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Telecommunications for Dummies
Baher Abdulhai
ITS Centre and Testbed
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Toronto
3COM 3500
3COM 3300
Fastracs
Server
Main Server
(File/Print/Mgmt)
Primary
Workstation
Primary
Workstation
60
Ports
High Performance
Workstation
High Performance
Workstation
3
devices
High speed
B/w Laser
Realtime
Traffic Data
Campus
Network
Colour
Laser
Backup Tape
Autoloader
Ports
available for
laptops, etc.
Video Matrix Traffic
Video
Feeds
3
devices
2
The Design of a telecommunications network requires five
primary elements:
1. The transmission of electric signals along a path that connects the users
2. A mechanism for translating input information into electric signals and
back to output information
3. Method for dividing the information into small pieces and encrypting
these pieces
4. Manner for routing information across the network in an efficient manner
5. Procedures for error checking
Telecommunications Network Design
Considerations
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3
Switching Systems
Subscriber loops enable communications within a
local area. To communicate over long-distance,
subscriber loops are connected to other local or
long-distance carriers by switches. Computer-
drives systems, called trunks, connect a
subscriber loop to another loop.
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Transmission Modes
Occurs only in one direction
Data flows in both directions, but only one
direction at a time
Data flows in either direction on the data line
simultaneously with the same station
Data flows in either direction on the data line
simultaneously with more than one station
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5
Station or Terminal Equipment
Station or terminal equipment is used for interoffice
communications and connections to the outside
world.
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Telecommunications and ITS
Telecommunications forms the backbone of all ITS applications.
It is the most critical and, typically, the most expensive
component of the system. For example, the telecommunication
system facilitates adaptive signal control by enabling controllers
to receive data from sensors. It also enables electronic toll
collection systems, assists in the location and identification of
commercial vehicles and buses, and supports the provision of
traveler information. Telecommunication systems provide the
critical link between the elements of the physical network, the
vehicles and people that traverse the network, and the
operators and managers of the network. For more information
on telecommunications and ITS, try this site:
http://www.academy.rpi.edu/dot
All seven major classifications of ITS and 31 ITS User Services in
one way or another, require some element of sensing, control,
or information exchange. In each case, a primary concern is the
transmission of information between two sources in a manner
that is secure, reliable, and cost effective.
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Subscriber Loop
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Interexchange Trunks
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9
Channel (Frequency Band)
There is a specified range of frequencies within the electromagnetic spectrum
(bounded by upper and lower limits). Different waves travel over different
bands. When stations are assigned a broadcast channel, they must convert their
signal into the appropriate frequency.
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People talk and hear in analog. For a long time,
most communication systems (telephone, radio,
TV) were designed to handle (send and/or
receive) analog signals. Today, digital
transmission is favored in telecommunications:
1. Digital equipment is less expensive to
manufacture than analog.
2. There is increased communication between
devices that are digital terminals (computers
and the like).
3. Digital transmission quality is higher; reduced
noise.
4. Digital offers easier processing and
multiplexing.
We are witnessing the transformation from analog to digital Cable TV
- Many companies have begun to offer digital cable, Cellular/Mobile Telephone
- digital is becoming the standard
State of the Practice
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Signal Properties (cont'd)
One full iteration of a wave
The time it takes to complete one cycle
The number of cycles per unit time (e.g. 4 Hz)
1 cycle, 1/4 sec
The relationship bet the zero crossing points of signals
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Signals are converted into
electromagnetic energy and
transmitted.
There is a spectrum of frequencies
along which electromagnetic
waves can travel. This is called
the Electromagnetic Frequency
Spectrum. It ranges from 0 Hz to
10^22 Hz
Electromagnetic Spectrum
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13
A telecommunications network is a system of circuits, devices, and equipment that
enables you to communicate. Networks can be internal to a building or span across
continents. Regardless of the size of the network, the same basic features are
needed. You gain access to the network within an individual station. Within large
stations, such as office buildings, there may be internal networks that connect
all of the users
within the station.
Smaller stations,
like private
homes, do not
need internal
networking.
Stations are
connected to the
outside world via
some carrier. For
example, local
telephone
companies
provide access to
subscribers within
the local region;
long-distance
companies can
facilitate long-
distance
communication.
Macroscopic View of Area-Wide Telecommunications
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Signal Conversion
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Signals (whether analog or digital) are often represented by a
time varying sine wave. The specific properties of sine waves
help to distinguish different signals.
Signal Properties
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Electronic communications refers to the transmission, reception,
and processing of information between two or more devices using
electronic circuits. Consider a simple system to connect an input
device with an output device. The next series of slides introduces
how information is converted into an electronic signal, capable of
being transmitted.
Signal Transmission
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Information begins as voice, video, or data. To transfer the information
between devices, the information must be converted by the transmitter into
an electrical signal that can be transmitted along the wireline or between
wireless media. Signals have two basic forms - analog and digital.
An analog signal is a voltage, current, or other electrical wave of
infinitesimal resolution that is continuously variable with time. Audio and
video are analog signals.
A digital signal is one in which information is coded into a signal at discrete
amplitude levels. A binary system (base-2) represents the basic form of
digital signals. Bits (binary digits) refer to 0's and 1's which are the only two
numbers within the binary system. Each bit represents a power of 2.
The table below shows how the number 165 in Base-10 is converted to
10100101 in Base-2.
Electronic Signals
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There is great demand for broadcasting opportunities over the
electromagnetic spectrum. The spectrum is divided into bands (subsections).
Television, FM and AM Radio stations, telephone, cellular telephone, satellites
compete for the right to broadcast. These systems use the range of 100 Hz to
50x10
9
Hz (50 GHz). These organizations manage the allotment across the
spectrum:
The US National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA):
Manages the radio frequencies used by the Government.
The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an
agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce, is the Executive Branch's
principal voice on domestic and international telecommunications and
information technology issues. NTIA works to spur innovation, encourage
competition, help create jobs and provide consumers with more choices and
better quality telecommunications products and services at lower prices.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC): Manages the allocation of the
spectrum for all non-Federal uses. They assign exact frequencies to
transmitters to avoid interference.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent United
States government agency, directly responsible to Congress. The FCC was
established by the Communications Act of 1934 and is charged with
regulating interstate and international communications by radio, television,
wire, satellite and cable. The FCC's jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the
District of Columbia, and U.S. possessions.
Managing the Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Bandwidth is the maximum amount of data
that can travel a communications path in a
given time. It is measured in seconds. If
you think of the communications path as a
superhighway, bandwidth is the available
capacity of the highway. It determines how
many vehicles can flow through it all at
once.
The bandwidth of information represents the difference of the highest
and lowest frequencies contained in the information.
The bandwidth of a channel is the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies that the channel will allow to pass through it. When
a signal is to be transmitted, the channel must provide enough
bandwidth to capture all of the information being sent. Bandwidth is a
measure of capacity. Larger bandwidths can enable more data to be
transmitted.
Bandwidth
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When signals are to be
sent across a
transmission carrier,
the signals of the
information and the
carrier are often
dissimilar. It is often
necessary to modify
the carrier signal to
better accommodate
the transmission of the
information signal.
Modulation is the
process of changing
some property
(amplitude, frequency, or phase) of the carrier signal to accommodate
information being transmitted over that carrier signal.
Three properties of waves may be varied: amplitude, frequency, and
phase.
Different modulation techniques are used to modify one of these
properties.
Amplitude Modulation
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Angle Modulation results whenever the
phase angle (q) of a sinusoidal wave is
varied with respect to time.
There are two types of angle modulation:
Direct Frequency Modulation (FM)
Varying the frequency of a constant
amplitude carrier directly proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate
equal to the frequency of the modulating
signal. (Change frequency with time)
Direct Phase Modulation (PM) Varying
the phase of a constant amplitude carrier
directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal at a rate equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal. (Change
phase with frequency)
Angle Modulation
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Principles of Voice (Analog) Transmission
- volume measured in decibels (dB) (log scale of power)
- volume loss due to week transmission or noise (other
unintended waves)
- amplification to restore volume (but could also add noise)
- human ear hear between 20 Hz and 16,000 Hz
- voice has frequency between 300 Hz and 4000 Hz
- voice transmission equipment typically designed to handle
bandwidth between 500 Hz and 2500 Hz
- If the wave bounces off a piece of equipment and return to
sender you hear echo (can be eliminated, limited or compensated
for)
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Coding
Data is coded into digital format for transmission. There are different
codes used:
ASCII - 7-Bit system allowing each alphanumeric character to be
represented by a seven digit binary number ( a string of 0s and 1s).
128 possible characters are defined.
EBCDIC (Extended binary coded decimal interchange code) - 8-bit
code allowing 256 characters to be encoded.
Bits are grouped for transmission. Computer networks are designed
to use packets as the format for sending information. Both wired and
wireless communication can be facilitated.
Principles of Data (Digital) Communication
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Binary information can be transmitted between devices
in one of two ways: 1. Parallel Transmission (shown in
the diagram on the left) 2. Serial Transmission (shown in
the diagram on the right)
Transmission Techniques
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Modems are used to link digital terminal equipment
to an analog transmission channel. At the
transmission end, a modem converts digital pulses
to an analog signal. At the receiver, the modem
converts analog signals to digital pulses. The term
MODEM is an abbreviation of the term
MOdulator/DEModulator.
Modems
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There are two main multiplexing techniques: Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). In TDM,
stations are allocated the entire bandwidth of frequencies but only for
a small portion of time.
In FDM, portions of the frequency spectrum are allocated to each
transmitter and all transmitted signals must remain within the
allocated frequency band.
Multiplexing
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Wireline Transmission Media
Open Wire Lines
The most basic media is bare, uninsulated
wire made of copper, bronze or aluminum
alloys. Typical diameters range from 0.08
inches (12 gauge) to 0.165 inches (6
gauge). All above ground telephone
transmission wires are open wire. Poles,
spaced roughly 125 feet apart support the
wires.
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29
There are two basic types of transmission technologies: wireline and
wireless. Wireline refers to a physical connection between transmitter and
receiver. It involves the use of wires (either metallic or fiber optic).
In wireless systems, signals are transmitted through the atmosphere.
These two technologies are not independent as telecommunication systems
may use a combination of wireline and wireless technologies.
The next series of slides provides an introduction to the basic wireline and
wireless technologies in use today.
Leased Telephone
Twisted-Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fiber
Wireline Communications Media
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Leased telephone circuits are mostly wire to the end user and possess
the flexibility, speed, and bandwidth required for an ITS
communications network. A wide variety of circuits are available from
the regional telephone companies including:
Voice-grade data channels providing full-duplex multi-point analog
service at 1200 bps. These circuits can be used to provide
communications between the operations center and VMS, ramp
meters, detector stations; and for camera control. Dial-up voice-grade
circuits may also be used for the transmission of slow-scan images.
Two-way digital data channels transmitting at rates between 2.4 kbps
and 56/64 kbps (DS-O). These circuits can be used for low-speed
multi-point data channels operating at rates between 2400 and 9600
bps. These circuits can also be used for data trunking in which several
low-speed channels are collected at a hub, multiplexed together in a
higher speed trunk, and transmitted to the control center. They may
also support digital video transmission with a proprietary 56 kbps
CODEC.
Leased Telephone
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Twisted pair cables consist of a pair
of insulated wires twisted together.
This helps minimize the effect of
external interference and crosstalk
(noise resulting from having too
many wires running in parallel).
Typical diameters of twisted pair
wires range from 0.016 inches (26
gauge) to 0.036
inches (19 gauge). These are typically used for short jobs such
as wiring buildings or connecting buildings within a local loop.
Local telephone loops use wires between 22 and 36 gauge. Wires
used for long-distance typically are 19 gauge.
Twisted-Pair
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Coaxial cable
consists of one or
more center
conductors
surrounded by a
flexible braid of
conductive wires
separated by
insulation and
covered with an
outer layer of PVC or
Teflon. Coaxial cable
is used extensively
in telephone
networks, Local Area
Networks (LANs)
and cable television
transmission.
Coaxial Cable
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Fiber optic systems have separate transmit and receive fibers.
The transmitter uses an LED (light-emitting diode) or laser. The
receiver is a diode that couples to the optical fiber on the input
end and to multiplexing devices on the output end. The diode
converts the light pulses into electrical pulses.
Applications for Fiber Optic Systems:
Long-haul transmission systems
Metropolitan area backbone systems
Digital loop carrier feeder systems
Local area networks
Private network backbone systems
Video Systems
Optical Fiber
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When wireline connectivity is
impractical, wireless transmission
through free-space (Earth's
atmosphere) is needed. Free space
propagation of electromagnetic
waves is called radio frequency
(RF) propagation. Microwave radio
emits electromagnetic waves
through the earth's atmosphere. A
microwave system consists of a
microwave transmitter,
propagation path, and receiving
antenna. Repeaters are devices
placed between the transmitter
and receiver to maintain the signal
on course and to amplify it as
losses occur. Today, most
repeaters are satellites, placed in
orbit around the earth to relay
signals.
Wireless Communications Media
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Satellite is similar to
terrestrial microwave in that
it uses some of the same
frequencies for transmission
through space. With
satellite, however, instead
of using a line-of-sight
transmission path, the
signal is directed at a
transponder located on the
satellite. Satellite service
has been available for many
years for voice, data, and
video transmissions.
Applications for VSAT
Satellite Transmission
Data transmission
Direct relay of audio and
video
Satellite
36
VSAT satellite systems are
a part of a mature, robust
satellite industry that has
a good record for
availability and reliability
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
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Cellular radio is a technique for frequency reuse in a large radio
communications system. It is primarily used for mobile telephone
networks. It gets its name from an area being divided into cells that are
2 to 20 miles in diameter. In the center of each cell is a control radio that
bundles the network management functions, including the assignment of
frequency sub-channels. A radio requests a frequency over a control
channel and one is assigned by the cellular control system. The cellular
layout allows frequencies to be reused in non-adjacent cells.
Cellular Mobile Radio
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A cellular service area is divided
into a honeycomb of hexagonal
cells, typically 2-10 miles across.
Each cell houses one radio
transmitter and two receivers per
channel, the cell-site controller, an
antenna system, and data links to
the Mobile Telephone Switching
Office (MTSO). For incoming and
outgoing calls, the cell-site
controller assigns a channel. Mobile
units are designed to shift channels
on demand. When a call is
incoming or outgoing, the cell-site
controller directs the mobile unit to
shift to the appropriate frequency.
Cellular Mobile Radio(cont'd)
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Cellular networks have several advantages.
One advantage is scalability. When the
network is initiated, demand is low and cell
capacity is allocated a small number of
channels. As demand increases, additional
cell capacity is needed.
(1) Expand cell capacity by adding radio
channels
(2) After the maximum capacity has been
reached, cells may be sectored and
frequencies within the cell reused.
(3) Cells can be split to increase capacity.
The network begins with very
large cells and has a plan to subdivide cells as demand increased
(4) In some instances, availability permitting, a cell can "borrow" unused
channels from neighboring cells.
Cellular Mobile Radio (cont'd)
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Call Processing
Handing calls from one cell to another as the mobile
unit moves from one cell to another
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Cellular Digital Packet Data
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PCS were designed to overcome the limitations of
cellular telephone networks and cordless
telephones. Neither one permits a wide user base
to move freely around a network. Cordless phone
users must stay within a home or office close to
the base; cellular phone users must be within the
network limits. Within PCS, the idea is to assign
telephone numbers to people, not places. To
accommodate long-distance communications, a
network of low-earth orbiting satellites are used.
The FCC designated a portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum for allocation to PCS.
This action was partially in response to Congress
urging a conversion of federally held spectrum to
be used commercially. It was also partially in
response to the urgings of several entrepreneurs
who foresaw the use of "micro-cellular" technology
to make truly portable (pocket size) telephones a
reality. The FCC created a series of bands for PCS,
and designated both narrowband (presumably for
paging type applications) and broadband (voice or
data services, for example) "blocks" of spectrum.
Personal Communications Systems (PCS)
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43
The 1992 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC-92)
decided the world-wide allocation for Digital Radio Broadcasting
(DRB) in L-Band. DRB will replace both FM and AM stations. For
FM stations, the plan should accommodate DRB facilities which will
provide for replacement of their existing coverage and have the
potential to expand to the highest class of FM station. For wide-
coverage AM stations, the objective is to accommodate
stereophonic DRB facilities equivalent to the highest class of FM
station. For limited coverage AM stations, the objective is initially
to replace existing coverage, with potential to expand to the
highest class FM station. (Coverage should be based on service in
more than 90% of locations, 90% of the time for mobile
reception.)
Digital Radio Broadcasting (DRB)
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Local Area Networks (LAN)
Local area networks are
wireline networks used to
connect a set of
computers that reside in
the same building (or
building complex). The
idea is to enable
document/data sharing
and provide wider access
to peripherals (such as
printers and modems).
There are several
arrangements of LANs.
They are categorized by
four criteria:
1. Topology
2. Access Method
3. Modulation Method
4. Transmission Medium
Telecommunication Networks
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Examples of LAN Topologies
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Advantages
Convenient for troubleshooting
Well-suited for systems in which
there is a large demand to
communicate with a few remote
terminals
Well-suited for networks in which
managing documents and databases
is a primary need
Disadvantages
The central node is the critical
resource--the network is only as
reliable as the central node--if it fails,
the system fails.
Star Network Topology
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Advantages
No special routing or circuit switching is needed
Individual node failures will not disrupt the data flow
Disadvantages
High likelihood that more than one station is transmitting at same
time, some priority routing scheme is needed
Bus Network Topology
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Advantages
Tight controls over routing priority
Easy to implement
Disadvantages
High capacity may slow
transmission
Ring Network Topology
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As Local Area Networks increase in size it is possible to create a network
hierarchy of LAN's with several smaller segments joined together. These
multiple units are connected to form an internetwork. These larger
networks require additional components:
Repeater: A bidirectional signal regenerator (digital) or amplifier (analog)
that is used to counteract the effects of attenuation (fading).
Bridge: Larger LANs are broken into smaller segments that are connected
by a bridge. Bridges are protocol independent and ignore all information
over the data link layer.
Routers: Routing refers to the path selection made for a signal to travel
between the transmitter and the receiver. It is akin to a route used by
drivers to navigate between an origin and a destination. On roadway
networks, drivers themselves control their route choice; within
telecommunications networks, routers specify the path selection. Routing is
important when multiple paths through a network exist. The router knows
the address of the destination and all possible routes and their attributes
(such as congestion, time, cost, ) It then sends each packet of data along
some path (perhaps different) to the destination.
Gateways: Gateways are circuitry used to interconnect networks by
converting the protocols of each network to that used by the other.
LAN Equipment
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Access method refers to the manner that individual stations
gain access to the LAN.
Access Method
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Modulation method is the
manner in which a data
signal is imposed on the
network. In broadband
transmission, a single
medium may carry several
channels at once.
Baseband transmission
allows only one signal, or
channel, at a time on each
medium or wire.
Modulation Method
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Twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber are the primary
wireline media. Wireless LANs can use radio and infrared.
Selecting the right medium is dictated by application and
influenced by a number of factors:
Required Bandwidth
Cost
Network Throughput
Security
Transmission Media
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The IEEE designation for
Ethernet running on
unshielded twisted pair is
called 10-Base-T.
Many LANs use thin ethernet
daisy-chained between
devices. This is called 10-
Base-2 and uses BNC
connectors.
Wireline LANs
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Wireless LANs were designed to improve
upon the wireline local area networks
common in most offices. Wireless LANs
would enable more freedom of movement
(such as laptops and personal digital
assistants) while retaining a connection to
the network. Three technologies are used
today for WLAN:
Spread-Spectrum Radio
Infrared (IR)
18 GHz Microwave
Radiopaging
Pagers are less costly and sophisticated
than cellular radio. They are used to
transmit phone numbers or short
alphanumeric messages. Today, advanced
systems are being developed to enable a
pager to respond to messages and send
transmissions.
Wireless LANs
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Whereas LANs are used to
connect devices within the same
location, there is often a need to
connect branches of an office or
devices that are spread out over
a region (such as a metropolitan
area). Different networking
techniques and devices are
required.
Wide (Metropolitan) Area Data Networks
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The decision on how to design and operate wide area data networks is very
important. There are many issues to consider:
Should the network facilities be owned, leased, or some hybrid
approach adopted?
Local area networks are privately owned while most wide area networks that
require right-of-way are too expensive to be privately owned. Today there is
movement toward public-private partnerships where public agencies allow
private companies to run cable along their facilities in exchange for usage.
If leasing, will you rely on single or multiple vendors?
This decision depends on the magnitude of the network and the facilities
needed. A single vendor may provide security in terms of one-stop shopping,
ease of compatibility, and comfort of dealing with a single source. However,
they may not provide all of the services needed, especially if the needs
warrant specialized networking solutions.
Wide (Metropolitan) Area Data Networks (cont'd)
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57
Should you design around analog or digital signal transmission?
Digital is quickly becoming the standard of choice. Unless you are
seeking a short-term solution with an eye to the future, digital should be
the focus of the design.
Should the services be switched or dedicated?
Dedicated lines are private lines, available for exclusive use by the
owner. They tend to be very expensive and requires the owner to operate
and maintain the network. Switched service is usually facilitated by a
carrier, such as public telephone company, who 'switches' the
communication to open channels as they become available. Several
switching systems are in use: Circuit Switching, Message Switching (also
called 'store-and-forward' switching), and Packet Switching.
Wide (Metropolitan) Area Data Networks (cont'd)
58
Should the network enable point-to-point or multipoint?
When traffic is low or flows in short transmissions then point-to-point
networks become cost ineffective. There is a benefit to use a network of
shared circuits. Multidrop networks allow multiple devices to share the
same backbone circuits: ISDN, SONET, Dial-up Circuits, and Switched 56
kb/s Service.
Should we use Terrestrial or Satellite transmission?
Satellites offer lower cost opportunities for long-distance transmission
needs. They also work better within systems that include mobile
applications. Land-based networking is best for short-distance routes
and sparse networks (fewer terminals) as they are taxed based on
transmission distance.
Advantages of terrestrial mobile networks:
Cheaper and smaller terminals and lower call charges
Superior radio coverage in urban and in-building areas
Minimal signal propagation delay
Greater network capacity
Wide (Metropolitan) Area Data Networks (cont'd)
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59
Terrestrial-based networks offer obvious, distinct advantages over
satellite-based systems. These advantages stem from the much
shorter distances between the mobile terminals and terrestrial base
stations compared to distances in the order of 200 to 36,000 km, over
which satellite mobile terminals must operate. Terrestrial base stations
are easier and cheaper to plan, deploy, and integrate into the network
than satellites. In comparison, a satellite system lacks the flexibility for
adding more and more channels as a function of traffic increases.
Advantages of satellite-based networks:
Wide-area coverage
Network flexibility
Broadcast capability
How should bandwidth be allocated?
Many data transmission needs do not require the full bandwidth of a
circuit so multiplexing is attractive. Multiplexers enable multiple
devices to share the same circuit. For example, T1 lines can handle
both voice and data transmissions simultaneously.
Wide (Metropolitan) Area Data Networks (cont'd)
60
Networks enable users to pass information. An architecture outlines the
way the network is structured. Protocols are sets of rules that govern
communication and exchange between data devices. To ensure
standardization of communications across networks and data devices,
series of guidelines have been developed by different organizations. The
two most common sets of protocols in use are the Open Systems
Interconnect (OSI) Model and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP)
In 1983, the International Standards Organization (ISO) adopted the
seven-layer OSI protocol model. The OSI model works by separating
network responsibilities into seven distinct layers. Higher layers add
additional services to lower levels. The highest level is offered the full set
of services needed to run a distributed data application.
Each layer adds a header to the data being transmitted so that the
computer on the receiving end can interpret the arriving data. This
layered architecture allows different computers to communicate at
different levels. As technology advances, the layering approach enables
changes to be made at one layer while the rest of the architecture
remains as is. The primary disadvantage is the tremendous overhead -- if
all seven layers are addressed then less than 15% of the transmitted
message is the actual data. The seven layers are shown in the figures
that follow.
Data Communication Protocols
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61
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Model
wires, cards
Machine
address
topology
protocol
routing
ftp
email
See: http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/introint.htm
62
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed in the late
1970's by the USDOD for ARPANET (which has given
way to the Internet). The Internet is based on this set
of protocols that include FTP (file transfer protocol),
SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) and TELNET.
TCP/IP has four primary independent layers (in
contrast to OSI's 7 layers):
1. Application: Logic used to support end-user
applications
2. Transport: Ensures reliability of the network by
invoking some transmission control protocol.
3. Internet: Allows data to traverse multiple
interconnected networks. 4. Network Interface:
Handles exchange of data between a device and the
network it is connected to.
Data Communication
Protocols (cont.)
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63
The Internet as we know it today, has evolved from TCP/IP. The
Internet is a collection of independent packet-switched networks that
are interconnected. The Internet is designed to have four primary
purposes:
Support electronic mail
Support file transfer
Allow users to log on to remote computers
Provide users with access to information databases
Nodes on this network take on one of two forms: hosts and gateways.
Hosts are data transmission or reception computers. Gateways are
access points for subnetworks to join the greater network. They also
serve as routing stations. Hosts seeking to send information only need
to find the nearest gateway. The gateway will handle all routing needs.
TCP/IP and the Internet
64
IP Addresses are used to identify devices and the network to which it is
connected. Each device linked to the Internet is given an address of the
form aaa.bbb.ccc.ddd - four segments separated by decimals. Each
segment is in the range 0-255. IP addresses are composed of three keys:
class (A, B, C, D and E), network portion, and host.
(e.g. 128.100.14.39 = Class B network # 128 for U of T, OSPF protocol,
subnet 14 (CIV). Bahers computer #39)
Since it is difficult for users to remember numerical addresses, the
Internet adopted a naming convention -- domain.suffix
(e.g. baher.ecf.utoronto.ca = 128.100.14.39 )
The domain is the name of company or service providing direct access to
the Internet.
The suffix identifies the type of host.
TCP/IP and the Internet(contd..)
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65
Both OSI and TCP/IP
reference models are based
on the concept of a stack of
independent protocols. The
functionality of the layers is
roughly similar. In both
models the layers up
through and including the
Transport layer are there to
provide an end-to-end
network-independent
transport service to
processes wishing to
communicate. The layers
above Transport are
application-oriented users of
the transport service.
Comparing OSI Layering to TCP/IP Layering
66
Data is checked at the point of reception to determine if
transmission was successful or if some error occurred. Error
detection is used to prevent undetected errors from occurring.
Investigating specific errors (i.e. which bit is wrong) does not
take place. There are several common error detection
techniques, including redundancy and parity. The parity check
is the most common.
Error Control
34
67
A proprietary
connection bus
network developed
by Xerox, Digital
Equipment Corp, and
Intel. Today, it is a
primary way in which
personal computers
are linked to
networks.
Ethernet
68
Guidelines and standards are needed to coordinate activities within the
rapid growth of the data communications industry. Several organizations
work in this area: ISO, ANSI, and EAI.
The National ITS Architecture provides a structure through which
relatively independent standards development activities can proceed
with harmonious results. The Architecture is a reference framework that
spans all of the standards activities and provides a means of detecting
gaps, overlaps, and inconsistencies between the standards. According to
the National Architecture for ITS, standards requirements have been
allocated to the following standards development organizations:
AASHTO, ANSI, IEEE, ITE, NEMA, SAE.
Although each standards activity is allocated to a single organization,
many of the standards efforts are collaborative efforts among multiple
organizations (For example, the NTCIP Joint Steering Committee is
comprised of representatives from AASHTO, ITE, and NEMA).
Standards
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69
Communications technology puts the S (for "system") in ITS. The
ever-increasing availability of communications, together with
inexpensive and miniaturized computing technologies, have
combined in recent years to create the technological momentum
that launched the ITS development we see today. ITS comprises
31 different user services. Most of these user services require
communication. The National Architecture for ITS provides the
definitive assessment of the linkages needed for each user service
to operate fully as intended.
Telecommunications and Applications to ATMIS
70
FM radio
Vehicle tags for toll
AHS
Data networks
Telecommunications and Applications to ATMIS (contd)
36
71
The 31 ITS services defined by the Government fall into two distinct classes:
wide-area and short-range. They are divided in terms of the range for the
distribution and collection of ITS information. Wide-area services and
applications disseminate information over a large area. Often, the
information can be directed to a specific user. Natural candidates for this
type of delivery are today's cellular systems, tomorrow's PCS, satellite, and
even broadcast systems.
Short-range services and applications, on the other hand, concern
information transfer of localized interest:
Dedicated short range communications (DSRC), corresponding to a fixed
end system (even if portable) to mobile system short range communications
(e.g., toll collection, roadside vehicle inspection).
Vehicle-to-vehicle communications associated with AVSS/AHS. For the
former type of application, beacon-like systems are appropriate. For the
latter, most likely dedicated radio systems will be used. These are under
consideration both in the U.S. and in Europe, but are far from maturity.
Wireless Systems
72
Wireless communication is a broad
and rapidly expanding field. ITS
architecture is most concerned with
wireless data communication.
Unfortunately, wireless data is a
relatively new field with a number
of proprietary systems. Moreover,
some of the new wireless
telecommunications standards that
are being adopted for voice (e.g.,
CDMA and A-TDMA) include data
service proposals in their infancy.
Wide-Area Services
37
73
DSRC, or vehicle-to-roadside
communications (VRC),
consists of short-range
communications devices
capable of transferring high
rates of data over an air
interface. The air interface
can be between mobile or
stationary vehicles and
normally stationary devices
that are mounted to
structures along the roadway
or are hand-held. One way
of accomplishing this
communication is through
the use of Radio Frequency
(RF) beacons. RF beacon
technology generally consists
of a transponder (tag), a
transceiver (reader), and a
transceiver antenna
(beacon).
Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC)
74
This requires a high data rate, and
line-of-sight transmission with high
reliability between vehicles. It is
still in the research stage both in
the U.S. and in Europe. Solutions
in the U.S. tend to stay in the low
GHz bands (e.g., 1 and 2 GHz
band spread spectrum systems,
and some 5 GHz band TDMA
systems). The European solution
of choice seems to be the 60 GHz
band. Vehicle-to-vehicle
communication is central to
automated highway systems.
Vehicle-to-Vehicle Short-Range Communications
38
75
Wireline network options include the use of private
networks, public shared networks, or a mixture of
the two. Private network technologies
Twisted pair cables
FDDI over fiber optic rings
SONET fiber optic networks
ATM over SONET networks
Public shared network options
Leasing telco-offered services (leased analog lines)
Frame relay
ISDN
Metropolitan Ethernet
Internet
Wireline Systems
76
The technology must be nationally recognized,
using an open systems architecture that is
compliant with the International Standards
Organizations (ISO) seven-layer architecture.
The technology must be supported by the
commercial industry.
The technology must support fault-tolerance and
network management.
The technology must have the ability to expand as
bandwidth and interface requirements expand.
The technology must be compatible with many
types of data and bandwidth requirements.
The technology must be available in hardened
equipment for outdoor environments.
The technology must perform in a reliable and
cost-effective manner
Guidelines When Considering Telecommunications
Technologies for ATMIS
39
77
The complex world of
telecommunications is
evolving and
expanding rapidly.
The ITS world is also
broad and quite
varied, as
demonstrated by the
ITS user services,
their distinct needs,
and the complex
interactions and
synergies. The
National ITS
Architecture can be
viewed as a
framework that ties
together the
transportation and
telecommunication
worlds. This
framework enables
the creation and
effective delivery of
the broad spectrum of
ITS services.
ITS Architecture and Communications