O..

H

( )

HV
2008




O.I. Panchenko
THEO! "#$ %"&T'&E O( T"#)*"T'O#
(*+,-./+ #0-+1 234 T+1-1)

HV
2008
Lecture 1
THEO! O( T"#)*"T'O# ") " )&'E#&E
Translation and art are twin processes.
Octavio Pas
PLAN
1. The subject and tasks oI the science.
T5+ 1.67+,- 234 -2181 09 -5+ 1,:+3,+;
Translation is a peculiar type oI communication interlingual communication.
The goal oI translation is to transIorm a text in the Source Language into a text
in the Target Language. This means that the message produced by the translator
should call Iorth a reaction Irom the TL receptor similar to that called Iorth by the
original message Irom the SL receptor. The content, that is, the reIerential meaning oI
the message with all its implications and the Iorm oI the message with all its emotive
and stylistic connotations must be reproduced as Iully as possible in the translation as
they are to evoke a similar response. While the content remains relatively intact, the
Iorm, that is, the linguistic signs oI the original, may be substituted or replaced by
other signs oI the TL because oI structural diIIerences at all levels. Such substitutions
are justiIied; they are Iunctional and aim at achieving equivalence.
Equivalent texts in the two languages are not necessarily made up oI
semantically identical signs and grammatical structures and equivalence should not
be conIused with identity.
LECTURE
EQUIVALENCE
Equivalence is the reproduction of a SL text by TL means. Equivalence is not
a constant but a variable quantity and the range oI variability is considerable. The
degree oI equivalence depends on the linguistic means used in the SL texts and on the
Iunctional style to which the text belongs. E.g.:
Early December brought a brief respite when temperatures fell and the ground
hardened, but a quick thaw followed.
!" #"$%&' ()*+,! $&)$' +"&"#-.$, )"/+"&)*&
+0,1,!(2, 1"/!' 1/"&1!, 0 +0)0/ %-()&0 !(2 0))"+"!2.
The messages conveyed by the original and the translaton are equivalent as
every semantic element has been retained although some changes have been made in
strict conIormity with the standards and usage oI the Russian language.
T!%E) O( E<='>"*E#&E
Equivalence implies variability and consequently several types oI equivalence
can be distinguished.
(:/1- T?@+ A (0/B2C ED.:E2C+3,+;
3hildren go to school e4ery morning.
5"), 60#') 7 .$0!* $8#0" *)&0.
The content, the structure oI the sentence and the semantic components
(language units) are similar. Each element oI the SL text has a corresponding one in
the TL text. But such cases oI complete similarity are rather rare.
)+,034 T?@+ A %2/-:2C &0//+1@034+3,+ ED.:E2C+3,+;
Non-corresponding elements may be lexical, grammatical or stylistical.
Equivalence oI the second type is usually achieved by means oI various
transIormations: substitution or replacements (both lexical and grammatical),
additions and omissions, paraphrasing and compensation.
9ll through the long foreign summer the 9merican tourist abroad has been
depressed by the rubber quality of his dollar.
0 7&"/' +&0#0!8,)"!20:0 !")":0 +&"%-7,' 1 :&,;"<
/"&,$($,6 )*&,()07 *:")!0 "+&"&-70" (0$&="," +0$*+)"!20<
(+0(0%0(), #0!!&.
Although a considerable degree oI equivalence has been achieved a number oI
transIormations, certain losses have been incurred, namely, compactness and
vividness. They are accounted Ior by existing discrepancies in collocability (valency).
Attention should be paid to the Stylistic aspect oI equivalence because oI its
importance in achieving the second type oI equivalence. The stylistic aspect oI
equivalence implies the rendering in translation oI stylistic and emotive connotations.
Stylistic connotations presuppose the use oI words belonging to the same layer oI the
vocabulary (literary, neutral and colloquial). Emotive connotations presuppose the
use oI words evoking similar connotations. The Iollowing example illustrates the
rendering oI stylistic connotations:
Delegates to the conference in >an ?rancisco, 9pril, @ABC, from European
countries ha4e been tra4eling three weeks. The Derman EFboats which were hanging
around were most effecti4ely scared off by depthFcharges from accompanying
destroyers.
5"!":)- ,1 "7&0+"<($,6 ()& G0H"&";,I 7 JFK&;,($0,
0)$&-7.*I(' 7 +&"!" @ABC :., 60#,!,(2 7 +*), +0), )&, "#"!,.
L!*%,-" %0/%- (0+&0708#7.,6 M(/,;"7 *(+".0 0):0'!, :"&/($,"
+0#70#-" !0#$,, $0)0&-" 7(" "=" .-&'!, 7 0$"".
The coll
erN.
O02I +&0608," 7,#"!, "()"&+,/0F'&$,< /"&)7"-< (7") "
+&,$&-)0:0 =,)0/ *!,0:0 H0&'.
Attention should also be drawn to the Pragmatic aspect oI equivalence.
Pragmatic equivalence can be achieved only by means oI interpreting extra-
linguistic Iactors.
Pr. Qealey by his decision presented a 3hristmas package so small that it is
hardly e4en a 3hristmas stockingFfiller.
R"&-, $0)0&-" &".,!(' /,,()& H,(07 S,!, +"&"# (/-/
&08#"()70/, %-!, )$,/, $*;-/,, )0 ,6 "#7 !, /080 17)2
&08#"()7"($,/ +0#&$0/.
The literal translation oI 'a 3hristmas stockingFfiller ')0 0, "#7 !,
/0:!, +0!,)2 &08#"()7"($,< *!0$ would hardly convey any sense to the
Russian receptor unIamiliar with the custom. In this case the pragmatic aspect
motivated the translation 'a 3hristmas stockingFfiller by '&08#"()7"($,<
+0#&0$. The addition oI the words '/,,()& H,(07 is also necessitated by
pragmatic considerations.
Here is another example oI interesting substitution.
The Elgin marbles seem an indisputable argument in fa4or of the preser4ation
of works of art by rape.
J))*, , H&,1, (')-" !0&#0/ T!:,0/ ( U&H"0 , *7"1"-" 7
V:!,I, +0F7,#,/0/*, '7!'I)(' "0+&07"&8,/-/ #070#0/ 7 +0!21* (06&",'
+&0,17"#",< ,($*(()7 +*)"/ 6,=",'.
The substitution oI the subject and the addition oI the participle construction
convey the necessary pragmatic inIormation. II a detail denoting some national
Ieature is not important enough it may saIely be omitted, e.g.
Qe could take nothing for dinner but a partridge with an imperial pint of
champagne WX. DalsworthyN.
Y 0%"#0/ 0 (Z"! )0!2$0 $*&0+)$* , 1+,! "" %*)-!$0< ./+($0:0.
The word 'imperial does not convey any signiIicant inIormation and may
thereIore be omitted in the Russian translation without impairing equivalence.
The pragmatic aspect oI the content is sometimes closely interwoven with the
linguistic aspect and their interaction also requires explanatory additions, e.g.
[ was sent to a boarding school when [ was 4ery little \ about fi4e \ because
my mother and father ] couldn^t afford anything so starchy as an English nurse or a
?rench go4erness W[lka 3haseN.
R"' 0)+&7,!, 7 +(,0, $0:# ' %-! 0"2 /!"2$0<, /" %-!0 !")
+')2, +0)0/* )0 /0, &0#,)"!, " /0:!, +0170!,)2 ("%" , ()0'="<
:!,<($0< '2$, 7 $&6/!"0/ "+;" , +"&"#,$", , 0+0&0<
H&;*1($0< :*7"&)$,.
The diIIiculty there lies not only in the pragmatic aspect oI the adjective
'starchy but also in its use in two meanings, direct and indirect, simultaneously (@.
$&6/!"-<_ `. 0+0&-<).
T5:/4 T?@+ A ):-.2-:032C 0/ (2,-.2C ED.:E2C+3,+;
The content or sense oI the utterance is conveyed by diIIerent grammatical and
lexical units.
Situational equivalence is observed when the same phenomenon is described in
a diIIerent way because it is seen Irom a diIIerent angle, e.g.
The police cleared the streets.
U0!,;,' &10:! #"/0()&;,I .
Enemployed teenagers are often left without means of gaining food and
shelter.
a"1&%0)-" +0#&0()$, ()0 0$1-7I)(' %"1 (&"#()7 $
(*="()707,I.
Qold the line.
O" $!#,)" )&*%$*.
The 3ommonwealth countries handle a quarter of the world^s trade.
O ()&- %&,)($0:0 (0#&*8"()7 +&,60#,)(' ")7"&)' ()2
/,&070< )0&:07!,.
This type oI equivalence also comprises the translation oI cliches, orders,
warnings and notices, phraseological units and set expressions, Iormulae oI
politeness, etc.
There were no sur4i4ors.
(" +0:,%!,.
?ragile \ 0()0&080, ()"$!0_
beep off, wet paint \ " (#,)2(', 0$&."0_
Pany happy returns of the day \ +01#&7!'I ( #"/ &08#",'.
In this way, the third type oI equivalence conveys the sense, the meaning oI the
utterance without preserving its Iormal elements.
(For a detailed analysis oI the levels oI equivalence problems and the structural
level patterns the reader is reIerred to the studies oI Soviet linguists B.H.
and B.H. tx , t. 203, .
183-199).
*E>E*) O( E<='>"*E#&E
Equivalence may occur at diIIerent linguistic levels: phonetic, word building,
morphological, at word level, at phrase level, at sentence level and Iinally at text
level.
%503+-:, C+E+C 09 ED.:E2C+3,+
The sound Iorm oI corresponding English and Russian words seldom coincide,
consequently this level oI equivalence is not common and is oI primary importance
only in poetic translation.
F0/4G6.:C4:3H *+E+C 09 ED.:E2C+3,+
e.g.: irresponsible \ %"10)7")()7"-<_ unpredictable \ "+&"#($1*"/-<_
counterbalance \ +&0),707"(, t.
I0/@50C0H:,2C *+E+C 09 ED.:E2C+3,+
e.g.: The report^s proposals were handed to a political committee.
U&"#!08",' #0$!# %-!, +"&"#- +0!,),"($0/* $0/,)")*.
ED.:E2C+3,+ 2- F0/4 *+E+C
e.g.: >he clasped her hands round her handbag. (Agatha Christie).
c $&"+$0 (8! 7 &*$6 (70I (*/0$*.
ED.:E2C+3,+ 09 %5/21+ *+E+C
Equivalence at phrase level is oI two kinds: a SL word corresponds to a TL
phrase (to negotiate \ 7"(), +"&":070&-), a SL phrase corresponds to a TL word
(Qippies are in re4olt against an acquisiti4e society. \ S,++, 70(()I) +&0),7
+0)&"%,)"!2($0:0 0%="()7).
ED.:E2C+3,+ 2- )+3-+3,+ *+E+C
It occurs: a) in phraseology two is company, three is none \ )&"),<
!,.,<; b) in orders and regulations keep off the grass \ +0 :10* " 60#,)2.
ED.:E2C+3,+ 2- T+J- *+E+C
It is usual in the translation oI poetry as seen in the translation oI William
Blake`s stanza by S. Marshak.
@. To see a dorld in a Drain of >and,
`. 9nd a Qea4en in a dild ?lower,
e. Qold [nfinity in the palm of your hand,
4. 9nd Eternity in an hour. (W. Blake, Auguries oI Innocence)
B. 0#0 /:07"2" 7,#")2 7"0()2,
@. c:&0/-< /,& \ 7 1"&" +"($,
e. "#,0< :0&(), \ %"($0"0()2
`. f "%0 \ 7 ."$" ;7")$.
The translation by S.Marshak may be regarded as excellent. The text as a unity
is reproduced most Iully and this conception oI unity justiIies the change in the order
oI the lines within the stanza.
A strict observance oI equivalence at all levels ensures a similar reaction on the
part oI the S and T language receptors and can be achieved by means oI Iunctional
substitutions.
LECTURE
T!%E) O( T"#)*"T'O#
Good theory is based on inIormation gained Irom practice. Good practice is based on
careIully worked-out theory. The two are interdependent. (Larson l991, p. 1)
The ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor
language Iorms used. An intended audience who is unIamiliar with the source text
will readily understand it. The success oI a translation is measured by how closely it
measures up to these ideals.
The ideal translation should be.
Accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning oI the source text.
Natural: using natural Iorms oI the receptor language in a way that is
appropriate to the kind oI text being translated.
Communicative: expressing all aspects oI the meaning in a way that is readily
understandable to the intended audience.
Translation is a process based on the theory that it is possible to abstract the meaning
oI a text Irom its Iorms and reproduce that meaning with the very diIIerent Iorms oI a
second language.
Translation, then, consists oI studying the lexicon, grammatical structure,
communication situation, and cultural context oI the source language text, analyzing
it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using
the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language
and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3)
Diagram from garson lAAh, p. B
In practice, there is considerable variation in the types oI translations produced by
translators. Some translators work only in two languages and are competent in both.
Others work Irom their Iirst language to their second language, and still others Irom
their second language to their Iirst language. Depending on these matters oI language
proIiciency, the procedures used will vary Irom project to project. In most projects in
which SIL is involved, a translation team carries on the project. Team roles are
worked out according to the individual skills oI team members. There is also some
variation depending on the purpose oI a given translation and the type oI translation
that will be accepted by the intended audiences.
Good theory is based on inIormation gained Irom practice. Good practice is based on
careIully worked-out theory. The two are interdependent. (Larson l991, p. 1)
The ideal translation will be accurate as to meaning and natural as to the receptor
language Iorms used. An intended audience who is unIamiliar with the source text
will readily understand it. The success oI a translation is measured by how closely it
measures up to these ideals.
The ideal translation should be.
Accurate: reproducing as exactly as possible the meaning oI the source text.
Natural: using natural Iorms oI the receptor language in a way that is
appropriate to the kind oI text being translated.
Communicative: expressing all aspects oI the meaning in a way that is readily
understandable to the intended audience.
Translation is a process based on the theory that it is possible to abstract the meaning
oI a text Irom its Iorms and reproduce that meaning with the very diIIerent Iorms oI a
second language.
Translation, then, consists oI studying the lexicon, grammatical structure,
communication situation, and cultural context oI the source language text, analyzing
it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using
the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language
and its cultural context. (Larson l998, p. 3)
Diagram from garson lAAh, p. B
In practice, there is considerable variation in the types oI translations produced by
translators. Some translators work only in two languages and are competent in both.
Others work Irom their Iirst language to their second language, and still others Irom
their second language to their Iirst language. Depending on these matters oI language
proIiciency, the procedures used will vary Irom project to project. In most projects in
which SIL is involved, a translation team carries on the project. Team roles are
worked out according to the individual skills oI team members. There is also some
variation depending on the purpose oI a given translation and the type oI translation
that will be accepted by the intended audiences.
The Iollowing three types oI translation can be distinguished: equivalent
translation, literal translation and Iree translation.
ED.:E2C+3- -/231C2-:03
Equivalent translation has been considered in the preceding pages. Achieving
equivalence is the goal aimed at in translation.
*:-+/2C -/231C2-:03
In spite oI the Iact that there are cases oI semantic and structural coincidences
they are rather an exception. A literal or word translation is obviously unacceptable
because it results in a violation oI Iorm, or a distortion oI sense, or both.
No desire on the part oI the translator to preserve in his translation the lexical,
grammatical or stylistic peculiarities oI the original text can justiIy any departure
Irom the norms oI the TL.
Literal translation imposes upon the TL text alien lexical and grammatical
structures, alien collocability, alien connotations and alien stylistic norms.
In literal translation Iorm prevails over content and the meaning oI the text is
distorted. Literalism may be lexical, grammatical or stylistic, e.g.
Qe wagged a grateful tail and climbed on the seat (Georgetta Heyer).
c %!:0#&0 17,!'! 670()0/ , 7($&%$!(' (,#"2"I
>he was letting her temper go by inches (Monica Dickens).
c +0"/0:* )"&'! )"&+",". Wc 7(" %0!2." , %0!2." )"&'!
)"&+","N.
The pragmatic aspect oI translation does not admit literalism either and
requires interpreting translation or substitution.
The Tory Team, howe4er, aren^t all batting on the same wicket.
The metaphor is taken from cricket, a 4ery popular game in iritain but hardly
known to jussian readers.
c#$0, $0("&7)0&- " "#,-.
c#$0, $0/# $0("&7)0&07 ,:&! " #&*80.
T/231C2-:03 *0231
Literal translation should not be conIused with translation loans. A translation
loan is a peculiar Iorm oI word-borrowing by means oI literal translation. Translation
loans are built on the pattern oI Ioreign words or phrases with the elements oI the
borrowing language, e.g. collecti4e farm is a translation loan oI the Russian $0!601
but in a Iull and not in an abbreviated Iorm: oil dollars F"H)"#0!!&-_
goodneighbourly relations \ #0%&0(0("#($," 0)0.",' (a Iull loan)_ war effect (a
partial loan as number does not coincide).
(/++ T/231C2-:03
Free translation, that is, paraphrasing is a special type oI translation used as a
rule in annotations, precis, abstracts, etc. Iree translation is rendering oI meaning
regardless oI Iorm. The aim oI such translation is to convey inIormation to people in
other countries in a most compact and condensed manner.
There is another interpretation oI the term 'Free translation.
The translator in this case considers himselI as co-author and takes great
liberties with the original text resorting to unjustiIied expansion or omissions.
k>he burst out cryingl is translated as 'Ct x
m (Ch. Dickens, tr. By J.V. Vedensky).
TO CONCLUDE: the three parameters oI translation are: rendering oI
contents, rendering oI Iorm and observance oI TL norms. These Iundamentals are oI
equal signiIicance and are to be duly taken into account in the process oI translation.
The vast resources oI the Russian language enable the translator to achieve excellent
and the Iundamental principle oI translation what is said in one language can as
well be said in another remains inviolable.
LECTURE
K"II"T'&"* %OL*EI)
K+3+/2C ,031:4+/2-:031
Equivalence, as has been pointed in the previous chapter, is achieved by
diIIerent transIormations: grammatical, lexical, stylistic. The present chapter deals
with grammatical transIormations and their causes. The causes generating these
transIormations are not always purely grammatical but may be lexicalas well, though
grammatical causes naturally prevail due to diIIerences in the SL and TL
grammatical structures.
Not inIrequently, grammatical and lexical causes are so closely interwoven that
the required transIormations are oI a twoIold character. The Iollowing example
illustrates this point.
The 4igil of the E.>. Embassy supported last week by many prominent people
and still continuing, the marches last >aturday, the resolutions of organimations ha4e
done something to show that the nrime Pinister does not speak for iritain.
G&*:!0(*)0' #"/0()&;,' * 1#,' /"&,$($0:0 +0(0!2()7,
+0!*,7.' +&0.!0< "#"!" +0##"&8$* /0:,6 7,#-6 #"')"!"<, 7(" "="
+&0#0!8")('. T) #"/0()&;,' , (0()0'7.,"(' 7 (*%%0)* +060#-,
)$8" +&,')-" &1!,-/, 0&:,1;,'/, &"10!I;,,, '70
(7,#")"!2()7*I) 0 )0/, )0 +&"/2"&F/,,()& 0)I#2 " :070&,) 0) ,/",
7(":0 :!,<($0:0 &0#.
A number oI lexical and grammatical transIormations have been eIIected in: 1)
the long English sentence in which the subject is expressed by three homogeneous
members (the 4igil, the marches, the resolutions) is translated by two separate
Russian sentences. The structure oI the English sentence is typical oI the structure oI
brieI notes or oI leads which usually contain miscellaneous inIormation on the
principles oI 'who, what, when, where and how. This, however, is not usual in
Russian newspaper style. The word #"/0()&;,' is repeated as both sentences
have the same subject. 2) The word '4igil has recently developed a new meaning
'around the clock demonstration. This new meaning is accordingly rendered by two
words ($&*:!0(*)0' #"/0()&;,'); similarly, the participle 'supported is also
rendered by two Russian words (+0!*,7.' +0##"&8$*); 3) a number oI additional
words have been introduced: * 1#,' W+0(0!2()7N, (0()0'7.,"(' W7 (*%%0)*
+060#-N, )$8" +&,')-" &1!,-/, W0&:,1;,'/, &"10!I;,,N. 4) The
word 'last has been omitted as its meaning is implied in the Russian adverbial oI
time (7 (*%%0)*); 5) The emphatic meaning oI the predicate with its object (ha4e
done something to show) is conveyed by the adverb '70. 6) The cliche (speak for
iritain) is rendered by a corresponding cliche :070&,)2 0) ,/",. 7) Finally, the
metonymy (iritain) is translated by the words it stands for 7"(2 :!,<($,< &0#.
Strictly speaking only the translation oI the complex sentence by meaning oI
two sentences can be regarded as a purely grammatical transIormation, whereas all
the other transIormations are oI a mixed character both lexical and grammatical.
K/2BB2-:,2C (+2-./+1 T?@:,2C 09 I04+/3 E3HC:15
Naturally only some Ieatures oI Modern English will be considered here.
The deeply rooted tendency Ior compactness has stimulated a wide use oI
various verbal complexes: the inIinitive complex, the gerundial complex, the
participial complex, the absolute nominative construction. The same tendency is
displayed in some pre-positional attributes: the N1 N2 attributive model, attributive
groups, attributive phrases. None oI them has any equivalents in Russian grammar
and as a rule they require decompression in translation. Causative constructions also
illustrate this tendency Ior compactness.
Qe ]soon twinkled naul out of his sulks (R.F.DalderIield).
c ! +0#/,:,7)2 U0!I , )0) +"&"()! #*)2('.
Translation is sometimes impeded by the existence oI grammatical homonymy
in Modern English. For example, the Gerund and Participle I are homonyms. The
analytical Iorms oI the Future-in-the-Past are homonyms with the Iorms oI the
Subjunctive mood: should (would) inIinitive. The diIIiculty is aggravated by a
homonymous Iorm oI the Past IndeIinite oI the verb 'will expressing volition. The
InIinitive oI Purpose and the InIinitive oI Subsequent Action may easily be conIused.
Grammatical homonymy may oIten be puzzling and may sometimes cause diIIerent
interpretations. In such cases recourse should be taken to a wider context, e.g.
dhat we stand for is winning all o4er the world. (L. Barkhudarov, Lectures).
The translation oI the sentence depends on the grammatical interpretation oI
the ing Iorm, i.e. whether it is interpreted as Participle I or as a Gerund. According
to the Iormer interpretation, the word combination 'is o winning is the Iorm oI the
Present Continuous Tense; according to the latter, it is a nominal predicate link verb
Predicative. These diIIerent interpretations result in diIIerent translations:
@. p0, 1 )0 /- 7-()*+"/, 0#"&8,7") +0%"#* 70 7("/ /,&".
`. R- ()0,/ 1 )0, )0%- #0%,)2(' +0%"#- 70 7("/ /,&".
A diIIerent grammatical interpretation involves a diIIerent political
interpretation.
#03G+D.:E2C+3-1
Some English grammatical Iorms and structures have no corresponding
counterparts in Russian, others have only partial equivalents. The Iirst group) non-
equivalents) includes articles, the gerund and the Past PerIect Tense.
Articles. The categories oI deIiniteness and indeIiniteness are universal but the
ways and means oI expressing these notions vary in diIIerent languages.
In English this Iunction is IulIilled by the articles whereas in Russian by word
order. Both the deIinite and indeIinite articles in English are meaningIul and their
meanings and their Iunctions cannot be ignored in translation.
Every utterance Ialls into two parts the so-called theme and rheme. The
theme indicates the subject oI the utterance while the rheme contains the inIormation
about the subject. The theme, in other words, represents a known thing, which has
probably been mentioned beIore, whereas the rheme introduces some new
inIormation. Thus the theme is the starting point oI the utterance and as such it can
sometimes introduce a new subject about which the rheme gives some inIormation. In
this case the indeIinite article is used to indicate indeIiniteness. The theme usually
occupies the initial position in the sentence. The theme in the English language with
its Iixed word order usually coincides with the grammatical subject oI the sentence.
When the theme again occurs in the text it is preceded by the deIinite article.
9 lady entered the compartment. The lady sat down in the corner seat
(P.G.Wodehouse).
The categories oI indeIiniteness and deIiniteness are expressed by the
indeIinite and the deIinite articles respectively and these categories are rendered by
word order in translation.
$*+" 70.! #/. 5/ ("! 7 *:!* * 0$.
When the articles are charged with some other meanings apart Irom the
categories oI deIiniteness and indeIiniteness lexical means come into play in
translation.
II these meanings are not rendered lexically the Russian sentence is
semantically incomplete.
The influence and authority of the >ecretariat depends to an eqtent Wthough not
nearly to the eqtent that is popularly supposedN on the talents of one indi4idual \ the
>ecretaryFDeneral. (Peter Lyon, The U.N. in Action).
!,'," , 7)0&,)") J"$&")&,) 17,(,) 7 $$0<F)0 ()"+", W60)'
, " 7 )$0< ()"+",, $$ 0%-0 (,)I)N 0) (+0(0%0()"< 0#0:0 "!07"$
\ L""&!20:0 ("$&")&'.
T5+ K+/.34; Another non-equivalent Iorm is the gerund. It IulIils various
Iunctions in the sentence and can be translated by diIIerent means.
k[ wonder at Xolion^s allowing this engagementl, he said to 9unt 9nn
(J. Galsworthy).
rs *#,7!'I(2, )0 580!,0 &1&".,! M)* +0/0!7$*t, \ ($1! 0
)")*.$" T.
The gerund modiIied by a proper noun in the possessive case is translated by a
subordinate clause.
The gerund used in the Iunction oI a prepositional object is also rendered in
translation by a subordinate clause.
The mayor of the island is talking of opening up its lush and 4irgin interior to
beefFandFdairy cattle ranching.
RM& 0()&07 +0:07&,7") 0 )0/, )0%- ,(+0!2107)2 (0-",
")&0*)-" !*: ":0 7*)&""< (), #!' /'(0/0!00:0 601'<()7.
The so-called halI-gerund may also be translated by a subordinate clause.
There was nothing more to sayu which didn^t pre4ent, as the game went on, a
good deal more being said. (G.F.Snow).
L070&,)2 %0!2." %-!0 " 0 "/, 0 M)0 " +0/".!0 )0/*, )0 7 60#"
,:&- %-!0 ($10 "=" 0"2 /0:0.
T5+ %21- %+/9+,- T+31+; The meaning oI the Past PerIect Tense is usually
rendered in Russian by some adverbs oI time.
The stone heat of the day had gentled down. (I.Shaw).
v&, $0)0&-< ."! #"/ 0) &($!"-6 $/"<, *8" (+!.
But in many cases the Past PerIect Tense is translated by the Russian Past
Tense without any temporal speciIication.
The mainspring of his eqistence was taken away when she died] Ellen was the
audience before which the blustering drama of Derald w^Qara had been played.
(M. Mitchell).
c+0& ":0 (*="()707,' ,("1! ( "" (/"&)2I. ]T!!, %-! )0<
+*%!,$0<, +"&"# $0)0&0< &1-:&-7!(2 %*&' #&/ 58"&!2# c^S&.
%2/-:2C ED.:E2C+3,+
SL and TL grammatical Iorms hardly ever coincide Iully. The scope oI their
meaning and their Iunctions and usage generally diIIer, thereIore these Iorms are
mostly partial equivalents.
The category oI number in English and in Russian is a casein point. Most oIten
the use oI the singular and the plural in the two languages coincides. But divergences
in the use oI the singular and the plural appear in the Iirst place in the so-called
Singularia and Pluralia Tantum, that is, in those nouns which have either only a
singular or a plural Iorm, e.g. gate \ 70&0), ink \ "&,!, money \ #"2:,, and
vice versa: gallows \ 7,("!,;, news \ 070(),. Sometimes a countable noun in
English and in Russian, E.G. talent \ talents_ )!) \ )!)- develops a new
LSV (lexical-semantic variant) which is used as an uncountable noun.
iritain is the source of phrase kbrain drainl which describes the mo4ement of
iritish talent to the Enited >tates.
-&8"," r*)"$ */07t, $0)0&0" 01") M/,:&;,I :!,<($,6
(+";,!,()07 7 J0"#,"-" x))-, 7+"&7-" +0'7,!0(2 7 "!,$0%&,),,.
Abstract nouns are more oIten used in the plural in English than in Russian,
e.g.
The struggles of many sections of the E.>. population against the warFlo4ers in
9merica ha4e grown to a height ne4er reached before.
a0&2% /0:,6 :&*++ ("!",' J0"#,"-6 x))07 +&0),7
()0&0,$07 70<- #0(),:! "%-7!0:0 &1/6.
9llende^s political skills made him four times candidate for the presidency.
U0!,),"($,< 0+-) V!2"#" 0%"(+",! ")-&"6$&)0" 7-#7,8"," ":0
$#,#)*&- +0() +&"1,#").
The semantic volume oI the word 'skills justiIies its translation by two
Russian words both used in the singular.
c+-) , ,($*(()70 V!2"#" $$ +0!,),"($0:0 #"')"!']
Sometimes diIIerent usage prevents a strict observance oI he category oI
number in translation, e.g.
The right to work is ensured by the democratic organimation of the national
economy, the growth of the producti4e forces and the elimination of crisis and
unemployment.
U&70 )&*# 0%"(+",7")(' #"/0$&),"($0< 0&:,1;,"<
&0#0:0 601'<()7, &0()0/ +&0,170#,)"!2-6 (,! , 0)(*)()7,"/ $&,1,(07
, %"1&%0),;-.
The plural Iorm in Russian ($&,1,(07) achieves the required degree oI
generalization.
There is also a tendency in English o use nouns like 'eye, 'cheek, 'lip, 'ear,
'limb, etc. in the singular, e.g.
Qe always thought of her as se4enteen or so, clean of limb, beautiful of feature
and filled with the impatience for life. (R. Wilder).
c 7(":# +&"#()7!'! "" ("%" $$0< 0 %-! !") 7 ("/#;)2 \
$&(,7-" "&)- !,;, ()&0<-" 0:, , %"1*#"&8' 88# 8,1,.
The noun 'limb can also be rendered metonymically +&"!"()' H,:*&.
There is also a considerable diIIerence between the use oI the Passive voice in
English and in Russian. The English language allows diIIerent types oI passive
constructions and there are a number oI verbs in English which can be used in the
passive voice while the correlated verbs in Russian cannot. For example, many
English verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive.
wriginal samples of naris clothing ha4e been flown to gondon to illustrate
lectures to the fashion industry.
O07-" /0#"!, +&,8($,6 )*!")07 %-!, #0()7!"- (/0!")0/ 7
y0#0 #!' +0$1 70 7&"/' !"$;,< +&"#()7,)"!'/ :!,<($,6 #0/07 /0#"!"<.
English verbs with a prepositional object are also used in the passive voice, a
construction non-existing in Russian.
go4ers if familiar symphonic fare are catered for with two irahms symphonies
and ?irst niano 3oncerto by ieetho4en.
yI%,)"!"< ()0 ,(+0!'"/0< (,/H0,"($0< /*1-$, 7 -"."/
("10" *:0=I) #7*/' (,/H0,'/, a&/( , U"&7-/ H0&)"+,-/
$0;"&)0/ a")607".
The impersonal passive with a preposition is translated by an impersonal
construction.
The increase in the family allowances that was widely hoped for has come to
nothing.
z7"!,"," +0(0%,' /0:0#")-/ ("/2'/, $0)0&0" 7(" )$ #"'!,(2,
" 0(*="()7,!0(2.
In some cases the use oI the Russian Passive Iorm is precluded by the Iact that
the Russian verb is used with a prepositional object.
The [ran earthquake was followed by tremors lasting a long time.
Y 1"/!")&'(","/ 7 f&" +0(!"#07!, )0!$,, +&0#0!87.,"('
#070!20 #0!:0.
Verbs Iormed by conversion present great diIIiculties in translation especially
when used in the Passive.
The roads were sentinelled by oaks. (Clemance Dane).
U0 $&'/ #0&0:,, (!070 (07-", ()0'!, #*%-.
Its picturesqueness is rendered by a simile which makes the translation
semantically and stylistically equivalent.
The desire Ior giving prominence to some element oI the utterance, oIten
accounts Ior the use oI the passive Iorm in English. As the word order is Subject-
Predicate-Object and as stylistic inversion is relatively inIrequent because oI its
expressive value, the Passive is naturally used. The tendency is particularly marked in
newspaper style.
?ears are eqpressed that the {orth >ea could be fished out of herring.
-($1-7I)(' 0+(",', )0 ,1 J"7"&0:0 /0&' /0:*) 7-!07,)2 7(I
("!2#2.
>+/62C1 the InIinitive and the Participles.
Though these categories also exist in Russian there are considerable diIIiculties
in their Iorms and their use: the English InIinitive has PerIect and Continuous Iorms
which are absent in the Russian language, whereas these verbals in the Russian
language have perIective and imperIective aspects, non-existent in English. There are
inIinitive and participle complexes in Englishwhich have no counterparts in Russian.
T5+ '39:3:-:E+; Nominative with the inIinitive (the inIinitive as a secondary
predicate).
wil consumption has increased by B per cent and the increase is eqpected to go
up to C per cent.
U0)&"%!"," "H), 701&0(!0 B +&0;") , 08,#")(', )0 00
#0(),:") C +&0;")07.
The inIinitive complex is rendered by two clauses.
The nfinitive complex with the preposition !for".
That was an odd thing for him to do. (G.Grene).
J)&0, )0 0 )$ +0()*+,!.
The inIinitive complex is translated by a subordinate clause.
The nfinitive used as attribute.
>upporters of outright independence for nuerto jico fared poorly in the
election \ but remained a force to contend with.
J)0&0,$, "/"#!"0:0 +&"#0()7!",' "17,(,/0(), U*M&)0F|,$0
(0%&!, "1,)"!20" ,(!0 :0!0(07 7-%0&6, 0 0, 7(" 8"
+&"#0()7!'I) (0%0< (,!*, ( $0)0&0< +&,#")(' (,))2('.
Here too, the inIinitive is translated by a subordinate attributive clause
comprising the inIinitive itselI.
The nfinitive of subsequent action.
Throughout @Ae} term after team after team attacked the Eiger, only to be
dri4en back. (Trevanian).
O +&0)'8",, 7(":0 @Ae} :0# 0# :&*++ !2+,,()07 1 #&*:0<
+-)!(2 (07"&.,)2 70(608#"," 7"&.,* T<:"& , $8#-< &1 7(" 0,
%-!, 7-*8#"- 0)()*+)2.
The InIinitive is rendered in this case by a coordinate clause.
T5+ %2/-:,:@C+ 21 %2/- 09 23 "610C.-+ &031-/.,-:03
There were widespread j.9.?. strikes throughout [ndia, 3eylon and the Piddle
East with the 9irforce rank and file demanding speedier demobilimation.
f#,,, ~"<!0" , J&"#"/ 0()0$" +&0$),!(2 70! 1%()070$
&'#07-6 (!*8=,6 G0&0!"7($,6 70"0F701#*.-6 (,!, $0)0&-" )&"%07!,
*($0&,)2 #"/0%,!,1;,I.
%2/-:2C ED.:E2C+3-1 ,2.1+4 6? 4:99+/+3- .12H+
Partial equivalents are also caused by diIIerent syntactical usage. The priority
oI Syntax due to the analytical character oI the English language is reIlected in a
number oI Ieatures Iirmly established in it by usage. ChieI among them are: the use
oI homogeneous members which are logically incompatible, a peculiar use oI
parentheses, the morphological expression oI the subject in the principal and the
subordinate clauses, etc.
dithout pomp and circumstance, {.9.T.w. closed its naris headFquarters on
?riday e4ening. The building which has housed the >ecretariat and the @C
delegations for some @ years has been rapidly emptying of furniture and staff.
+'),;* 7""&0/ %"1 7('$0< +-.0(), , ;"&"/0,< 1$&-!(2 .)%F
$7&),& OVpc 7 U&,8". Y#,", 7 $0)0&0/ 7 )""," @ !") &1/"=!,(2
("$&")&,) , #"!":;,, @C :0(*#&()7, %-()&0 0+*()"!0 \ ,1 ":0 7-7"1!,
/"%"!2 , 7-"6!, 7(" (0)&*#,$,.
The meaning oI the verb 'has been emptying of is rendered in Russian by
three verbs in conIormity with the norm and usage oI Russian language valency:
] 1#," 0+*()"!0, /"%"!2 7-7"1!,, (0)&*#,$, 7-"6!,.
A parenthetical phrase or clause sometimes breaks up the logical Ilow oI the
sentence which is common English as the relations between the members oI the
sentence are clear due to the priority oI syntax. But such use necessitates a recasting
oI the Russian sentence, the parenthetical clause must be placed where it logically
belongs to, sometimes even Iorming a separate sentence.
The Xustice narty in Turkey has taken part in a coalition, and on another
occasion its leader has been asked \ but failed \ to form a go4ernment.
U&),' J+&7"#!,70(), 7 p*&;,, 0#, &1 *()707! 7 $0!,;,00/
+&7,)"!2()7", 7 #&*:0< &1 !,#"&* +&),, %-!0 +&"#!08"0 (H0&/,&07)2
+&7,)"!2()70, 0 M)0 "/* " *#!0(2 .
As to the morphological expression oI the subject in the principal and the
subordinate clause it should be noted that syntactical hierarchy requires the use oI a
noun in the Iormer and oI a pronoun in the latter, regardless oI their respective order.
The dark 9lgerian were ripe and as they crawled, the men picked the grapes
and ate them. (J. Steinbeck).
"&-< !8,&($,< 7,0:&# *8" +0(+"!, , +&0#7,:7.,"(' +0!1$0/
(0!#)- (&-7!, :&01#2' , "!, ,6.
The subordinate clause is translated by an attributive participle group to avoid
the use oI a second subject.
(/++ 234 L0.34 =1+ 09 K/2BB2/ (0/B1
Grammatical Iorms are generally used Ireely according to their own meaning
and their use is determined by purely linguistic Iactors, such as rules oI agreement,
syntactic construction, etc. in such cases their use is not Iree but bound. For example,
in English the singular or the plural Iorm oI a noun preceded by a numeral depends
upon the number oI things counted: one table, twenty one tables; in Russian the
agreement depends on the last numeral: 0#, ()0!, #7#;)2 +')2 ()0!07.
The rule oI sequence oI Tenses is another case in point: the use oI the tense in
the English subordinate clause is bound. II the past Tense is used in the principal
clause, the Past or the Future-in-the-Past must be used in the subordinate clause
instead oI the Present or oI the Future, e.g. Qe says that he speaks English \ 0
:070&,), )0 1") :!,<($,<_ he said that he spoke English \ 0 ($1!, )0 0
:070&,) +0F:!,<($,.
This purely Iormal rule oI the sequence oI tenses does not Iind its reIlection in
translation as no such rule exists in Russian and the use oI the tense Iorm in the
dependent clause is Iree and is determined by the situation.
It should be borne in mind that in reported speech in newspaper articles, in
minutes, in reports and records this rule oI the sequence oI tenses is observed
through the text: the sequences are governed by the Past Tense oI the initial sentence
he said, it was reported, they declared, he stressed, etc.
To conclude, only Iree Iorms are rendered in translation and bound Iorms
require special attention.
T?@+1 09 K/2BB2-:,2C T/23190/B2-:031
As has been said, divergences in the structures oI the two languages are so
considerable that in the process oI translation various grammatical and lexical
transIormations indispensable to achieve equivalence. These transIormations may be
classed into Iour types: 1. transpositions; 2. replacements; 3. additions; 4. omissions.
This classiIication, however, should be applied with reservation. In most cases they
are combined with one another, moreover, grammatical and lexical elements in a
sentence are so closely interwoven that one change involves another, e.g.
9s they lea4e dashington, the four foreign ministers will be tra4eling together
by plane.
(" ")-&" /,,()& ,0()&-6 #"! +0!")') ,1 .,:)0 7/"()".
The Iollowing types oI transIormations have been resorted to in the translation
oI this complex sentence:
1. The complex sentence is translated by a simple one (replacement oI sentence
type);
2. The word order is changed (transposition);
3. The subordinate clause oI time is rendered by an adverbial modiIier oI place
(replacement oI member oI the sentence);
4. The meaning oI the predicate and oI the adverbial modiIier is rendered by
the predicate (both lexical and grammatical transIormations replacement and
omission);
5. The meaning oI the deIinite article is rendered lexically (addition).
The above analysis shows that all the Iour types oI transIormations are used
simultaneously and are accompanied by lexical transIormations as well.
T/231@01:-:031
Transposition may be deIined as a change in the order oI linguistic elements:
words, phrases, clauses and sentences. Their order in the TL text may not correspond
to that in the SL text.
This change oI order is necessary to preserve Iully the content oI the utterance
while observing the norms oI the TL.
In considering the universal categories oI deIiniteness and indeIiniteness
mention has been made oI the two main parts oI the sentence Irom the point oI view
oI communication, viz. the known (theme) and new (rheme) elements oI the utterance
and their respective place in English and in Russian sentences. It should also be noted
that the traditional word order in English is Subject Predicate Object Adverbial
modiIiers while the common tendency in Russian is to place adverbial modiIiers at
the beginning oI the sentence to be Iollowed by the predicate and the subject at the
end, e.g.
>trikes broke out in many iritish industries.
&'#" 0)&(!"< +&0/-.!"0(), "!,$0%&,),, 7(+-6*!,
1%()07$,.
Transposition can also be eIIected within a complex sentence. The arrangement
oI clauses in English is oIten governed by syntactical hierarchy, whereas in Russian
precedence is taken by logical considerations, e.g.
Qe started back and fell against the railings, trembling as he looked up.
(W.M.Thackeray).
1:!'*7 7"&6, 0 71#&0:*!, 0)+&'*! ,, 7"(2 #&08, +&,(!0,!(' $
0:&#".
+@C2,+B+3-1
The substitution oI parts oI speech is a common and most important type oI
replacements. Every word Iunctions in the language as a member oI a certain
grammatical clause, that is, as a distinct part oI speech: noun, verb, adjective or
adverb. But the S and T languages do not necessarily have correlated words
belonging to the same grammatical class. In such cases replacements or replacements
additions are necessary, e.g.
an early bedder \ "!07"$, $0)0&-< &0 !08,)(' (+)2_
to cut4ote somebody \ +0!*,)2 %0!2." :0!0(07 7-%0&6, "/ ]
The Times wrote editorially]F +"&"#070< ())2" :1") p</( +,(!]
The adverb is translated by a noun modiIied by an adjective.
A Irequent use oI nominal and phrase predicates with the key notion expressed
by a noun or an adjective oIten results in the replacement oI a noun by a verb.
9 professor of Esseq Eni4ersity was critical of the Do4ernment social security
policy.
U&0H"((0& T(("$($0:0 *,7"&(,)") $&,),$07! +&7,)"!2()7"*I
+0!,),$* (0;,!20:0 0%"(+"",'.
Semantically link verbs are highly diversiIied. Sometimes it is hard to draw a
clear demarcation line between a nominal predicate and a case oI secondary
predication.
The door at the end of the corridor sighed open and sighed shut again.
(G.H.Cox).
57"&2 7 $0;" $0&,#0& "!" (!-.0 0)$&-!(2 , (07 )$8" "!"
(!-.0 1$&-!(2.
Qe took the bellFrope in his hand and ga4e it a brisk tug. (Conan Doyle).
c (67),! .*&0$ 0) 170$ , &"1$0 ":0 #"&*!.
A phrase predicate is replaced by a verbal predicate.
Adjectives derived Irom geographical names are usually replaced by nouns as
such Russian adjectives evidently tend to express some permanent characteristic trait
but not a temporary one, e.g.
3hilean copper \ ,!,<($' /"#' &*# but 3hilean atrocities \ 17"&()7 7
,!,.
Degrees oI comparison also sometimes cause replacements. Such adjectives in
the comparative degree as more, less, higher, lower, shorter, etc. are oIten translated
by other parts oI speech.
Pore letter bombs ha4e been rendered harmless.
a-!0 0%"17&"8"0 "=" "($0!2$0 +,("/ ( %0/%/,.
Qis audience last night may also ha4e been less than enthusiastic about the
nrime Pinister^s attitude towards Do4ernment spending.
J!*.!,, 701/080, %"10 7('$0:0 70()0&: 0)"(!,(2 $ 7"&."/*
7-()*+!",I +&"/2"&F/,,()&, 7 $0)0&0/ 0 7-($1! (70" 0)0."," $
+&7,)"!2()7"-/ &(60#/.
Another linguistic phenomenon which Irequently causes replacements in
translation is the use oI nouns denoting inanimate things, abstract notions, natural
phenomena and parts oI the body as subjects agents oI the action.
Election year opens on in 9merica which is more di4ided and bitter than at
any time in recent history.
M)0/ :0#* %*#*) +&0,(60#,)2 7-%0&- 7 V/"&,$", $0)0&' "=" ,$0:#
" %-! )$0< &1Z"#,"0< , 01!0%!"0<.
As a matter oI Iact the subject in such constructions is purely Iormal. Actually
it expresses adverbial relations oI time, place, cause, etc.
Parts oI the sentence oIten change their syntactical Iunction in translation thus
causing a complete or partial reconstruction oI the sentence by means oI
replacements.
The dhite Qouse correspondents ha4e largely been beaten into submission by
the nresident.
U&"1,#") :&*%-/ 8,/0/ 1()7,! +0#,,)2(' %0!2.,()70
$0&&"(+0#")07 +&, a"!0/ 50/".
+@C2,+B+3-1 09 1+3-+3,+ -?@+1
The usual types oI replacements are the substitution oI a simple sentence by a
complex one and vice versa; oI the principal clause by a subordinate one and vice
versa; the replacement oI subordination by coordination and vice versa; the
replacement oI asyndeton by polysyndeton and vice versa. These kinds oI
replacements are oIten caused by the existence oI various complexes and structures in
the English language, e.g.
[ saw him cross the street and buy a newspaper.
s 7,#"!, $$ +"&"."! *!,;* , $*+,! :1")*.
A simple sentence is replaced by a complex one.
Parsel Daussault, the airplane manufacturer who is said to be the richest man
in ?rance had defrauded the go4ernment of e million in taqes.
R&("!2 5((0, 7!#"!"; 7,()&0,)"!20< $0/+,,, $0)0&-<, $$
:070&'), '7!'")(' (/-/ %0:)-/ "!07"$0/ 70 K&;,,, 0%0$&!
+&7,)"!2()70, " 7-+!),7 e /,!!,007 #0!!&07 !0:07.
Simple sentences containing inIinitive complexes are usually translated by
complex sentences.
A simple sentence with an absolute participle or a nominative absolute
construction is usually rendered by a subordinate or coordinate complex sentence.
dith the fog rolling away and the sun shining out of a sky of icy blue the
tre4ellers started on the leg of their climb. (Trevanian)
G0:# )*/ +0#'!(' , (0!;" 1(,'!0 60!0#0/ :0!*%0/ "%",
!2+,,()- !, +0(!"#,< M)+ (70":0 70(608#",'.
It should also be noted that the type oI the subordinate clause may be changed
on the strength oI usage.
>he glanced at irendon, where he sat on a chair across her. (W.Deeping).
c +0(/0)&"! a&"#0, $0)0&-< (,#"! ()*!" +&0),7 "".
The adverb 'where probably does not Iunction here as an adverb oI place but
rather as a word qualiIying the sitter.
Apart Irom replacing a simple sentence by a subordinated or coordinated
complex sentence it can also be replaced by two, or more simple sentences. It is
especially practiced in the translation oI the so-called 'leads. A lead is the Iirst
sentence oI news-in-brieI which contains the main point oI the inIormation. It usually
coincides with the Iirst paragraph and is usually divided into two or more sentences
in translation.
Thousands of 9lgerians tonight fled from the kdead cityl of wrleanswille after
a twel4eFsecond earthquake had ripped through central 9lgeria, killing an estimated
@,@ people.
1. p-(', 8,)"!"< %"8!, (":0#' 02I ,1 r/"&)70:0 :0&0#t
c&!"7,!', (+('(2 0) 1"/!")&'(",', #!,7.":0(' #7"#;)2 ("$*#.
2. Y"/!")&'("," +&0,10.!0 7 ;")&!2-6 &<06 V!8,&.
3. U0 +&"#7&,)"!2-/ #-/ +0:,%!0 @.@ "!07"$.
On the other hand a complex sentence may by replaced by a simple one.
[t was at the C
th
3ongress that the Dreat jussian writer Paqim Dorky met
genin for the first time.
"!,$,< &*(($,< +,()"!2 R$(,/ L0&2$,< 7+"&7-" 7()&"),!(' (
y",-/ C (Z"1#" +&),,.
Qe could not say anything unless he was prompted. (Taylor Caldwell).
a"1 +0#($1$, 0 " /0: , (!07 ($1)2.
"44:-:031
The tendency towards compression both in the grammatical and the lexical
systems oI the English language oIten makes additions necessary and indispensable.
Much has already been said about additions that accompany transpositions and
replacements. This is particularly true in the translation oI inIinitive, participle and
gerundial complexes. There are other cases when additions are caused by compressed
structures such as the absolute possessive, attributes Iormed by juxtaposition N
1
N
2
structures and by attributive groups.
The model N
1
N
2
oIten requires additions in translation: riot police \
(+";,!2-" 0)&'#- +0!,;,, #!' +0#7!",' *!,-6 %"(+0&'#$07_ death
4ehicle \ 7)0/.,, *%,7.' +&0608":0, bare beaches \ +!'8,, :#" /080
$*+)2(' %"1 $0()I/07.
Sometimes additions are required by pragmatic considerations: pay claim \
)&"%07," +07-.",' 1&%0)0< +!)-, welfare cuts \ *&"1-7,"
%I#8")-6 ((,:07,< (0;,!2-" *8#-_ herring ban \ 1+&"=","
!07,)2 ("!2#2 7 J"7"&0/ /0&" .
Attributive groups are another case in point. The elements Iorming such groups
vary in number, their translation into Russian as a rule requires additions, e.g. oil
thirsty Europe \ 7&0+, ,(+-)-7I=' "67)$* "H),_ XobsFforFyouth 3lub \
$!*%, ()7'=,< (70"< ;"!2I 0%"(+",)2 /0!0#"82 &%0)0<.
9 handful of dates and a cup of coffee habit (J.Galsworthy)
U&,7-$ +,))2(' :0&()0$0< H,,$07 , .$0< $0H".
Attributive groups present great variety because oI the number and character oI
the component elements. The main task Iacing the translator is to establish their
semantic and syntactic relations with the word they modiIy, e.g.
Three {icosia Dreek language newspapers \ p&, :1")- :&""($0/
'1-$", 7-60#'=," 7 O,$01,,.
The decoding oI an attributive group, however, does not always involve
additions, but merely transpositions and replacements, e.g.
9 million pound forged bank draft fraud \ VH"& ( +0##"!2-/ 7"$("!"/
/,!!,0 H*)07 ()"&!,:07.
Additions are also caused by discrepancy in the use oI the plural and singular
Iorms oI certain nouns.
Delegates from 4arious industries \ +&"#()7,)"!, &1!,-6 0)&(!"<
+&0/-.!"0(),.
They Wthe imperialistsN ha4e built up dangerous tensions in the world with an
arms race of unprecedented cost and sime.
f/+"&,!,()- (01#!, 0+(-" 0:, +&'8"0(), 7 /,&", &17"&*7
"%-7!*I , #0&0:0()0'=*I :0$* 700&*8",<.
Additions are not inIrequently caused by lexical reasons. A single instance may
suIIice here as the problem will be considered at length in the Iollowing chapter.
Additions are indispensable in the translation oI verbs which bring Iorth in some
context two semes simultaneously.
]Pr 9mes complained his way out of bed ] and went to the door.
(J.Steinbeck)
R,()"& T</(, $&'6)', 7-!"1 ,1 +0()"!, , +0+!"!(' $ 760#0< #7"&,.
Another cause oI additions is English word building, e.g. conversation and the
use oI some non-equivalent suIIixes.
de showered and dressed.
R- +&,'!, #*. , 0#"!,(2.
The peace campaign snowballed rapidly.
G/+,' 7 1=,)* /,& &0(! ( "7"&0')0< %-()&0)0<.
Qe is a chancer.
c "!07"$, $0)0&-< !I%,) &,($07)2.
OB:11:031
Some lexical or structural elements oI the English sentence may be regarded as
redundant Irom the point oI view oI translation as they are not consonant with the
norms and usage oI the Russian language, e.g.
?or the fishermen of jebun, the notion that young outsiders may choose to
adopt their way of life is both fascinating and perpleqing.
|-%$/ 0()&07 |"%* $8")(' *#,7,)"!2-/ , ()&-/, )0
+&,"18' /0!0#"82 /08") +&"#+0"()2 ,6 0%&1 8,1,.
Two omissions have been made here. The meaning oI the word 'notion is
implied in the predicate oI the Russian sentence and this word can saIely be leIt out.
The verb 'to choose and 'to adopt may be regarded as synonymous and the
meaning oI these two verbs is Iully covered by the Russian verb +&"#+0"()2 which
implies choice.
Some typical cases oI redundancy may be mentioned here: synonymous pairs,
the use oI weights and measures with emphatic intent, subordinate clauses oI time
and place.
Homogeneous synonymous pairs are used in diIIerent styles oI the language.
Their use is traditional and can be explained by extra-linguistic reasons: the second
member oI the pair oI Anglo-Saxon origin was added to make clear the meaning oI
the Iirst member borrowed Irom the French language, e.g. my sire and father. It was
done as O.Jespersen writes in his book 'Growth and Structure oI the English
language '.Ior the beneIit oI those who were reIined expression. Gradually
synonymous pairs have become a purely stylistic device. They are oIten omitted in
translation even in oIIicial documents as pleonastic, e.g.
Equality of treatment in trade and commerce. \ |7-" 701/080(), 7
)0&:07!".
The purposes of the destern nowers in pouring arms into [srael ha4e been
open and unconcealed.
Y+#-" #"&87- ,$0:# " ($&-7!, (70,6 ;"!"<, +0()7!'' 0&*8,"
f1&,!I.
The broadest definition is that the 9rctic is the region of permafrost or
permanently fromen subsoil.
J/0" .,&0$0" 0+&"#"!"," V&$),$, \ M)0 0%!()2 7"0< /"&1!0)-.
Words denoting measures and weights are Irequently used in describing people
or abstract notions. They are either omitted or replaced in translation.
E4ery inch of his face eqpressed amamement. (P.G.Wodehouse).
O ":0 !,;" %-!0 +,(0 ,1*/!",".
Qe eqtracted e4ery ounce of emotion from jachmanino4^s Third 3oncerto.
c +0$1! 7(I M/0;,0!20()2 p&")2":0 $0;"&) |6/,07.
Subordinate clauses oI time and oI place are Irequently Ielt to be redundant in
Russian and are omitted in translation.
The storm was terrific while it lasted.
a*&' %-! *8('.
Sometimes even an attributive clause may be regarded as redundant and should
be omitted in translation.
9nd yet the migrants still pour in from the depressed {ortheast of irasil, many
of them walking the @. miles or more in search og a better life than the one they
left.
f )"/ " /""", +"&"("!";- 7(" "=" +&,%-7I) ,1 &<0 %"#()7,'
J"7"&0F70()0$" a&1,!,,_ /0:," ,1 ,6 +&060#') &(()0'," 7 )-('* /,!2 ,
%0!"" 7 +0,($6 !*."< 8,1,.
The grammatical structure oI any language is as important as its word-stock or
vocabulary. Grammatical meanings are no less signiIicant than lexical meaning as
they express such Iundamental categories as tense relations, gender, number,
modality, categories oI deIiniteness and indeIiniteness, etc. Some oI these categories
may be expressed grammatically in diIIerent ways owing to the existence oI
grammatical synonymy. But sometimes they can also be expressed lexically.
The main translation principle should never be lost sight oI what is expressed
in another, generally by means oI transIormations.
LECTURE
*EM'&"* %OL*EI)
N; *+J:,2C $:99+/+3,+1 L+-O++3 *23H.2H+1
Languages diIIer in their phonological and grammatical systems; their systems
oI meaning are also diIIerent. Any language is able to describe things, notions,
phenomena and Iacts oI liIe. This ability oI language ensures cognition oI the outside
world. But the ways oI expressing these things and notions usually vary in diIIerent
languages. That means that diIIerent languages use diIIerent sets oI semantic
components, that is, elements oI meaning to describe identical extra-linguistic
situations.
>he is not out of school yet. (G.Heyer).
c "=" " $0,! .$0!- W*=" *,)(' 7 .$0!"N.
The same Iact is described in the English and the Russian languages by
diIIerent semantic elements.
ienamin paced his chamber, tension building in him. (E.Taylor).
a"#8/, .:! +0 $0/)", ":0 +&'8"0" (0()0'," 7("
*(,!,7!0(2.
The correlated verbs 'to build and ()&0,)2 (primary meanings) have
diIIerent semantic structures, they are not co-extensive and do not cover each other.
Consequently the verb ()&0,)2 is unacceptable in this context. Equivalence is
achieved by the choice oI another verb *(,!,7)2('. The two verbs 'to build and
*(,!,7)2(' taken by themselves express diIIerent notions, but in this context they
possess the same semantic component viz. the component oI intensiIication (oI
tension). A non-correlated word is oIten selected in translation because it possesses
some common semantic component with the word oI the SL text, as in the present
case (to build \ *(,!,7)2('). The existence oI a common seme in two non-
correlated words is a Iactor oI primary importance in the choice oI equivalents which
opens up great possibilities Ior translators. Another example may illustrate this point.
The cash needed to repair the canal is sitting in the bank.
5"2:,, +&"#1"-" #!' &"/0) $!, 7(" "=" !"8) 7 %$".
The verb 'to sit and !"8)2 are by no means correlated words. But they
possess one seme in common to be at rest, to be unused.
Three Types of Lexical #eaning
As one oI the main tasks oI translation is to render the exact meaning oI words,
it is important to consider here the three types oI lexical meaning which can be
distinguished. They are: referential$ emotive and stylistic.
+9+/+3-:2C meaning (also called nominative, denotative or cognitive) has
direct reIerence to things or phenomena oI objective reality, naming abstract notions
and processes as well. ReIerential meaning may be primary and secondary thus
consisting oI diIIerent lexical Semantic Variants (LSV).
EB0-:E+ meaning unlike reIerential meaning has no direct reIerence to things
or phenomena oI objective reality but to the Ieelings and emotions oI the speaker.
ThereIore emotive meaning bears reIerence to things, phenomena or ideas through
the speaker`s evaluation oI them. Emotive meaning is inherent in a deIinite group oI
words even when they are taken out oI the context.
)-?C:1-:, meaning is based on the stylistic stratiIication oI the English
vocabulary and is Iormed by stylistic reIerence, e.g. face (neutral), countenance
(literary), mug (colloquial).
+9+/+3-:2C I+23:3H 234 :-1 +34+/:3H :3 T/231C2-:03
Lexical transIormation which are practically always required in the rendering
oI reIerential meaning in translation are caused by various Iactors. They may be
classed as Iollows:
a) different vision oI objects and phenomena and different approach to them;
b) different semantic structure oI a word in the SL and in the TL;
c) different valency or collocability;
d) different usage. DiIIerent vision.
It is common knowledge that one and the same object oI reality may be viewed
by diIIerent languages Irom diIIerent aspects: the eye (oI the needle *.$0 ,:0!$,;
hooks and eyes \ $&I$, , +")"!2$,N.
Qot milk with skin on it \ :0&'"" /0!0$0 ( +"$0< .
Desalination \ 0+&"(","_ 4isible to the naked eye \ 7,#,/-<
"700&*8"-/ :!10/_ a fortnight Wforteen nightsN \ #7" "#"!,.
Qe li4es neqt door \ c 8,7") 7 (0("#"/ #0/".
All these words (naked eye \ "700&*8"-< :!1_ fortnight \ #7" "#"!,_
neqt door \ (0("#,< #0/) describe the same Iacts and although Iormally not
correlated they are equivalents.
Qe was no armchair strategist \ c 0)I#2 " %-! $%,")-/
()&)":0/.
Not only words oI Iull meaning but even prepositions may imply diIIerent
vision.
Qe folded his arms across his chest, crossed his knees.
c ($&"(),! &*$, :&*#,, +0!08,! 0:* 0:*.
This Iactor (diIIerent vision) usually presents little diIIiculty Ior the translator
but it must never be overlooked, otherwise the translator may lapse into literal
translation. The diIIiculty arises when such words are used Iiguratively as part oI
some lexical stylistic device, that is, when they IulIill a stylistic Iunction, e.g.
[nstant history, like instant coffee, can be remarkably palatable, at least it is in
this memoir by a former dhitehouse side who sees g.i.X. as kan eqtraordinary gifted
nresident who was the wrong man, from the wrong place, at the wrong time, under
the wrong circumstances.
J07&"/"' ,()0&,', )$ 8" $$ , )$0< (07&"/"-< +&0#*$) $$
&()70&,/-< $0H", ,0:# %-7") *#,7,)"!20 +&,'), +0 $&<"< /"&" M)0
)$ 7 &";"1,&*"/-6 /"/*&6 %-7.":0 +0/0=,$ +&"1,#") 580(0,
$0)0&-< 6&$)"&,1*") ":0 $$ r,($!I,)"!20 (+0(0%0:0 +&"1,#"),
$0)0&-< %-! "+0#60#'=,/ "!07"$0/, &0#0/ ,1 "+0#60#'=":0 /"(), 7
"+0#60#'="" 7&"/', +&, "+0#60#'=,6 0%()0')"!2()76t.
One and the same product is named in the S and T languages according to its
diIIerent properties: the English language stresses the speed with such coIIee can be
prepared whereas the Russian language lays special accent on the Iact that it is
soluble.
A word in one Language may denote, due to diIIerent vision, a wider non-
diIIerentiated notion, while the same notion is, as it were dismembered in the other
language, and, consequently, there are two or more words denoting it. For example,
the Russian word (- corresponds to two English words; 'watch and 'clock. The
Russian word :0&0# has two couterparts; 'town and 'city. And vice versa, one
English word may correspond to two or more Russian words, e.g. 'moon !*,
/"(';, 'bell $0!0$0!, $0!0$0!2,$, %*%",$, 1700$, ($!'$, &-#. The
Russian language uses one word +!"; which is indiscriminately applies 'to terminal
members oI the hand and Ioot, while the English language discriminates between
these members and has accordingly three diIIerent words: thumb, finger, toe.
$:E+/H+3,+1 :3 -5+ )+B23-:, )-/.,-./+ 09 F0/41
The semantic structure oI words presents a complicated problem as the so-
called correlated words oI the T languages are Iar Irom being identical in this respect.
The only exception are some groups oI monosemantic words which will be dealt with
later.
Divergences in the semantic structure oI words oI the S and T languages are
one oI the primary cases oI lexical transIormations. These divergences or
dissimilitudes are connected with certain peculiar Ieatures oI a word or a group oI
words. Even words which seem to have the same meaning in the two languages are
not semantically identical. The primary meanings oI correlated words oIten coincide
while their derivative meanings do not. Thus there is only partial correspondence in
the structures oI polysemantic words as their lexical semantic variants do not cover
one another. Semantic correlation is not to be interpreted as semantic identity and
one-to-one correspondence between the semantic structures oI correlated
polysemantic words in the two languages is hardly ever possible.
Such partial correspondence may be illustrated by the Iollowing analysis oI the
correlated words ()0! and table. Their primary meanings denoting the same article
oI Iurniture are identical. But their secondary meanings diverge. Other lexical
semantic variants oI the word table are: part oI the machine-tool; slab oI wood
(stone); matter written on this; level area, plateau; palm oI hand, indicating character
oI Iortune, etc. Lexical semantic variants oI the word ()0! are: , m, (
, ); x, x (t
, x) etc.
Not inIrequently the primary meaning (and sometimes the derivative meanings
as well) oI an English word consist oI more than one semantic component or some,
Iorming the so-called 'bundles oI semantic elements. This is usually reIlected in
dictionaries which give more than one Russian equivalent oI each LS oI the English
word.
The analysis oI the polysemantic word 'mellow shows that it can modiIy a
wide variety oI objects and notions: Iruit, wine, soil, voice, man, etc. Each sphere oI
its application corresponds to a diIIerent derivative meaning and each meaning
(consisting oI several semes) accordingly has two or more Russian equivalents.
1. t, x, t ( x); 2. txt, t ( );
3. xt ; 4. m, xmx ( );
5. x, t, ( x); 6. txt, t (
); 7. . t, tm. (FAPC)
It also Iollows Irom the above example that there is no single Russian word
with a similar semantic structure corresponding to the word 'mellow and comprising
all its meanings.
$:99+/+3- >2C+3,?
The aptness oI a word to appear in various combinations is described as its
lexical valency or collocability which amounts to semantic agreement. Collocability
implies the ability oI a lexical unit to combine with other lexical units, with other
words or lexical groups. A word as a lexical unit has both paradigmatic and
syntagmatic collocability. The lexical meaning oI a word is revealed in either case.
The contexts in which a word is used bring out its distribution and potential
collocability , thus the range oI lexical valency oI words is linguistically determined
by the lexical meaning oI words, by the compatibility oI notions expressed by them
and by the inner structure oI he language word-stock.
It should be noted that valency comprises all levels oI language its
phonological, syntactical and lexical levels. Only lexical valency will be considered
here.
A detailed analysis oI Iactual material shows that valency in the English
language is broader and more Ilexible than that in the Russian language. This Iact
conIronts the translator with additional diIIiculties, as it enables a writer to use
unexpected individual combinations. It Iollows that valency may be obligatory non-
obligatory and words accordingly Iall into two categories: 'open or discrete words
and 'closed or non-discrete ones. The adjective 'aquiline is a classical example oI
a word with a closed valency (. the Russian adjective $&0/".-<).
Every language has its established valency norms, its types oI word
combinations, groups oI words able to Iorm such combinations. This especially
concerns traditional, obligatory combinations while individual combinations give
greater scope to translators. Individual collocability is by no means arbitrary and must
not violate the existing models oI valency. As a writer may bring out a potential
meaning oI some word he is also able to produce unexpected combinations. Such
individual but linguistically justiIiable collocations belong to the writer`s individual
style in the way as his epithets or metaphors and may be regarded as an eIIective
stylistic device, e.g.
>he had seen many people die, but until now, she had ne4er known a young
foreign death. (R.Godden).
z "" :!16 */,&!0 /0:0 !I#"<, 0 #0 (,6 +0& "< " +&,60#,!0(2
7,#")2 $$ */,&! *8"1"/";, # "=" )$0< I-<.
Words traditionally collocated tend to constitute cliches, e.g. a bad mistake,
high hopes, hea4y sea Wrain, snow), etc. the translator is to Iind similar TL cliches,
traditional collocations: :&*%' 0.,%$, %0!2.," #"8#-, %*&0" /0&", (,!2-<
#08#2 W(":N. The key word in such collocations is a noun, both semantically and
structurally, while the modiIying adjective plays a subordinate role. The key word is
always preserved in translation but the collocated adjective is rendered by a word
possessing a diIIerent reIerential meaning which expresses the same category (in this
case intensity) and corresponds to the TL valency norms. For example:
a bad mistake \ :&*%' 0.,%$
a bad headache \ (,!2' :0!07' %0!2
a bed debt \ "7017&="-< #0!:
a bad accident \ )'8"!-< "(()-< (!*<
a bad wound \ )'8"!' &
a bad egg \ )*6!0" '<;0
a bad apple \ :,!0" '%!0$0.
It should be noted that words playing a qualiIying role may be not only
adjectives but also verbs and adverbs, e.g. trains run \ +0"1# 60#')_ to sit in dry
dock \ ()0')2 7 (*60/ #0$".
The problem oI semantic agreement inevitably arises in the translation oI
phraseological units consisting oI a verb oI wide meaning and a noun (collocations or
set expressions). The verb is practically desemantised and the noun is the semantic
centre oI the collocation.
The translation oI the verb is determined by the law oI semantic agreement,
e.g. to make tea WcoffeeN \ 17&,7)2 < W$0H"N
To make beds \ ()"!,)2 +0()"!,
To make faces \ ()&0,)2 &08,
To make apologies F +&,0(,)2 ,17,",'.
Every language possesses regular and compatible collocations.
9fter a day of hea4y selling and in spite of persistent iank of England support,
the pound closed on Ponday at a new record low against the Enited >tates dollar.
U0(!" )0:0 $$ 7 )""," 7(":0 #' *(,!"0 (%-7!,(2 H*)-
()"&!,:07 , "(/0)&' *+0&*I +0##"&8$* V:!,<($0:0 %$, $ 1$&-),I
%,&8, 7 +0"#"!2,$ $*&( H*) #0(),: &"$0&#0F,1$0:0 *&07' +0
0)0.",I $ #0!!&*.
The richer the semantic volume oI a word is, the richer is its collocability
which opens up wide translation possibilities.
A detailed analysis oI various collocations shows that individual and
unexpected collocations in diIIerent Iunctional styles are much more Irequent in
English than in Russian.
DiIIerent collocability oIten calls Ior lexical and grammatical transIormation,
though oI the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. a kcontro4ersial
questionl \ t but the collocation kthe most contro4ersial nrime
Pinisterl cannot be translated as t t -.
iritain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official 4isit one of the most
contro4ersial and youngest nrime Pinister in Europe.
Y7)& 7 V:!,I +&,%-7") ( 0H,;,!2-/ 7,1,)0/ 0#, ,1 (/-6
/0!0#-6 +&"/2"&F/,,()&07 7&0+-, $0)0&-< 7-1-7") (/-"
+&0),70&",7-" /",'.
>wedens neutral faith ought not to be in doubt.
"&0()2 x7";,, "<)&!,)")* " +0#!"8,) (0/",I.
A relatively Iree valency in the English language accounts Ior the Iree use oI
the so-called transIerred epithet in which logical and syntactical modiIications do not
coincide.
[ sat down to a 4ery meditati4e breakfast.
&1#*/2" ' +&,'!(' 17)&$)2.
Logically the adjective 'meditative reIers to the subject oI the sentence
whereas syntactically it is attached to the prepositional object. This unusual
attachment converts it into a transIerred epithet. The collocation 1#*/,7-<
17)&$ is hardly possible in Russian.
$:99+/+3- =12H+
Traditional usage oI words oI word combinations is typical oI each language.
Traditional S.L. and T.L. usage or cliches do not coincide. The words Iorming such
cliches oIten have diIIerent meanings in the two language but they are traditionally
used to describe similar situations. The problem oI the proper selection oI equivalent
words and cliches can be solved only iI the peculiarities oI the correlated languages
are taken into consideration, e.g.
Qe is sur4i4ed by his wife, a son and a daughter.
c 0()7,! +0(!" ("%' 8"*, (- , #02. WU0(!" ":0 0()!,(2 8",
(- , #02.N
>he ne4er drank boiled water.
c ,$0:# " +,! (-&0< 70#-.
Sometimes diIIerent usage in partly due to diIIerent vision:
The city is built on terrace rising from the lake.
L0&0# +0()&0" )"&&(6, (+*($I=,6(' $ 01"&*.
As a matter oI Iact there two verbs (to rise and (+*($)2(') may be called
conversives, that is, they describe the same situation Irom diametrically opposite
angles.
Sometimes diIIerent usage is apparent in the use oI semantically complete
prepositions.
Qe wrote under se4eral pseudonyms, many of his essays appearing o4er the
name of kgittle {elll. (F.Johnson).
c +,(! +0# &1-/, +("7#0,//,, /0:," ":0 0"&$, +0'7!'!,(2 +0#
+0#+,(2I rG&0.$ O"!!t
Usage is particularly conspicuous in set expressions.
The {ew ealand earthquake was followed by tremors lasting an hour. {o loss
of life was reported.
U0(!" 1"/!")&'(",' 7 O070< Y"!#,, 7 )""," ( 0=*=!,(2
)0!$,. v"&)7 " %-!0 .
The fact that the E> Do4ernment was finally and firmly coming to grips with
crime impressed many.
O /0:,6 +&0,17"!0 7+")!"," )0, )0 +&7,)"!2()70 J0"#,"-6
x))07, $0";, 0"2 M"&:,0 !0 %0&2%* ( +&"()*+0()2I.
Usage plays an important part in translating orders and instructions.
3ommit no nuisance \ 0()7!,7)2(' 70(+&"=")('.
Usage is closely linked with the history and development oI the language, oI its
lexical system. Hence every language creates peculiar cliches, ready-made Iormulae.
They are never violated by the introduction oI additional words or by the substitution
oI their components.
T/231C2-:03 09 I0301+B23-:, F0/41
Monosemantic words are comparatively Iew in number and the bulk oI English
words are polysemantic. English monosemantic words usually have Iull equivalents
in Russian. There are the Iollowing lexical groups oI monosemantic words: 1. proper
names, 2. geographical names, 3. names oI the months and the days oI the week, 4.
numerals, 5. some scientiIic and technological terms, 6. names oI the streets, 7.
names oI hotels, 8. names oI sports and games, 9. names oI periodicals, 10. names oI
institutions and organizations.
The group oI monosemantic words presents considerable variety because oI its
heterogeneous character.
+34+/:3H 09 %/0@+/ #2B+1 :3 T/231C2-:03
The Iunction oI proper name is purely nominative. They help to distinguish a
person, a pet or a place, to recognize them as unique. Thus they have only nominal
meaning and are designated by a capital letter.
There are two ways oI rendering proper names in translation: transcription and
translation.
Transcription is now universally accepted: Mary \ RM&,. Phonetic
peculiarities, however, sometimes interIere and modiIy this principle by causing
certain departures, e.g. the name oI the well-known novelist Iris Murdoch is rendered
with the inserted letter (and sound) 'p A M+.
Translation or representing a SL word by means oI the more or less
corresponding corresponding TL characters, that is, in a graphic way, is no longer
regarded as an acceptable method oI rendering proper names in translation. But
tradition has preserved it in some cases and thereIore this method still survives, e.g.
gincoln is rendered as y,$0!2 and dellington as "!!,:)0. w^Qenry \
c^L"&,.
Traditionally, names oI prominent people are rendered by their Russian
counterparts: [saak {ewton \ f($ O2I)0, 9braham gincoln \ V7&/
y,$0!2, bing Xames \ G0&0!2 s$07. All these Iactors explain the existence oI
double Iorms oI proper names.
A problem by itselI is presented by the translation oI the so-called token names
which reveal some typical Ieatures oI the character named. Sometimes attempts are
made to translate them, in this way Iollowing the writer`s intent, e.g. QumptyF
Dumpty \ x!)< a0!)<, p'+$,Fy'+$, \ >lapFDash, etc. unIortunately this
tendency inevitably conIlicts with the principle oI preserving the national character oI
the origin. So Pr >urface in Sheridan`s 'School Ior Scandal would hardly be
recognizable as an English dandy iI he were called "&)0+&607.
+34+/:3H 09 K+0H/2@5:,2C #2B+1 :3 T/231C2-:03
Geographical names are an integral part oI the Russian language, so tradition is
very strong in this group oI words. They are usually rendered according to the usage
oI earlier days, e.g. England \ V:!,', >cotland \ x0)!#,', [reland \ f&!#,'.
Some geographical names have their translation equivalents in Russian: 3ape
of Dood Qope \ R-( 50%&0< O#"8#-, Easter [sland \ c()&07 U(6,, etc.
usually geographical names oI this type are token names, as they are named aIter the
name oI the holiday on which they were discovered.
+34+/:3H 09 #2B+1 09 I03-51P )+21031 234 $2?1 09 -5+ F++8
The names oI the seasons, months and days oI the week come very close to
proper names. They are rendered by their Russian counterparts: spring \ 7"(,
Ponday \ +0"#"!2,$, arch \ /&), etc.
+34+/:3H 09 #.B+/2C1
This group oI words comes very clise to terms. Their Russian counterparts are
naturally used in translation: ten \ #"(')2, hundred \ ()0, thousand \ )-('.
+34+/:3H 09 ),:+3-:9:, 234 T+,53:,2C T+/B1
Terms are generally associated with a deIinite branch oI science or technology.
They tend to be monosemantic in the given branch oI science or technology and
thereIore easily call Iorth the required concept. They are translated by corresponding
Russian terms: calorie \ $!0&,', equator F M$7)0&, polysemantic \
/0:01-<, etc. but it should be borne in mind, that one and the same term may
have diIIerent meanings in diIIerent branches oI science and technology, e.g.: line \
@N $0)"<"&, +0)0' !,,'_ `N )&*%0+&070#, etc. thus a term may sometimes
be polysemantic, e.g.: power (phys.) (,!, /0=0()2, M"&:,'; power (math.)
()"+"2.
There is a special group oI words oI terminological nature: names oI animals,
birds, plants, natural elements, e.g.: tiger \ ),:&_ cat \ $0.$_ swallow \ !()0$_
lily\ofFtheF4alley \ !#-._ drought \ 1(*6_ rain \ #08#2_ lightning \ /0!,',
etc.
The names oI the rare or little known animals or plants are as a rule
monosemantic and have Iull equivalents: coyote \ $0<0)_ armadillo \ %&0"0(";_
porcupine \ #,$0%&1_ baobab \ %0%%.
+34+/:3H -5+ #2B+1 09 )-/++-1
The names oI streets are transcribed: iayswater joad \ a"<(*0)"& &0*#.
The names oI streets in historical novels which sometimes happen to be token
names are translated, e.g. the kEconomistl publishing office is in Threadneedle street
\ &"#$;,' 8*&! rT$00/,()t +0/"=")(' p&"#,#! ()&,) but ktailors
li4ed in Threadneedle streetl \ +0&)-" 8,!, *!,;" f:0!$ ( O,)$0<.
+34+/:3H 09 #2B+1 09 H0-+C1
Names oI hotels are usually transcribed, e.g. Qotel 3arlton \ 0)"!2 G&!)0.
Names oI old inns are as a rule translated, e.g.: The jed gion \ :0(),,; G&(-<
y"7.
+34+/:3H 09 #2B+1 09 )@0/-1 234 K2B+1
These are also usually transcribed, e.g.: football \ H*)%0!, hockey \ 60$$"<.
+34+/:3H 09 -5+ #2B+1 09 %+/:04:,2C1
The Times \ :1") p</(. It should be noted that Ior pragmatic reasons such
words as :1"), 8*&!, "8""#"!2,$ are added respectively. The Enited >tates
{ews and dorld jeport \ /"&,$($,< "8""#"!2,$ r<)"# J)"<)( O2I(
M# z0&!# |,+0&)t.
+34+/:3H 09 #2B+1 09 '31-:-.-:031 234 O/H23:Q2-:031
These classes oI proper names are usually transcribed, e.g.: Deneral Potors \
58""&! R0)0&(, iritish 9irways \ a&,),. T&*"<(.
But certainly there are exceptions to this rule: The 3ommon Parket \ c%=,<
|-0$_ The ?ederal iureau of [n4estigation W?i[N \ H"#"&!20" %I&0
&((!"#07,< WKa|N. These are accepted translated equivalents.
T/231C2-:03 09 %0C?1+B23-:, F0/41; %0C?1+B23-:, F0/41 234 -5+ &03-+J-
A polysemantic word, as has been shown, is a word having several meanings
or lexical-semantic variants. These lexical-semantic variants possess both lexical and
grammatical Ieatures which are closely interwoven. These diIIerent meanings or
lexical-semantic variants oI polysemantic words are revealed in the context. By the
term 'context is understood the minimum stretch oI speech determining each
individual meaning oI a word.
The context individualises the meaning oI the word, brings it out, reveals the
intended lexical-semantic variant. It is in this sense that we say that the meaning oI a
polysemantic word is determined by the context. The term context comprises both the
narrow or micro context and the wide or macro context. The narrow context implies
sentence or even a word combination, e.g.: bright star \ '&$' 17"1#_ bright wine \
+&01&0" 7,0_ bright day \ (7")!-< #"2_ bright reply \ %!"()'=,< 0)7")_ a
bright boy \ (+0(0%-< , (/-.!"-< /!2,$. The Iollowing examples illustrate
the importance oI the context in translation.
The construction of the E{w was no simple or easy task.
This eqplains the peculiar construction of the >ecurity 3ouncil.
In the Iirst sentence the word 'construction has the meaning oI 'act oI
devising and Iorming (Webster III), in the second sentence the meaning is
'structure.
These diIIerent contexts bring out diIIerent lexical-semantic variants oI the
word 'construction which are reIlected in the Russian translation.
J01#," ccO %-!0 " +&0()0< , " !":$0< 1#"<.
T)0 0%Z'('") (70"0%&1*I ()&*$)*&* J07") a"10+(0(),.
The importance oI the context Ior translation is obvious. The micro context
implies not only lexical but also syntactical ambient elements, e.g.: the elm stood
before the house \ +"&"# #0/0/ ()0'! 7'1_ he stood a whisky and soda \ 0
*:0(),! /"' 7,($, ( (0#070< 70#0<.
The context or the situation not only reveals the intended meaning oI a
polysemantic word but also its concrete or abstract, its direct or transIerred meaning.
9 dictator relies upon his army and police force. \ direct meaning
5,$))0& 0+,&")(' (70I &/,I , +0!,;,I.
The whole army of words \ 7(' /(( (!07 \ transIerred meaning.
9n army of insects \ )* ("$0/-6 \ transIerred meaning
Qe was crippled in the ietnam war.
c %-! ,($!"" 70<" 70 2")/".
The criminal forces of reaction and antiFdtente aim at crippling international
cooperation.
~"!2 +&"()*+0< +0#8,:)"!20< +0!,),$, &"$;,0"&07 ,
+&0),7,$07 &1&'#$, \ +0#0&7)2 /"8#*&0#0" (0)&*#,"()70.
&03-+J-.2C I+23:3H 09 %0C?1+B23-:, F0/41
The so-called contextual meaning is always individual, occasional and context-
bound. It lives only in its context and disappears iI the context is altered.
The contextual meaning oI a word is usually semantically richer than the
dictionary meaning because oI the connections which it arouses.
[n an atomic war women and children will be the first hostages.
U"&7-/, 8"&)7/, 7 )0/0< 70<" %*#*) 8"=,- , #"),.
The dictionary meaning oI the word 'hostage is 1!08,$, but in this context
it is synonymous with '4ictim as every hostage might become a victim and die. Thus
the contextual meaning oI a word is not arbitrary, it is inherent in its semantic
structure and is brought out by the writer who is able to perceive its potentialities.
The vital role oI context in bringing out diIIerent lexical-semantic variants and
its importance in translation are well illustrated by the use oI the noun and the verb
'Irustration, to Irustrate.
That there is a great deal of frustration in the land today is made e4ident by a
proliferation of societies, leagues, committees, councils and crusades which propose
to stop the clock or to turn its hands back.
c !,,, 7 ()0'="" 7&"/' :!*%0$0:0 &10&07,' 7 ()&" :070&,)
/08"()70 7('$,6 0%="()7, !,:, $0/,)")07, (07")07 , $&"()07-6 +060#07,
$0)0&-" ()&"/')(' 0()07,)2 7&"/' ,!, +07"&*)2 ":0 7(+')2.
9 second common denotation of the jightist group is that they tend to attribute
e4ery frustration to betrayal by traitors.
)0&0< 0%="< "&)0< 7("6 +&7-6 :&*++ '7!'")(' ($!00()2
+&,+,(-7)2 7(" "*#, ,1/"" , +&"#)"!2()7*.
[t is hard to escape a conclusion that the essential negati4ism of the keither F
orl approach is designed to frustrate rather than forward any kind of agreement.
O"!21' " +&,<), $ 7-70#*, )0 $&<,< ":),7,1/ +0#60# r,!, \ ,!,t
W7(" ,!, ,":0N &((,) (&-7, " 1$!I"," !I%0:0 (0:!.",'.
F0/41 09 F:4+ I+23:3H
Words possessing a wide volume oI meaning are peculiarly adaptable to
diIIerent contexts.
The commanding officer singled him out because of his uni4ersity background.
(Nicholas Monserrat)
G0/#,& 7-%&! ":0, )$ $$ 0 %-! "!07"$ ( *,7"&(,)")($,/
0%&107,"/.
]he was a landlord with a Tory background.
]0 %-! +0/"=,$0/ , +&0,(60#,! ,1 ("/2, $0("&7)0&07.
narents of genuine hippies find themsel4es up against a type of mentality with
which they are unprepared, either by background or eqperience, to cope.
|0#,)"!, *%"8#"-6 6,++, ()!$,7I)(' ( )$,/ 0%&10/ /-(!"<, (
$$,/ 0, " /0:*) (+&7,)2(' , %!:0#&' (70"/* 70(+,),I, , (70"/*
8,1"0/* 0+-)*.
Did reporters usually allow the >ecretary of >tate to determine after an
inter4iew whether it was going to be on the record, off the record or only for
background. (Carl Bernstein, Bob Woodward).
O"*8"!, $0&&"(+0#")- 0%-0 +0170!'!, L0(*#&()7"0/*
("$&")&I &".)2 +0(!" ,)"&72I %*#") !, 00 (,))2(' 0H,;,!2-/,
"0H,;,!2-/, ,!, #-/ )0!2$0 #!' ,6 ,H0&/;,,.
In certain cases the translator has to turn to a wider context which sometimes
comprises a whole paragraph a whole chapter or a whole book.
Thus in Chapter LIII oI 'Vanity Fair Thackeray describes the unexpected
return oI Rawdon Crawley Irom the debtor`s prison and his consternation when he
Iinds his wiIe in the company oI Lord Steyne.
'The wretched woman was in a brilliant full toilet.
The adjective 'wretched has the Iollowing meanings: miserable, unhappy,
aIIlicated, inIerior, oI bad quality or no merit, contemptible, unsatisIactory, causing
discontent or discomIort or nuisance. (The Concise OxIord Dictionary oI Current
English).
Thackeray, a moralist, condemned immorality throughout his writing. Aware
oI this the translator naturally chooses contemptible.
O M)0< +&"1&"0< W,1$0<, +0#!0<, 7"&0!0/0<, $07&0<N 8"=,"
%-! &0($0.-< 7""&,< )*!").
T/231C2-:03 09 %1+.40G'3-+/32-:032C F0/41
There is a distinct group oI words which constitute a special diIIiculty Ior the
translator, the so-called pseudo-international words. International words are mostly
words oI Greek, Latin and French origin which have a more or less similar phonetic
Iorm in many languages. They express not only scientiIic, social and political notions
but everyday things and notions as well: electronics \ M!"$)&0,$_ dynamic \
#,/,-<_ calorie \ $!0&,'_ elegant \ M!":)-<. These words have become
an indispensable part oI the vocabulary oI diIIerent languages. Their reIerential
meaning is in most cases identical. But there is another category oI international
words which as part oI the lexical system oI diIIerent languages have acquired in
these languages novel semantic Ieatures diIIerent semantic structures, additional
lexical-semantic variants, diIIerent connotations and diIIerent usage. The Russian
language borrows these words most oIten as terms and they tend to be monosemantic
while in the English language they are usually polysemantic. Although warned
against them translators are oIten deceived into making errors by purely Iormal
resemblances.
The rabbit was lying in a depression between two clods. (F. Norris)
FAPC gives the Iollowing meanings oI the word depression: 1.
x, x; 2.+. x, ; 3., m;
4., , .
This sentence was rendered in a translation published in the late twenties as
G&0!,$ !"8! 7 $$0< F )0 #"+&"((,, /"8#* #7*6 $0"$.
There were attempts to sabotage key ser4ices in >antiago.
5"!!,(2 +0+-)$, 7-7"(), ,1 ()&0' 0(07-" 0%Z"$)- $0//*!20:0
0%(!*8,7,' 7 J)2':0.
The meaning oI the Russian word (%0)8 is narrower.
de are told that ii3 tele4ision this autumn will gi4e a massi4e co4erage to
the general election.
J00%=I), )0 -"."< 0("2I +"&"#, a,F%,F(, +0 )"!"7,#",I
%*#*) .,&0$0 0(7"=)2 +&!/")($," 7-%0&-.
Sometimes the reIerential meanings oI international words coincide, while their
contextual meanings do not.
iritain^s world wide eqploitation was shaken to the roots by colonial
liberation mo4ements.
G0!0,!20" /0:*="()70 V:!,, %-!0 +0)"&'0 #0 0(07,'
;,0!20F0(70%0#,)"!2-/ #7,8","/ 7 "" $0!0,'6.
The contextual meaning oI the word 'eqploitation is metonymical the power
oI colonial systems was based on exploitation. A similar metonymic transIerence oI
the word M$(+!*);,' \ /0:*="()70 is rendered to in the Russian translation.
ienches gleamed empty and crimson under the light, their occupants ha4eng
gone to tea. (C.P.Snow).
(" !"- U!)- !0&#07 0+&7,!,(2 +,)2 <, , 0+*()"7.," ($/2,
(7"&$!, $&(0< 0%,7$0< +&, M!"$)&,"($0/ (7")".
The Russian loan word 0$$*+) is used only in a special sense as a military
term with negative connotations whereas the English word is polysemantic. The
addition !"- U!)- !0&#07 has been made Ior pragmatic reasons.
Sometimes pseudo-international words may have diIIerent connotations in
spite oI practically identical reIerential meanings. Thus the word +&0:&"(( has
usually only positive connotations while the word 'progress has a wider range oI
connotations positive, neutral and negative.
For instance, the title oI John Bunyan`s book 'The Pilgrim`s Progress is an
allegory depicting man`s progress towards perIection. The Russian traditional
translation is 'H ( mm) positive connotations.
Qer progress about gondon during that first week was one thrilling ad4enture.
(H.Walpole).
" +&0:*!$, +0 y0#0* 7 )* +"&7*I "#"!I %-!, (+!0.-/
*7!"$)"!2-/ +&,$!I","/. (neutral connotations).
Hogarth`s series iI engravings 'Rake`s Progress has distinctly negative
connotations. The traditional translation is X t.
DiIIerent usage oI pseudo-international words is oIten a stumbling block to
translators, e.g.
wnce upon a most early time there was a {eolithic man. R.Kipling).
57-/ #70, "=" 7 $/"0/ 7"$", 8,! # %-! 0#, "!07"$. (translated
by K.Chukovsky).
The adjective '{eolithic has its counterpart in Russian "0!,),"($,<, but
its use is conIined to scientiIic prose. It would not be suitable in a tale Ior children. So
the translator introduced a traditional combination "!07"$, 8,7.,< 7 $/"0/
7"$" resorting to a redistribution oI semantic components.
#03GED.:E2C+3-1
Non-equivalents are SL words which have no corresponding lexical units in the
TL vocabulary.
The absence oI equivalents may be explained both by extralinguistic and
linguistic reasons. Accordingly, non-equivalents may be divided into two groups. The
Iirst group consists oI words denoting reIerents unknown in the target language
things, objects, notions, Ieatures oI national liIe, customs, habits, etc. the words oI
this group bear a distinctly national character and are tied up with the history oI the
people speaking that language, the growth oI its culture, its way oI liIe and traditions.
Cultural discrepancy accounts Ior the appearance oI words which are untranslatable
in the literal sense oI the word. Yet there are diIIerent ways oI rendering these words
in translation and oI overcoming the so-called 'barrier oI untranslatability (cultural
untranslatability). The words belonging to this group cover a wide range oI denotata,
e.g. speaker, parliament, public school, landslide, coroner, teachFin, dri4eFin, knowF
how, striptease, brain drain, backbencher, grillFroom, as well as titles oI politeness,
etc.
The second group embraces words which Ior some linguistic reason have no
equivalents in the target language, the so-called linguistic lancunae, e.g. pri4acy,
in4ol4ement, glimpse, conser4ationist, en4ironmentalist, oralist, readership, riser,
bedder, 4oteFgetter, statehood, etc.
It should be stressed that the term 'non-equivalents merely implies the
absence oI a word or a word-combination in the vocabulary oI the target language but
does not exclude the possibility oI rendering 'non-equivalents in translation, usually
by descriptive translation.
T/231C2-:03 09 #03GED.:E2C+3-1
There are three ways oI rendering non-equivalents in translation.
%y %orrowings
The borrowed words may be either transliterated or transcribed, e.g. ale \M!2,
roastbeef \ &0()%,H, sweater \ (7,)"& (transliterated borrowings). narliament \
+&!/"), striptease \ ()&,+),1, speaker \ (+,$"&, knowFhow \ 0*F6*,
establishment \ ,()M%!,./") (transcribed borrowings). The latter principle is, as
seen Irom the above examples, applicable to the rendering oI neologisms.
%y translation loans
Qouse of 3ommons \ U!) c%=,, backbencher \ 1#"($/"",$,
brain trust \ /01:070< )&"().
%y &escriptive or nterpreting Translation
gandslide \ +0%"# 7-%0&6 ( 0:&0/-/ +"&"7"(0/ :0!0(07_
a stringer (.) \ (),0 1')-< $0&&"(+0#"), )&*# $0)0&0:0
0+!,7")(' ,1 &(") $0!,"()7 (!07_
a conser4ationist Wen4ironmentalistN \ "!07"$, 01%0"-< 1:&'1","/
,!, *,)08","/ 0$&*8I="< (&"#-.
DiIIerences in cultural background Irequently require detailed additions which
are explanatory. What is Iamiliar to the native reader may be unIamiliar to the reader
oI the translation. Additions in this case make up Ior the implicit inIormation,
contained in the text.
Qer home is filled from top to toe with ictoria, classically elegant, 4ery
together.
" #0/ (7"&6* #0,1* +0!" /"%"!2I , 7('$,/, 7"=,;/,
7,$)0&,($0< M+06,, 7(" 7 ()&0:0/ , M!":)0/ (),!", 0"2 60&0.0
(0")")(' /"8#* (0%0<.
The presidential campaign oI 1976 produced the neologism 'oralist.
This college professor is what campaign sides describe as an koralistl \
someone who isn^t asked to hammer out position papers, but can drop by or call up
with some words of ad4ice.
c&:,1)0&- ,1%,&)"!20< $/+,, 1-7!, M)0:0 +&0H"((0&
r*()-/ (07"),$0/t F 0 " #0!8" %-! +,()2 +&0:&//-" #0$*/")-_
0 )0!2$0 1%":!, )0%- #)2 $0&0)"2$," (07")- ,!, #7! ,6 +0 )"!"H0*.
T/231C2-:03 09 #+0C0H:1B1
There are also three ways oI rendering neologisms in translation.
%y %orrowings
By borrowed words may be either transcribed or transliterated. E.g. hippy \
6,++,_ smog \ (/0:. It should be noted that transcription oI such words is not always
exact, e.g. nylon \ "<!0_ laser \ !1"&.
%y Translation Loans
{eutron bomb \ "<)&0' %0/%.
%y &escriptive or nterpreting Trnslation
?eedback \ 0%&)' (7'12, acti4ism \ :,);,0' #"')"!20()2,
bugging \ )<0" %!I#"," ( +0/0=2I )"6,"($,6 (&"#()7.
In some cases neologisms may be regarded as non-equivalents and translated
accordingly.
T/231C2-:03 09 F0/41 09 EB0-:E+ I+23:3H
As has been pointed out some words contain an element oI emotive evaluation.
The element oI emotive meaning may be regarded as another seme, and is an integral
element oI their semantic structure, e.g. lo4e, hate, to cry, to suffer, etc.
Morphological Iactors may heighten the emotive meaning already contained in
the semantic structure oI a word. For instance, the emotive meaning inherent in the
word '4eqation is intensiIied by the use oI this word in the plural.
Despite the limitation on its urisdiction, the [nternational 3ourt of Xustice
manages to smooth a considerable number of petty frictions, and keep them from
becoming serious 4eqations. (P.Lyon).
O"(/0)&' )$0" 0:&,"," (70"< I&,(#,$;,,, R"8#*&0#0/*
J*#* *#")(' (:!8,7)2 1,)"!20" $0!,"()70 /"!$,6 )&",< , "
#7)2 ,/ +"&"&())2 7 ("&2"1-" $0H!,$)-.
The emotive meaning is created by connotations which may be positive or
negative. In the Iollowing example 'the endless resolutions recei4ed by the {ational
neace 3ommittee has positive connotations. Its correlated word %"($0"-"
cannot be used in the translation oI this phrase as it will evoke negative connotations:
boring, dull. The right word to choose in this context is /0:0,(!"-"
W%"(,(!"-"N &"10!I;,,, +0!*"-" O;,0!2-/ G0/,)")0/ R,&.
The meaning oI the English noun 'blow is neutral but when it is used with the
preposition 'Ior or 'against it acquires positive or negative connotations
respectively (help, oppose The COD) whereas the Russian noun always evokes
negative connotations.
The peaceful policy of the >o4iet Enion is a tremendous blow for peace.
R,&' +0!,),$ J07")($0:0 J0I1 '7!'")(' 0:&0/-/ 7$!#0/ 7 #"!0
0%"(+"",' /,&.
The Russian verb 01&,)2 conveys positive connotations, e.g. "" !,;0
01&,! *!-%$ , whereas its reIerential equivalent in English is evidently neutral.
Qorror dawned in her face. (Victoria Holt)
O "" !,;" +0'7,!0(2 7-&8"," *8(.
These connotations may Iorm part oI the same semantic structure oI a word but
they may also be due to its collocations with certain words and become permanent,
compare: "&' /"!60!,', "&' 17,()2, "&' "%!:0#&0()2_ &0107-"
#"8#-, &0107-" 0$,, 7 &01070/ (7")".
Emotive meaning varies in diIIerent word classes. In some oI them, Ior
example, in interjections, the emotive element prevails. On the other hand, in
conjunctions the emotive meaning is practically non-existent. In other classes oI
words which possess emotive meaning it Iorms, as has already been said, part oI their
semantic structure.
Emotive meaning should be rendered in translation. Words oI wide semantic
structure, oI vague and indeIinite semantic boundaries are diIIicult Ior translation due
to their semantic ambiguity and the possibility oI subjective interpretation. The
adjective fierce, Ior example, is a good illustration oI that kind oI emotive meaning.
The dominant seme inherent in all its lexical-semantic variants is the seme oI
'vehemence which acquires diIIerent semantic modiIications in these variants. The
FAPC dictionary gives the Iollowing meanings: fierce \ @.(7,&"+-<, !I)-<,
8"()0$,<_ `.",()07-<, (,!2-<_ e."*#"&8,/-<, :0&',<_ B.%0#&-<,
M"&:,-<_ C.. x. "7-0(,/-<, 0)7&),)"!2-<.
There was no answer, only the tapping on the window, once more repeated,
fierce and sharp. (I.Murdoch).
O,$)0 " 0)7"),!, )0!2$0 +07)0&,!(' ()*$ 7 0$0, (,!2-< , &"1$,<.
9t night passers would see the fierce dead glare of the patent lamp.
(W.Falkner)
O02I +&0608," 7,#"!, "()"&+,/0F'&$,< /"&)7"-< (7")
"+&,$&-)0:0 =,)0/ *!,0:0 H0&'.
The >paniards ruled >ardinia for four centuries and ga4e >ardinians their
aura of gra4e courtliness and their fierce pride.
f(+;- +&7,!, J&#,,"< ")-&" ()0!"),' , +&,7,!, (&#,;/
(*&07*I *),70()2 , "0%*1#*I :0&#0()2.
The element oI vehemence is distinctly Ielt in all these uses oI the word
'fierce corresponding to all its dictionary lexical-semantic variants. But in the
Iollowing example the reIerence oI the adjective 'fierce is suppressed by its emotive
meaning and it is practically used as an expletive. Its vague reIerential meaning is
commented upon by the writer.
[n a fury of haste he dragged a bottleFgreen sweater o4er the dark red one he
wore. kDoshl, he eqclaimed, kthis is fiercel. dhat he designated as 'fierce can
only be guessed, but probably referred to the furious speed with which life was
mo4ing. (M. de la Roche).
%"1*/0< (+".$" 0 )'*! )"/0F1"!"-< (7,)"& +07"&6 )"/0F
$&(0:0, $0)0&-< "/ %-!. r"&) 7012/,t, F 70($!,$*! 0 \ r1#0&070t.
)0 0 60)"! ($1)2 M),/, /080 )0!2$0 #0:#-7)2(', 701/080 0 ,/"!
7 7,#* )* %"."*I ($0&0()2, ( $$0< !")"! 8,12.
There are cases when fierce deprived oI all reIerence becomes a mere
intensiIier/ the translation in such cases is purely contextual? E.g. fierce black hair,
fierce red moustache \ "&-" $$ (/0!2 70!0(-, 0:"0F&-8," *(-.
Sometimes diIIerent usage oI diIIerent valency do not allow the use oI the
correlated Russian word with the same reIerence.
[n the general strike, the fight against the depression, the antifascist struggle,
and against Qitlerism the iritish 3ommunist party played a proud role.
0 7&"/' 7("0%="< 1%()07$, 7 %0&2%" +&0),7 $&,1,(, 7
),H.,()($0< %0&2%" 7 (/0< V:!,, , 7 %0&2%" +&0),7 :,)!"&,1/
$0//*,(),"($' +&),' "!,$0%&,),, ,:&! 7-#I=*I(' &0!2.
'nroud and 7-#I=,<(' 'have the same degree oI intensity and may be
regarded as emotive equivalents.
As has already been pointed out the emotive meaning oI some adjectives and
adverbs is pronounced that it suppresses their reIerential meaning and they come to
be used merely as intensiIiers. Their translation is achieved by Russian intensiIiers
irrespective oI their reIerence.
E4en udged by Tery standards, the le4el of the debate on the de4aluation of
the pound yesterday was abysmally low.
58" ( )0$, 1&",' $0("&7)0&07, #"%)- 7 U!)" c%=, 7"& +0
70+&0(* ( #"7!27;,, H*) +&0,(60#,!, &"17-<0 W"7"&0')0N ,1$0/
*&07".
+34+/:3H 09 )-?C:1-:, I+23:3H :3 T/231C2-:03
Every word is stylistically marked according to the layer oI the vocabulary it
belongs to. Stylistically words can be subdivided into literary and non-literary. The
greater part oI the literary layer oI the Modern English vocabulary is Iormed by
words oI general use (i.e. words oI general purpose) possessing no special stylistic
reIerence and known as neutral words. Neutral words comprise common colloquial
words and common literary words as well. Colloquial words and some groups oI
literary words are expressive while neutral words are not.
The stylistic Iunction oI the diIIerent strata oI the English vocabulary depends
not so much on the inner qualities oI each oI the groups as on their interaction when
opposed to one another.
kPy dear 3opperfieldl, said Pr. Picawber, kthis is luqurious. This is a way
of life which reminds of a period when [ was myself in a state of celibacy, and Prs.
Picawber had yet not been solicited to plight her faith at the Qymeneal altar.
(Ch. Dickens)
Mr. Micawber`s speech is characterized by highly literary, pompous words and
phrases.
rR0< #0&0:0< G0++"&H,!2#t, F ($1! /,()"& R,$0%"&, F rT)0
&0($0.0t. T)0) 0%&1 8,1, +0/,") /" 0 )0/ 7&"/",, $0:# ' (/
%-! 7 (0()0',, %"1%&,', /,((,( R,$0%"& "=" " */0!'!, +&,"(),
$!')7- !)&" L,/""'.
[f you don^t keep your yap shut ] (J.Salinger)
(!, )- " 1)$".2(']
Then he really let one go at me.
p*) 0 /" 7&"1! +0F()0'="/*.
The examples Irom Salinger are in marked contrast to the quotation Irom
Dickens. The words are not colloquial, but slang words, i.e. emphatically non-
literary.
It would be an error to translate a neutral or a literary word by a colloquial one
or a colloquial word by a literary one or to introduce a colloquial word in a literary
context. A mistake oI this nature occurs in the excellent translation oI 'The History oI
Henry Esmond by E.Kalashnikova:
k>he had recourse to the ultimo ratio of all women and burst into tearsl.
c +&,%":! $ ultimo ratio 7("6 8"=, , *#&,!(2 7 (!"1-.
The combination oI a Latin phrase with a non-literary phrase is certainly
jarring. The set expression 'to burst into tears is neutral and its equivalent would be
1!,)2(' (!"1/,. They possess an equal degree oI expressiveness.
T/231C2-:03 09 %5/21+0C0H:,2C =3:-1
Phraseological units are usually classiIied into three big groups: phraseological
Iusions, phraseological unities and phraseological collocations.
Phraseological Iusions are non-motivated groups Iorming indivisible wholes
both semantically and syntactically. Their meaning in Modern English does not
depend on the meaning oI the component elements. They seldom, iI ever, have
equivalents in the S and T languages and are usually rendered by interpreting
translation or by paraphrasing, e.g. to paint the lily \ +-))2(' *!*.,)2 ,!,
*$&(,)2 )0F!., *8#I=""(' 7 *!*.",, ,!, *$&.",,_ 1,/)2('
%"(+!0#-/ #"!0/_ )&),)2 7&"/' ,!, (,!- +0+*()*. To show the white feather
\ ()&*(,)2, +&0'7,)2 )&*(0()2.
The meaning oI a phraseological Iusion may naturally be rendered by diIIerent
synonyms, e.g. to go the whole hog \ #"!)2 )0F!. 0(07)"!20, +&070#,)2 #0
$0;, " 0()7!,7)2(' +0!*/"&6, ,#), 7(".
Phraseological unities are motivated units oI Modern English; their
components are not semantically bound. They are oIten Iigurative and the
transIerence oI meaning is either metaphorical or metonymical, e.g. to drop a brick \
#0+*(),)2 %"()$)0()2, (#"!)2 !'+(*(, +&0/6_ monkey business \ 7('$,"
.)*$,, H0$*(-, :!*+0(),, #*&"()7_ to eat humble pie \ +&0:!0),)2 0%,#*,
(/,&,)2('.
This group oI phraseological units is heterogeneous and comprises proverbs,
proverbial sayings, allusions, euphemisms, proIessionalisms, e.g.
gittle pitchers ha4e long ears \ #e), !I%') (!*.)2 &1:070&- 71&0(!-6_
dhat will Prs. Drundy say \ )0 ($8*) !I#,
Phraseological unities diIIer by their structure, by their syntactical Iunction in a
sentence and by their stylistic Ieatures.
According to the principle oI their translation phraseological unities can be
divided into three groups:
Phraseological unities having Russian counterparts, which have the same
meaning expressed by a similar image. They can oIten be traced to the same source
biblical, mythological, Latin proverbs or sayings, e.g. a li4ing dog is better than a
dead lion (bibl.) 8,70< +"( !*." /"&)70:0 !27_ not all is gold that glitters \ "
7(" )0 10!0)0, )0 %!"(),)_ to cut the Dordian knot (myth.) &1&*%,)2
:0&#,"7 *1"!.
Proverbs and Proverbial Sayings having the same meaning but
expressing it by a diIIerent image.
Too many cooks spoil the broth. F z ("/, '"$ #,)' %": :!1*.
To buy a pig in a poke \ G*+,)2 $0) 7 /".$".
giberal P.n.^s claimed to be united behind their leader while, at the same
time, strewing banana skins in his path.
y,%"&!- \ !"- +&!/") \ *)7"&8#!,, )0 0, 0%Z"#,,!,(2
70$&*: (70":0 !,#"&, 7 )0 8" 7&"/' 0, +0#()7!'!, "/* 08$*
$8#0/ .:*.
SL phraseological unities sometimes have synonymous TL equivalents,
the choice is open to the translator and is usually determined by the context, e.g.
ietween the de4il and the deep sea \ /"8#* #7*6 0:"<, /"8#* /0!0)0/ ,
$07!2"<, /"8#* J;,!!0< , S&,%#0<, 7 %"17-60#0/ +0!08",,.
In the absence oI a correlated phraseological unity the translator resorts to
interpreting translation, e.g. a skeleton in the closet WcupboardN \ ("/"<' )<,
"+&,')0()2, ($&-7"/' 0) +0()0&0,6.
Target language equivalents possessing national colouring though expressing
the same idea should be avoided as they cannot be considered true equivalents
because they introduce alien associations and alien national colouring, e.g. to carry
coals to {ewcastle should not be translated by the Russian proverbial saying
"1#,)2 7 p*!* (0 (70,/ (/07&0/. In such cases two solutions are possible: a) to
preserve the image oI the English phraseological unity ,$)0 " 701,) *:0!2 7
O2I$(!_ b) to resort to interpreting translation 1,/)2(' %"(+0!"1-/ #"!0/.
The same principles are applied to the translation oI phraseological unities in
the Iorm oI simile: cold as ice \ 60!0#-< $$ !"#_ as old as the hills \ ()& $$
/,&_ brown as a berry \ 1:0&"!-<, %&0107-<.
Interpreting translation oI phraseological Iusions and unities is justiIied by the
Iact that their literal meaning is suppressed by what may be termed their transIerred
meaning which conveys the idea expressed by them.
Phraseological collocations are motivated word combinations but they are
made up oI words possessing speciIic lexical valency which accounts Ior a certain
degree oI stability in such word groups. They are translated by corresponding
collocations in Russian, e.g. to make faces \ ()&0,)2 &08,_ to make amends \
+&,0(,)2 (70, ,17,",'_ to make a fortune \ (0()7,)2 (0()0',"_ to make a
bed \ 1()"!,)2 +0()"!2_ to make allowances \ #"!)2 ($,#$*.
As seen Irom the above examples it is always the key word which determines
the choice oI the Russian verb.
Lexical transIormations can be reduced to Iive distinct types which have a
purely linguistic basis. These Iive types are the Iollowing: concreti'ation$
generali'ation$ antonymic translation$ metonymic translation and paraphrasing.
&03,/+-:Q2-:03
Some groups oI lexical units require concretization in translation. This is due to
the diIIerence in the proportion between abstract and desemantized words on the one
hand and concrete words on the other in the S and T languages.
Abstract words in English distinctly Iall into several groups:
1. Numerous nouns Iormed by speciIic suIIixes oI abstract meaning. Many
such nouns have no counterparts in the Russian language, e.g. ministership,
presidency, electorate, statehood, etc.
2. Abstract words which have no equivalents in Russian, the so-called lacuna,
such as eqposure, occupant (unless as a military term).
3. Generalizing words having equivalents in Russian but diIIering in usage, e.g.
man, woman, creature, person.
4. Words oI wide meaning which require concretization in translation, some
words oI this group are on the way to becoming desemantized, e.g. place, piece, stuff,
affair, etc.
5. Words oI wide meaning which in Iact have become partly deictic signs:
Fthing, Fbody Wsomething, somebodyN.
Words belonging to the Iirst group require lexical and grammatical
replacements by words possessing a concrete meaning:
3.n.>now resigned from his ministership because he did not like the way the
gabour Do4ernment was de4eloping.
&!21 J0* *."! (0 (70":0 /,,()"&($0:0 +0() +0)0/* )0 "/* "
&7,!(2 -".'' +0!,),$ !"<%0&,()($0:0 +&7,)"!2()7.
The abstract noun 'ministership is rendered by a concrete noun (+0()) with
adjective.
9n ageing >peaker cannot take the burdens of the presidency Win case of the
president^s and 4iceFpresident^s assassinationN.
J)&"I=,< (+,$"& " /08") +&,')2 ("%' 7(I )'8"()2
+&"1,#")($0< 7!(),.
The abstract noun 'presidency is rendered by means oI a concrete noun with
an adjective as in the preceding example.
E4ery form of pressure and 4iolence is used by reactionary regimes to compel
a reluctant electorate to go to the polls.
|"$;,0-" &"8,/- ,(+0!21*I) 7(" H0&/- #7!",' , (,!,', )0%-
+&,*#,)2 *+&'/-6 ,1%,&)"!"< +&,')2 *()," 7 7-%0&6.
nuerto jico may launch a dri4e for E> statehood.
01/080, U*M&)0 |,$0 ") $/+,I 1 )0, )0%- ())2
.))0/ JxV.
The abstract word 'statehood is concretized by means oI an adverbial
subordinate clause oI purpose.
Words oI abstract meaning which Ior some reason or other have no equivalents
in the Russian language are translated by some concrete word determined by the
context. Their meaning is usually conveyed with the help oI replacements or
additions. It should be borne in mind that in this case the use oI the same parts oI
speech is oI no relevance.
Qe was hea4ily built. \ z ":0 :&*1' H,:*& .
The role and the signiIicance oI the context is well illustrated by the Iollowing
example, the translation oI which is determined by the macro context.
Two of the shipwrecked seamen died of eqposure.
570" ,1 +0)"&+"7.,6 $&*."," /0&'$07 +0:,%!, (0) 60!0# ,!, 0) 10'N.
[t was a good solid house built to withstand time and eqposure.
T)0 %-! 60&0.,<, +&0-< #0/, &((,)-< )0, )0%-
+&0),70()0')2 #"<()7,I 7&"/", , "+0:0#-.
dilla, the canary, had flown away. iut now there was a 4igorously ali4e little
occupant. (D.Eden).
G&"<$ ,!! *!")"!, 0 7/"()0 "" 7 $!")$" %-! 0"2 8,7' ,
7(":# 7"("!' +),$.
Generalizing words such as man, woman, child, creature etc. which do not
have equivalents in Russian but which diIIer in usage are concretized either by a
proper name, the name oI the breed ((0%$, $0.$) or some concrete word
according to the context.
k9nythingl, ienamin said, falling into a highbacked chair across from the
man^s kingly desk.
r)0 *:0#0t, ($1! a"#8/,, 0+*($'(2 7 $&"(!0 ( 7-(0$0< (+,$0<,
()0'7."" ( #&*:0< ()0&0- 7"!,$0!"+0:0 +,(2/"0:0 ()0! R()"&(0.
The replacement oI the noun 'man by a proper name is natural as Benjamin
knew Masterson and was in his house.
kiurn it, man, and who will be the wiser, ehl
rJ08:, %*/:*, , ,$)0 ,":0 " *1")t
Another group is Iormed by a large number oI words oI wide meaning. Their
reIerence has widened to such an extent that they have come to be used in a variety oI
contexts. This ability to be used in diIIerent contexts has, in its turn, aIIected their
reIerence: on the one hand, they have developed new lexical-semantic variants, on
the other, their semantic boundaries have become vague and indeIinite. This is due to
the Iact that their meaning is oIten contextual. Some oI them move towards
desemantization, such as piece, place, thing, affair, stuff, stunt etc.
The place was full, and they wandered about looking for a table, catching odds
and ends of con4ersation as they did so. (A.Christie).
|"()0& %-! +"&"+0!"_ 0, 60#,!, +0 1!* 7 +0,($6 (70%0#0:0
()0!,$ , "70!20 (!-.!, 0)&-7$, &1:070&07.
Desemantized words Iorm one more group.
The word place which is practically desemantized is translated by the concrete
word &"()0&.
de had a quick breakfast and then our oqygen sets on to our backs. kThis
oqygen is certainly the stuffl, was my thought. (Edmund Hilary).
R- %-()&0 +017)&$!, , 1)"/ 717!,!, (+,* %!!0- (
$,(!0&0#0/. r5, %"1 $,(!0&0# / " 0%0<),(2 t, +0#*/! '.
Equivalence in this case is achieved by means oI both lexical and grammatical
substitutions.
The point of eqchanging the E.E.3. is to make it stronger.
"(2 (/-(! &(.,&",' 7&0+"<($0:0 T$00/,"($0:0 J00%="()7 7 ":0
*$&"+!",,.
>he (grandmother) was a peppery old party with a will of solid granite and a
hot flaring temper. (Ilka Chase).
a%*.$ %-! ( +"&;"/, $$ $&"/"2, ( :0&',/ 7(+-!2,7-/
6&$)"&0/.
The desemantized colloquial word 'party (0(0%) is omitted in the translation
as it serves here merely as a prop-word.
Such words as piece, thing, body IulIill a double Iunction lexical and
grammatical; they can be used as lexical units possessing reIerence or as a
grammatical sign. The noun piece in its lexical Iunction means 'a bit oI something
(a piece of bread); in its grammatical Iunction it concretizes an uncountable noun,
turning it into a countable one (a piece of furniture, a piece of ad4ice, two pieces of
furniture, two pieces of ad4ice).
The words 'thing and 'body have, as a matter oI Iact, moved Irom one
morphological class into another; apart Irom belonging to reIerential nouns, they are
used as deictic signs or prop-words and in such cases are omitted in translation.
>he took things terribly seriously. (A. Huxley).
c 7(" +&,,/! 0"2 %!,1$0 $ ("&#;*.
In this case the noun 'things is translated by a generalizing word. But there
are also cases when this word requires concretization.
Qe came in sight of the lodge, a long, low frowning thing of red brick.
(A.Wilson).
c *7,#"! #0/,$ +&,7&),$, #!,0" ,1$0", 6/*&0" 1#," ,1 $&(0:0
$,&+,.
Special attention should be paid to the translation oI verbs oI wide meaning,
such as: to come, to go, to turn, to say, to tell, to get, to die and others. They are
rendered either by concrete words suitable to the context or by verb equivalents used
in corresponding collocations.
>o far C people ha4e died in floods in Dacca pro4ince.
U0 ,/"I=,/(' (7"#",'/, C "!07"$ *)0*!0 W+0:,%!0N 70 7&"/'
70#",' 7 +&07,;,, 5$$.
9t the byFelection 4ictory went to the labour candidate.
O #0+0!,)"!2-6 7-%0&6 +0%"#* 0#"&8! $#,#) !"<%0&,()($0<
+&),,.
The rain came in torrents. \ U0!,! (,!2-< #08#2.
The canary got out of the cage. (D.Eden).
G&"<$ 7-+0&6*! ,1 $!")$,.
Concretization is oIten resorted to in the translation oI verbs oI saying.
k?atherl she cried, kthe diamond is gonel
k9re you out of your mindl [ asked her.
kDonel says nenelope. kDone, nobody knows howl (W.Collins).
rc)";t 1$&,! 0, r!/1 +&0+!t.
r5 )- ( */ (0.!t 70($!,$*! '.
rf("1t, +07)0&,! U""!0+. rf("1, , ,$)0 " 1") $$,/ 0%&10/t.
Another verb which has become partially desemntized is the verb 'to in4ol4e.
Its concrete lexical meaning, its lexical-semantic variant is largely dependent on the
context.
k[^ll tell you what] you are not in4ol4ed. ou are remotel. (Irwin Show).
r0) )0 ' 7/ ($8*]7( M)0 " )&0:"). - ()0,)" 7 ()0&0"t.
Concretization is oIten resorted to in translating the verb 'to be in diIIerent
Iunctions. The principle oI semantic agreement is to be observed in such cases.
]first he was terrified, then he was sick, then he was in naris.
](! 0 ,(+*:!(', +0)0/ ":0 1)0.,!0, +0)0/ 0 0$1!(' 7
U&,8". (Josephine Tey).
K+3+/2C:Q2-:03
Generalization is the opposite oI concretization. In this case a SL word oI
concrete meaning is rendered by a TL word oI general meaning. This type is not so
wide-spread and occurs less Irequently than concretization. May be this is due to the
Iact that abstract and desemantized words in English Iorm, a numerous and
diversiIied group, thus supplying a linguistic base to this type oI transIormation,
whereas generalization appears to be lacking a similar linguistic Ioundation.
Sometimes generalization is resorted to Ior pragmatic reasons in order to avoid
expanded explanations or Iootnotes.
9nd so the Pad Qatter >cheme \ as it was later to be called \ was launched.
f )$ !0(2 0(*="()7!"," M)0< %"1*/0< 1)",, $$ 7+0(!"#()7,,
L&&, U0!!,)) , !"- &"#$0!!":,, .*)00 1-7!, +! ,1#,' +"&70<
"8"#"70< :1")- G0//*,(),"($0< +&),, a&,),,.
In those days the British communist Party had neither money, no premises.
'The Mad Hatter is an allusion to a character in Lewis Carrol`s well-known book
'Alice in Wonderland. The suggested translation is based on generalization.
Besides, recourse has been taken to interpreting translation.
Here are some examples oI this type oI lexical transIormation.
[n the 9rctic of today the fromen face of the deep is changing and man seeks a
scientific eqplanation for its growth and shrinkage.
y"#'0< +0$&07 y"#07,)0:0 0$" (*<( /"'")(', , !I#, ,=*)
*0" 0%Z'("," M)0/* '7!",I.
Puch more than an effecti4e gun control is going to be needed to cure 9merica
of the plague of 4iolence that afflicts it.
5!' )0:0, )0%- ,1%7,)2 V/"&,$* 0) M+,#"/,, (,!,', "#0())00
0#0:0 )0!2$0 ()&0:0:0 $0)&0!' # +&0#8"< 0&*8,'.
There is a tendency in the English language to use nouns denoting measures oI
weight, distance, length, etc. in describing people and things which do not require
such precision in their description. This method oI description is Ioreign to the
Russian practice and recourse is usually taken to generalization.
Qe was a young man of feet two inches.
T)0 %-! 7-(0$,< /0!0#0< "!07"$.
[t led him time and again into positions of fantastic danger and yet enabled
him to win e4ery ounce of ad4antage, especially against an irresolute enemy.
(Desmond Young).
T)0 +0()0'0 ()7,!0 ":0 7 "7"&0')0 0+(0" +0!08"," , 7 )0 8"
7&"/' #7!0 "/* 701/080()2 70(+0!2107)2(' 7("/, +&",/*="()7/,,
0(0%"0, "(!, "+&,')"!2 +&0'7,! "&".,)"!20()2.
"3-03?B:, T/231C2-:03
Antonymic translation usually implies a comprehensive lexical and
grammatical transIormation: an aIIirmative construction is translated by a negative
one or a negative construction by an aIIirmative one. But such grammatical
transIormation is usually accompanied by lexical transIormation the key word oI
the SL utterance is translated by its antonym in the TL utterance, e.g. ] the undead
past \ "=" 8,70" +&0.!0".
get a sleeping dog lie. \ O" %*#, (+'=*I (0%$* .
{obody was e4er sorry to see him. \ (" 7(":# %-!, &#- ":0 7,#")2.
Antonymic translation is more Irequently used when rendering negative
constructions by aIIirmative ones. This may be accounted Ior by the stylistic use oI
negative constructions in English Ior purposes oI expressiveness. The English
language uses grammatically only one negative in a sentence either with a verb or
with a noun but it maces a stylistic use oI two negatives oI which one is Iormed by
grammatical means and the other by means oI aIIixation (negative preIixes or
suIIixes) or by lexical means, i.e. by words with a negative meanings.
A sentence containing two negatives is negative only on the Iace oI it, actually
it is aIIirmative as the two negatives neutralize each other. The grammatical Iorm in
this case is not used in its direct meaning and consequently attracts attention, as does,
Ior example, the rhetorical question which is no question at all but an emphatic
statement. The clash between the denotative meaning oI the grammatical Iorm and its
use in speech makes it highly emotive and increases its expressiveness. Thus a double
negation has a special connotative meaning. It is not identical, however, with an
aIIirmative statement. It contains a certain modiIication. It may be an overstatement
or an understatement.
iritish imperialists ne4er failed to recognime the 4alue of tea and fought many
a bloody battle to grab the plantations of [ndia.
a&,)($," ,/+"&,!,()- 7(":# +&"$&(0 +0,/!, ;"0()2 ' , "
&1 7"!, $&077-" %0,, )0%- 167),)2 ,#,<($," <-" +!);,,.
The double negation is expressed grammatically by the negative adverb
'ne4er and lexically by the semantics oI the verb 'to fail is desemantized to such an
extent that in some cases it is equivalent to a simple negative and is translated
accordingly, e..g. he failed to appear \ he did not appear.
The combination oI a grammatical negative with the comparative or superlative
degrees oI the adverb 'little is always emphatic and is rendered antonymically.
Dickens is hampered by his age, which demands sentiment and reticence, but
in the space that is allowed to him he scampers as if he knew no restraint]{e4er
was he less embarrassed by restrictions than in the equberance of knickwick
napersl.
5,$$"( %-! (7'1 (70"< M+060<, $0)0&' )&"%07! *7()7,)"!20(),
, (#"&80(),, 0 7 #0170!"-6 "/* :&,;6 0 7"("!,)(' " 1'
*#"&8*] O,$0:# 0 " *7()707! ("%' %0!"" (70%0#-/ 0) 0:&,",<, "/
7 rY+,($6 U,$7,$($0:0 $!*%t, :#" 7"("!2" %2") $!Io/.
The double negative construction knot ] untill may be regarded as a cliche
which is practically always rendered antonymously as !,.2 )0:#, )0!2$0 W)0:#N,
$0:# possessing the same degree oI emphasis.
[t was not until [ reached the farmyard that [ made the disco4ery.
(Susan Howatch)
f )0!2$0 $0:# ' #0%&!(' #0 H"&/-, ' (#"!! M)0 0)$&-),".
[t was not until @}} when Xames 3ook chartered the East 3oast that any
maor eqploration of 9ustralia was undertaken.
f )0!2$0 7@}} :0#*, +0(!" )0:0 $$ 58"</( G*$ "( $&)*
70()00" +0%"&"82" V7()!,,, !0(2 ("&2"10" ,((!"#07," M)0:0
$0),").
Qe spoke in no uncertain terms. (Susan Howatch)
c :070&,! 7"(2/ &".,)"!20.
I+-03?B:, T/231C2-:03
Metonymic translation is based on contiguity oI notions and is less unusual
than is generally believed and takes its place among other linguistic transIormations.
iare and lurid light of street lamps. (C.P. Snow)
|"1$,< , /&-< (7") H0&"<.
The street lamps had no shades and therefore their light was fierce (cause and
eIIect).
O *!,-6 H0&'6 " %-!0 =,)07, , (7") ,6 %-! "()"&+,/0 '&0$.
That worthy gentleman turned mirth into a cough at ust the right time.
(Dickson Carr).
T)0) #0()0<-< #8")!2/" $$ &1 707&"/' +0#7,! (/"6 $.!"/.
The translation is based on the principle oI contiguity. A similar relation
appears in the Iollowing example.
The odious Prs. juscombe had had the effrontery to come up to her to
commiserate, with her false honeyed smile. (G. Heyer).
c)7&),)"!2' /,((,( |($0/ ,/"! :!0()2 +0#0<), $ "< (0 (70"<
",($&""< (!#$0< *!-%$0<, )0%- 7-&1,)2 "< (70" (0%0!"107,".
Another linguistic Ieature is to be mentioned here. Metonymy as a means oI
Iorming derivative reIerential meanings is widely used in English but cannot always
be preserved in translation.
?rom dinnipeg the railroad sweeps westward in a wide cur4e] than the steel
bends of northward. (F. Mowat).
c) ,,+": 8"!"10#0&08-< +*)2 .,&0$0< #*:0< ,#") 1+#]
Y)"/ &"!2(- (70&,7I) ("7"&.
The English language uses a metonymic denotation the material 'steel
stands Ior 'rails, railway line.
3oalfields go into action.
x6)"&- %()*I).
'3oalfields the place oI work stands Ior the people who work there. Such
use is common in English newspaper style.
In all these cases there is a reversal oI relationship, in other words, metonymy
is rendered metonymically and a comeback to the original notion is thus achieved.
But in other cases (as shown above) metonymic translation does not call Iorth the
initial notion but is used a transIormational device.
[ was photographed against autumn. (M.Drabble).
s %-! (H0)0:&H,&07 H0" 0("":0 +"<18.
The translation oI 'against autumn H0" 0(", is unacceptable in Russian.
%2/2@5/21:3H
When all other kinds oI lexical and grammatical transIormations Iail,
paraphrasing becomes indispensable. Paraphrasing implies rendering the content oI
the utterance by diIIerent semantic and grammatical units. This type oI
transIormation is especially common in translating orders, commands, cliches and
phraseological Iusions but it is used in other cases, as well.
{o parking WhereN \ J)0'$ 7)0/0%,!"< 1+&"=".
{o reason in the world to get upset.
O") (07"&."0 ,$$,6 0(07,< &(()&,7)2('.
]the Dermans proposed to surround all strongholds with deep minefields and
fill up the country between them with mines whereas it was ktankablel.
(Desmond Young).
] "/;- +&"#+0!:!, 0$&*8,)2 7(" *$&"+!"-" +*$)- :!*%0$,/,
/,-/, +0!'/,, ,)"&7!- /"8#* ,/, 7(I#*, :#" /0:!, +&0<), )$, \
0)#"!2-/, /,/,.
The absence oI a corresponding suIIix in the Russian language sometimes
necessitates paraphrasing.
They Wthe demonstratorsN had run into a solid wall of riotFequipped
dashington policemen. (C.Bernstein and B.Woodward).
z(),$, #"/0()&;,, )0!$*!,(2 (+!0.*I ()"*
7.,:)0($,6 +0!,;"<(),6, (+";,!20 (&'8"-6 #!' %0&2%- ( *!,-/,
%"(+0&'#$/,.
A compound adjective Iormed by the suIIix ed requires paraphrasing.
]lthe 3ommunistsl, said Pr. Pc gennan, kare illegally kept off the airl.
...rG0//*,()07t, ($1! R$ y", r(07"&."0 "1$0-/ 0%&10/
!,.I) +&7 7-()*+)2 +0 &#,0t.
This example Iully reveals the nature oI paraphrasing: the cliche 'to keep off
the air is translated by a corresponding Russian cliche !,.)2 +&7 7-()*+)2
+0 &#,0, conveying the same idea by diIIerent grammatical and lexical means.
The Iive types oI lexical transIormations considered in this chapter:
concretization, generalization, antonymic translation, metonymic translation and
paraphrasing practically cover the Iield. Additions and omissions may be added to
them.
LECTURE
)T!*')T'& %OL*EI)
$:99+/+3- "1@+,-1 09 )-?C:1-:, %/06C+B1
Stylistic problems oI translation may be approached Irom several angles: styles
oI language, their peculiarities, their goals and their interrelation; stylistic meaning oI
words; stylistic devices, their nature and structure, their expressive Iunction;
Ioregrounding oI linguistic means Ior stylistic purposes and its attention-compelling
Iunction.
The translation oI texts belonging to diIIerent Iunctional styles oI the language
presents a vast comprehensive problem.
A style oI language is dependent upon the sphere oI communication and the
aim oI communication which determine the peculiar choice oI language means.
These means are interrelated and Iorm a system is characteristic oI each style. Texts
belonging to diIIerent styles oI language possess distinctive stylistic Ieatures and thus
are easily recognizable although they may to some extent vary Irom language to
language. These Ieatures can be classiIied as leading or subordinate, obligatory or
optional. The leading or dominant Ieatures Iorm a common core in the S and T
languages. They are reIlected in the composition oI each text, in its syntactic
structure, in the choice oI linguistic means and stylistic devices. The same means
naturally occur in diIIerent styles but their use and Iunctions are diIIerent.
O99:,:2C )-?C+
OIIicial style is a sub-system oI the language, a Iorm oI communication
Iunctioning in the sphere oI oIIicial relations. The aim oI communication in this stile
is to reach agreement between two or more contracting parties. The term oI such
agreements must be Iormulated clearly and unambiguously in order to exclude any
possibility oI misinterpretation. Consequently this style is characterized by the use oI
words in their direct reIerential meaning and by the absence oI words oI emotive
meaning. Another outstanding Ieature oI this style is the abundance oI special terms,
cliches and set expressions oI a special nature which make this style distinct Irom
other styles and easily recognizable. Some oI them have their counterparts in the
target language are to be used by the translator, e.g.
The >ecurity 3ouncil shall, where appropriate, utilime such regional
arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority. (Charter oI the
United Nations, article 53).
J07") a"10+(0(), ,(+0!21*"), :#" M)0 */"()0, )$," &":,0!2-"
(0:!.",' ,!, 0&:- #!' +&,*#,)"!2-6 #"<()7,< +0# ":0 &*$070#()70/.
The corresponding Russian text is very close to the English text. Yet in three
cases there is no Iormal correspondence due to morphological and syntactical Iactors:
The special Iorm 'shall inIinitive (shall utilime), typical oI oIIicial
style, corresponds to the Present indicative (,(+0!21*")) its Russian counterpart in
oIIicial style.
The parenthetical phrase 'where appropriate precedes the notional verb
(utilime) while in Russian it comes aIter the verb ,(+0!21*").
The attributive combination N
1
N
2
(enforcement action) has its
counterpart 'an adjective noun group +&,*#,)"!2-6 #"<()7,<.
In accordance with the aim oI communication the translation oI oIIicial
documents requires utmost precision. Equivalence in the rendering oI Iorm is to a
considerable extent ensured by the existence oI correlated SL and TL patterns, but it
cannot be achieved at the expense oI the Russian language. For example,
synonymous pairs which have an age-long tradition in literary English are also
Irequently used in oIIicial style: the treaty was declared null and 4oid_ ust and
equitable treatment_ in good and due form, etc. such use oI synonymous pairs in
oIIicial documents is not so widespread in Russian oIIicial stile as they are regarded
as pleonastic and thereIore they are commonly translated by one word: #0:070& %-!
0%Z'7!" "#"<()7,)"!2-/, (+&7"#!,70" 0)0.",", 7 #!"8="< H0&/".
),:+3-:9:, %/01+ )-:C+
What has been said in connection with the translation oI oIIicial documents can
be applied to the translation oI scientiIic prose physical and natural sciences. In the
humanities and in popular science prose a certain emotive and subjective element is
apparent.
The terrestrial globe is a member of the system, the third in distance from the
sun. The earth re4ol4es about the sun, the mean distance of the earth from the sun
being a most important astronomic constant.
Y"/0< .& 760#,) 7 (0!"*I (,()"/* , '7!'")(' )&")2"< +!")0<
+0 *#!"0(), 0) J0!;. Y"/!' 7&=")(' 70$&*: J0!;, +&,"/ (&"#""
&(()0'," Y"/!, 0) J0!; '7!'")(' 7"(2/ 780< ()&00/,"($0<
$0())0< W+0()0'0< 7"!,,0<N.
The translation practically does not depart Irom the SL text. The content is
scrupulously rendered, equivalence is absolute. Yet owing to diIIerences between the
two languages the Iollowing changes have been made:
The construction with the nominal predicate link verb predicative (is a
member oI) is translated by a verbal predicate which is an accepted cliche 760#,)
7_ the elliptical construction (the third in distance) is translated by a coordinate clause
, '7!'")(' )&")2"< +!")0< +0 *#!"0(), 0) J0!;; the absolute
construction (the mean distance of the earth from the sun being a most important
astronomic constant) is also rendered by a coordinate clause +&,"/ (&"#""
&(()0'," Y"/!, 0) J0!; '7!'")(' 7"(2/ 780< ()&00/,"($0<
$0())0<. The additions the Russian translation are justiIied because they are
necessitated by structural diIIerences.
#+O1@2@+/ 234 %.6C:,:1- )-?C+1
These styles possess many Ieatures in common yet texts belonging to these
styles present considerable variety and may be divided into two groups: texts
containing inIormation and texts commenting on it.
News in brieI and inIormation articles (newspaper style proper) are devoid oI
emotive and individual colouring, hence wide use oI impersonal passive and
Nominative with the inIinitive constructions which are also impersonal in character.
Cliches Iorm an outstanding Ieature oI this type oI text. They are characterized by a
considerable compactness oI Iorm which is due to want oI space. Condensation in its
extreme Iorm is especially apparent in headlines and that is the reason why headlines
have their own structural peculiarities: omission oI auxiliaries, a wide use oI verbals,
oI attributive models, etc., all making Ior compactness.
Articles containing commentaries (publicist style proper) chieI among them
editorials, possess a distinct emotive colouring. Their vocabulary is literary and their
syntax is rather complicated. Their objective is to inIluence public opinion, not to
inIorm the reader but to convince him that the paper`s interpretation is correct and to
bring him round to its point oI view, to condition his views and opinions. This Iact
explains the use oI various expressive means.
Ele4en Die in agreb ?loods
Ele4en people are known to ha4e died and tens of thousands are homeless
after floods which struck agreb on Ponday.
This brieI note possesses a number oI peculiar Ieatures which have no
equivalents in Russian newspaper style: the use oI the Present tense instead oI the
Past; the use oI the Nominative InIinitive construction (a secondary predicate
according to L.Barchudarov); cliches which are not identical with the Russian
cliches. This being the case, several transIormations have been resorted to in the
translation oI the above brieI note.
O70#"," 7 Y:&"%"
J0:!(0 (00%=",'/, 7"& 7 Y:&"%" 7 &"1*!2))" 70#",' +0:,%!0
0#,#;)2 "!07"$, , #"(')$, )-(' 0()!,(2 %"1 $&07.
The inIormation contained in the original text is rendered equivalently, no sign
item has been omitted but the norms oI the Russian newspaper style have caused the
omission oI some lexical units and the use oI substitutions.
Commenting articles, as has been pointed out, bear a distinctive emotive
colouring due to the expressive means in them, though these means are hardly ever
original. The use oI trite metaphors, Ior example, is more Irequent in English
newspapers than in Russian papers. That is why trite metaphors are not inIrequently
substituted or even omitted in translation.
The metaphor used in the Iollowing example is toned down in the translated
text.
The [ndustrial jelations iill is an attempt to slit the throat of tradeFunions.
Y$00+&0"$) 0% 0)0.",'6 7 +&0/-.!"0(), \ M)0 +0+-)$
1#*.,)2 +&0H(0I1-.
Although the metaphor 'to slit the throat has a corresponding equivalent in
the Russian phrase +"&"&"1)2 :0&!0 Russian usage does not admit the combination
+"&"&"1)2 :0&!0 +&0H(0I1/.
That is why the translation substitutes the less picturesque verb 1#*.,)2
which expresses the same meaning and is traditionally used in similar contexts as a
sort oI cliche.
DiIIerent expressive devices (allusions among them) are used in newspaper
articles to condition the reader`s views and opinions.
The phrase 'the winter of discontent Irom Richard III by Shakespeare is
widely used in diIIerent political contexts and is oIten adapted to the situation, e.g.
>ome TradeFEnions warn the Do4ernment that it will be a winter of discontent.
The deIinite article has been substituted by the indeIinite, and the possessive
pronoun is omitted.
In the Iollowing example the adaptation is more conspicuous: the word
summer is substituted Ior winter and the possessive pronoun is also omitted.
[n former ?rench 9frica it was the summer of discontent. wne hundred
thousand citimens of 3had, led by their president, took to the windFblown streets of
?ort gamy to protest ?rench in4ol4ement in 3had^s internal affairs.
%-7."< H&;*1($0< VH&,$" !")0 %-!0 )&"7080". J)0 )-('
:&8# &"(+*%!,$, # ( +&"1,#")0/ 70 :!7" 7-.!, 1"("-" +"($0/
*!,;- K0&) y/, 7 1$ +&0)"() +&0),7 7/".)"!2()7 K&;,, 70
7*)&"," #"! &"(+*%!,$,.
In this case the pragmatic aspect oI translation comes to the Iore. The Russian
reader may not recognize the allusion and it will not call Iorth the necessary response
on his part, whereas the allusions, even in its altered Iorm, is Iamiliar to the English
reader. This consideration justiIies its omission.
+34+/:3H 09 (0/B :3 T/231C2-:3H EB0-:E+ %/01+
The requirements oI equivalence in the translation oI emotive prose diIIer
considerably Irom these in other styles where Iorm merely serves to convey the
content oI the utterance and do not IulIill any expressive and aesthetic Iunction
(publicist style in all its genres being to a certain extent an exception). In these styles
stylistic means and devices are merely used as their indispensable markers. But in the
Belles-Lettres style Iorm and content are inseparable whole; their common goal is to
aIIect the reader emotionally, to appeal to his Ieelings and to stir his imagination, to
arouse his sense oI values both ethical and aesthetic. The approach to the problems oI
equivalence is broader and more Ilexible in this style. Losses may be greater here but
so are the possibilities oI compensation because the object in view is to produce as
IorceIul a stylistic eIIect as that produced by the original. While in the translation oI
oIIicial, scientiIic and newspaper texts the losses are grammatical or lexical, in the
translation oI Belles-Lettres texts the losses are also stylistic aIIecting the expressive
value oI the translated text. This point may be illustrated by the Iollowing example
taken Irom H.W.Morton`s book 'In Search oI London, the style oI which comes
very close to imaginative prose. It is a picturesque and impressive description oI the
Iuneral oI Henry V.
9s the two miles of pompous grief passed through the streets of gondon, e4ery
citimen stood at his doorway holding a lighted taper.
)0 7&"/' $$ )0&8"()7"' +060&0' +&0;"((,', &()'*7.'('
#7" /,!,, #7,:!(2 +0 *!,;/ y0#0, 7 #7"&'6 $8#0:0 #0/ ()0'! ":0
601', ( 188"0< (7"0< 7 &*$6.
The striking metonymical transIerence oI meaning (two miles of pompous
grief) cannot be preserved in translation. The combination #7" /,!,
)0&8"()7"0< ($0&%, is against the norms oI Russian valency. The loss in
expressiveness is evident here but absolutely unavoidable.
Emotive prose abounds in images which are created by a variety oI stylistic
devices. A writer`s imagery is always subjective, striking and original his images
bear the imprint oI his individuality. The choice oI stylistic devices and the system oI
imagery determined by the writer`s design and Iorm one interdependent whole.
dhen she paid the coachman she took her money out of a hard steel purse in a
4ery ail of a bag which hung upon her arm by a hea4y chain, and shut up like a bite.
[ had ne4er, at that time seen a metallic lady altogether as Piss Purdstone was.
|(+!,7'(2 ( $*"&0/, 0 #0()! #"2:, ,1 )7"&#0:0
/")!!,"($0:0 $0."!2$, $0."!"$ 0 6&,!, $$ 7 )I&2/", 7 (*/$",
$0)0&' 7,("! * "" "&"1 +!"0 )'8"!0< ;"+0$" , 1="!$,7!(2, %*#)0
0&07' *$*(,)2. s ,$0:# #0 )"6 +0& " 7,#"! )$0< /")!!,"($0< !"#,, $$
/,(( R"&#()0.
Dickens uses many stylistic devices which are built around the same image
'hard steel: the translation is just as expressive and no losses have been incurred.
Sometimes in the attempt to preserve the writer`s imagery at the same level oI
expressiveness, the translator 'reshuIIles all its components as does Julia hukova
in her excellent translation oI the Iollowing extract Irom Faulkner`s story.
They passed so, that semblance of a thrust and a hawk in terrific immobility in
midFair, this an apparition \ like suddennessu a soft clatter of hoo4es in the sere
needle and were gone, the man stooping, the woman leaning forward like a tableau
of flight and pursuit on a lightning bolt.
c, +0'7,!,(2 "08,#0 $$ #*6,, , )$ 8" "08,#0 ,("1!, 7
/':$0/ ()*$" $0+-) +0 (*6,/ (0(07-/ ,:!/, F #7" +),;-, 1()-7.," 7
%-()&0/ $$ 7")"& +0!")", $0&.* , ":0 #0%-.
These examples especially the latter prove that the conception oI equivalence
in the translation oI emotive prose is Ilexible, broad and comprehensive. Equivalence
in this case is Iunctional, aimed at producing a similar eIIect in the TL, conveying the
same degree oI tension, and oI emotive colouring in conIormity with the author`s
design. Substitutions must be qualitatively equivalent. Losses which are inevitable in
translation can nearly always be compensated Ior by a skilIul use oI substitutions
because the same eIIect can be achieved by diIIerent stylistic devices.
nrichard^s questions stung him to silent bottled up fury. (J.Hilton).
The causative verb complex object structure is peculiar to the English
language and there is no corresponding structure in Russian (stung him to fury). The
semantics oI the verb 'to sting can be regarded in the Russian translation at the
expense oI compactness.
0+&0(- U&,&# )$ ":0 *#,7,!,, )0 0 "#7 /0: (#"&8)2 (70I
'&0()2, 0 +&0/0!!.
The epithet 'bottledFup (fury) cannot be preserved in translation because oI
diIIerent collocability (1$*+0&"' '&0()2). Hence a certain loss oI imagery, but
the reIerential meaning is rendered by the verb 0#"&8)2.
It is clear Irom the preceding analysis that Iundamental principles oI translation
are inviolate, but equivalence is not a rigid concept and varies in the rendering oI
texts belonging to diIIerent styles.
#2-:032C &52/2,-+/ 09 )-?C:1-:, )?1-+B1
The stylistic system oI a language like its phonetic, grammatical and lexical
systems bear a distinct national character.
Stylistic devices in diIIerent languages are, in the main similar but their
Iunctioning in each language, their speciIic weight and the Irequency oI their use are
widely diIIerent. This Iact accounts Ior the necessity oI stylistic transIormations
substitution and compensation. By means oI lexical and grammatical transIormations
the translator achieves an equivalent rendering oI the lexical and grammatical
meaning oI a word or a Iorm. The same principle is valid when rendering the stylistic
meaning oI the message, that is, reproducing a similar eIIect in the TL text, arousing
a similar response on the part oI the TL reader as well was called Iorth by the SL text.
The translator, however, is oIten compelled to achieve the intended eIIect by a
diIIerent device.
k] a blockbuster of a no4el. Each chapter lea4es the reader banging and
eager for morel.
J0:(.,%)"!2-< &0/ U0(!" $8#0< :!7- ,))"!2 +&'8"0
8#") +&0#0!8",'.
The reversed epithet is translated by a Russian epithet which is equally
colloquial and expressive. Although the semantic aspect is not preserved, the two
epithets may be regarded as equivalents because they possess a common seme,
namely 'to knock down. Sometimes the English and the Russian epithet which
appear to be correlated because oI their semantic likeness and because oI possessing
the same degree oI triteness are Iar Irom being equivalents as they provoke diIIerent
connotations, Ior example, toothy \ 1*%()-<.the Iormer describes a physical
Ieature, while the latter reveals a moral quality.
To the pummlement of the man speaking to her, she broke into a wide, toothy,
unpro4oked grin. (C.P.Snow).
G ,1*/!",I :070&,7.":0 ( "< "!07"$ 0 "08,#0 .,&0$0
*!-%*!(2, (7"&$*7 1*%/,.
The epithet is compensated by the expressiveness oI the verb.
It should also be borne in mind that stylistic devices which seem to be identical
may have diIIerent Iunctional values in the S and T languages. In order to achieve a
comparable eIIect another device should be employed. Repetition may illustrate this
point. For example, the Iive-Iold repetition oI the word 'stop (>top >top >top
>top >top) in Thomas Hardy`s story 'Absent-mindedness in a Parish Choir is
compensated lexically by the introduction oI conditional words possessing the same
degree oI expressiveness.
U"&"()2)" J,I /,*)* +"&"()2)" 5 +"&"()2)" 8"
The emphatic eIIect oI repetition in the Iollowing example is made up by the
use oI a synonymous pair and by the addition oI an intensiIier.
9 policy of see no stagnation, hear no stagnation, speak no stagnation has had
too long a run for our money.
J!,.$0/ #0!:0 /- &(+!,7"/(' 1 +0!,),$* +0!0:0 ,:0&,&07,' ,
1/!,7,' 1()0' 7 ."< M$00/,$".
Another instance oI stylistic substitution in translation is well illustrated by
K.Chukovsky`s translation oI the alliterative title oI Oskar Wild`s essay 'nen, nencil
and noison by a rhythmical arrangement oI correlated words: 'G,()2, +"&0 ,
0)&7. The same principle appears in another variant oI translation: 's#, +"&0 ,
$&#..
%0C?9.3,-:032C &52/2,-+/ 09 )-?C:1-:, $+E:,+1
Many stylistic devices are polyIunctional: one and the same device may IulIill
a variety oI Iunctions and produce diverse eIIects. These Iunctions are sometimes not
identical and do not coincide in English and in Russian. The same stylistic devices in
two languages reveal complete concurrence, partial concurrence and no concurrence
at all.
Alliteration is a case in point. Alliteration is primarily a euphonic device and
euphonic Iunction is practically identical in both languages. Alliteration appears to be
one oI the Iundamental Ieatures oI poetry. But alliteration in prose is more Irequently
used in English than in Russian and cannot always be preserved. For example, it is
not preserved in the translation oI the concluding paragraph oI Galsworthy`s 'Indian
Summer oI a Forsyte by M.Lorie.
>ummer \summer \ summer The soundless footsteps on the grass.
v&$0 \ 8&$0 \ 10<0 a"(.*/-" .:, +0 )&7".
The second Iunction oI alliteration is a logical one. Alliteration serves as a link
binding together diIIerent components oI the text. It is used as a bond between the
epithet and the qualiIied word. E.g. silent sea (Oldridge); dusty death (Shakespeare).
Alliteration in its logical Iunction is Irequently used in all kinds oI emotive
prose, e.g.
{othing befalls him (the author) that he cannot transmute into a stanma, a
song, or a story. (Somerset Maugham).
Alliteration here is deliberately used in the enumeration oI diIIerent poetical
and literary Iorms. The author`s device and its Iunction can, in this case, be easily
rendered in translation.
(", )0 +&0,(60#,) ( +,()"!"/, /08") <), (70" 70+!0="," 7
+"(", +0M/" ,!, +07"(),.
Alliteration is also not inIrequently used in newspaper and publicist style.
9t the end of the week the students, tutors and chairman meet to re4iew the
school. E4erything is criticimed, sometimes fa4orably, from the tutor to the tea, from
the bedroom to the beer.
$0;" "#"!, ()*#")-, +&"+0#7)"!, , +&"#("#)"!2 7()&"I)(',
)0%- 0%(*#,)2 7(" *"%-" #"!. (" +0#7"&:")(' $&,),$", ,0:#
%!:08"!)"!20< \ , +&"+0#7)"!,, , <, , (+!2, , +,70.
In this case alliteration has not been preserved. While it is easily rendered in
the preceding example and is not Iorced and sounds quite natural, here it would be
rather aIIected (+&"+0#7)"!, , +,&08$,, +0()"!, , +,70). But the omission oI
alliteration is compensated by polysyndeton which imparts a certain rhythm to the
sentence and makes it emphatic.
Alliteration is widely used in slogans, newspaper headlines and book titles
where it IulIills an eye-catching Iunction.
de demand uni4ersal suffrage because it is our right] we belie4e it will gi4e
us bread, and beef and beer. (Dave Morgan).
R- )&"%*"/ 7("0%=":0 ,1%,&)"!20:0 +&7, +0)0/* )0 M)0 ."
+&70] R- *%"8#"-, )0 M)0 #() / 6!"% , /'(0 , +,70.
Alliteration here cannot be preserved as exactitude oI expression and oI sense
may suIIer.
The eye-snaring Iunction oI alliteration is apparent in newspaper headlines, e.g.
3abinet 3ool on 3anal_ jeport on the jampageous jight_ iacon ilow, etc.
Alliteration is Irequently used in the titles oI books, e.g.
>ense and sensibility (J.Austin); the nosthumous naper of the nickwick 3lub
(Ch. Dickens).
+34+/:3H 09 T/:-+ 234 O/:H:32C $+E:,+1
A translator should be Iully aware oI the degree oI expressiveness oI stylistic
devices used in the text. A line oI distinction must be drawn between what is
stylistically trite and what is stylistically original. It especially reIers to lexical
stylistic devices: deliberate mixing oI words belonging to diIIerent layers oI the
vocabulary, metaphors, metonymies, epithets, similes, etc. stylistic equivalence is a
Iundamental requirement.
Publicist and newspaper styles have diIIerent accepted norms in English and in
Russian and in conIormity with these norms certain stylistic modiIications may be
necessary. For instance, colloquial and even slang words are Irequently used in
English newspaper style and thereIore a typical modiIication in translating English
newspaper texts into Russian is a switch Irom colloquial or neutral to literary. Such
changes are due to a somewhat greater orientation oI Russian newspaper style
towards literary norms and standards.
ou don^t ha4e to be a history buff to enoy historic houses in iritain but it
helps.
O" *80 %-)2 ,()0&,$0/ +"#)0/, )0%- (!8#)2('
+0("=","/ ,()0&,"($,6 1#,<, 0 M)0 +0/0:").
The word 'buff is a highly colloquial, iI not slangy word, meaning 'a dull,
slow-witted person (Webster III). In the translation its stylistic reIerence is elevated
and it is rendered by a literary word (+"#)).
A certain toning down is sometimes necessary in the translation oI such lexical
stylistic devices used in newspaper articles as metaphors, metaphoric epithets and
metonymies.
Metaphors are Iound in all emotively coloured styles oI language but
metaphors in the Belles-Lettres style (in imaginative prose) are usually original
whereas original metaphors in newspaper style are rare, trite metaphors are, as a rule,
given preIerence. The object pursued by editorials to bring the reader round to the
paper`s point oI view, to suggest that paper`s interpretation is the only correct one.
Editorials appeal not only to the reader`s mind but to his Ieelings as well. That
accounts Ior an extensive use oI various stylistic devices, metaphors in particular. But
unlike metaphors in imaginative prose metaphors in editorials can be easily replaced
iI necessary. Such substitution may be caused by diIIerent usage, diIIerent valency or
diIIerent TL norms.
The communists were the friends of peace in the foul weather of the cold war.
G0//*,()- %-!, 7"&-/, 1=,),$/, /,& 7 /&-" #, 60!0#0<
70<-.
The collocation ($7"&' +0:0# 60!0#0< 70<- would violate the norm oI
Russian stylistic usage as would the combination #&*12' /,&.
The >uppression of 3ommunism 9ct of @AC in >outh 9frica, howe4er, was
only the opening wedge of suppression. (W.Pomeroy).
Y$0 0 +0#7!",, $0//*,1/ 7 80< VH&,$" %-! +&,') 7 @AC :.
0#$0 M)0 %-!0 )0!2$0 !0/ &"+&"((,<.
wil prices in @A}e soared into orbit.
@A}e :. ;"- "H)2 "7"&0')0 +0#($0,!,.
Toning down is resorted to in translating trite metonymies which are so
extensively used in English.
jed carpet for the wil nrince.
iritain is pushing the boat out this week for the first official 4isit by one of the
world^s most powerful man, 3rown nrince and nrime Pinister of >audi 9rabia and
the most influential 4oice in world politics.
U-.' 7()&" "H)'0:0 7!()"!,
V:!,' *(,!"0 :0)07,)(' $ +"&70/* 0H,;,!20/* 7,1,)* M)0<
"#"!" 0#0:0 ,1 (/-6 /0:*="()7"-6 !I#"< 7 /,&" \ (!"#0:0 +&,; ,
+&"/2"&F/,,()& J*#07($0< V&7,,, "!07"$, "< :0!0( ,/"") &".I=""
1"," 7 /"8#*&0#0< +0!,),$".
The headline metonymy (red carpet) is replaced by the words expressing the
notion which it stands Ior (+-.' 7()&").
The second metonymy is preserved by means oI addition.
O/:H:32C I+-2@50/1 234 T5+:/ T/231C2-:03
The preservation oI original metaphors in imaginative prose is obligatory as
they belong to the main Ieatures oI a writer`s individual style. II Ior some linguistic
reason (diIIerent valency, diIIerent semantic structure, etc.) the original metaphor
cannot be preserved, resort is taken to stylistic replacements or compensation either
by substituting another image or by using another stylistic device, e.g.
9nd Pight by limping >way disabled. (Shakespeare Sonnet 66)
f /0=2 7 +!"* * "/0=, %"11*%0<. (. C.Mm)
The metaphoric epithets 'limping and %"11*%-< are Iormally not identical
semantic units but as they have a common seme denoting a physical deIect,
stylistically they may be regarded as equivalents.
The sun would pour through the shutters, tigerFstriping the table and floor]
(G. Durrell)
J0!;" (7"),!0 ($7012 ()7, , ()0!,$ , +0! %-!, +0608, ),:&07*I
.$*&*.
The metaphor is rendered by a simile.
An original metaphor has sometimes to be substituted Ior grammatical reasons,
Ior instance, the category oI gender may be a case in point.
3an^t think how he married that glass of sour milk. (W.Deeping).
O" /0:* ("%" +&"#()7,)2, $$ 0 /0: 8",)2(' M)0< .$" $,(!0:0
/0!0$.
The Russian noun ()$ is masculine and must in this case be substituted by
a Ieminine noun .$.
A trite metaphor is sometimes revived by adding to it a new image expressed
by one or more words.
Qe was a rich 4ein of information, and [ mined him assiduously. (G.Durrell).
c %-! ",(('$"/-/ ,()0,$0/ ,H0&/;,,, , ' %"1 *()!, "&+! ,1
":0.
Sometimes the diIIiculty oI rendering metaphors in translation is due to the Iact
that the metaphor is based on some phraseological unit which has no equivalent in
Russian.
{e4er before had gucy met that negati4e silence in its full perfection, in its full
cruelty. Qer own edges began to curl up sympathy. (J. Tey).
O,$0:# "=" yI(, " ()!$,7!(2 ( )$,/ %(0!I)-/ /0!,"/,
()0!2 6&$)"&-/ #!' :!, , ()0!2 %"(+0=#-/_ , 7 "< (/0< !0
1$,+)2 ":0#07," .
The metaphor in this example 'her own edges began to curl up in sympathy is
linked up with two phraseological unities:
1. to be on edge to be excited or irritable; 2. to set person^s teeth on edge
jar his nerves, aIIect him with repulsion (The Concise OxIord Dictionary). The semes
in this case are reshuIIled, the reIerential meaning oI the word 'edge is revived, and
the meaning oI the two phraseological unities (to be irritable, to have one`s nerves
jarred) is present. This interaction oI two meanings is perceived as deliberate
interplay.
O/:H:32C I+-03?B:+1 234 -5+:/ T/231C2-:03
The rendering oI metonymy is not always easy because oI diIIerences in usage.
>o the pink sprigged muslin and the champagne 4oile ran downstairs in a
hurry. (C. Dane).
The metonymies r&0107-< /*(!, 7 ;7")0$6 , +!"7' $,("' (%"8!, +0
!"(),;"t are hardly possible in Russian. The Iollowing is an acceptable rendering:
U0#&*:,, 0# 7 &01070/ /*(!," ( ;7")0$/, , #&*:' 7 +!"70< $,("",
%-()&0 (%"8!, +0 !"(),;".
The addition oI a concrete word +0#&*:, is prompted by the macro context,
but the stylistic eIIect is certainly lost in translation. What is permissible and possible
in our language is impossible in another. Still there are cases when the norms oI the
Russian language permit the use oI original metonymies.
There were only four other people in the bar. [ knew them all, or knew what
they did for a li4ingu timber, flour, teqtiles, insurance. Timber and ?lower were
standing at the counter discussing the cost of labour_ Teqtiles at a table on the
opposite side of the room was complaining about his garage bills. [nsurance was
listening patiently. (J.Braine).
%&" %-!0 )0!2$0 "=" ")-&" "!07"$. s 1! ,6 7("6, 7"&"" 1!, "/
0, 1,/I)('u ()&0"70< !"(, /*$, )"$(),!2, ()&607,". J)&0"70< !"( ,
R*$ ()0'!, * ()0<$,, 0%(*8#' ()0,/0()2 &%0"< (,!-_ p"$(),!2, (,#' *
()0!,$ 7 #&*:0/ $0;" %&, 8!07!(' %0!2.," (") 1 :&8.
J)&607," )"&+"!,70 ":0 (!*.!.
T/2319+//+4 E@:-5+- 234 :-1 T/231C2-:03
Another example oI diIIerent Irequency and diIIerent speciIic weight oI a
stylistic device is presented by the transIerred epithet which is a structural variant oI
the metaphoric epithet. Its expressive Iorce lies in its peculiar distribution:
syntactically it modiIies one word whereas logically it reIers to another. Thus,
syntactically it stands apart Irom the word to which it is semantically attached.
TransIerred epithets both trite and original are widely used in English while in
Russian they are mainly conIined to poetry. Such combinations with transIerred
epithets as 'hasty luncheon, 'quick cigarette, 'accusing finger, 'indifferent
shoulder, etc. have become cliches through their Irequent use.
Some models oI transIerred epithets are more unusual and thereIore more
expressive but nevertheless are rarely preserved in translation.
]his commanding officer had called him ] and sent him on his pummled way.
(M. West).
G0/#,& +017! ":0 ] , +0(!! ":0 ( +0&*","/, $0)0&0" (07("/
01#,!0 ":0.
The Russian translation in keeping with the existing norms oI valency re-
establishes the logical link between the attribute and the modiIied word but inevitably
destroys the stylistic eIIect.
[n the narrow darkness between the doors he drew his pistol. (E.Gardner).
The epithet 'narrow semantically reIers to the implied word 'inter4al
(between the doors) which is introduced in the Russian translation.
*1$0/ )"/0/ +&0/"8*)$" /"8#* #7"&'/, 0 7-*! (70< +,()0!").
>:0C2-:03 09 %5/21+0C0H:,2C =3:-1 234 :-1 +34+/:3H
Another stylistic device which may also be described as national is the so-
called violation oI phraseological units or renovation. This device is used in all types
oI phraseological units: Iusion, unities and collocations. But despite their stability,
phraseological units are easily broken by some lexical element which is either added
or substituted. Evidently the ties binding the components are not indissoluble, which
is probably due to a wide and Ilexible collocability oI the English language.
The substitution oI a component element may be achieved by a synonym or an
antonym, by a word with a resembling sound Iorm, or by any word prompted by the
context or by the writer`s intention. These substitutions are always occasional and
unpredictable, e.g.
E4ery country on the old continent has a fine collection of skeletons in the
cupboard.
z 7("6 "7&0+"<($,6 ()& "()2 "/!0 "%!:07,#-6 )<, $0)0&-" 0,
($&-7I) 0) #&*:,6.
The meaning is Iully rendered but the device is not reproduced in the
translation. It is a typical case oI semantic but not oI stylistic equivalence.
The nresident is not going to be a bull in the economic china shop.
70+&0(6 M$00/,$, +&"1,#") " (0%,&")(' 7"(), ("%' $$ (!0 7
+0(*#0< !7$".
The device is rendered by a detached construction.
Substitution based on the phonetic principle can be illustrated by the Iollowing
example Irom Winston Churchill`s speech in the Commons aIter the Japanese attack
on Pearl Harbour:
[ hesitate to eqpress opinions about the future, because things turn cut so 4ery
oddly, but [ will go so far as to say that it may be Xapanese, whose game is what [
may call kTo make hell while the sun shinesl are more likely to occupy themsel4es in
securing their rich primes in the nhilippines, the Dutch East [ndies and the Palayan
9rchipelagol.
s 7(":# $0!"%!I(2, $0:# +&,60#,)(' 7-($1-7)2 /","
0)0(,)"!20 %*#*=":0, +0)0/* )0 (0%-),' &17"&)-7I)(' )$,/
"+&"#7,#"-/ 0%&10/, 0 ' +0170!I ("%" ($1)2, )0, 701/080, '+0;-,
,:& $0)0&-6 1$!I")(' 7 )0/, )0%-, +0!21*'(2 %!:0+&,')-/,
0%()0')"!2()7/,, )70&,)2 $$ /080 %0!2." %"#, ($0&"< 7(":0 %*#*)
()&)2(' 1$&"+,)2 1 (0%0< (70, ;"-" +&,0%&")",' K,!,++,6, 7
L0!!#($0< c()Ff#,, , R!<($0/ &6,+"!:".
The eIIect oI this violation is enhanced by a play on words resulting Irom
combining two phraseological units: a proverb 'to make hay while the sun shines
and a collocation 'to make hell.
Only semantic equivalence is achieved in the translation, as the corresponding
Russian proverb G*< 8"!"10 +0$ :0&'0 would be irrelevant here.
Substitutions also occur in allusions and epigrams, e.g.
The family was at this moment di4ided, unlike Daul, into four parts.
M)0) /0/"), 7 0)!,," 0) L!!,,, ("/2' &1#"!,!(2 ")-&"
(),.
This is an allusion to the well-known opening line oI Caesar`s 'De bello
gallico. The English translation oI the original sentence runs as Iollows: 'Daul as a
whole is di4ided into three parts. Besides substitution, the allusion is extended by
means oI a lexical addition and is structurally altered.
Violation may also be achieved by a shiIting oI component elements, as was
done, Ior example, by Evelyn Waugh:
'There^s danger in numbers_ di4ided we stand, united we fall.
In the Iirst phrase E.Waugh substitutes the noun 'danger Ior 'safety (there is
safety in numbers); in the second, he shiIts the components (united we stand, di4ided
we fall).
The Iollowing translation may be suggested:
"#,",, (!%0()2. |1#"!20 /- *()0,/. /"()" /- +0:,%"/.
The revival oI a Iaded metaphor or metaphoric element may be regarded by the
introduction oI some word or words which restore and bring to mind the original
transIerence oI meaning.
[ wanted to gi4e her not a piece but the whole of my mind. (S.Maugham)
In phraseological unity 'to gi4e apiece of one^s mind \ 0)$&07"0
7-($1)2 $0/*F,%*#2 (70" "0#0%&"," \ one oI the components is a Iaded
metaphor (piece) but the additional word 'the whole brings back the original
meaning oI the word 'piece. Naturally the device cannot be preserved but can be
compensated by means oI expressive synonyms and an intensiIier.
s 60)"! " )0!2$0 0)$&07"0 7-($1)2 "< (70" "0#0%&",", 0
%*$7!20 7-!08,)2 7(", )0 ' 0 "< #*/!.
Set expressions (collocations) are easily violated as the ties between the
elements are rather loose. This Iact is conIirmed by the existence oI synonymous
variants, e.g. to cast a glance, to dart a glance, etc.
Phrases containing repetition (oI the type 'day by day, 'step by step) are also
sometimes broken by an additional word.
The clocks of >il4erhill ticked away minute by slow minute. (P. Whitney).
(- 7 J,!27"&6,!!" /"#!"0 0)(,)-7!, /,*)* 1 /,*)0<.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 234 T/231C2-:03;
Modern English writers and journalists oIten give preIerence to Ioregrounding
over, traditional stylistic devices. By Ioregrounding is understood the use oI neutral
linguistic means Ior stylistic purposes. A grammatical Iorm or structure thus acquires
great expressiveness and may be regarded as a stylistic device.
Foregrounding reveals and brings Iorth the potentialities which are inherent in
linguistic means. Just as a port a writer senses the expressive possibilities oI a word,
he sees potential expressiveness in a grammatical structure or Iorm and skillIully uses
it. Foregrounding is always individual; is displayed in unexpected contexts and
posses a high degree oI unpredictability. Practically every grammatical Iorm and
every part oI speech may be Ioregrounded, that is used Ior expressiveness.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 "/-:,C+1;
The rendering oI the meaning oI articles has already been considered in the
chapter dealing with grammatical problems.
In the Iollowing example Iris Murdoch eIIectively reveals the stylistic Iorce oI
the two articles, their expressive possibilities and their eIIective use Ior stylistic
purposes.
nerhaps he would achie4e some sort of piece, the piece of an elderly man, a
piece of comy retirement]
01/080, 0 0%&")") $$0<F,%*#2 #*."7-< +0$0<, )$0< +0$0<,
+0$0<, (70<()7"-< +08,!-/ !I#'/, )$0< +0$0<, $0)0&-< #") +&,')0"
*"#,",".
The Ioregrounded articles are compensated lexically.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 $+H/++1 09 &0B@2/:103;
Degrees oI comparison can also be Ioregrounded. Such Ioregrounding may be
achieved in two ways: either by semantic or by morphological violation oI the norm.
The semantic violation oI the norm is applied to descriptive adjectives which by
virtue oI their semantics do not admit oI comparison. Yet Ior the sake oI
expressiveness they are used either in the comparative or in the superlative degrees.
kery good, sirl, said the groom, at his most wooden, and sprang down into
the road. (Georgette Heyer)
It should be pointed out that in this vase the superlative degree with the
preposition 'at and a possessive pronoun Iorms a special model and is used
absolutely as an elative, which implies that the object described possesses a certain
quality beyond comparison.
kJ!*.I(2, (M&l, ($1! :&*/ ( (/-/ , )0 , "()2 #"&"7'-/
7-&8","/ !,; , (+&-:*! #0&0:*.
The meaning oI the elative is rendered by a colloquial intensiIier ()0 ,
"()2).
Another example oI semantic violation:
The station is more daunting than the Dare du {ordu golder, grander.
(E.Bowen)
T)0) 70$1! +0#7!'") (70,/ 7"!,$0!"+,"/ %0!2." "/ J"7"&-< 70$1!
7 U&,8", 0 "=" %0!"" 10!0)0<, "=" %0!"" +-.-<.
The device is preserved in the translation.
The Ioregrounding oI descriptive adjectives is sometimes Iound in newspapers
style as well.
The report^s proposals were handed o4er to a much more lpoliticall
committee]
U&"#!08"," #0$!# %-!, +"&"#- $0/,)")*, $0)0&-< 7"#!
+0!,),$0< :0&1#0 %0!"" 7-(0$0/ *&07".
The inverted commas indicate that newspapers style is more conventional than
imaginative prose.
Morphological violation may be described as violation oI established
grammatical norms Ior stylistic purposes and the degrees oI comparison become
Iunctionally charged.
k3uriouser and curioserl, said 9lice. (Lewis Carroll)
Polixena Solovieva, the translator, takes recourse to the same device.
k3)&" , ()&"l, ($1! V!,(.
k9nnie, could you gi4e me a quart of coffee in a cartonl
k[t^ll ha4e to be two points, Eth.l
kDood. E4en gooderl. (J.Stainbeck)
kV,, #< /" $7&)* $0H" 7 +$")"l.
kz /"' +$")- +0 #7" +,)-l.
ky#0, #8" &(+&"!#0l.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 -5+ %C./2C (0/B;
The plural Iorm is Ioregrounded when it is used with uncountable nouns or
with 'noun phrases. The plural moves an uncountable noun into a new category,
thus stressing it.
Qe was bursting with new ideas and new enthusiasms. (I.Shaw).
"/ %*&!,!, 07-" ,#", , 07-" *7!"",'.
de spent a long day together, with a great many kDo you remembersl
(Desmond Young).
R- +&07"!, 7"(2 #"2 7/"()", %"1 $0; +07)0&''u rV )- +0/,.2t
As conversion is used in Russian on a limited scale it can hardly ever
preserved.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 F0/4G6.:C4:3H
New words are coined by aIIixation, word-compounding and conversion. All
these means oI word-building are Irequently Ioregrounded. Their expressiveness is
due to their individual character and is oIten a Ieature oI the writer`s style.
As word-building possesses a national character the rendering oI such coinages
constitutes a complicated problem oI translation.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 ).99:J+1
SuIIixes present great variety and have diIIerent productivity in the S and T
languages. The English language is particularly rich in suIIixes and their productivity
is prodigious. The case with which new words are Iormed is amazing. Individual
coinages speedily become neologisms and enter the vocabulary. Some suIIixes are
exceptionally productive and oIIer great possibilities Ior Ioregrounding. Such
coinages oIten baIIle the translator and their rendering requires considerable
ingenuity on his part, usually at the cost oI compactness.
This is well illustrated by the word 'hackdom in the Iollowing example:
] no one who knows his long, dreary record in the Qouse, `C years of
plodding through hackdom would e4er accuse him of being a leader.
],$0/* ,1 )"6, $)0 1$0/ ( #!,)"!2-/ , *-!-/ +&"%-7,"/ M)0:0
"!07"$ 7 G0:&"((", " +&,.!0 %- 7 :0!07* 17)2 !,#"&0/ M)0:0
+0(&"#()7"0:0 $0:&"((/", $0)0&-< `C !") $0&+"! # (/0<
+07("#"70< &%0)0<.
The suIIix \ful is also Ioregrounded.
AIter the pattern oI 'handful and 'mouthful the adjective 'faceful is Iormed
Ior vividness oI expression.
9 new ward syster, fat and forceful with a huge untroubled faceful of flesh and
brisk legs, was installed. (M.Spark).
+!)" 70#70&,!(2 07' ("()&, M"&:,' )0!()*6 ( 0:&0/0<
"701/*),/0< /'(,()0< H,1,00/,"< , ( %-()&0< +060#$0<.
The stylistic eIIect is lost because a very usual attribute '/'(,()-< does not
stylistically correspond to the correlated nonce-word 'faceful.
Perhaps the most productive oI all suIIixes is the suIIix \er used both Ior
nominalization and Ior stylistic purposes. The Irequency oI its partial
grammaticalization, in other words, this suIIix oIten Iunctions as a noun indicator.
>he is a leaner, leans on me, breathes on me, too, but her breath is sweet like a
cow^s breath. >he^s a thoucher, too. (J.Stainbeck).
R0' #0$ !I%,) +&,(!0')2(', +&,(!0'")(' $0 /" , #-.,) /"'.
O0 0) "" +&,')0 +6") /0!0$0/, $$ 0) )"!"$. c )$8" !I%,) ,
)&0:)2 /"'.
Despite its universal character this suIIix is easily Ioregrounded. It is used by
writers Ior Iorming nonce-words sometimes parallel with existing ones built Irom the
verb but having a diIIerent meaning, e.g. 'a waiter: 1. a man who takes and executes
orders (The Concise OxIord Dictionary); 2. a man who can wait. (John Stainbeck).
>he is a waiter \ [ can see that now and [ guess she had at lengthy last grown
weary of waiting.
c +&,7-$! 8#)2, )"+"&2 ' M)0 +0,/I. O0 /" (#")(', )0 "< 7
$0;" $0;07 #0"!0 8#)2.
Sometimes the suIIix \er indicating the doer is contrasted with the suIIix \ee
indicating the patient the object oI the action.
[n business you sometimes were the pusher and sometimes the pushee.
(I.Shaw).
$0:# 7"#".2 #"!0, ,0:# +&,60#,)(' ":0 +&0)!$,7)2, ,0:# )-
(/ %-7".2 0%Z"$)0/ )$0:0 +&0)!$,7,'.
{o, he could imagine Parta a murderee but not a murderer. (J.Tey).
O"), 0 /0: +&"#()7,)2 ("%" R&)* 8"&)70< *%,<()7, 0 " *%,<;"<.
The suIIix \able, another most productive suIIix, is also Irequently
Ioregrounded. It is oIten used in advertising as its lexical meaning has not
disappeared, e.g. a hummable record \ a record that can be hummed; a filmable
no4el \ a novel that can be Iilmed.
Qe was waiting for the last bath of the purified uranium with unfillable time on
his hands. (C.P.Snow).
c 8#! +0(!"#"< +&),, 0,="0:0 *& , +0M)0/* * ":0 %-!0
/0:0 (70%0#0:0 7&"/",, $0)0&0" 0 " 1! "/ 1+0!,)2.
The lanes were not passable, complained a 4illager, not e4en ackassable.
p&0+,$, "=" "+&060#,/-, (")07! 0#, $&"()2',, +0 ,/ " )0!2$0
"!07"$*, 0 #8" 0(!* " +&0<),.
These coinages are also translated by extension and are equivalent only
semantically, not stylistically.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 &0B@0.341
Nonce-words Iormed by compounding are naturally conspicuous.
Qe was a born parentFpleaser. (I.Shaw).
c 0%!#! #&0/ &7,)2(' &0#,)"!'/.
The Iollowing example is curious as the two component elements oI the
compound have the suIIix \er.
kParta said that you wanted something looked upl.
k9nd are you a lookerFupperl
k[^m doing research, here in gondon. Qistorical research [ meanl]
(Josephine Tey).
rR&) :070&,!, )0 *80 0)-($)2 $$*IF)0 (+&7$*t.
rV 7- )0 8", 0)-($,7)"!2t
rs 1,/I(2 1#"(2, 7 y0#0", ,((!"#07)"!2($0< &%0)0<I
f()0&,"($,/, ,((!"#07,'/,, ' ,/"I 7 7,#*t.
In this case a Russian nonce-word proves to be possible.
&03E+/1:03 234 (0/+H/0.34:3H
Conversion this typical means oI word building in English is oIten
Ioregrounded.
This mode oI word-building is a typical example oI compression and at the
same time it is a means oI achieving expressiveness.
de therefore decided that we would sleep out on fine nights_ and hotel it, and
inn it and pub it, like respectable folks, when it was wet, or when we felt inclined for
a change. (Jerome K. Jerome).
f)$, /- &".,!,, )0 %*#"/ (+)2 +0 0)$&-)-/ "%0/ )0!2$0 7
60&0.*I +0:0#*, 7 #08#!,7-" #, ,!, +&0()0 #!' &100%&1,' ()"/
0"7)2 7 :0(),,;6, )&$),&6 , +0()0'!-6 #70&6, $$ +0&'#0-" !I#,.
Conversation is sometimes based on a Iree combination oI words resulting in a
compound.
The cat highFtailed away and scrambled o4er the board fence. (J.Stainbeck).
G0) 0)0."!, +0#'7 670() )&*%0<, , +&-:*! "&"1 1%0&.
Again a case oI semantic but not oI stylistic equivalence.
(0/+H/0.34:3H 09 "4E+/6:2C >+/61
The so-called adverbial verbs, that is, verbs containing two semes, one
expressing action and the other describing the character oI that action, are oIten used
Ior stylistic purposes in the same way as causative verbs. Such use can be traced Iar
back even to Shakespeare.
>he splashed the four chipped cups down on a table by the door.
(M.Sinclair).
c )$ &"1$0 +0()7,! 7(" ")-&" #)&"(*)-" .$, ()0! *
#7"&,, )0 < &(+!"($!('.
In this case the verb 'to splash down contains three semes: the action itselI, its
character and its result.
>moke sorrowed out of the chimney. (P.White).
f1 )&*% +"!20 +0#,/!(' #-/.
EB@52-:, &031-/.,-:031
Emotive colouring and expressiveness oI speech may be achieved by various
emphatic means both grammatical and lexical. Expressiveness and emotive colouring
should not be conIused. The Iormer is a wider notion than the latter. Emphatic means
are used even in those styles oI language which lack emotive colouring, viz. the style
oI scientiIic prose and oIIicial style. Emphatic models give prominence either to one
element oI the utterance or make the whole utterance IorceIul and expressive.
Emphatic means oI the English language present great variety and bear a
distinct national character. Some emphatic models in English and in Russian coincide
but there are considerable diIIerences. Even coincidences are oIten partial or
seeming. ThereIore rendering oI emphasis in translation is not a simple task.
nversion as a #eans of Emphasis
The emphatic role oI inversion is a well-known Iact, and need not be
considered here. It is only to be mentioned that the stylistic Iunction oI inversion is
Irequently rendered lexically.
Ep goes unemployment, up go prices, and down tumbles the labour 4ote.
a"1&%0),; &"1$0 *7"!,,!(2, ;"- +0#($0,!,, $0!,"()70 :0!0(07,
+0#-6 1 !"<%0&,()07, $)()&0H,"($, *+!0.
The nrime Pinister^s word distorted and 4icious as they are, are a tribute to
the fighting capacity of the 3ommunist narty.
J!07 +&"/2"&F/,,()&, ()0!2 1!0%0 , :&*%0 ,($8I=,"
#"<()7,)"!20()2, '7!'I)(' !,.2 +0#)7"&8#","/ %0"(+0(0%0(),
$0//*,(),"($0< +&),,.
Emphatic (se of the !As) As" model
The model 'as.as expressing the same degree oI quality may be used
emphatically not in its direct Iunction but to express the superlative degree. In this
case it is as a rule combined with the pronouns 'any, 'anything, 'anybody. The
translations oI this model require lexical compensation.
9s he has since admitted, he admires josamund Darnley as much as any
woman he had e4er met. (Agatha Christie)
G$ 0 +0)0/ +&,1!(', , 0# 8"=, (7")" " 7-1-7! 7 "/
)$0:0 70(6,=",' $$ |01/*# 5&!,.
Qe tried as well as any man could, but he faild. (M.Halliday)
O, 0#, "!07"$ " /0: (#"!)2 %0!2.", 0 7("F8" 0 +0)"&+"! "*#*.
This new opera is as remote from classic grand opera as anything created in
modern idiom could be.
T)0 07' 0+"&, +,(' 7 0"2 (07&"/"0< /"&", (07"&."0
"+0608 $!((,"($*I 0+"&*.
EB@52-:, #+H2-:E+ &031-/.,-:031
Negative constructions are more expressive than aIIirmative ones and possess a
stronger emotive colouring.This is due to the Iact that the category oI negation
indicates that the link between the negation indicates that the link between the notions
expressed by the subject and the predicate is non-existant.
The negative word 'no is a powerIul means oI stressing the some member oI
the sentence.
wur arrangement was no announcement for few days. (A.Halley)
R- #0:070&,!,(2u ,$$,6 (00%=",< 7 )"",, %!,8<.,6 #"<.
The emphatic use oI the colon in the translation attracts attention to what
Iollows. Emphasis is also created by ellipsis.
They passed no 4illage bigger than a hamlet and no inn better than an
alehouse, but Qarry was urgent to stop at one of them and seek better horses.
(J.Buchan)
O 7("/ +*), ,/ " +0+!0(2 , 0#0< %0!2.0< #"&"7,, , 0#0:0
+0&'#00:0 +0()0'!0:0 #70&, )0!2$0 $&060)-" #"&"7*.$, , 8!$,"
+,7-", 0 L&&, ()0'! )0/, )0%- 0()07,)2(' 7 0#0< ,1 ,6 ,
+0+&0%07)2 ')2 60&0.,6 !0.#"<.
)+B23-:, (0/+H/0.34:3H
The lexical possibilities oI Ioregrounding are also considerable. A writer
sometimes skillIully uses a word in an unusual combination owing to which it
becomes conspicuous and acquires greater expressive value.
[ suggest, Pr. >peaker, that the go4ernment and its Department of 3itimenship
and Emigration ha4e their collecti4e sheet fimly rooted in the nineteenth century.
(A.Halley)
s 7-($1-7I +&"#+0!08",", /,()"& J+,$"&, )0 +&7,)"!2()70 ,
R,,()"&()70 +0 #"!/ :&8#()7 , M/,:&;,, 7(" "=" *+0&0 ;"+!'I)('
1 +&,;,+ [ 7"$.
The unusual combination 'collective Ieet cannot be preserved in Russian
(t would be unacceptable) and only the semantic aspect oI the
combination is rendered in the translation.
Stylistic means and devices present considerable and varied problems Ior
translation. They possess a distinct national character although at Iirst sight they may
appear to be identical. Foreground linguistic means give rise to particularly hard
problems as speciIic national language means are brought into play by Ioregrounding,
e.g. articles, suIIixes, the passive voice, conversion, etc.
The translator must be Iully aware oI the Iunction oI a stylistic device and its
eIIect, to be able to reproduce the same eIIect by other means, iI necessary, thus
minimizing the inevitable losses due to inherent divergences.
To conclude: stylistic equivalence may be achieved by diIIerent means and not
necessary by the same device.
t Translation Research Group - TTT.org: Barker Lecture
Previous sectionContentsNext section
Barker Lecture
Some DiIIiculties in Translation
One diIIiculty in translation stems Irom the Iact that most words have
multiple meanings. Because oI this Iact, a translation based on a
one-to-one substitution oI words is seldom acceptable. We have already
seen this in the poster example and the telescope example. Whether a
translation is done by a human or a computer, meaning cannot be ignored. I
will give some more examples as evidence oI the need to distinguish
between possible meanings oI a word when translating.
A colleague Irom Holland recounted the Iollowing true experience. He was
traveling in France and decided to get a haircut. He was a native speaker
oI Dutch and knew some French; however, he was stuck when it came to
telling the Iemale hairdresser that he wanted a part in his hair. He knew
the Dutch word Ior a part in your hair and he knew one way that Dutch word
could be translated into French. He wasnt sure whether that translation
would work in this situation, but he tried it anyway. He concluded that
the French word did not convey both meanings oI the Dutch word when the
hairdresser replied, But, Monsieur, we are not even married It seems
that the Dutch expression Ior a separation oI your hair (a part) and a
permanent separation oI a couple (a divorce) are the same word. When you
think about it, there is a logical connection, but we are not conscious oI
it in English even though you can speak oI a parting oI your hair or a
parting oI ways between two people. In French, there is a strong
separation oI the two concepts. To translate the Dutch word Ior part or
divorce a distinction must be made between these two meanings. We will
reIer to this incident as the haircut example. Some questions it raises
are these: How does a human know when another use oI the same word will be
translated as a diIIerent word? And how would a computer deal with the
same problem?
We expect a word with sharply diIIering meanings to have several diIIerent
translations, depending on how the word is being used. (Figure 1: Two
meanings oI bank). The word bank is oIten given as an example oI a
homograph, that is, a word entirely distinct Irom another that happens to
be spelled the same. But Iurther investigation shows that historically the
Iinancial and river meanings oI bank are related. They both come Irom
the notion oI a raised shelI or ridge oI ground (OxIord English
Dictionary, 1989, pp. 930-931). The Iinancial sense evolved Irom the money
changers table or shelI, which was originally placed on a mound oI dirt.
Later the same word came to represent the institution that takes care oI
money Ior people. The river meaning has remained more closely tied to the
original meaning oI the word. Even though there is an historical
connection between the two meanings oI bank, we do not expect their
translation into another language to be the same, and it usually will not
be the same. This example Iurther demonstrates the need to take account oI
meaning in translation. A human will easily distinguish between the two
uses oI bank and simply needs to learn how each meaning is translated.
How would a computer make the distinction?
Another word which has evolved considerably over the years is the British
word treacle, which now means molasses. It is derived Irom a word in
Ancient Greek that reIerred to a wild animal. One might ask how in the
world it has come to mean molasses. A colleague, Ian Kelly, supplied me
with the Iollowing history oI treacle (Figure 2: Etymology oI
treacle). The original word Ior a wild animal came to reIer to the bite
oI a wild animal. Then the meaning broadened out to reIer to any injury.
It later shiIted to reIer to the medicine used to treat an injury. Still
later, it shiIted to reIer to a sweet substance mixed with a medicine to
make it more palatable. And Iinally, it narrowed down to one such
substance, molasses. At each step along the way, the next shiIt in meaning
was unpredictable, yet in hindsight each shiIt was motivated by the
previous meaning. This illustrates a general principle oI language. At any
point in time, the next shiIt in meaning Ior a word is not entirely
unlimited. We can be sure it will not shiIt in a way that is totally
unconnected with its current meaning. But we cannot predict exactly which
connection there will be between the current meaning and the next meaning.
We cannot even make a list oI all the possible connections. We only know
there will be a logical connection, at least as analyzed in hindsight.
What are some implications oI the haircut, bank, and treacle examples? To
see their importance to translation, we must note that words do not
develop along the same paths in all languages. Simply because there is a
word in Dutch that means both part and divorce does not mean that
there will be one word in French with both meanings. We do not expect the
two meanings oI bank to have the same translation in another language.
We do not assume that there is a word in Modern Greek that means
molasses and is derived Irom the Ancient Greek word Ior wild animal
just because there is such a word in British English. Each language
Iollows its own path in the development oI meanings oI words. As a result,
we end up with a mismatch between languages, and a word in one language
can be translated several diIIerent ways, depending on the situation. With
the extreme examples given so Iar, a human will easily sense that multiple
translations are probably involved, even iI a computer would have
diIIiculty. What causes trouble in translation Ior humans is that even
subtle diIIerences in meaning may result in diIIerent translations. I will
give a Iew examples.
The English word Iish can be used to reIer to either a live Iish
swimming in a river (the one that got away), or a dead Iish that has been
cleaned and is ready Ior the Irying pan. In a sense, English makes a
similar distinction between Iish and seaIood, but Iish can be used in
both cases. Spanish makes the distinction obligatory. For the swimming
Iish, one would use pez and Ior the Iish ready Ior the Irying pan one
would use pescado. It is not clear how a speaker oI English is supposed to
know to look Ior two translations oI Iish into Spanish. The result is
that an unknowledgeable human may use the wrong translation until
corrected.
The English expression thank you is problematical going into Japanese.
There are several translations that are not interchangeable and depend on
Iactors such as whether the person being thanked was obligated to perIorm
the service and how much eIIort was involved. In English, we make various
distinctions, such as thanks a million and what a Iriend, but these
distinctions are not stylized as in Japanese nor do they necessarily have
the same boundaries. A human can learn these distinctions through
substantial eIIort. It is not clear how to tell a computer how to make
them.
Languages are certainly inIluenced by the culture they are part oI. The
variety oI thanking words in Japanese is a reIlection oI the stylized
intricacy oI the politeness in their culture as observed by Westerners.
The French make an unexpected distinction in the translation oI the
English word nudist. Some time ago, I had a discussion with a colleague
over its translation into French. We were reviewing a bilingual French and
English dictionary Ior its coverage oI American English versus British
English, and this word was one oI many that spawned discussion. My
colleague, who had lived in France a number oI years ago, thought the
French word nudiste would be the best translation. I had also lived in
France on several occasions, somewhat more recently than him, and had only
heard the French word naturiste used to reIer to nude beaches and such.
Recently, I saw an article in a French news magazine that resolved the
issue. The article described the conIlict between the nudistes and the
naturistes in France. There was even a section in the article that
explained how to tell them apart. A nudiste places a high value on a good
suntan, good wine, and high-Iashion clothes when away Irom the nudist
camp. A naturiste neither smokes nor drinks and oIten does yoga or
transcendental meditation, preIers homeopathic medicine, supports
environmental groups, wears simple rather than name-brand clothing when in
public, and tends to look down on a nudiste. There is currently a Iight in
France over which nude beaches are designated naturiste and which are
designated nudiste. Leave it to the French, bless their souls, to elevate
immodesty to a nearly religious status. I trust my French colleagues will
not take oIIense.
The verb to run is a another example oI a word that causes a lot oI
trouble Ior translation. In a given language, the translation oI run as
the next step up in speed Irom jogging will not necessarily be the same
word as that used to translate the expression run a company or run
long (when reIerring to a play or meeting) or run dry (when reIerring
to a river). A computer or an inexperienced human translator will oIten be
insensitive to subtle diIIerences in meaning that aIIect translation and
will use a word inappropriately. SigniIicantly, there is no set list oI
possible ways to use run or other words oI general vocabulary. Once you
think you have a complete list, a new use will come up. In order to
translate well, you must Iirst be able to recognize a new use (a pretty
tricky task Ior a computer) and then be able to come up with an acceptable
translation that is not on the list.
The point oI this discussion oI various ways to translate Iish, thank
you, nudist, and run is that it is not enough to have a passing
acquaintance with another language in order to produce good translations.
You must have a thorough knowledge oI both languages and an ability to
deal with diIIerences in meaning that appear insigniIicant until you cross
over to the other language. 1 Indeed, you must be a native or
near-native speaker oI the language you are translating into and very
strong in the language you are translating Irom. Being a native or
near-native speaker involves more than just memorizing lots oI Iacts about
words. It includes having an understanding oI the culture that is mixed
with the language. It also includes an ability to deal with new situations
appropriately. No dictionary can contain all the solutions since the
problem is always changing as people use words in usual ways. These usual
uses oI words happen all the time. Some only last Ior the liIe oI a
conversation or an editorial. Others catch on and become part oI the
language. Some native speakers develop a tremendous skill in dealing with
the subtleties oI translation. However, no computer is a native speaker oI
a human language. All computers start out with their own language and are
taught human language later on. They never truly know it the way a human
native speaker knows a language with its many levels and intricacies. Does
this mean that iI we taught a computer a human language starting the
instant it came oII the assembly line, it could learn it perIectly? I
dont think so. Computers do not learn in the same way we do. We could say
that computers cant translate like humans because they do not learn like
humans. Then we still have to explain why computers dont learn like
humans. What is missing in a computer that is present in a human? Building
on the examples given so Iar, I will describe three types oI diIIiculty in
translation that are intended to provide some Iurther insight into what
capabilities a computer would need in order to deal with human language
the way humans do, but Iirst I will make a distinction between two kinds
oI language.
Certainly, in order to produce an acceptable translation, you must Iind
acceptable words in the other language. Here we will make a very important
distinction between two kinds oI language: general language and
specialized terminology. In general language, it is undesirable to repeat
the same word over and over unnecessarily. Variety is highly valued.
However, in specialized terminology, consistency (which would be called
monotony in the case oI general language) is highly valued. Indeed, it is
essential to repeat the same term over and over whenever it reIers to the
same object. It is Irustrating and potentially dangerous to switch terms
Ior the same object when describing how to maintain or repair a complex
machine such as a commercial airplane. Now, returning to the question oI
acceptable translation, I said that to produce an acceptable translation,
you must Iind acceptable words. In the case oI specialized terminology, it
should be the one and only term in the other language that has been
designated as the term in a particular language Ior a particular object
throughout a particular document or set oI documents. In the case oI
general vocabulary, there may be many potential translations Ior a given
word, and oIten more than one (but not all) oI the potential translations
will be acceptable on a given occasion in a given source text. What
determines whether a given translation is one oI the acceptable ones?
Now I return to the promised types oI translation diIIiculty. The Iirst
type oI translation diIIiculty is the most easily resolved. It is the case
where a word can be either a word oI general vocabulary or a specialized
term. Consider the word bus. When this word is used as an item oI
general vocabulary, it is understood by all native speakers oI English to
reIer to a roadway vehicle Ior transporting groups oI people. However, it
can also be used as an item oI specialized terminology. Specialized
terminology is divided into areas oI knowledge called domains. In the
domain oI computers, the term bus reIers to a component oI a computer
that has several slots into which cards can be placed (Figure 3: Two
meanings oI bus). One card may control a CD-ROM drive. Another may
contain a Iax/modem. II you turn oII the power to your desktop computer
and open it up, you can probably see the bus Ior yourselI.
As always, there is a connection between the new meaning and the old. The
new meaning involves carrying cards while the old one involves carrying
people. In this case, the new meaning has not superseded the old one. They
both continue to be used, but it would be dangerous, as we have already
shown with several examples, to assume that both meanings will be
translated the same way in another language. The way to overcome this
diIIiculty, either Ior a human or Ior a computer, is to recognize whether
we are using the word as an item oI general vocabulary or as a specialized
term.
Humans have an amazing ability to distinguish between general and
specialized uses oI a word. Once it has been detected that a word is being
used as a specialized term in a particular domain, then it is oIten merely
a matter oI consulting a terminology database Ior that domain to Iind the
standard translation oI that term in that domain. Actually, it is not
always as easy as I have described it. In Iact, it is common Ior a
translator to spend a third oI the time needed to produce a translation on
the task oI Iinding translations Ior terms that do not yet appear in the
terminology database being used. Where computers shine is in retrieving
inIormation about terms. They have a much better memory than humans. But
computers are very bad at deciding which is the best translation to store
in the database. This Iailing oI computers conIirms our claim that they
are not native speakers oI any human language in that they are unable to
deal appropriately with new situations.
When the source text is restricted to one particular domain, such as
computers, it has been quite eIIective to program a machine translation
system to consult Iirst a terminology database corresponding to the domain
oI the source text and only consult a general dictionary Ior words that
are not used in that domain. OI course, this approach does have pitIalls.
Suppose a text describes a very sophisticated public transportation
vehicle that includes as standard equipment a computer. A text that
describes the use oI this computer may contain the word bus used
sometimes as general vocabulary and sometimes as a specialized term. A
human translator would normally have no trouble keeping the two uses oI
bus straight, but a typical machine translation system would be
hopelessly conIused. Recently, this type oI diIIiculty was illustrated by
an actual machine translation oI a letter. The letter began Dear Bill
and the machine, which was tuned into the domain oI business terms, came
up with the German translation Liebe Rechnung, which means something like
Beloved Invoice.
This Iirst type oI diIIiculty is the task oI distinguishing between a use
oI a word as a specialized term and its use as a word oI general
vocabulary. One might think that iI that distinction can be made, we are
home Iree and the computer can produce an acceptable translation. Not so.
The second type oI diIIiculty is distinguishing between various uses oI a
word oI general vocabulary. We have already seen with several examples
(Iish, run, etc.) that it is essential to distinguish between various
general uses oI a word in order to choose an appropriate translation. What
we have not discussed is how that distinction is made by a human and how
it could be made by a computer.
Already in 1960, an early machine translation researcher named Bar-Hillel
provided a now classic example oI the diIIiculty oI machine translation.
He gave the seemingly simple sentence The box is in the pen. He pointed
out that to decide whether the sentence is talking about a writing
instrument pen or a childs play pen, it would be necessary Ior a computer
to know about the relative sizes oI objects in the real world (Figure 4:
The box is in the pen.). OI course, this two-way choice, as diIIicult as
it is Ior a human, is a simpliIication oI the problem, since pen can
have other meanings, such as a short Iorm Ior penitentiary or another
name Ior a Iemale swan. But restricting ourselves to just the writing
instrument and play pen meanings, only an unusual size oI box or writing
instrument would allow an interpretation oI pen as other than an
enclosure where a child plays. The related sentence, the pen is in the
box, is more ambiguous (Figure 5: The pen is in the box.). Here one
would assume that the pen is a writing instrument, unless the context is
about unpacking a new play pen or packing up all the Iurniture in a room.
The point is that accurate translation requires an understanding oI the
text, which includes an understanding oI the situation and an enormous
variety oI Iacts about the world in which we live. For example, even iI
one can determine that, in a given situation, pen is used as a writing
instrument, the translation into Spanish varies depending on the
Spanish-speaking country.
The third type oI diIIiculty is the need to be sensitive to total context,
including the intended audience oI the translation. Meaning is not some
abstract object that is independent oI people and culture. We have already
seen in examples such as the translation oI thank you in Japanese a
connection between culture and distinctions made in vocabulary. Several
years ago, I translated a book on grammar Irom French to English. It was
unIortunately not well received by English-speaking linguists. There were
several reasons, but one Iactor was the general rhetorical style used by
French-speaking linguists: they consider it an insult to the reader to
reveal the main point oI their argument too soon. From the point oI view
oI an English-speaking linguist, the French linguist has Iorgotten to
begin with a thesis statement and then back it up. Being sensitive to the
audience also means using a level oI language that is appropriate.
Sometimes a misreading oI the audience merely results in innocuous
boredom. However, it can also have serious long-term eIIects.
A serious example oI insensitivity to the total context and the audience
is the translation oI a remark made by Nikita Khrushchev in Moscow on
November 19, 1956. Khrushchev was then the head oI the Soviet Union and
had just given a speech on the Suez Canal crisis. Nassar oI Egypt
threatened to deny passage through the canal. The United States and France
moved to occupy the canal. Khrushchev complained loudly about the West.
Then, aIter the speech, Khrushchev made an oII-hand remark to a diplomat
in the back room. That remark was translated We will bury you and was
burned into the minds oI my generation as a warning that the Russians
would invade the United States and kill us all iI they thought they had a
chance oI winning. Several months ago, I became curious to Iind out what
Russian words were spoken by Khrushchev and whether they were translated
appropriately. Actually, at the time I began my research I had the
impression that the statement was made by Khrushchev at the United Nations
at the same time he took oII his shoe and pounded it on the table. AIter
considerable eIIort by several people, most notably my daughter Yvette,
along with the help oI Grant Harris oI the Library oI Congress, ProIessor
Sebastian Shaumyan, a Russian linguist, ProIessor Bill Sullivan oI the
University oI Florida, ProIessor Don Jarvis oI Brigham Young University,
and ProIessor Sophia Lubensky oI the State University oI New York at
Albany, I have been able to piece together more about what was actually
said and intended.
The remark was not ever reported by the oIIicial Russian Press. Rather it
was reported by a Russian-language newspaper called Novoe Russkoe Slovo,
run by Russian emigres in the United States. It reported that along with
the Iamous remark, Khrushchev said Ilippantly that II we believed in God,
He would be on our side. In Soviet Communist rhetoric, it is common to
claim that history is on the side oI Communism, reIerring back to Marx who
argued that Communism was historically inevitable. Khrushchev then added
that Communism does not need to go to war to destroy Capitalism.
Continuing with the thought that Communism is a superior system and that
Capitalism will selI-destruct, he said, rather than what was reported by
the press, something along the lines oI Whether you like it or not, we
will be present at your burial, clearly meaning that he was predicting
that Communism would outlast Capitalism. Although the words used by
Khrushchev could be literally translated as We will bury you, (and,
unIortunately, were translated that way) we have already seen that the
context must be taken into consideration. The English translator who did
not take into account the context oI the remark, but instead assumed that
the Russian word Ior bury could only be translated one way,
unnecessarily raised tensions between the United States and the Soviet
Union and perhaps needlessly prolonged the Cold War.
We have identiIied three types oI translation diIIiculty: (1)
distinguishing between general vocabulary and specialized terms, (2)
distinguishing between various meanings oI a word oI general vocabulary,
and (3) taking into account the total context, including the intended
audience and important details such as regionalisms. We will now look at
mainstream linguistic theory to see how well it addresses these three
types oI diIIiculty. II mainstream linguistic theory does not address them
adequately, then machine translation developers must look elsewhere Ior
help in programming computers to translate more like humans.
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Translation Research Group
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Last updated: Wednesday, January 3, 1999

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PAVPA H PAHM MAM
m
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P.
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2. H : xt, , xx. P.
m .., , 1989. (V) 3. -t
t
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4. M . xt . m, 1982.
5. .A. At . C, 1988. (V)
6. m .. t . , 1988. (V)
7. x . P. C.., M., 1987. (V)
8. t . C. ., . . H..,
MV,
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9. M .M. H
xt.
. - V. -, 1993. : .11-94, x: .
56-94, x 12. (V)
10. M .M. . VV, C,
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: . 7-57. (x); . Fx: . 179-182. (V)
11. .F. Vxx xt, M., 1997, . 4-115.
12. Sprachnormen, Stil und Sprachkultur, Berlin, 1993;
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13. Bt x . . . Hx A.., M., 1970.
14. .. . - 2- ., . - M., 1986.
15. C .. H xt . M.,
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16. A.. t xt + tx .
M,
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17. xt . . 2-, .
.,
M., 1967.
18. C xx . Hx, 1989.
19. C. . . M. Bt. 363. Ct .
M.,
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20. M : C. M.: C. Px, 1959 1989. xt
, N 13, 1985-1990.
21. M. . . - .x. . M.. t

tx x. C. . . . A.. M.,
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22. Bt . C. . . . A.. (C. . .
MH, t. 127) M., 1978. (V)
23. H A. Ht xx . V.. - H.
.-
M.: Btm.m., 1980.
24. x . P., A. M. x
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25. H. A. V ( t ). M.,
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26. A. M. x +x

xt . M., 1981.
27. H. M. H x. M., 2000.
(V)
28. . Bt. 2. , 1999. (V) 29.
H t tx . H, 1988. 30.
- tx x. H
.
m, 1986. -----------------------------------------------------------
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AX
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-----------------------------------------------------------
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Mxt
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xt. M.:
H, 1975.
- A.. x , M., 1988, . 52-53, . 58-59.
- B.H. x , . 49-50
- B.H. B . M., 1976, . 20-23.
- Bm .M., B.. t (
xt ). . 4-, . ., M.,
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- x. . - .A.C. - M.: H,
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- H. ( +tx m
+)
M , M., C. , 1970, . 7.
- tm .. Uebersetzungslehre in Wort und Beispiel ( . x.),
. 1981, . 210 (F1)
- A.B. t m . M. 1968. . 144-154, . 170

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- B. x . // , t. 19.
- .H. x t. VPV, , 1993. (V)
- .. P I xx
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.: H, 1985, . 124-125, . 152-157.
- F .P. Ht t x . //
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- m P.H., m .H. tt , x xx
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.: Hm, 1972. (V)
- C .A. Hx t x . M.: H,
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- x t / A .A., x .A., M ..,
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- t . / .
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- x t . M. 1999. (F, V)
- Cx X. H. xx . C. 1993
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- , , xt t
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// t . - , 1993. - C. 77-83
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/ C. . . - . .A.. - C, 1992.
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- , .M. xxx xtx
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- xx
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1985, . 69
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P 1974
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