AN2106:03/AN3106:03 ANTHROPOLOGY OF VIOLENCE

Week 7 Civil War: Culture and Cosmology (The Sudan and Rwanda)

Lecture P !" Sudan: The Nuer as described by Evans-Pritchard (1930s) and Sharon Hutchinson (1980s) The institution o the !eud "echanis#s or the reso$ution o con $ict Ho% the Nuer dea$ %ith crisis& chan'e and vio$ence (%anda: The (%andan )enocide as described by Tay$or (1999) *u$ture& cos#o$o'y and vio$ence

#e$ I%e!&/'ue&t()"& The idea that %ar is a social re$ationshi+

,ur s+ecies is not bio$o'ica$$y destined or %ar Peo+$e have cu$tura$ #echanis#s or the reso$ution o vio$ent con $ict -. /ar is not an inesca+ab$e +art o socia$ e0istence 1ccountin' or the +atterned socia$ +heno#enon that %e ca$$ %ar 3. 2nderstandin' %ar invo$ves a nested hierarchy o constraints (in rastructure& structure& su+erstructure) 3rian !er'uson 4Ten Points on /ar5

E*!"&+Pr(tc,!r% - t,e Nuer htt+:66%%%.youtube.co#6%atch7v8899Hy,N:;10< eature8re$ated

Part o a te$evision series =Stran'ers 1broad=& (Start at -8 #ins)

.T,e Nuer/ + C)"tr(0ut()"& The a++arent >ordered anarchy? o a state$ess society - a society %ithout the institutions o or'anised 'overn#ent. The e ectiveness o the segmentary lineage system in the or'anisation o territoria$ e0+ansion in a state$ess society. complementary opposition The re$ationshi+ bet%een +o$itica$ structure and co$$ective vio$ence

The ro$e o the eud as a #echanis# o socia$ order rather than as a sy#+to# o the brea@do%n o socia$ order The i#+ortance o #echanis#s desi'ned to su++ress the intensi ication o vio$ence: the >institution o the eud? the >$eo+ard-s@in chie ?

T,e Feu% 1utono#ous triba$ se'#ents are in ba$anced complementary opposition !eud #aintains the e9ui$ibriu# bet%een triba$ se'#ents Aio$ent action @ee+s se'#ents a+art The #eans +rovided or sett$e#ent +revent o++osition deve$o+in' into co#+$ete ission !eud is not a si'n o the brea@do%n o society& but a +o$itica$ institution !eud is an a++roved and re'u$ated #ode o behaviour bet%een co##unities %ithin a tribe

T,e I"&t(tut()" )1 t,e Feu% Evans-Pritchard (19B0: 1C1) %rites: 4The balanced opposition between tribal segments and their complementary tendencies toward fission and fusion is evident in the institution of the feud which, on the one hand, gives expression to the hostility by occasional and violent action that serves to keep the sections apart, and on the other hand, by the means provided for settlement, prevents opposition developing into complete fission. The tribal constitution requires both elements of a feud, the need for vengeance and the means of settlement.

Re !t()"&,(2& )1 t,e 3)"e 4Feu%5 1 b$ood bond or'ed bet%een s$ayer and s$ain at the #o#ent o death 3$ood o victi# +asses into body o s$ayer (reven'e) >E#bittered? b$ood has to be re#oved (incision on u++er ar#) by the $eo+ard-s@in chie 1ccordin' to Nuer be$ie & causin' a death created Ds+iritua$ +o$$utionD Po$$ution (nueer) E s$ayer cannot eat or drin@ be ore bein' c$eansed

T,e Nuer !"% t,e .6)r % &$&te7/ The Nuer do not $ive in a vacuu#. *ivi$ %ar in Sudan since inde+endence in 19FC ro# E'y+t and the 2nited Gin'do#.

W!r (" 8u%!" 1 "us$i# E *hristian re$i'ious and cu$tura$ divide77 too si#+$istic Hn the run u+ to inde+endence& the ad#inistration and civi$ service %ere trans erred #ain$y to northern Sudanese The 1n'$o-E'y+tian 'overn#ent did not ensure e9uity or both north and south at the ti#e o inde+endence. F(r&t C(*( W!r 9 1:;;+1:72 The irst civi$ %ar %as %a'ed in order to %in >re'iona$ autono#y? or >secession? or a >united south? (inc$udin' Nuer and Iin@a) a'ainst the Sudanese 'overn#ent "any Nuer Joined the secessionist #ove#ent. 2+ to one #i$$ion southerners %ere s$ain durin' this seventeen year civi$ %ar.

A%%(& A0!0! 1:72 Kose+h :a'u& $eader o the southern orces (1nya Nya)& SS:" (Southern Sudan :iberation "ove#ent) 1ddis 1baba 1ccords E 19L)ranted southern Sudan re'iona$ autono#y on interna$ #atters 1ddis 1baba& Ethio+ia: 1utono#y or the southern re'ion e0ce+t or de ense& orei'n a airs& currency& inance etc Sudan?s o icia$ $an'ua'e is 1rabic %ith En'$ish as the South?s +rinci+a$ $an'ua'e used in ad#in and tau'ht in schoo$s. 8(77er("< H)&t( (t(e& Hosti$ities continued to si##er bet%een north and south over a nu#ber o issues: 19L8 decision by the Sudanese 'overn#ent to construct a cana$ to drain %ater ro# the south or the bene it o the north Kon'$ei *ana$ ProJect

8ec)"% C(*( W!r 1:=3+200; Iurin' 198--83 tensions bet%een north and south reached a hi'h a ter a nu#ber o +o$itica$ events ($isted by Hutchinson 199C: 3). *o#+rehensive Peace 1'ree#ent E -00F (bet%een the Ghartou# and the Sudan Peo+$e?s :iberation "ove#ent)

Nuer >( e77!&: I72!ct )1 C(*( W!r Ethics and tactics o $oca$ +atterns o inter-Nuer co##unity eudin' chan'ed: i'htin' c$ub abandonedM s+ears beca#e do#inant %ea+on in vio$ent dis+utes a#on' c$ose @inM

bodies no% o ten #uti$atedM innovation in ty+es o s+earsM 'uns reserved or inter-triba$ i'hts and con rontations %ith 1rabs

I72!ct )1 6!r *han'es in Nuer inter+retations o the nature o the re$ationshi+ bet%een the s$ayer and the s$ain the cu$tura$ construct o the >b$ood-curse? the institutions o b$ood%ea$th and bride%ea$th. The >3$ood *urse? The o%ner o a bu$$et is not easi$y reco'nised. The a#bi'uity surroundin' the identity o s$ayers has ra#i ications in ter#s o b$ood%ea$th.

3 ))%6e! t, 4The ,neness o *att$e and Peo+$e5 4Nthe ever-+resent +ossibi$ity o trans$atin' hu#an va$ues into catt$e va$ues enhanced +eo+$e?s abi$ity to achieve $astin' +eriods o +eace a#on'st the#se$ves5. *att$e - 4con $ict reso$vers +ar e0ce$$ence5 Hutchinson (199C:C1)

*att$e are the +rinci+$e #eans by %hich +eo+$e created a socia$ %or$d %ere as Hutchinson %rites (199C: C1): 4+rocreation& +hysica$ %e$$-bein'& and co##una$ +eace %ere E and continue to be- a#on'st the hi'hest o cu$tura$ va$ues5. Nuer Ii$e##as: )uns and 3ride%ea$th )uns: sy#bo$s o %ea$th& +hysica$ stren'th and #arria'e %orthiness

H #et )a$ua@ at the dance %here #y 'unshots are a$%ays heardN /e carry our ri $es $i@e those o /a$deth& $i@e the cava$ry& $i@e the *on'o$ese ar#y& $i@e the 1nyana 'ueri$$as. )ir$s run a%ay s#o@in' $i@e ci'arettes %hen %e ire. N The be$$y o an o0& 3i$ (ia$. Hs the co$our o the s@u$$ca+ o an 1rab. He is $i@e the sun itse$ : he is the o0 o the #oon$i'ht. N The 'un is a ta%ny thin' $i@e #y o0 %hose horns #eet overhead. (cited in Hutchinson 199C:1F--F3)

C(*( W!r !"% Nuer+>("k! Re !t()"&

!euds bet%een Nuer 1nd Iin@a be'an to be ou'ht %ith auto#atic %ea+ons.

*hi$dren& %o#en and the e$der$y used to be o -$i#its durin' raids. No% they %ere @i$$ed in a vi$$a'es attac@ed +recise$y %hi$e their youn' #en had 'athered e$se%here.

The /un$it Nuer-Iin@a *ovenant 1999 Sudan (e erendu# -011

E?2 !"!t()"& 1)r C(*( W!r (" 8u%!" To e0+$ain the con $ict as #ere$y interna$ con $ict bet%een di erent cu$tura$ 'rou+s %ithin Sudan hi'h$y +rob$e#atic. The +rob$e# %ith this inter+retation is that it denies the continuin' i#+act o a history o co$onia$is# and the deve$o+#ent o the #odern nation state. E?2 !("("< C)"1 (ct To +ro#ote the idea that vio$ence is a +redictab$e outco#e o re$i'ious di erences bet%een "us$i#s and *hristians is a$so +rob$e#atic. *u$tura$ di erence >is a +oor +redictor o vio$ent con $ict - Just as cu$tura$ ho#o'eneity is not necessari$y a +redictor o +eace? /hitehead and !er'uson 199C:191 Pr)0 e7 6(t, @e%(! re2)rt& )" W!r 4Nthe reduction o a co#+$e0 +o$itica$ conte0t to a #ora$ity ta$e un o$din' in a %or$d +o+u$ated by vi$$ains and victi#s %ho never trade +$aces and so can a$%ays easi$y be to$d a+art5 4Ne%s+a+er %ritin' on Ia ur has s@etched a +orno'ra+hy o vio$ence5 4the i#+$ication is that the #otivation o the +er+etrators $ies in bio$o'y (>race?) and& i not that& certain$y in >cu$ture?. "a#dani (-00L:C)

'ue&t()"& Ho% does one #a@e sense o events that de y reason7

Ho% do %e harness the too$s o anthro+o$o'y to #a@e such events co#+rehensib$e7 /hat @inds o understandin' can +revent uture vio$ence7 Ouestions ro# Tay$or 1(1999.) Sacrifice as Terror The !wandan genocide of "##$.

Ho% #any %ays are there to understand #ass vio$ence and #urder7 /here to be'in7 Io %e be'in %ith: Historica$ antecedents7 Po$itica$ divisions7

Econo#ic conditions7 Socia$ tensions7 E0terna$ +ressures7 *$ass dis+arities7 )ender dis+arities7 Ethic divisions7 Sectarian divisions7 So#e -0th* )enocides 191F: Tur@s #assacred 1r#enians in 1+ri$ 191F durin' /or$d /ar H (1.F# deaths) 193--33: The Sta$inist ca#+ai'n in the or#er 2SS( a'ainst the kulaks (C#). 193L-38 Nan@in'& Ka+an a'ainst *hina (300&000) 1938-19BF: //HH NaPi ho$ocaust (C#) 19LF-L9: *a#bodia - Gh#er (ou'e& $ed by Po$ Pot (1.L#) 199--9F: 3osnia-HerPe'ovina& Serbs a'ainst the "us$i#s in 3osnia (-00&000) 199B: (%andan )enocide (800&000)

%&et such numbers tell us little about how war is lived, felt, and died. 'hat words carry a soldier into battle( sustain a fourteen)year old bearing an assault rifle( evaporate as a mother falls dead at the front( are cried by her family in watching her die* 'ar is defined differently by the winners and losers( by historical perspective( by soldiers and pacifists + and in each case the definitions are more politically charged than factually correct. Nordstro# -00B: B3 >e1("(t()" )1 Ge")c(%e

)ree@ genos (race) and :atin cide (@i$$in'). 1s de ined by the 2nited Nations in19B8& it #eans any o the o$$o%in' acts co##itted %ith intent to destroy& in %ho$e or in +art& a nationa$& ethnic& racia$ or re$i'ious 'rou+& inc$udin': (a) @i$$in' #e#bers o the 'rou+ (b) causin' serious bodi$y or #enta$ har# to #e#bers o the 'rou+ (c) de$iberate$y in $ictin' on the 'rou+ conditions o $i e ca$cu$ated to brin' about its +hysica$ destruction in %ho$e or in +art (d) i#+osin' #easures intended to +revent births %ithin the 'rou+ (e) orcib$y trans errin' chi$dren o the 'rou+ to another 'rou+.

R6!"%! ,ne o the s#a$$est and #ost dense$y +o+u$ated countries in 1 rica %ith a +o+u$ation o $ess than 8 #i$$ion. 1vera'e $i e e0+ectancy - $ess than B0& %ith HHA 1HIS bein' a #aJor contributor (FQ +o+u$ation in ected) and very hi'h in ant #orta$ity (a++ro0 10061000). Hutu Tutsi T%a 8BQ 1FQ 1Q Eur)2e (" A1r(c! (%andan @in'do#s %ere $ar'e$y $e t a$one unti$ the 'reat Euro+ean +ush or unc$ai#ed 1 rican territories in the 1880s. )er#an anne0ation %as $e'iti#ated in 188B. !ranco+hone *atho$ic #issionaries ro# the 1$sace re'ion %ere invited to estab$ish the#se$ves in the country. 3e$'ian 4+rotectorate5 (uanda-2rundi a ter //1.

Hnde+endence in 19C-. Ec)")7(c E?2 !"!t()" %The !wandan crisis which led up to the "##$ ethnic massacres has been presented by the 'estern media as a profuse narrative of human suffering, while the underlying social and economic causes have been carefully ignored by reporters. ,s in other -countries in transition., ethnic strife and the outbreak of civil war are increasingly depicted as something which is almost -inevitable. and -innate to these societies., constituting -a painful stage in their evolution from a one)party state towards democracy and the free market.. The brutality of the massacres shocked the world community, but what the international media failed to mention was that the civil war was preceded by the flare)up of a deep)seated economic crisis. /t was the restructuring of the agricultural system which precipitated the population into ab0ect poverty and destitution.

"iche$ *hossudovs@y& The 1lobalisation of 2overty /mpacts of /34 and 'orld 5ank !eforms& 199L& +. 111

@!ter(! (&t A22r)!c, 198L Hnternationa$ *o ee 1'ree#ent +rotectin' %or$d co ee +rices be'an to unrave$ due to #aJor co ee +roducin' or'anisations see@in' to brea@ the ne% +roducers such as PN) 1989 /or$d co ee +rices dro++ed by F0Q (%anda 'overn#ent had su++orted a syste# o s#a$$-sca$e co ee +roduction by tenant ar#ers subsidised throu'h the 'uaranteed +urchase o the co ee cro+. *o ee e0+orts accounted or 80Q o the country?s orei'n e0chan'e earnin's. L0Q o rura$ househo$ds %ere en'a'ed in co ee cu$tivation.

>e0t Re (e1

1989 to 1991& 'overn#ent %as +ut into debt by tryin' to +reserve the subsidy to ar#ers by buyin' the co ee or #ore than its va$ue on the %or$d #ar@et (%anda sou'ht assistance ro# the /or$d 3an@ but aid %as +ro#ised on$y in return or re or# o the (%andan +ub$ic sector. *ore H"!6/or$d 3an@ initiative %as to cut +ub$ic sector undin' and deva$ue the currency ((%andan ranc). :ed to in $ation& es+ecia$$y in i#+orts such as ue$. Iestroyed the a'ricu$tura$ sector $eadin' to #assive urban #i'ration and urban une#+$oy#ent6undere#+$oy#ent es+ecia$$y or youth.

I"ter"!t()"! AI>: A >)u0 e E%<e% 86)r% 1 $ar'e inJection o cash in 199- to so$ve (%anda?s esca$atin' inancia$ crisis. "ost o the unds ound their %ay into sections o the (%andan 'overn#ent: "i$itary ar#s

%'hile the international donor community cannot be held directly responsible for the ethnic massacres and tragic outcome of the !wandan civil war, the austerity measures combined with the impact of the /34)sponsored devaluations contributed to impoverishing the !wandan people at a time of acute political and social crisis. The deliberate manipulation of market forces destroyed economic activity and people.s livelihood, fuelled unemployment and created a situation of generalised famine and social despair. (*hossudovs@y 199L: 119)

8!cr(1(ce !& Terr)r *hristo+her Tay$or 1999. Sacrifice as Terror The !wandan 1enocide of "##$.

The vo$ati$e econo#ic and +o$itica$ situation in (%anda certain$y contributed to the #assacres& but %e cannot e0+$ain the# si#+$y in ter#s o ar'u#ents $i@e *hossudovs@y?s.

T!$ )r/& Ar<u7e"t /e #ust c$ose$y e0a#ine socio-cu$tura$ as+ects (*,S",:,)R) conce+ts o hea$th and %e$$ bein'& Hdeas about the re$ationshi+ bet%een +erson and state 'ender constructs 2n$ess %e do so& %e can never co#e c$ose to understandin': the intensity o the vio$ence the nature o vio$ent acts the act that +eo+$e #assacred +eo+$e they @ne% and %ith %ho# they had $ived or years.

%6nderstanding the !wandan genocide requires that we understand something about the historical and political preconditions, but an analysis of the social and cultural factors that imparted a specific form to this tragedy is also necessary. Tay$or 1999:-9 T,e E e7e"t )1 Cu ture Hn addition to the 7!ter(! conditions (debt& a#ine& une#+$oy#ent& urban #i'ration)& Tay$or as@s us to consider the c)&7) )<(c! and )"t) )<(c! actors throu'h %hich (%andans de ined the#se$ves& others& and the order o their %or$d.

Cu ture/C)&7) )<$ Hdeo$o'y syste#atica$$y and rationa$$y or'anised and articu$ated sets o ideas (conscious) ,nto$o'y +re-re $e0ive understandin's and orientations (unconscious)

I%e) )<$: T,e H!7(t(c H$2)t,e&(& The co$onia$ +o%ers: !avoured the Tutsi #inority throu'h education and access to +o%er. E#+hasised the idea that the Tutsi %ere Ha#ites (*hi$dren o Ha#) and the Hutu and T%a %ere not. 1r'ued that the Tutsi brou'ht civi$isation to the re'ion and thus had a ri'ht to ru$e.

T,e H!7(t(c H$2)t,e&(& This theory %as active$y +ro#oted by the Tutsi (and interna$ised by the Hutu) !1ter 19C%hen the 3e$'ians de+arted. It (& ")t &(72 $ ! Eur)2e!" (%e) )<$A Tutsi e0tre#ists use their version o the hy+othesis to c$ai# inte$$ectua$ su+eriority. Hutu e0tre#ists use their version to ar'ue that Tutsi are orei'n invaders and that Hutu are the true Hndi'enous +eo+$e.

P)&t+C) )"(! 8,(1t t) t,e Hutu 3ecause the educated Tutsi %ere at the ore ront o a'itation or inde+endence& the 3e$'ians shi ted their a$$e'iance to the Hutu ro# the $ate 19F0s. Tutsi o++osition 'rou+s +rovo@ed 'ro%in' ethnic tension and vio$ence ro# 19F9 %hich $ed to the de+osition o the Tutsi @in' in 19C- and the rise o the Hutu President Gayibanda. (ise o ar#ed Tutsi re u'ee 'rou+s (/nyen7i >coc@roaches?). 3$ood$ess cou+ by Habyari#ana (northern Hutu) in 19CB ousted Gayibanda %ith a +ro#ise o +eace. >e!t, )1 t,e Pre&(%e"t Hncreased o++osition in the south 'ained intensity %hen the %or$d co ee +rice dro++ed. !ro# 1989& Habyari#ana b$a#ed the Tutsi or the country?s econo#ic %oes and +o$itica$ disunity. *ivi$ %ar bro@e out. 199B& Habyari#ana?s +$ane crashed %ith a$$ @i$$ed. *$ai#s that it %as shot do%n by Tutsi rebe$s.

100 >!$& @!&&!cre Gi$$in' $asted 100 days. 1++ro0 800&000 +eo+$e& #ost$y Tutsi and so#e #oderate Hutus %ere @i$$ed. 1 +erson in every 10 in the entire country #assacred in Just over 3 #onths. The Hutu +ro essiona$ c$ass (Journa$ists& doctors and teachers) aided the @i$$ers

T,e C)&7) )<$ )1 Terr)r 4N#y #aJor +oint is that %e cannot #a@e sense o the (%andan tra'edy throu'h +o$itica$ and historica$ ana$ysis a$one& a$thou'h these are certain$y necessary5

Tay$or 1999:101 T,e .cu tur! ,(er)< $2,(c&/ )1 *() e"ce Tay$or ar'ues that the 'enocida$ vio$ence too@ cu$tura$$y s+eci ic or#s. Sy#bo$ic ana$ysis is re9uired to understand the form that the vio$ence too@ /e need to understand (%andan cos#o$o'y: conce+ts o the body and +ersonhood& notions o 'ood and evi$ ideas about an order$y (or disorder$y) socia$ $i e 'ender constructs C)&7) )<$ Po+u$ar #edica$ @no%$ed'e in (%anda is e0+ressed as a theory o the body %hich consists o hu#era$ $o%s o substance $in@in' body to environ#ent. The ordered body is an o+en conduit and i$$ness is the e0+erience o bodi$y b$oc@a'e.

I"%(*(%u! /C)&7)&/#("< Hea$in' +ractices e#+hasise the #acrocos#6#icrocos# re$ation This +rinci+$e e0tends to conce+ts o +o$itica$ order and the 4%e$$ bein'5 o the state. The 'ood @in' (mwami) is the o+en conduit& the bad @in' is b$oc@ed and a$so an a'ent o b$oc@a'e. F)r7& )1 V() e"ce H#+a$in'& e#ascu$ation& breast ob$ation Severin' o 1chi$$es? tendons o hu#ans and catt$e (oadb$oc@s Thro%in' bodies into the rivers A >e!% $ L)<(c

N,T about s+ace6$and but about c$earin' the $ines or conduits o $o%. Everyday senses o the body

Ge"%er %1ender considerations are potentially capable of elucidating many of the psychological and affective dimensions of the genocide, helping us to understand the violent sentiments that were unleashed during the tragic events of "##$ Tay$or (1999: 1F1) W)7e" !& 8$70) & Tutsi %o#en %ere 4+ivota$ ene#ies5 in the e0tre#ists? stru''$e to rec$ai# not on$y the Hutu revo$ution but a$so 2!tr(!rc,$ 1980s hundreds o %o#en incarcerated in rura$ detention centres ca$$ed ingorora muca (>#ora$s strai'htenin'-out centres) (%anda?s Pri#e "inister "#e 1'athe 2%irin'iyi#ana (southern Hutu) e0ecuted

H!te !"% >e&(re Tutsi %o#en @i$$ed in e9ua$ nu#bers to #en Psycho$o'ica$ and socia$ a#biva$ence characterised the re$ationshi+ bet%een Hutu #en and Tutsi %o#en be ore the 'enocide *ontradictory +osition o $ovin'& at $east se0ua$$y& %o#en you are su++osed to hate

F)r0(%%e" >e&(re& %8utu extremists appear to be attempting to purge their ambivalence toward Tutsi women via symbolic violence even as they pro0ect their own erotic fantasies upon them (Tay$or 1999: 1LB)

*o'nitive dissonance H!7(t(&7 !"% 3e!ut$ The aesthetics o +hysica$ beauty associated %ith Euro+ean co$onia$is#& +ittin' one 'rou+ a'ainst the other& +ersisted in (%anda and 3urundi %e$$ a ter 19C0 :in'erin' in eriority co#+$e0

1n Ethnic /ar7 The (%andan 'enocide cannot be understood so$e$y in ethnic ter#s )ender issues interacted %ith ethic ones in co#+$e0 %ays invo$vin' the de#arcation o socia$ boundaries and $oca$ notions o racia$ +urity

Cu tur! >eter7("(&7 Hs Tay$or is en'a'in' in a or# o cu$tura$ deter#inis#7 %/ do not advance the argument that the political events of "##$ were in any way caused by these symbols nor by !wandan -culture. (%andans are no #ore 4cu$tura$$y +rone to vio$ence and 'enocide5 than 4any other 'rou+ o +eo+$e on the +$anet5

Tay$or 1999: 10-& 1F3