers nomination for VP was Richard Nixon Where Eisenhowers campaign proceeded smoothly, it hit a snag with Nixon Nixon was accused of having a secret money fund, given to him by wealthy Republicans

The Cold War

Eisenhower left Nixon to redeem himself, despite many urging him to dump Nixon Nixon went on TV, outlined his funds and earnings He said the only gift he had received from Republicans was a dog he named Checkers Americans became enamored with Nixons charm Eisenhower avoided disaster and was elected President

The Cold War

President Eisenhower wanted to reduce the power of the president Power that had grown since Roosevelt He sought to curb spending, reduce taxes and balance the budget His program was called Modern Republicanism He sought to be conservative with money and be liberal with people Eisenhower favored big business

The Cold War

Eisenhowers money management caused an economic slump The decit grew and revenues fell Eisenhower ensured all Americans had access to Social Security He also rose minimum wage by 75c In the face of the Russian launching Sputnik, Eisenhower created NASA He also signed the National Defense Act which sought to improve math and science in US schools The ultimate goal, to surpass the USSR

The 60s
The Demand for Civil Rights

Ch ap te r 28: Se ct io n 1

The 60s
Prior to WWII, Americans were not treated as equals Following the War, the time seemed right for a movement of change There were several factors for the timing of the movement 1) African American Migration Between 1910 and 1940, 450,000 blacks live in New York City

The 60s
New York City was not the only place, many other top northern cities saw African American populations swell African Americans gained more voice in political affairs 2) The New Deal Roosevelt sought African America votes in order to pass his New Deal programs Many African Americans, as a result, started to work for the government

The 60s
3) WWII Many African Americans worked hard for the country during the War They held prominent work positions Also, the holocaust highlighted the horrors of discrimination People feared what racial discrimination could lead to

The 60s
4) Rise of the NAACP The NAACP worked hard to eliminate segregation laws Segregation of race was constitutional as long as facilities were equal This was rarely the case and it was challenged across the country Spearheading the NAACP was Thurgood Marshall

The 60s
In 1951 a pivotal court case rocked the nation Oliver Brown sued Topeka, Kansas Board of Education to allow his black daughter to attend a white only school Thrugood Marshall fought for Brown in the supreme court The Supreme Court found the idea of Separate but Equal unconstitutional All public schools were ordered to desegregate

The 60s
The ruling received mixed reactions African Americans rejoiced while many whites went up in arms President Eisenhower disagreed with the ruling but committed to obey it The Deep South promised to fight the decision

The 60s
The Klu Klux Klan, once again, saw a surge in membership 90 members of Congress signed the Southern Manifesto It pledge they would do all in their power to reverse the court decision In 1955, the Civil Rights Movement took to the streets

The 60s
Rosa Parks of Montgomery, Alabama decided to sit in the white section of a segregated bus When a white man got on the bus and the driver ordered Parks to the back, she refused At the next stop, she was arrested African American leaders ordered a bus boycott of all Montgomery Busses

The 60s
Martin Luther King Jr., a 26 year old baptist minster became the movements spokesperson There comes a time when people get tired...tired of being segregated and humiliated. We have no alternative but to protest Over the next year, 50,000 people stopped riding the bus The bus company refused to give in

The 60s
In 1956, the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was also unconstitutional The Montgomery boycott created a new wave of leaders and movements In 1957, Arkansas governor Orval Faubus declared he could not keep order if he had to enforce integration He posted the National Guard at Central High School in Little Rock to prevent the entry of black students

The 60s
There were 9 students in all, they became known as the Little Rock Nine Crowds also gathered to prevent the students from entering Eisenhower viewed this as a direct violation of the constitution He seized the national guard and told them to lead the students into the school

The 60s
African Americans were not the only minority group seeking change Latin Americans also faced hardship and segregation In the case of Delgado vs Bastrop, segregation amongst Latin Americans was also declared unconstitutional Native Americans also faced problems

The 60s
In 1953, the US government sought to end reservations They wanted to assimilate Native Americans into society The termination movement was met with severe resistance The US government decided to abandon the idea Discrimination, poverty and hardship for Native Americans continued

The 60s
Leaders and Strategies

Ch ap te r 28: Se ct io n 2

worksheet

The 60s
The Struggle Intensifies

Ch ap te r 28: Se ct io n 3

The 60s
In the early 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement met stronger resistance In 1943, the first Sit-In occurred in Chicago Diners and restaurants across the nation continued to be segregated African Americans fought these institutions by staying put in their chair until they were served

The 60s
At first, they were successful as many owners gave in rather than lose business In time they became more violent, people putting out cigarettes, pouring hot coffee In most cases, African Americans were arrested, not the whites Martin Luther King considered arrests a badge of honor

The 60s
In 1960, the US Supreme Court ruled that segregation in busses was unconstitutional CORE and SNCC members traveled south to test whether the south would obey They became known as Freedom Riders At first, the riders met little resistance; that all changed when they arrived in the deep south

The 60s
In Anniston, Alabama, a heavily armed mob met the first bus The bus attempted to leave but the mob slashed its tires More whites surrounded the bus, armed with weapons One person held the door closed while windows were busted out and a fire bomb was tossed in Many were injured, some escaped only to be beaten by the mob of whites

The 60s
The SNCC debated giving up Even though they realized going on might result in death, they continued The nation was horrified to see how the South treated the Freedom Riders Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent Federal Marshals to protect the riders Kennedy pushed the justice department to sue local communities that did not comply

The 60s
In 1961, James Meredith, and African American sought admission into Ole Miss After being rejected, he filed a law suit against the school Defying the courts decision, the school would not let Meredith attend The US Government sent US Marshals to protect Meredith as he attended school

The 60s
Violence erupted on campus Protesters destroyed vehicles, threw bottles and made death threats Police responded with tear gas, and two people were killed The National Guard had to be sent in to restore order Eventually, Meredith was accepted by his white classmates

The 60s
In Birmingham, Alabama, Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth invited Martin Luther King to town King declared Birmingham to be the most segregated place in the US The police promised they would arrest King if he caused any problems When King arrived, many African Americans participated in Sit-Ins and boycotts

The 60s
King called upon the youth to march with the adults for Civil Rights The police arrested 100s and others they dispersed with fire hoses and police dogs King was arrested, but let go after a week Americans across the nation watched in horror as scenes played out on TV

The 60s
It made a strong impression Even those against the Civil Rights Movement started to have sympathy Non-Violent protest began to win out City facilities were ordered desegregated Businesses adopted fair hiring practices

The 60s
The Civil Rights Movement was about to gain a new leader Malcolm Little, born in Omaha, Nebraska grew up a devote Baptist His father was a leading figure of Marcus Garveys Back to Africa movement His father died while Little was young His mother moved to the Ghettos of Detroit Michigan

The 60s
In Detroit, Little turned to crime He was arrested for burglary and served 7 years in prison While in jail, he joined the Nation of Islam, a group of Black Muslims They viewed white society as oppressive They sought black separation and self-help

The 60s
The leader of the Black Nation was Elijah Muhammad He taught that Allah would bring about a Black Nation That whites were their mortal enemies Members of the Black Nation awaited for Allah to create the Black Nation

The 60s
Little emerged as a top spokesperson for the group He changed his name to Malcolm X He used the X symbolically to mean slave Malcolm X was a fiery spokesperson He spread the ideas of Black Nationalism, a belief in a separate community for African Americans

The 60s
Malcolm X rejected the Civil Rights Movement He questioned why any Black would grovel before whites In 1964, Malcolm X traveled to Mecca He realized he was in the wrong and sought to join Martin Luther's movement The Nation of Islam felt betrayed and he was gunned down during a speech in New York

The 60s
Stokely Carmichael, a member of the SNCC was influenced by Malcolm X He rose to lead the SNCC He transformed the group into a radical organization He was tired of the beatings and mistreatment by whites He forbade whites entry in the SNCC He told protesters to carry weapons and defend themselves against whites

The 60s
With Carmichael, the Civil Rights Movement split In Mississippi, Kings followers chanted We shall overcome while Carmichaels shouted, We shall overrun Carmichael sought many of the same things the early Malcolm X did He wanted a separate black community

Stokley Carmichael
This is the 27th time I have been arrested and I aint going to Jail no more! ...The only way we gonna stop them white men from whippin us is to take over. We have been saying freedom for six years and we aint got nothin. What we gonna start saying now is Black Power!

The 60s
In the Fall of 1966, a new Black militant group called the Black Panthers was formed Panthers wanted African Americans to lead their own communities They demanded the government rebuild the ghettos Panthers were frequently involved in violent conflicts with police

The 60s
The Political Response

Ch ap te r 28 & 29: Se ct io ns 5 an d 1

The 60s
September 26, 1960 forever changed America It was the first time that two presidential candidates faced off in a television debate Nixon was the Republican candidate He had incredible experience and most Americans knew him well He appeared on TV following a grueling political tour

The 60s
Campaigning across the nation, Nixon had a serious knee injury He was hospitalized for weeks, and had lost a lot of weight On TV he appeared tired, had a six oclock shadow and his clothes were too big On the other side, representing the democrats was the young John F. Kennedy

The 60s
Kennedy had been in California He had a tan, appeared relaxed and handsome Kennedy spoke directly to the camera, and paid little attention to Nixon Who won the debate? 70% of those who saw the debate on TV said it was Kennedy Those who listened by radio said Nixon

The 60s
John Kennedy came from a wealthy American family line His father was a senator who was bold and had a take no prisoner approach to politics The Kennedys were as close to a Royal family as America could get John Kennedy was 43 years old and a devout Catholic The youngest president in US history was Teddy Roosevelt No President in US history had ever been Catholic

The 60s
Kennedy and his VP nomination, Lyndon Johnson, won the presidency by a narrow margin Being such a narrow victory, Kennedy arrived without a clear mandate [strong public approval] As Kennedy was sworn in, he took office with vigor and confidence declaring: My Fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country

The 60s
In an early speech, Kennedy said the US stood at the edge of a New Frontier That name stuck to his presidential initiative The first component of the New Frontier was the economy Kennedy wanted to promote economic growth In 1962, US Steel raised prices to $6 a ton

The 60s
Kennedy fought the firm to lower prices When they did, the stock market fell to its lowest level since 1929 Kennedy then proposed a tax cut This would create a national deficit but hopefully increase spending His tax cut initiative was hung up in congress

The 60s
Kennedy was concerned with the nations poor Kennedy proposed an ambitious plan to give federal aid and medical care to the elderly Congress shot it down He was successful at raising minimum wage and providing equal pay for equal work

The 60s
When congress thwarted Kennedy, he initiated executive orders including: Food for the unemployed Boosted missile programs Retirement benefits at 62 A program to help juvenile delinquency Construction of the worlds largest power plant Food and drug laws Nuclear testing ban

The 60s
Kennedy promised to fight for equal rights when he campaigned When he became president, Civil Rights initiatives slowed He appointed Thurgood Marshal to become a Circuit Court Judge He would later become the first African American supreme court justice

The 60s
As violence swept across the nation, Kennedy took a stand He started work on a strong Civil Rights Bill It was during this time that African Americans marched on the Nations Capital Martin Luther King spoke on his dream for a future America, untainted by segregation Kennedys bold Civil Rights Bill was hung up in congress

The 60s
Kennedys greatest challenge when he came to office was the Soviet Union The Island nation of Cuba had experienced a great deal of turmoil since independence The US had supported a dictator in Cuba named Fulgencio Batista Batista was a staunch anticommunist

The 60s
Under Fulgencios control, Cuba became an American playground Behind the backdrop however was extreme poverty Americans business controlled 75% of Cuba and profited greatly Many lower class citizens pushed for change

The 60s
The movement found voice in a young attorney, Fidel Castro Fidel Castro attempted to overthrow the government and failed He and his followers were exiled to Mexico In Mexico, the movement grew They gained a strong idealist in the form of Ernesto Guevara from Argentina

The 60s
Ernesto was born to a semiwealthy family in Argentina He lived during a time of political upheaval in Argentina He went to school to study to become a doctor, with particular interest in leprosy Nearing graduation, he and a friend decided to take a year off of studies to see the world They embarked on a year of adventure traveling through Latin America

The 60s
The Political Response

Th e Cuba n M is si le Cr is is

The 60s
Ernesto saw many things on his journeys He saw the poverty and struggles of Latin Americans everywhere Many problems were blamed on the US In time, his anger turned to rage and he sought to change Latin America for the better His journeys eventually took him to Central America where he came into contact with Castros men Cubas situation interested him, he desired to become a part of it

The 60s
Castro and others nicknamed Ernesto Che due to his birthplace Castro soon left Mexico and landed in Cuba He started the Cuban revolution which succeeded in overthrowing Batista After gaining the victory, he traveled to the US While there, America warned him against taking US businesses, Castro did not listen

The 60s
Castro immediately began a system of land reform, giving land back to Cubans He took it by force from Americans earning him a great enemy When a movement arose against him, Castro began systematic executions to ensure he stayed in power Back in the US, a plan was conceived to overthrow Castro

The 60s
1000s of Cuban refugees had fled to the US during Castros regime change The US began to train the refugees in a plan to use them to retake the island One of President John F Kennedys first acts in office was the Bay of Pigs invasion It called for a foot invasion by US trained Cuban exiles and air support from the US Airforce

Crisis in Cuba
The invasion was a huge failure Castro was ready and sent the attackers reeling The US began to plan a second attempt This gave Castro no choice He decided to make an ally of Americas greatest enemy The Soviet Union

Crisis in Cuba
With that, Cuba slowly turned to Communism Those who disliked the change fled to the US as refugees In the summer of 1962, US spy planes discovered the construction of nuclear missile bases in Cuba The US reacted quickly by warning Cuba and the USSR to remove the missiles A massive invasion force was built in the US as well as an embargo of the island

Crisis in Cuba
The US told the USSR, under the threat of war, to remove the missiles It also disallowed any other ships to arrive to the island The brink of WWIII came when Soviet and US ships participated in a staredown at sea off the coast of Cuba The Soviet ships ultimately backed down and the US and USSR agreed to peace talks The result was the removal of both US and Soviet missiles

Crisis in Cuba

The relations between the US and Cuba spoiled more over the years An embargo of the island remains in effect this very day Many wonder what the future of Cuba will be after the death of Castro Many refugees, still in the Americas, await for the day they can return home

The 60s
Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy and Krushchev established a hot line It was a phone used to prevent a nuclear war In 1963, in order to avoid nuclear destruction, the US, Britain and USSR agreed to only test nuclear weapons below ground It was called the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

The 60s
The Cuban Missile Crisis caused Kennedy to realize the need to protect the Americas Many nations in Latin America saw hope in breaking from US control by turning to communism Kennedy launched the Alliance for Progress The program pledged 20 billion in aid to Latin America over ten years

The 60s
The program was a huge undertaking Its main purpose was threefold 1) Stop communism 2) Help the poor and 3) Help rebuild US reputation Many nations feared the program would come with strings attached The US took a strong stance against communistic regimes in Latin America
!

The 60s
Ernesto Guevara stood opposed to those plans He left Cuba, helping communist movements in Africa Then he returned to South America He sought to unify South America under communism The CIA hunted him down and ended his dream

The 60s
Another conflict brewed in Europe on the heals of the Bay of Pigs invasion With Stalin dead, Nikita Krushchev controlled the USSR When Krushchev met Kennedy, he attempted to bully him out of Germany After the meeting, Kennedy boosted US defenses in a show of force

The 60s
He asked Americans to build fallout shelters across the nation The Soviet response was building a wall across Berlin Berlin had previously been separated by a series of gates and fences Now, a full scale wall rose Kennedy promised West Berlin he would protect it by declaring, I am a Berliner in German

The 60s
The Berlin Wall, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and an increase in arms, the Cold War was back at the forefront The US was worried the Soviets had surpassed them in technology They had caught up in nuclear technology and surpassed the US in rocketry The US was shocked in 1957 when the Soviets launched Sputnik

The 60s
NASA was born to catch up the the Soviet space program The US and Soviet union raced to put the first man in space In 1961, the Soviets were the first In order to calm US fears, Kennedy made a commitment He stated that the US was committed to be the first to put a man on the moon It was to be done before the decade was complete

The 60s
Chapter 29

Th e Sp ac e R ac e

The 60s
Following WWII, there was a massive race between the USSR and US to grab the Nazi scientists Nazi scientists had created incredible machines during the war The US scored the first victory They were the first to find Wernher von Braun He was the chief scientist over the V1 and V2 self guided rockets

The 60s
The US was primarily interested in keeping a nuclear edge Werners skills were not put to good use In 1957, the USSR stunned the US when it launched Sputnik The US scrambled to catch up Many US rockets were failures The USSR had developed ICBMs creating massive tension at home

The 60s
In 1958, the US launched its first probe into space, it was called Explorer I Both nations raced to put a man in space The Soviets won, putting Yuri Gagarin into orbit in 1961 He orbited around the earth in 108 minutes The US was not far behind

The 60s
NASAs program to put a man into space was called Mercury 7 Top pilots were sought and tested to become the first American in space In May of 1961, Alan Shepard, a Navy pilot was the first American in space His trip was very short, he did not orbit the earth He was launched into space via Werner Brauns Saturn V rocket

The 60s
In 1962, John Glenn became the first American to orbit the earth He saw strange lights That same year, President Kennedy promised the US would be the first to put a man on the moon Telestar, the worlds first communication satellite was launched later that year The first communication satellite in history

The 60s
Following the success of the Mercury program, the US moved to develop procedures to move to the moon Out of this came the Gemini Program Again the Soviets won, having the first space walk The US did many space walks itself Notable Gemini members were: Buzz Aldrin, Jim Lovell, Gus Grissom and Neil Armstrong

The 60s
The final space program was called Apollo Its sole purpose was to land on the moon On July 16, 1969, the Apollo mission accomplished its goal before the Soviets Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the moon It was watched by people across the world It was a feat unlike any other in history

The 60s
The Soviets, being beat, decided to concentrate their efforts on building a space station In 1971, the Soviet Salyut Station was the first in history It was followed by Skylab and continues today with the International Space Station The US landed on the moon 9 times The last landing occurred in 1972, we have not been back since

The 60s
The 1970s and 80s also saw a race amongst satellites The US and Soviets raced to take pictures of the planets, moons and conduct landings The most interesting of these craft were the Voyagers 1 and 2 Both were launched in 1977 Both continue to make observations and beam back data from the far reaches of space

The 60s
Chapter 29

Th e En d of Camel ot

The 60s
In 1960, broadway performed Camelot It depicted the legendary kingdom of King Arthur Many regarded President Kennedys term in office as Camelot Kennedy and his wife Jacqueline brought style, enthusiasm, and hope to the White House All of that would fall apart in 1963

The 60s
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy traveled to Dallas, Texas to garner support for re-election There they met John Connally and his wife Nelly Together they rode in an open top limousine through downtown Dallas They were surrounded by police and Secret Service Agents Huge crowds had gathered to catch a glimpse of the President

The 60s
The motorcade turned a corner in front of the Texas School Book Depository As the limousine drove down the street, a shot rang out Many thought it was a car backfiring or perhaps a firecracker John Connally knew it was a high powered rifle He craned his head to where he heard the sound

The 60s
A second later, another shot rang out This bullet struck President Kennedy in the back and exited through his throat The bullet hit Connally as well, exiting through his chest and wrist The Presidents wife leaned in to see why Kennedy had raised his arms in pain Then, a third and final shot rang out

The 60s
The third bullet hit the President in the back of the head and exited through the front of his forehead Jacqueline crawled over the back of the car and yelled, They have killed my husband and I have his brains in my hand The car speed away to a nearby hospital Kennedy was pronounced dead 30 minutes later

Zapruder Film

Zapruder Film

The 60s
Across America, people stood in disbelief Millions wept for President Kennedy and his wife Police scrambled to find the shooter In the book depository, Lee Harvey Oswald hid his rifle, a 6.5mm Carcano, under some boxes He left the building just a few minutes after the shooting

The 60s
He returned home, he gathered a few belongings and headed back out 45 minutes after the shooting, a police officer pulled aside Oswald who was walking down the sidewalk They spoke briefly, then the officer got out of his car Oswald pulled a pistol, shot him four times and fled He was captured by police in a nearby theater

The 60s
2 days later, Oswald was being transferred to the country jail As he was handcuffed and being taken to the car, Jack Ruby stepped forward He was a local nightclub owner and distraught over Kennedys death He pulled and pistol, shot and killed Oswald

Shooting of Oswald

Shooting of Oswald

The 60s
Due to the peculiar circumstances of the killings, many were suspicious Americans felt there was more to the assassination that was being let on The Warren Commission was set up to investigate the assassination They concluded that Oswald had acted alone Many Americans have felt otherwise

The 60s
Americans did not accept the Warren Commissions investigation Several conspiracy theories have arisen 1) There were two gunman 2) It was the CIA. Kennedy said he wanted to tear the CIA apart 3) It was Lyndon Johnson who wanted the presidency 4) The Mob, whom Kennedy was fighting against 5) The Russian KGB

The 60s
In 2003, an ABC poll found that 73% of Americans believe it was a conspiracy The truth lies with Lee Harvey Oswald Oswald had a rough childhood He was not popular and was frequently abused He joined the Marines, in an attempt to gain appreciation and do something There he also found himself ridiculed and abused

The 60s
Hated by America, Oswald delved into Marxism He decided to defect to the USSR The Soviets found him unstable and of little use. The sent him back to the US Now considered a communist sympathizer, the abuses continued Rejected by the USSR, Oswald turned to Fidel Castro of Cuba Cuba rejected his efforts to gain a passport and join the revolution

The 60s
Oswald returned home to Dallas, scorned by all, even his wife He received a minuscule job at the Texas School Book Depository Soon after receiving the job, he learned of Kennedys motorcade He sought to prove to the world how smart he was To show he was capable of greatness His two well aimed shots changed the world

Zapruder Film Analysis

Zapruder Film Analysis

The 60s
Chapter 30

Th e Great So ciet y

All I have I would have given gladly not to be standing here today... No words are sad enough to express our sense of loss. No words are strong enough to express our determination to continue the forward thrust of America that Kennedy began. The ideas and the ideas which he so nobly represented must and will be translated into effective action -Lyndon B. Johnson

The 60s
90 minutes after Kennedy was killed, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn into office Johnson was ready to become president He was incredibly ambitious Johnson had a bold, no nonsense character He used intimidation to get his programs through congress

The 60s
Johnson wanted action in order to heal a wounded nation Johnsons agenda included Kennedys Civil Rights and Tax Cut Bills He enhanced public education, provided medical care for the elderly and sought to eliminate poverty In a speech Johnson encouraged Americans to pursue becoming a Great Society

The 60s
Johnsons early success at president earned him election in 1964 Johnson pushed a plan for Medicaid and Medicare Medicaid provides low cost health insurance to those who cannot afford insurance Medicare provides hospitals and Americans with low cost health insurance to those 65 years of age and older

The 60s
There were a number of foreign issues that haunted Johnson's office In the Dominican Republic, there was a rebel group that threatened to take the government Johnson wrongfully suspected a communist plot He sent in the marines who dispelled the rebells

The 60s
The bigger ordeal took place in Vietnam Vietnam was passing though circumstances not unlike Korea The nation was being torn apart between communists and those favoring democracy In 1964, Johnson committed the US to prevent a communist takeover in Vietnam During 1965, money and troops were sent to South Vietnam to prop up the government

The 60s
5 years following Kennedys assassination, America was rocked by another string of murders Martin Luther King continued his crusade to end segregation In 1968, he was traveling the nation fighting economic injustice It was his feeling that poverty bread violence King gave a powerful speech in Memphis, Tennessee about living to see the promised land

The 60s
The next day, as he stood on the balcony of a motel he was shot The bullet struck him in the right cheek, hit his spine, and traveled down his neck It destroyed his spine and jugular and lodged in his shoulder He was rushed to a local hospital and died about an hour later Police arrested James Earl Ray He died in prison at age 70 in 1998

The 60s
That same year, the Vietnam War was escalating President Johnsons first term was coming to an end Running on the democratic ticket for President was Robert F. Kennedy RFK ran supporting the Civil Rights Movement He also sought to withdraw American troops from Vietnam

The 60s
When Johnson declared he did not seek a second term, Kennedy became the frontrunner for president RFK won a key victory in California He gave a short victory speech and was lead out the back of the conference room As he passed by throngs of people, a man by the name of Sirhan Sirhan approached with a .22 caliber pistol

The 60s
He shot Robert Kennedy in the back of the head, just behind his ear Two other bullets hit him near the armpit The gun was wrestled away from Sirhan Sirhan but not before 5 other people were shot Kennedy appeared ok, asking if everyone was all right Shortly after, he fell into a coma He died 26 hours later

The 60s
Sirhan Sirhan said his motive behind the killing was to protect Palestine Kennedy was a supporter of Israel He felt the killing saved Palestinian lives It is the first known act of violence in the US involving the IsraelPalestine conflict Sirhan Sirhan is still alive and is serving a life sentence in California

The 60s
The 1960s were an absolute nightmare for Americans The decade started with acts of violence involving the Civil Rights Movement The Cuban Missile Crisis threatened nuclear holocaust The President and other leaders were assassinated All this occurred while the Vietnam War raged in the East It was the most tumultuous decade in American history

The 60s
Chapter 29

Th e Viet nam War

The Vietnam War

Origins of the Conict

The Vietnam War

Archaeological evidence shows that the people of Vietnam have existed since the times of mesopotamia Vietnamese history is one of invasion and foreign domination From 111 BC to 938 AD, Vietnam was invaded and dominated by China In 1784 the French invaded and made Vietnam a French colony

The Vietnam War

The French exploited Vietnam by establishing rubber plantations They put down uprisings during the 1930s and stripped the Vietnamese of the freedom of speech Ho Chi Minh became the leader of Vietnams independence movement The French condemned him to death and Minh ed the country

The Vietnam War

In 1941, Japan invaded and seized control of Vietnam The French were forced to leave Following WWII, Minh returned to Vietnam and sought independence He worked with the US seeking to draft a constitution In 1945, Ho Chi Minh stood amidst a crowd in Hanoi and declared Vietnam independent

The Vietnam War

The US told Ho Chi Minh to hold off on independence In 1946, the French returned War torn France sought to revitalize its economy by taking over Vietnam The US switched sides and supported the French invasion Nearly $2.6 billion US dollars went to support the French

The Vietnam War

Ho Chi Minh vowed his people would never stop ghting the French for their freedom Enamored with Marxism and betrayed by the US, Ho Chi Minh fully embraced communism Ho Chi Minhs followers became known as the Vietminh They held control in the North while the French seized the South

The Vietnam War

During the 1950s, the US became embroiled in Korea They felt the French were ghting for them by preventing the spread of communism In 1953, Eisenhower negotiated peace in Korea In 1954, Eisenhower announced his domino theory If one more nation in Asia fell victim to communism, all of Asia would fall

The Vietnam War

Despite US support, the French could not re-take northern Vietnam In 1954, the French began a massive push to take the North They parachuted nearly 10,000 French soldiers into Dien Bien Phu The Vietminh surrounded the outpost and bombarded it with artillery for 50 days Trapped and without aid, the French surrendered

The Vietnam War

The US, France, China, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, Laos and Cambodia all met to negotiate peace The Geneva Accords temporarily divided Vietnam along the 17th parallel Ho Chi Minh, and his communists were given the North and its capital Hanoi Anti-communists were given the South with its capital Saigon

The Vietnam War

The US continued to support the South following the French retreat In 1956, following the Geneva Accords, the nation was to elect its own government Ho Chi Minh had become a great hero to many throughout the nation He gave land to the poor, did away with foreign business, and sought independence

The Vietnam War

Many in the South feared the upcoming election There were more in favor of Ho Chi Minh than the southern president Ngo Dihn Diem The US and South Vietnam sought to cancel the elections The US promised military support of the south if Diem kept and honest and non-corrupt government

The Vietnam War

Diem did not give land to peasants Being Catholic, he also suppressed Buddhism across South Vietnam In 1957, a pro-communist movement emerged in the South They were known as the Vietcong They sought to overthrow Diems regime and unify the nation with the North

The Vietnam War

Ho Chi Minh saw an opportunity He supported the Vietcong by giving them money and weapons Arms were smuggled to VC leaders via a secret road called the Ho Chi Minh trail The South grew incredibly unstable The US had to decide to sink or swim with Diem

The Vietnam War

Kennedy sought to renegotiate peace through Diem 16,000 American soldiers were sent to South Vietnam to restore order Diem failed to cooperate He continued to mistreat the poor by relocating them to protected areas He attacked Buddhist monks and destroyed their temples

The Vietnam War

Several Buddhist monks gained world attention through acts of self immolation Horried, the US urged Diem to stop persecuting Buddhists Diem refused, the US determined to remove him from power In November of 1963, Diem was captured by US soldiers and executed Kennedy was against the operation, he was assassinated a few weeks later

The Vietnam War

Just before his assassination, Kennedy had announced his intent to pull out of Vietnam President Lyndon Johnson took an opposite stance New leaders were propped up by the US, when they failed to obey, they too were assassinated Johnson did not want to appear weak in front of a world stage

The Vietnam War

Johnson felt if the US pulled out of Vietnam it would encourage communist everywhere to rise up In August of 1964, a North Vietnamese patrol boat red on the US Destroyer Maddox The US ship was patrolling off the coast of North Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin Two days later, a second wave of attacks occurred against US ships Some aboard the US ships later reported never seeing Vietnamese ships

The Vietnam War

President Johnson used this attack to escalte the conict in Vietnam He asked congress for the power to do whatever necessary to repel attacks against the US Congress approved with only two people voting in opposition The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was drafted, it gave Johnson broad military power in Vietnam In the next year, 50,000 American troops were sent to South Vietnam

The Vietnam War

War in the Jungle

The Vietnam War

The US entered the War thinking their superior technology would win out They were unprepared to ght in the Jungles of South East Asia The US and Vietcong differed greatly in military strategy The US fought in a way that was reminiscent of Chess The Vietcong fought using Sun Tzus Art of War

The Vietnam War

To the Vietcong, it was better to hide, harass, and wear down the enemy They utilized a strategy similar to the Chinese game of Go They knew the War would drag on, that the US had better technology They would ght Hit and Run They would surround, surprise, and wear down the US

The Vietnam War

US Generals continued to search for a large scale engagement They felt US technology would have the upper hand The Vietcong denied them any chance for a large scale battle American soldiers were told to move through the jungle and nd the Vietcong US soldiers did not know with the Vietcong looked like

The Vietnam War

They would come across a village who would praise the soldiers They would give gifts and shout, America #1 That night, the same people would surround and attack American soldiers This proved to be an incredibly difcult way for Americans to ght They were surrounded by enemies and the dangers of the jungle

The Vietnam War

The Vietcong employed a variety of booby traps in the jungle Early traps were primitive in nature They used punji pits and stakes Traps used to kill wild animals American Soldiers never knew what they were walking into

Arrow Trap Whip Trap

Tiger Trap

Mace Trap

The Vietnam War

Making matters worse, the Vietcong had dug underground tunnels They began these tunnels during the war with the French The tunnels were incredibly hard to nd At times, Americans would walk over entire armies The Vietcong would then emerge, surround and harass US forces then dissapear

The Vietnam War

American soldiers soon became incredibly frustrated Generals would tell the soldiers where the enemy was, in most cases they were traps Soldiers lost condence in leadership Many generals sought to become heroes where the soldiers only wanted to survive The top US General was Westmoreland

The Vietnam War

General Westmoreland wanted to wear down the enemies moral He felt the Americans would prevail through a war of attrition The Vietcong were ghting for their freedom History had taught them to resist at all costs for as long as it took Ho Chi Minh declared, You can kill 10 for every one of us, but we will still win

The Vietnam War

The US changed its approach to the conict Soldiers feared the jungle The US developed a leaf killing toxic chemical on the jungle to kill foliage This would allow the soldiers to travel and see the enemy The chemical was called Agent Orange because it arrived in orange barrels

The Vietnam War

Agent Orange had a terrible side effect It got into the water supply and caused birth defects and brain damage It harmed the Vietcong, the Vietnamese and American soldiers American soldiers soon had had enough with traitorous villagers They began to employ Search-andDestroy tactics

Birth Defects From Agent Orange

Birth Defects From Agent Orange

The Vietnam War

Search and Destroy was similar to what General Sherman did in the American Civil War Destroy everything in your path Villages were searched, houses were torched, animals and livestock were slaughtered In addition, the US began major bombing campaigns across Vietnam They sought to destroy the Ho Chi Minh Trail, Hanoi, and any enemy hideouts

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The most notorious bomb was napalm This was a gel that burned hotter than the surface of the sun Napalm was dropped on villages suspect of aiding the enemy If Americans were not out of its way, they too were burned up Many innocent Vietnamese villagers were killed or horribly wounded

Napalm Burns

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The War became a battle for hearts and minds But the Americans were losing Many Vietnamese, having villages burned and children killed by napalm and Agent Orange switched sides Americans in the US were horried at how US soldiers were behaving Public opinion began to swing against the War

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The Vietcong adapted to the new American tactics Un-exploded bombs were rigged and used against American soldiers Weapons depots were ransacked The Vietcong came up with Ingenious ways to use grenades Moral amongst American soldiers plummeted Some even killed their superior ofcers

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Despite the hardships, most Americans still supported the War Westmorland told soldiers to keep track of the numbers killed These numbers were aired on the television to show Americans were winning However, the credibility gap began to grow Americans started to feel they were being lied to The government promised the War was almost over, yet it continued to get worse

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A Nation Divided

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As the conict in Vietnam intensied, the government re-instituted the draft When men turned 18, they had to register with their local draft board During time of war, men from the age of 18 to 26 could be drafted into military service Thousands of men refused to participate in the war These men could dodge the draft by getting a medical deferment

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Others would join the National Guard or Coast Guard to avoid Vietnam Cassius Clay, controversially, joined the Muslims and cited it was against his religion to go to war Some received college deferments, which could postpone military service Those who were white and wealthy could avoid conict where the lower class were stuck 80% of the soldiers in Vietnam were from minority groups and lower classes

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Some Americans dodged the draft by eeing to Canada African Americans represented 10% of the US army but accounted for 20% of the deaths Many African Americans experienced severe racial issues during the War Females were not allowed to serve in the War as soldiers Many joined the Red Cross and became army nurses While many sought ways out, 1000s joined bravely to serve their nation

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Politically, a new group of anti-war activists emerged during the Vietnam conict They were known as the New Left The Old Left existed in the 1930s and sought communism The New Left demanded changes in American government This movement tended to centralize around universities and college students

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SDS, Students for a Democratic Society formed in Michigan They felt that the US was lead by big government and large corporations They wanted the nation to be lead by the people FMF, Free Speech Movement, was also born out of university students in Berkley, California They sought much of the same, limitation of big business controlling the US government

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As the Vietnam War grew more violent and claimed more American lives, these groups began to protest the war In 1965, SDS organized a march on Washington Johnson responded by changing university requirements for draft deferment Students could not just be in college, they had to be in good academic standing Campuses around the nation erupted in protest

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The reasons for discontent with the Vietnam War varied Some protested that the War was a Civil War and the US had no part Others protested the US becoming a police state Still others thought War was simply morally unjust The protests soon spilled over into the music industry furthering the discontent

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In 1967, protest turned into resistance 500,000 protesters gathered in New Yorks central park to burn their draft tickets The US government arrested more than 200,000 draft dodgers 10,000 ed to Canada When protesters marched on the Pentagon, they were dispersed by military force 1,500 protesters were injured in the skirmish

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By 1967, America was strongly divided over the War Those strongly opposed to the War were called Doves Those in favor of continuing the conict were known as Hawks Despite the protests, most Americans were still committed to the War Undeterred, Johnson continued escalating the War in Vietnam

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One of the worst protest incidents took place at Kent State University There, students banded together and burned the ROTC building In response, the mayor called out the national guard The guard opened re on a crowd of students who were throwing rocks The gunre wounded 9 people and killed 4 Ten days later, Jackson State had a similar incident

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Jackson State was an all black university There too, guardsman opened re on a raucous crowd of protesters 12 students were shot and two killed Many Americans supported the National Guards actions The War in Vietnam was tearing the nation apart

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Major Battles

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By 1965, most battles had been fought in the dense jungle US soldiers were growing frustrated, looking for a large ght Search and Destroy missions were launched Operation Rolling Thunder began The Operation targeted major bases in North Vietnam Many pilots were shot down and became prisoners

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Captured pilots were placed in the Hanoi Hilton While there, many POWs were tortured Torture methods were used to get US pilots to criticize the US government They would televise POWs praising North Vietnam and air it over television In 1973, 591 US soldiers were released back to the US 1,350 still remain unaccounted for

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One of the great challenges the US faced were SAMs A solution was hatched to use US pilots to deploy SAMs These pilots ew F-150 Thunder Chiefs There were called the, Wild Weasels Their bravery allowed US bombing raids of North Vietnam to continue

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In August of 1965, the US scored its greatest victory of the War At Chu Lai, US forces killed 700 VC while only losing 45 It lead many to believe the War was turning in US favor 1966 saw many small scale battles The year claimed 6,000 American lives to the VCs 61,000

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In 1967, US forces advanced north in attempt to capture the Iron Triangle Americans saw little resistance and captured several large VC ammo dumps In May, the US shot down 26 VC pilots and gained the upper hand in the skies All but one Mig base in the north had been heavily damaged by US bombing The general feeling following 1967 was positive

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In Autumn of 1967, the US received intelligence that the North was conducting a troop build up In January, the US sought to counter this build up by massing troops in the North at Khesanh US forces at Khesanh came under heavy attack from VC forces They surrounded US forces and conducted 5 months of continual artillery attacks

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January 30th was the Vietnamese equivalent of New Years Eve Throughout the day, 1000s of villagers streamed into S. Vietnam cities to celebrate A week long truce was proclaimed for the week of Tet At the same time, many funerals were held for those killed in the War Many of the buildup soldiers came south and snuck into major southern cities

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VC disguised themselves as partygoers for Tet Cofns smuggled ammunition and guns into the South That night, the surprise attack began Over 100 cities and towns across Vietnam erupted into battle The VC briey took over the US embassy in Saigon Attacks continued for a month before US forces drove the VC out

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During the chaos of Tet, Saigon chief of police Nguyen Ngoc Loan shocked America The Tet offensive played out live across televisions in the US It did not portray America well With NBC cameras lming the ghting, Loan led a VC ofcer, handcuffed, into the streets He drew his pistol and executed him on live TV

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Many Americans felt they were being lied to Tet made it appear as though the US was losing the conict Loans execution showed the chaotic state of Saigon General Westmoreland proclaimed Tet to be a massive US victory During the month long attack, the VC lost 32,000 soldiers to the US 3,000 Journalism however had painted a very different picture

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Another incident spread dissent about the Vietnam War In March of 1968, US forces erupted in a brutal scene of violence Soldiers moved on the small town of My Lai, thought to be harboring 250 VC Rather than nd VC, they found women, children and old men US Lieutenant William L. Calley Jr. ordered his company to round up the villagers

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After gathering around 400 people, they were ordered to kneel on the ground US soldiers were told to leave none alive Soldiers massacred over 400 women, children, and old men A helicopter crew stopped the massacre before it became worse They landed their helicopter between the people and US soldiers Chopper commander, Lawrence Colburn ordered his gunner to re on US soldiers if they did not stop

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At rst, the incident was covered up When it came to light, the trial was made public Calley was sentenced to life in prison Nixon reduced it to 20 years The three men who stopped the massacre were awarded the Soldiers Medal The My Lai massacre weighed heavily on the conscience of America

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Before Tet, 28% of Americans called themselves Doves Following Tet, 40% became Doves Walter Cronkite proclaimed the War was moving towards a stalemate President Johnson was scrutinized 60% of Americans disfavored Johnsons presidency Robert McNamara, Secretary of State resigned following the debacle

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Robert Kennedy gained ground campaigning that he would end the War Political camps were deeply divided for the upcoming election President Johnson told Americans the US would seek negotiations to end the War Then Johnson shocked America by declaring he would not run for a second term This paved the way for Richard Nixon

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Major Battles

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In May of 1968, Peace talks in Paris began They failed to produce a resolution to the ghting in Vietnam When Nixon became president, he started a new policy called, Vietnamization This involved removing American soldiers and replacing them with S. Vietnam soldiers The US trained the S. Vietnamese to take over the conict and gradually began to pull out

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The US would still provide support to the south and even continued bombing raids One of the great problems with the War in Vietnam was the neighboring nations of Cambodia and Laos The Ho Chi Mihn Trail passed to the west and could not be attacked Nixon promised to end this problem When troops crossed into Cambodia, it set the stage for a Civil war Nixons actions brought a new wave of protests

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Protests in America intensied A faction of SDS turned violent They armed themselves with clubs, pipes, rocks and chains at attacked police in Chicago They called themselves the Weatherman, after a Bob Dylan line The violence in American cities caused many to petition for an end to the War

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Nixon felt the protests were the acts of radicals He still felt he had the majority of Americas interests He called upon the Silent Majority to help stop the protests Nixon experienced the same amount of success in peace negotiations as Johnson did In 1972, National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger announced, Peace is at Hand Days later, another massive attack occurred against South Vietnam

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Nixon intensied US bombing against Northern capitals In January, Nixon nally reached a peace agreement with North Vietnam 1) The US would withdraw all forces in 60 days 2) All prisoners of war would be released 3) All parties would end attacks on Cambodia and Laos 4) The 17th parallel would divide the nation until it could be reunited

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The US pulled out its troops by 1973 and left South Vietnam to itself Fighting continued for two more years In 1975, a major North Vietnam campaign pushed south The South Vietnamese could not contain it As forces marched into Saigon, the US rushed planes and helicopters to rescue the last democratic people of the south 6,000 people were airlifted to safety On April 30th, 1975, Saigon fell

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One reason the US involved itself in Vietnam was to stop the spread of communism Laos and Cambodia fell to communism, but no further Worst of the two was Cambodia The Khmer Rouge under Pol Pot killed 1.5 million people thought to support the west Many who escaped came to the US for safety

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The Vietnam war cost 58,000 American lives and an additional 300,000 wounded 2,500 Americans have been declared MIA or POW Returning veterans were treated poorly by Americans Most gave their lives ghting for their country and freedom All across the US they were hated, despised, and ridiculed A recent study found that 152,000 Vietnam vets have committed suicide

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The Vietnam War divided Americans more than any conict in the nations history Issues were so difcult that it took years for the government to create a monument In 1979, a group of veterans started to raise a fund to create a memorial Congress supported the idea and it was agreed to be built near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington D.C. How could the monument honor those who gave their lives and avoid the critical political issues surrounding the war?

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They decided to hold a contest for the monument The winner was a 21 year old college student names Maya Ling Lin She proposed a black granite wall with the names of those who lost their lives She chose black granite for its reective qualities, and a below ground placement The names are not alphabetical but in the order the victims died The memorial has been highly praised by all sides for helping heal the wounds of the War

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Major Battles