Topic07 Heat Load.

docx ME 414/514 HVAC Systems Topic 7 Space Heating Load The heating load on a space is made up of 1. 2. 3. Transmission losses (through the structure) Infiltration loses (air entering the space) Other miscellaneous losses

Heating systems are generally designed Based on a worst case (or design) scenario Do not include the effects of solar heat gain

The transmission heating load is computed using

& = UA(t t ) Q i o
The U value can be computed using the techniques discussed in Topic 5. The area, A, represents the surface area the t is working across. Temperature ti represents the inside design temperature (Topic 4). Temperature to represents the temperature on the other side of the structure. This temperature may represent The outdoor temperature The temperature of an unheated space The ground temperature

Outdoor design conditions The CD has weather data from the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. Outdoor design temperatures are listed here. Two categories are listed, 99% and 99.6%. These percent values represent the amount of time that the outdoor temperature is greater than the listed value for the heating season the months of December, January, and February (2160 hours). For example, for Boise, ID, to,99.6 = 2F and to,99 = 9F. This means that for 2138 hours, the temperature will be 3F or above, and for 2151 hours, the outdoor temperature will be 9F or above. ASHRAE suggests that for normal construction, the 99% value should be used. The 99.6% value should be used in cases where 1. The structure is lightweight. 2. The structure is poorly insulated. 3. There is excessive glass in the structure. 1

Topic07 Heat Load.docx 4. Temperature control of the space is critical. Some outdoor design conditions for Idaho cities from the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals: 99.6% F C 2 -16.8 1 -17.4 -11.9 -24.4 6.4 -14.2 0 -17.9 -6.9 -21.6 99%

City Boise Spokane Idaho Falls Lewiston Mountain Home AFB Pocatello Indoor design conditions

F 9 7 -5.6 14.5 5 0.14

C -12.6 -13.8 -20.9 -9.7 -14.8 -17.7

Occupants of the space must remain comfortable (follow Topic 4 guidelines thermal comfort). It is nearly impossible to design a system that operates on a single design point. ti should be kept as low as possible to avoid oversizing the heating system. The extreme value for to already contributes to slight oversizing. ASHRAE recommends ti = 70F with = 30%. The heating load includes 1. Transmission loses & = UAt Q

t = t i t o or t i t u 2. Infiltration losses
Heat loss due to the warming of outside air that leaks into the space. Both sensible and latent heating of the air takes place. Infiltration heat losses: & V inf & & Sensible: Q C po (t i t o ) sensible = minf C po (t i t o ) = vo & V inf & & & (Wi Wo )h fg Latent: Q latemt = m v h fg = minf (Wi Wo )h fg = vo All parameters are known in the above equations except the volume flow rate of the infiltration air.

Topic07 Heat Load.docx Two methods are available to find the volume flow rate of infiltrated air: 1. Air Change Method (used by professionals) 2. Crack Length Method or Crack Area Method (used by rookies) Air Change Method The number of air changes per hour (ACH) is estimated for a given space. The air changes will vary between 0.3 and 2.0 for normal construction. Once the ACH is known, the heat load due to infiltration can be found. & = ACH V V inf The ACH value depends on the quality of construction, weather conditions, building characteristics, etc. Experienced designers can determine a proper estimate of this value. Crack Length Method The volume flow rate of the infiltration air is determined by & = ACP n V inf where A = effective leakage area of the crack C = flow coefficient (crack characteristics) P = Po Pi n = exponent (crack characteristic) The P value is made up of three pieces:

P = Pwind + Pstack + Pventilation

Wind Effects

Pw =

(V 2

2 w

V f2

The velocity of the wind at the boundary of the building is generally unknown. Therefore, the above equation is modified by using a pressure coefficient, CP:
Pw 2 = Vw 2 CP

Values of the pressure coefficient are given in Figure 7-4 for various wind scenarios.

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Stack Effects

This effect is present in tall building. A difference in air densities between the inside and outside set up pressure gradients within the building.

The P due to stack effects can be computed by:

Ps i gh Ti To = Cd gc To

The draft coefficient, Cd, ranges form 0.65 (modern office buildings) to 1.0 (no doors in stairwells). Figure 7-6 is a plot of the above equation. i = inside air density = 0.075 lbm/ft3 (1.2 kg/m3) h = height above (+ve) or below (-ve) neutral plane g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.17 ft/s2 (9.8 m/s2) gc = 32.17 (lbm ft)/(lbf s2) convert lbm to lbf so we can get psi
Pressurization Effects due to Ventilating

This occurs when more makeup air is supplied than exhausted. Typically, this value ranges from -0.33Pwind Pvent 0

Topic07 Heat Load.docx Once the three pressure effects are taken into account, we can use the following to find the air infiltration rate:
& = Acp n V

A = leakage area (ft2 or m2), tabulated in Table 7.1 c = flow coefficient (ft/(min inwgn) or m/(s Pan) - section 7.1.5 n = exponent, between 0.4 and 1; 0.65 typical for buildings p = local pressure difference; only include terms where pressure inside is less than pressure outside, units are inwg or Pa Figures 7-8 7-11 can be used to calculate the infiltration flow rate.
& = ACP n V inf
A = Lw

& V inf = wCP n L & V inf = KP n L To use the tables and charts for this analysis, the flow rate is in cfm, A is square ft, L is in ft and the pressure difference is inwg.

Prior ASHRAE publications recommend doubling the identifiable crack length for windows and doors in single story buildings. Assume that air infiltrates on all sides and leaves through cracks in and near the ceiling. Base Pw on the value computed for the windward side.

Losses from Air Ducts

& = UA t Q s m
where

U = U value of duct (ducts in unheated spaces should be insulated) As = exposed duct surface area tm = mean t between duct air and surrounding air

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LBL (Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory or Crack Area Method)
2 &=A Q a stack t + a wind Vwind leak

Eqn. 7.12

The leakage area Aleak is found from Table 7.1, astack and awind are the stack and wind coefficients from Tables 7.2 and 7.3, respectively. Note the units.
Auxiliary Heat Sources

Generally, allowances are not made for other heat sources. They are added bonuses.
Supply Air Requirements

Ventilation requirements from Chapter 4 and Topic 3 must be considered when calculating the volume flow rate of outside air and of supply air. In addition, the flow rate needed for heating and cooling will need to be estimated. Generally, the supply requirements for cooling are greater. Therefore, calculating the air supply for heating is usually unnecessary. An estimate can be made using:
& =m & C p (t s t i ) Q

Generally, 50F (ts - ti) 100F Light commercial equipment: Heavy commercial equipment Assuming standard conditions, the result is:

t = 60 - 80F t = 100F

& & = Vs C (t t ) = 1.08V & (t t ) Q p s i s s i vs & = V s & Q 1.08t

The above allows the estimation of the supply flow rate to individual zones within a space. Units are BTUh for heat flow, Fahrenheit for temperature, and cfm for volume flow rate. On your own, reproduce the constant 1.08 in the above expression.