Mathematics Study Material

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JEST, TIFR and GRE in PHYSICAL SCIENCES

Basic Mathematics Formula Sheet for
Physical Sciences

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Basic Mathematics Formula Sheet for Physical Sciences

1. Trigonometry (3-9)
1.1 Trigonometrical Ratios and Identities... (3-7)
1.2 Inverse Circular Functions.... (8-9)

2. Differential and integral Calculus. (10-20)
2.1 Differentiation .... ... (10-12)
2.2 Limits ..(13-14)
2.3 Tangents and Normal...(15-16)
2.4 Maxima and Minima ..(16)
2.5 Integration....(17-19)
2.5.1 Gamma integral..(19)

3. Differential Equations.....(20-22)

4. Vectors..................................................................................(23-25)

5. Algebra..................................................................................(26-32)
5.1 Theory of Quadratic equations...(26)
5.2 Logarithms..(27)
5.3 Permutations and Combinations......(28-29)
5.4 Binomial Theorem......................(30)
5.5 Determinants....................................(31-32)

6. Conic Section...........................................................................(33)

7. Probability............................................................................(34-35)
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1. Trigonometry
1.1 Trigonometrical Ratios and Identities
1. 1 cos sin
2 2
= + u u 2. u u
2 2
tan 1 sec + =
3. u u
2 2
cot 1 cos + = ec 4.
u
u
u
cos
sin
tan =
5.
u
u
u
sin
cos
cot = 6.
u
u
ec cos
1
sin =
7.
u
u
sec
1
cos = 8.
u
u
cot
1
tan =
Addition and Subtraction Formulae
For any two angles A and B
1. ( ) B A B A B A Sin sin cos cos sin + = + 2. ( ) B A B A B A Sin sin cos cos sin =
3. ( ) B A B A B A sin sin cos cos cos = + 4. ( ) B A B A B A sin sin cos cos cos + =
5. ( )
B A
B A
B A
tan . tan 1
tan tan
tan
+
= + 6. ( )
B A
B A
B A
tan . tan 1
tan tan
tan
+

=
Double Angle Formulae
1. u u u cos sin 2 2 sin = , 2. u u u
2 2
sin cos 2 cos = u
2
sin 2 1 = 1 cos 2
2
= u
3.
u
u
u
2
tan 1
tan 2
2 tan
=
Triple angle Formulae
1. u u u
3
sin 4 sin 3 3 sin = 2. u u u cos 3 cos 4 3 cos
3
=
3.
u
u u
u
2
3
tan 3 1
tan tan 3
3 tan

=
Trigonometric Ratios of /2
1.
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin
u u
u = , 2.
2
sin
2
cos cos
2 2
u u
u =
2
cos 2
2
u
=
2
sin 2 1
2
u
=
3.
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
tan
2
u
u
u
=
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Formulae for sin2 & cos2 in terms of tan
1.
u
u
u
2
tan 1
tan 2
2 sin
+
= 2.
u
u
u
2
2
tan 1
tan 1
2 cos
+
=

Formulae for sin & cos in terms of tan/2
1.
2
tan 1
2
tan 2
sin
2
u
u
u
+
= 2.
2
tan 1
2
tan 1
cos
2
2
u
u
u
+
=
Transformation of sum/differences into Products
1. |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
| +
= +
2
cos
2
sin 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
2. |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
2
sin
2
cos 2 sin sin
D C D C
D C
3. |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
| +
= +
2
cos
2
cos 2 cos cos
D C D C
D C
4. |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
2
sin
2
sin 2 cos cos
D C D C
D C |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
2
sin
2
sin 2
C D D C

Transformations of Products into sum/difference
1. ) ( ) ( cos 2 B A Sin B A Sin B SinA + + =
2. ) ( ) ( sin cos 2 B A Sin B A Sin B A + =
3. ) cos( ) cos( cos cos 2 B A B A B A + + =
4. ) cos( ) cos( sin sin 2 B A B A B A + =

Trigonometric Ratios of (-)
1. ( ) u u sin sin = 2. ( ) u u cos cos =
3. ( ) u u tan tan = 4. ( ) u u = cot
5. ( ) u u cot sec = 6. ( ) u u ec ec cos cos =
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Trigonometric Ratio of |
.
|
\
|
u
t
2
: (All Positive)
1. u u
t
sin
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|
2. u u
t
cos
2
sin = |
.
|
\
|

3. u u
t
cot
2
tan = |
.
|
\
|
4. u u
t
tan
2
cot = |
.
|
\
|

5. u u
t
sec
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|
ec 6. u u
t
ec cos
2
sec = |
.
|
\
|

.
|
\
|
+u
t
2
:( Only u sin and u ec cos is Positive)
1. u u
t
sin
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|
+ 2. u u
t
cos
2
sin = |
.
|
\
|
+
3. u u
t
cot
2
tan = |
.
|
\
|
+ 4. u u
t
tan
2
cot = |
.
|
\
|
+
5. u u
t
sec
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|
+ ec 6. u u
t
ec cos
2
sec = |
.
|
\
|
+
Trigonometric Ratios of ( ) u t :( Only u sin and u ec cos is Positive)
1. ( ) u u t cos cos = 2. ( ) u u t sin sin =
3. ( ) u u t tan tan = 4. ( ) u u t cot cot =
5. ( ) u u t ec ec cos cos = 6. ( ) u u t sec sec =
Trigonometric Ratios of ( ) u t + :( Only u tan and u cot is Positive)
1. ( ) u u t cos cos = + 2. ( ) u u t sin sin = +
3. ( ) u u t tan tan = + 4. ( ) u u t cot cot = +
5. ( ) u u t ec ec cos cos = + 6. ( ) u u t sec sec = +

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.
|
\
|
u
t
2
3
:( Only u tan and u cot is Positive)
1. u u
t
sin
2
3
cos = |
.
|
\
|
2. u u
t
cos
2
3
sin = |
.
|
\
|

3. u u
t
cot
2
3
tan = |
.
|
\
|
4. u u
t
tan
2
3
cot = |
.
|
\
|

5. u u
t
sec
2
3
cos = |
.
|
\
|
ec 6. u u
t
ec cos
2
3
sec = |
.
|
\
|

.
|
\
|
+u
t
2
3
:( Only u cos and u sec is Positive)
1. u u
t
sin
2
3
cos = |
.
|
\
|
+ 2. u u
t
cos
2
3
sin = |
.
|
\
|
+
3. u u
t
cot
2
3
tan = |
.
|
\
|
+ 4. u u
t
tan
2
3
cot = |
.
|
\
|
+
5. u u
t
sec
2
3
cos = |
.
|
\
|
+ ec 6. u u
t
ec cos
2
3
sec = |
.
|
\
|
+
Trigonometric Ratios of ( ) u t 2 :( Only u cos and u sec is Positive)
1. ( ) u u t cos 2 cos = 2. ( ) u u t sin 2 sin =
3. ( ) u u t tan 2 tan = 4. ( ) u u t cot 2 cot =
5. ( ) u u t ec ec cos 2 cos = 6. ( ) u u t sec 2 sec =
Trigonometric Ratios of ( ) u t + 2 : (All Positive)
1. ( ) u u t cos 2 cos = + 2. ( ) u u t sin 2 sin = +
3. ( ) u u t tan 2 tan = + 4. ( ) u u t cot 2 cot = +
5. ( ) u u t ec ec cos 2 cos = + 6. ( ) u u t sec 2 sec = +

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Short-cut method to remember the Trigonometric ratios
1. u u
t
sin
2
sin = |
.
|
\
|

n

2. u u
t
cos
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|

n
when n is an even integer
3. u u
t
tan
2
tan = |
.
|
\
|

n
4. u u
t
cos
2
sin = |
.
|
\
|

n

5. u u
t
sin
2
cos = |
.
|
\
|

n
when n is an odd integer
6. u u
t
cot
2
tan = |
.
|
\
|

n

0
o
30
o
45
o
60
o
90
o
120
o
135
o
150
o
180
o
270
o
360
o

sin 0
2
1

2
1

2
3

1
2
3

2
1

2
1

0 -1 0
cos 1
2
3

2
1

2
1

0
2
1

2
1

2
3

-1 0 1
tan 0
3
1

1
3

3
-1
3
1

0 0
cot
3
1
3
1

0
3
1

-1
3
0
sec 1
3
2

2
2 -2
2
3
2

-1 1
cosec 2
2
3
2

1
3
2

2
2 -1

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1.2 Inverse Circular Functions
1. ( ) x x =
sin sin
1
2. ( ) x x =
cos cos
1

3. ( ) x x =
tan tan
1
4. ( ) x x =
cot cot
1

5. ( ) x x =
sec sec
1
6. ( ) x ec ec =
cos cos
1

7. ( ) x x =
1
sin sin 8. ( ) x x =
1
cos cos
9. ( ) x x =
1
sec sec 10. ( ) x x ec ec =
1
cos cos
11. x ec
x
1 1
cos
1
sin

= |
.
|
\
|
12. x
x
1 1
sec
1
cos

= |
.
|
\
|

13. x
x
1 1
cot
1
tan

= |
.
|
\
|
14. x
x
1 1
tan
1
cot

= |
.
|
\
|

15. x
x
1 1
cos
1
sec

= |
.
|
\
|
16. x
x
ec
1 1
sin
1
cos

= |
.
|
\
|

17. ( ) x x
1 1
sin sin

= 18. ( ) x x
1 1
cos cos

= t
19. ( ) x x
1 1
tan tan

= 19.
2
cos sin
1 1
t
= +

x x
20.
2
cot tan
1 1
t
= +

x x 21.
2
cos sec
1 1
t
= +

x ec x
22. x x
1 2 1
cos 1 sin

= 23. x x
1 2 1
sin 1 cos

=
24. x x
1 2 1
sec 1 tan

= 25. x ec x
1 2 1
cos 1 cot

=
26. x x
1 2 1
tan 1 sec

= + 27. x x ec
1 2 1
cot 1 cos

= +
28. ( ) x x x
1 2 1
sin 2 1 2 sin

= 29. ( ) x x x
1 3 1
sin 3 4 3 sin

=
30. ( ) x x x
1 3 1
cos 3 3 4 cos

= 31. x
x
x
1
2
1
tan 2
1
2
tan

= |
.
|
\
|

32. x
x
x x
1
2
3
1
tan 3
3 1
3
tan

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
33. y x
xy
y x
1 1 1
tan tan
1
tan

+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

34. y x
xy
y x
1 1 1
tan tan
1
tan

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

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Some Important Expansions: 1. .........
! 5 ! 3
sin
5 3
+ =
x x
x x
2. .........
! 5 ! 3
sinh
5 3
+ + + =
x x
x x 3. .........
! 4 ! 2
1 cos
4 2
+ =
x x
x
4. .........
! 4 ! 2
1 cosh
4 2
+ + + =
x x
x 5. .........
15
2
3
1
tan
5 3
+ + + = x x x x
6. .........
! 3
3
! 2
1
2
+ + + + =
x x
x e
x
7. .........
! 3
3
! 2
1
2
+ + =
x x
x e
x

Some useful substitutions:-
Expressions Substitution Formula Result
3
4 3 x x
u sin = x
u u
3
sin 4 sin 3
Sin3
x x 3 4
3

u cos = x
u u cos 3 cos 4
3

cos3
2
3
3 1
3
x
x x

x =tan
u
u u
2
3
tan 3 1
tan tan 3

tan3
2
1
2
x
x
+

x =tan
u
u
2
tan 1
tan 2
+

sin2
2
2
1
1
x
x
+

x =tan
u
u
2
2
tan 1
tan 1
+

cos2
2
1
2
x
x

x =tan
u
u
2
tan 1
tan 2

tan2
2
2 1 x
x =sin
u
2
sin 2 1
cos2
1 2
2
x
x =cos
1 cos 2
2
u
cos2
2
1 x
x =sin
u
2
sin 1
cos
2

2
1 x
x =cos
u
2
cos 1
sin
2

1
2
x
x =sec
1 sec
2
u
tan
2

1
2
x
x =cosec
1 cos
2
u ec
cot
2

2
1 x +
x =tan
u
2
tan 1+
sec
2

2
1 x +
x =cot
u
2
cot 1+
cosec
2

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2. Differential and integral Calculus
2.1 Differentiation
1. ( )
( ) ( )
h
x f h x f
x f
h
+
= '
0
lim 2. ( )
( ) ( )
h
a f h a f
a f
h
+
=
0
lim '
3.
x
y
dx
dy
x
o
o
o 0
lim
= 4. ( ) 0 = k
dx
d
; k is constant function
5. ( ) 1 = x
dx
d
6. ( )
x
x
dx
d
2
1
=
7.
1
1
+
= |
.
|
\
|
n n
x
n
x dx
d
8. ( ) N n nx x
dx
d
n n
e =

;
1

9.
2
1 1
x x dx
d
= |
.
|
\
|
10. ( ) x x
dx
d
cos sin =
11. ( ) x x
dx
d
sin cos = 12. ( ) x x
dx
d
2
sec tan =
13. ( ) x x x
dx
d
tan . sec sec = 14. ( ) x ecx ecx
dx
d
cot . cos cos =
15. ( ) ( ) 1 , 0 ; log = > = a a a a a
dx
d
x x
16. ( )
x x
e e
dx
d
=
17. ( )
x
x
dx
d 1
log = 18. ( ) 1 1 ;
1
1
sin
2
1
s s
x
x
x
dy
d

19. ( ) 1 1 ;
1
1
cos
2
1
s s
x
x
x
dx
d
20. ( ) R x
x
x
dx
d
e
+
=
;
1
1
tan
2
1

21. ( ) R x
x
x
dx
d
e
+
;
1
1
cot
2
1
22. ( ) 1 :
1
1
sec
2
1
>
x
x x
dx
d

23. ( ) 1 ;
1
1
cos
2
1
>
x
x x
x ec
dx
d

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Rules of Differentiations
1. Addition Rule: If y =(u +v) then
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
dy
+ =
2. Substations Rule: If y =(u - v) then
dx
dv
dx
du
dx
dy
=
3. Product Rule: If y = uv then
dx
du
v
dx
dv
u
dx
dy
+ =
4. Quotient Rule: If
v
u
y = then
2
v
dx
dv
u
dx
du
v
dx
dy

=
5. If y = f(u) is u = g(x) then
dx
du
du
dy
dx
dy
. =
6. If u = f(y) , then ( )
dx
dy
y f
dx
dy
dy
du
dx
du
' = = .
7. 1 . =
dy
dx
dx
dy
or
dy
dx
dx
dy 1
= where 0 =
dy
dx

Derivatives of composite functions
1. ( ) | | ( ) | | ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f n x f
dx
d
n n
.
1
= 2. ( ) | |
( )
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
2
1
=
3.
( ) ( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f dx
d
.
1 1
2
=
(
4. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f
dx
d
. cos sin =
5. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f
dx
d
. sin cos = 6. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f
dx
d
. sec tan
2
=
7. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f ec x f
dx
d
. cos cot
2
= 8. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f x f
dx
d
. tan sec sec =
9. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x ecf x ecf
dx
d
. cot cos cos =
10. ( ) | |
( )
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
log = 11.
( )
| |
( )
( ) | | x f
dx
d
a a a
dx
d
x f x f
. log =
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12.
( )
| |
( )
( ) | | x f
dx
d
e e
dx
d
x f x f
= 13. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) x g
dx
d
x g f x g f n x g f
dx
d
n n
' =
1

Derivatives of composite functions
1. ( ) | |
( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
1
sin
2
1

2. ( ) | |
( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
1
cos
2
1

3. ( ) | |
( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
1
tan
2
1
+
=

4. ( ) | |
( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
1
cot
2
1
+

=

5. ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f
x f
dx
d
.
1
1
sec
2
1

6. ( ) | |
( ) ( ) | |
( ) | | x f
dx
d
x f x f
x f ec
dx
d
.
1
1
cos
2
1

Implicit functions:-
Take the derivatives of these functions directly and find dy/dx
Parametric functions:-
If ( ) ( ) t g y t f x = = & then
dt dx
dx dy
dx
dy
/
/
= where 0 =
dt
dx

Logarithemic Differentiation:- If the function is in the form of ( ) | |
( ) x g
x f
Then taking Logarithm on both sides 1
5
& then find dy/dx
Higher order Derivatives of composite functions:-
( ) x f
dx
y d
y "
2
2
2
= = IInd order, ( ) x f
dx
y d
y ' "
3
3
3
= = IIIrd order
In General; ( ) x f
dx
y d
y
n
n
n
n
= = nth order

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2.2 Limits
Limits of function
If for every 0 > c there exist > 0 such that if ( ) c < l x f whenever o < < a x 0
then we say lim of f(x) as x a is l
i.e. ( ) l x f
a x
=
lim
Theorem of limits
If f(x) and g(x) are two functions then
1. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) x g x f x g x f
a x a x a x
+ = + lim lim lim
2. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) x g x f x g x f
a x a x a x
= lim lim lim
3. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x g x f x g x f
a x a x a x
= lim . lim . lim
4.
( )
( )
( )
( ) x g
x f
x g
x f
a x
a x
a x
=
lim
lim
lim
5. ( ) | | ( ) ( ) x f k x kf
a x a x
= lim lim where k is constant
6. ( ) ( ) x f x f
a x a x
= lim lim
7. ( ) | | ( ) | |
q p
a x
q p
a x
x f x f
/ /
lim lim

= : where p & q are integers
Some Important standard limits
1. a x
a x
=
lim 2. : lim c c
a x
=
where c is constant R c e
3. R n a x
n n
a x
e =
; lim 4. 0 , ; lim
1
> e =
a N n na
a x
a x
n
n n
a x

5. 1
sin
lim
0
=
u
u
u
6. 1
sin
lim
0
=
u
u
u

7. 1
tan
lim
0
=
u
u
u
8. 1
tan
lim
0
=
u
u
u

9. k
k
=
u
u
u
sin
lim
0
10. k
k
=
u
u
u
tan
lim
0

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11.
2
1 cos 1
lim
0
=
x
x
x
12. 2
cos 1
lim
2
0
=
x
x
x

13.
n
m
nx
mx
x
x
x x
= =

0
0
0
0
0
sin
sin
lim ;
18
sin
lim
t
14.
2
cos 1
lim
2
2
0
k
x
kx
x
=

15. 0 cos lim ; 1 cos lim
2 / 0
= =

x x
x x t
16. 1 2 / sin lim ; 0 sin lim
2 / 0
= =

t
t x x
x
17. a
x
a
x
a x
log
1
lim =
where a > 0 18. 1

1
lim =
x
e
x
a x

19.
( ) ( )
0 log
1 log
lim ; 1
1 log
lim > =
+
=
+

a a
x
x
x
x
e a
a x a x

20. ( ) ( )
k x
x
x
x
e kx e x = + = +

/ 1
0
/ 1
0
1 lim ; 1 lim
21.
( )
k
x
kx
x
=
+
1 log
lim
0
22.
2 2
2 2
0
cos cos
cos cos
lim
d c
b a
dx cx
bx ax
x

23.
2
cos cos
lim
2 2
0
a b
x
bx ax
x
= |
.
|
\
|
24.
b a
x
x
e
bx
ax

= |
.
|
\
|
+
+
/ 1
0
1
1
lim
25.
a
c b x
x
e
cx a
bx a

= |
.
|
\
|
+
+
/ 1
0
lim 26. 0
1
lim ; 0
1
lim = =

x x
x x

27. 0
1
lim ; 0
1
lim
2 2
= =

x x
x x
28. 0
1
lim =

k
x
x
where k >0
29. k k k k
x x
= =

lim ; lim where k is constant
30. a x
a x
sin sin lim =
31. a x
a x
cos cos lim =

32.
( )
2
1
1
...
lim
3 2
1
+
=
+ + +
n n
x
n x x x x
n
x

33. 0 , ; log lim
0
> |
.
|
\
|
=
b a
b
a
x
b a
x x
x

34. 1
1 cos
lim ;
2
1 1 sec
lim
2
0
2
0
=

x
ecx
x
x
x x

35. e
n
e
x
n
n
x
x
x
= |
.
|
\
|
+ = |
.
|
\
|
+

1
1 lim ;
1
1 lim
2
36.
a
h
h
e
h
a
= |
.
|
\
|
+

1 lim
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2.3 Tangents and Normal
Tangent at ( ) y x, to ( ) x f y =
Let ( ) x f y = be a given curve and ( ) y x P , and
( ) y y x x Q o o + + , be two neighbouring points on it.
Equation of the line PQ is
( ) x X
x x x
y y y
y Y
+
+
=
o
o
or ( ) x X
x
y
y Y =
o
o

This line will be tangent to the given curve at P if P Q which in tern means that
0 x o and we know that

dx
dy
x
y
x
=
o
o
o 0
lim
Therefore the equation of the tangent is ( ) x X
dx
dy
y Y =
Normal at ( ) y x,
The normal at ( ) y x, being perpendicular to tangent will have its slope as
dx
dy
1
and
hence its equation is
( ) x X
dx dy
y Y
=
1

Geometrical meaning of dx dy
dx dy represents the slope of the tangent to the given curve ( ) x f y = at any point( ) y x,
tan =
dx
dy

where is the angle which the tangent to the curve makes with +ve direction of x-axis.
In case we are to find the tangent at any point ( )
1 1
, y x then
( )
1 1
,y x
dx
dy
|
.
|
\
|
i.e. the value of
dx
dy

at ( )
1 1
, y x will represent the slope of the tangent and hence its equation in this case will
be
( ) y x P ,
Q
( ) y y x x o o + + ,
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( )
( )
1
,
1
1 1
x x
dx
dy
y y
y x
|
.
|
\
|
=
Normal
( )
( )
( )
1
,
1
1 1
1
x x
dx dy
y y
y x
=
Condition for tangent to be parallel or perpendicular to x-axis
If tangent is parallel to x-axis or normal is perpendicular to x-axis then
0 =
dx
dy

If tangent is perpendicular to x-axis or normal is parallel to x-axis then
=
dx
dy
or 0 =
dy
dx
.
2.4 Maxima and Minima
For the function ( ) x f y = at the maximum as well as minimum point the tangent is
parallel to x-axis so that its slope is zero.
Calculate 0 =
dx
dy
and solve for x. Suppose one root of 0 =
dx
dy
is at x=a.
If ve
x d
y d
=
2
2
for x=a, then maximum at x=a.
If ve
x d
y d
+ =
2
2
for x=a, then minimum at x=a.
If 0
2
2
=
x d
y d
at x=a, then find
x d
y d
3
3
.
If 0
3
3
=
x d
y d
at x=a, neither maximum nor minimum at x=a.
If 0
3
3
=
x d
y d
at x=a, then find
x d
y d
4
4
.
If 0
4
4
>
x d
y d
i.e +ve at x=a, then y is minimum at x=a and if 0
4
4
<
x d
y d
i.e -ve at x=a, then y
is maximum at x=a and so on.
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2.5 Integration
Indefinite Integration
If ( ) | | ( ) x f c x F
dx
d
= + , then we say that ( ) c x F + is an indefinite integral or
antiderivative of ( ) x f and we write
( ) ( ) c x F dx x f + =
}

Some standard Integrals
1. ( ) 1
1
1
= +
+
=
}
+
n c
n
x
dx x
n
n
2.
( )
( ) 1
1
1 1
1
= +
=
}
n c
x n
dx
x
n n

3.
}
+ = c x dx
x
2
1
4. c x dx
x
+ =
}
log
1

5. c e dx e
x x
+ =
}
6. c
a
a
dx a
x
x
+ =
}
log

7.
}
+ = c x dx x sin cos 8.
}
+ = c x dx x cos sin
9.
}
+ = c x xdx tan sec
2
10.
}
+ = c x dx x ec cot cos
2

11.
}
+ = c x dx x x sec tan sec 12.
}
+ = c ecx dx x ecx cos cot cos
13.
}
+ =

c x
x
dx
1
2
sin
1
14.
}
+ =
+

c x
x
dx
1
2
tan
1

15.
}
+ =

c x
x x
dx
1
2
sec
1
16.
}
+ = c x dx x sinh cosh
17.
}
+ = c x dx x cosh sinh 18.
}
+ = c x xdx h tanh sec
2

19.
}
+ = c x dx x ech coth cos
2
20.
}
+ = c hx dx x hx sec tanh sec
21.
}
+ = c echx dx x echx cos coth cos 22. ( )
}
+ = c x xdx sec log tan
23. ( )
}
+ = c x dx x sin log cot 24. ( )
}
+ + = c x x dx x tan sec log sec
25.
}
+
(
= c
x
dx ecx
2
tan log cos 26. c
a
x
a x a
dx
+ =
+

}
1
2 2
tan
1

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27.
}
+
(
; log
2
1
2 2
c
a x
a x
a a x
dx
if a x >
28. c
x a
x a
a x a
dx
+
(
+
=
}
log
2
1
2 2
; if a x <
29. | |
}
+ + + =
= +
c a x x
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
log or c
a
x
+ |
.
|
\
|
1
sinh
30. | |
}
+ + =
c a x x
a x
dx
2 2
2 2
log or c
a
x
+ |
.
|
\
|
1
cosh
31. c
a
x
x a
dx
+ =
}
1
2 2
sin
32. | |
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
log
2 2
a x x
a
a x
x
dx a x + + + + = +
}

33. | |
}
+ =
2 2
2
2 2 2 2
log
2 2
a x x
a
a x
x
dx a x
34. c
a
x a
x a
x
dx x a + + =
}
1
2
2 2 2 2
sin
2 2

35. c
a
x
ec
a
c
a
x
a
a x x
dx
+ = + =

}
1 1
2 2
cos
1
sec
1

36.
mn
a
a
dx
L
x n
L
x m
o
t t
2
sin sin
0
=
}

n m
a
n m
= =
= =
,
2
, 0

Rules of Integration
1. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )
} } }
+ = + dx x f dx x f dx x f x f
2 1 2 1

2. ( ) ( )
} }
= dx x f k dx x f k , where k is constant
3. ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( )
} } }
+ = + dx x f k dx x f k dx x f k x f k
2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
, where k
1
and k
2
are constants
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Rule of integration by substitution
1. If ( ) t x | = , ( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( )dt t t f dt
dt
dx
x f dx x f
} } }
= = ' | |
2. ( )
( )
}
+
+
= + c
a
b ax g
dx b ax f
3. ( ) | | ( )
( ) | |
( ) 1 :
1
'
1
= +
+
=
+
}
n c
n
x f
dx x f x f
n
n

4.
( )
( )
( ) c x f dx
x f
x f
+ =
}
log
'

Rules of integration by partial fraction
This method can be used to evaluate an integral of the type
( )
( )
}
dx
x Q
x P

where (i) P(x) & Q(x) are Polynomials in x
(ii) Degree of P(x) < degree of Q(x)
(iii) Q(x) contains two/more distinct linear/quadratic factors i.e.

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 2 2 1 1
b x a
C
b x a
B
b x a
A
x Q
x P
+
+
+
+
+
=
} } } } (
= dx vdx
dx
du
vdx u uvdx

2.5.1 Gamma integral
(i) Gamma integral is given by
1
0
( )
n x
n x e dx

I =
}
=( 1) n .

1
2
t
| |
I =
|
\ .

(ii)
2
1
0 2
1 1
2
2
n Bx
n
n
x e dx
B
+
+ | |
= I
|
\ .
}

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3. Differential Equations
Order and degree of a differential equation
The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential co-efficient
present in the equation.
Example:
0 3 2
2
2
= + + y
dx
dy
dx
y d
is a second order differential equation.
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest derivative after
removing the radical sign and fraction.
Example:
0 3 2
3
2
2
2
= + |
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
y
dx
dy
dx
y d
has degree of 3.
D.E. of the first order and first degree
1. Separation of the variables:

( ) ( )dx x dy y f | =

2. Homogeneous Equation

( )
( ) y x
y x f
dx
dy
,
,
|
=
if each term of f(x,y) and
( ) y x, |
is of the same degree.
3. Equations reducible to homogeneous form
Bk Ah BY AX
bk ah bY aX
dX
dY
dx
dy
k Y y
h X x
C By Ax
c by ax
dx
dy
+ + +
+ + +
= =
)
`
+ =
+ =
+ +
+ +
= let ,

Choose h, k so that
BY AX
bY aX
dx
dy
C Bk Ah
c bk ah
+
+
=
)
`
= + +
= + +
0
0

Case of failure:
( ) C by ax m
c by ax
dx
dy
m B
b
A
a
+ +
+ +
= = =
1

4. Linear Differential Equations

Q Py
dx
dy
= +
where P and Q are function of x (but not y) or constant.
}
=
Pdx
e F I . .
( )
}
+ = c dx F I Q F I y . . . .

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5. Equations reducible to the linear form
n
Qy Py
dx
dy
= +
divide by y
n
and put
z
y
n
=
1
1

( )
dx
dz
dx
dy
y
n
Q P
y dx
dy
y
n n n
=
= +

1 1 1
1
Q Pz
dx
dz
n
= +
1
1

6. Exact differential Equation
Mdx +Ndy =0 if
x
N
y
M
c
c
=
c
c

( ) C dy x Mdx
y
= +
} }
=constant
containing not N of terms

7. Equations reducible to the exact form
a) If
N
x
N
y
M
c
c
c
c
is a function of x alone, say f(x) then
( )
}
= I
dx x f
e F. .
multiply with
different equation.
b) If
N
x
N
y
M
c
c
c
c
is a function of y alone, say f(y) then
( )
}
= I
dy y f
e F. .
.
c) If M =yf
1
(xy) and N =xf
2
(xy), then
Ny Mx
F
= I
1
. .

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Linear D.E. of second order with constant coefficients
R Qy
dx
dy
P
dx
y d
= + +
2
2
where P, Q and R are function of x or constant.
y =C.F. +P.I.
C.F.
a) roots, real and different
x m x m
e C e C y
2 1
2 1
+ =

b) roots, real and equal
( )
x m
e x C C y
2
2 1
+ =

c) roots imaginary
( ) ( )x x
e C e C y
o| o o| o +
+ =
2 1

| | x B x A e
x
| |
o
sin cos + =

P.I.
a)
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
ax ax ax ax
e
a f
x e
D f
a f e
a f
e
D f
= = =
1 1
then 0 if
1 1

b)
( )
( ) | |
n n
x D f x
D f
1
1

=

c)
( ) ( )
ax
a f
ax
D f
sin
1
sin
1
2 2
=
and
( ) ( )
ax
a f
ax
D f
cos
1
cos
1
2 2
=

If f(-a
2
) =0 then
( ) ( )
ax
a f
ax
D f
sin
1
sin
1
2 2
=

d)
( )
( )
( )
( ) x
a D f
e x e
D f
ax ax
| |
+
=
1 1
2
e)
( ) ( )
}
=
+
dx x e e x
a D
ax ax
| |
1

f)
( ) ( )
n ax n
x
a D f
e ax x
D f +
=
1
Im sin
1

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4. Vectors
Cartesian coordinate system
Infinitesimal displacement
dl dxx dy y dz z = + +

Volume element
d dxdydz t =

Gradient:
f f f
f x y z
x y z
c c c
V = + +
c c c

Divergence: .
y
x z
A
A A
A
x y z
c
c c
V = + +
c c c

Curl:
y y
x x z z
A A
A A A A
A x y z
y z z x x y
c c | | | | c c c c | |
V = + +
| | |
c c c c c c
\ .
\ . \ .

Laplacian:
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
f f f
f
x y z
c c c
V = + +
c c c

Spherical Polar Coordinate System(
, , r u |
)

sin cos , sin sin , cos x r y r z r u | u | u = = =

2 2 2 1 1
, cos , tan
z y
r x y z
r x
u |

= + + = =


sin dl drr rd r d uu u || = + +

Volume element
2
sin d r drd d t u u | =

r range from 0to , u from 0to t , and | from 0to 2t .
Gradient:
1 1

sin
f f f
f r
r r r
u |
u u |
c c c
V = + +
c c c

Divergence:
( ) ( )
2
2
1 1 1
. sin
sin sin
r
A
A r A A
r r r r
|
u
u
u u u |
c
c c
V = + +
c c c

Curl:
2

sin
1

sin
sin
r
r r r
A
r r
A rA r A
u |
u u|
u u |
u
| |
|
c c c
|
V =
|
c c c
|
|
\ .

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Laplacian:
2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1
sin
sin sin
f f f
f r
r r r r r
u
u u u u |
| | c c c c c | | | |
V = + +
| | |
c c c c c
\ . \ .
\ .

Cylindrical Coordinate System (
, , r z |
)

cos , sin , x r y r z z | | = = =
and
2 2 1
, tan
y
r x y
x
|

= + =

dl drr rd dz z || = + +

Volume element
d rdrd dz t | =

r range from 0to , | from 0to 2t , and z fromto +.
Gradient:
1

f f f
f r z
r r z
|
|
c c c
V = + +
c c c

Divergence: ( )
1 1
.
z
r
A
A
A rA
r r r z
|
|
c
c c
V = + +
c c c

Curl:

1

r z
r r z
A
r r z
A rA A
|
|
|
| |
|
c c c
|
V =
|
c c c
|
|
\ .

Laplacian:
2 2
2
2 2 2
1 1 f f f
f r
r r r r z |
c c c c | |
V = + +
|
c c c c
\ .

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VECTOR IDENTITIES
Triple Product
(1) .( ) .( ) .( ) A B C B C A C A B = =

(2) ( ) ( . ) ( . ) A B C B AC C A B =

Product Rules
(3) ( ) ( ) ( ) fg f g g f V = V + V

(4)
( ) ( )
. ( ) ( ) . ( . ) A B A B B A A B B A V = V + V + V + V

(5) .( ) ( . ) .( ) f A f A A f V = V + V

(6) .( ) .( ) .( ) A B B A A B V = V V

(7) ( ) ( ) ( ) f A f A A f V = V V

(8)
( )
( . ) ( . ) ( . ) ( . ) A B B A A B A B B A V = V V + V V

Second Derivative
(9) .( ) 0 A V V =

i.e. divergence of a curl is always zero.
(10) ( ) 0 f V V =

i.e. curl of a gradient is always zero.
(11)
( )
2
( ) . A A A V V = V V V

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS
Gradient Theorem:
( )
( ) ( ) .
b
a
f dl f b f a V =
}

Divergence Theorem:
( )
. . A d Ada t V =
} }

Curl Theorem:
( )
. . A da Adl V =
} }

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5. Algebra
5.1 Theory of Quadratic equations
1. Roots of the equation
0
2
= + + c bx ax are
a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

=
Sum and Product of the roots
If o and | be the roots, then
a
b
= + | o and
a
c
= | o.
2. To find the equation whose roots areo and | .
The required equation will be
( )( ) 0 = | o x x or ( ) 0 .
2
= + + + | o | o x x or 0
2
= + + P Sx x
where S is the sum and P is the product of the root.
3. Nature of the roots.
Roots of the equation 0
2
= + + c bx ax are
a
ac b b
x
2
4
2

= .
The expression ac b 4
2
is called discriminant.
(a) If 0 4
2
> ac b , roots are real.
(i) If 0 4
2
> ac b , then roots are real and unequal.
(ii) If 0 4
2
= ac b , then roots are real and equal |
.
|
\
|
a
b
2
.
(b) If 0 4
2
< ac b , then ac b 4
2
is imaginary. Therefore roots are imaginary and
unequal.

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5.2 Logarithms
Properties of Logarithms ( 0 , 0 , 1 , 0 > > = > n m a a )
1. y a
x
= then y x
a
log = 2. 1 log = a
a

3. 0 1 log =
a
4.
b
a
a
b
log
1
log = or 1 log . log = b a
a b

5. Base changing formula
b
a
c a a
c
c
b c b
log
log
log . log log = =
6. n m mn
a a a
log log log + = , ( ) n m
n
m
a a a
log log log =
7. m n m
a
n
a
log log = Or in particular n a
n
a
= log
8. n
q
p
n
a
q
a
q
log log
|
|
.
|
\
|
= Or in particular
q
p
n
q
n
q
= log
9. n a
n
a
=
log

Rules of indices
1.
n m n m
a a a
+
= 2.
n m
n
m
a
a
a

=
3. ( )
mn
n
m
a a = 4. ( )
m m m
b a b a =
5.
m
m
m
b
a
b
a
= |
.
|
\
|
6.
m
m
a
a
1
=

7. 1
0
= a

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5.3 Permutations and Combinations
Permutation
Each of the different arrangements which can be made by taking some or all of a number
of things is called permutation.
Combination
Each of the different groups or selections which can be made by taking some or all of a
number of things (irrespective of the order) is called combination.
Fundamental Theorem
If there are m ways of doing a thing and for each of the m ways there are associated
n ways of doing a second thing then the total number of ways of doing the two things will
be mn.
Important Results
(a) Number of permutations of n dissimilar things taken r at a time.
( )
( )( ) ( ) 1 ....... 2 1
!
!
+ =
= r n n n n
r n
n
P
r
n

where n n ..... .......... 3 . 2 . 1 != .
Note that ( ) ( )( )! 2 . 1 . ! 1 . ! = = n n n n n n
(b) Number of permutations of n dissimilar things taken all at a time.
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ! 1 . 2 . 3 .......... 2 1
1 ....... 2 1
!
!
n n n n
n n n n n
r n
n
P
n
n
= =
+ =
=

(c) Number of combinations of n dissimilar things taken r at a time.

( ) ! ! !
!
r
P
r r n
n
C
r
n
r
n
=
=
(d) Number of combinations of n dissimilar things taken all at a time.

( )
1
! 0
1
! !
!
= =
=
n n n
n
C
n
n
1 ! 0=

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(e) If out of n things p are exactly alike of one kind, q exactly alike of second kind and r
exactly alike of third kind and the rest all different, then the number of permutations of n
things taken all at a time

! . ! . !
!
r q p
n
=
(f) If some or all of n things be taken at a time then the number of combinations will be
1 2
n
1 2 ..........
2 1
= + + +
n
n
n n n
C C C

(g)
r n
n
r
n
C C

=

(h)
2 1
2 1
r r C C
r
n
r
n
= = or n r r = +
2 1
.

(i)
r
n
r
n
r
n
C C C
1
1
+
= +

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5.4 Binomial Theorem
(a) Statement of binomial theorem for positive and negative integral index
( )
n
n
n n
n
n r r n
r
n n n n n n n
a C xa C a x C a x C a x C x a x + + + + + = +

1
1
2 2
2
1 1
1
...... ........
( ) ( ) ....... .......... ........
2 2
2
1 1
1
+ + + =
r r n
r
n n n n n n n
a x C a x C a x C x a x
(b) Number of terms and middle term
The number of terms in the expansion of ( )
n
a x + is 1 + n .
If n is even there will be only one middle term i.e. th
n
|
.
|
\
|
+1
2
.
If n is odd there will be two middle terms i.e. th
n
|
.
|
\
| +
2
1
and th
n
|
.
|
\
| +
2
3
.
Expansion
1. ( )
2 2 2
2 b ab a b a + + = + 2. ( )
2 2 2
2 b ab a b a + =
3. ( ) ( )
3 3 3
3 b b a ab a b a + = + 4. ( ) ( )
2 3 3
3 b b a ab a b a =
Factorization
1. ( )( ) b a b a b a + + =
2 2
2. ( )( )
2 3 3
b ab a b a b a + + =
3. ( )( )
2 2 3 3
b ab a b a b a + + = + 4. ( )( )( )
2 4 4
b a b a b a b a + + =
5. ( )( ) ....
2 3 2 1
+ + + =

b a b a a b a b a
n n n n n

6. ( )( ) ....
2 3 2 1
+ + + = +

b a b a a b a b a
n n n n n

Sterlings formula
Using summation notation, binomial expansion can be written as
( )
0
n
n
k n k
k
n
x y x y
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

Sterlings approximation (or Sterlings formula) is an approximation for
large factorials.
( ) ln ln n n n n = where n is very large
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5.5 Determinants
In linear algebra the determinant is a value associated with a square matrix. The
determinant of a matrix A is denoted bydet( ) A , or A . For instance, the determinant of
the matrix
If
a b
A
c d
| |
=
|
\ .
then
a b
ad bc
c d
=
If
a b c
A d e f
g h i
| |
|
=
|
|
\ .
then det( ) A =
a b c
e f d f d e
d e f a b c
h i g i g h
g h i
= +
Properties
(a) The values of determinant is not altered by changing rows into columns and columns
into rows.
e.g.
2 2 2
1 1 1
z y x
z y x =
2
2
1
1
1
z z
z y
x x

(b) If any two adjacent rows or two adjacent columns of a determinant are interchanged
the determinant retains its absolute value but changes its sign.
e.g.
2 2 2
1 1 1
z y x
z y x =
2 2 2
1 1 1
z y x
z y x

(c) If any two rows or two columns of determinant are identical then the determinant
vanishes. Thus

3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c c a
c c a
c c a

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(d) If each constituent in any row or in any column be multiplied by the same factor then
the determinant is multiplied by that factor
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
p
c b pa
c b pa
c b pa
= and
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
c b a
c b a
c b a
qr
rc rb ra
c q b q qa
c b a
=
(e) If each constituent in any row or in any column consists of r terms then the
determinant can be expressed as the sum of r determinants.
Thus
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
c b
c b
c b
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
c b a
o
o
o
o
o
o
+ =
+
+
+

(f) If one row or column is k times the other row or columns respectively then
determinant of matrix will be0.
e.g.
.
. 0
.
a k a c
d k d f
g k g i
= and . . . 0
a b c
k a k b k c
g h i
=

Some basic properties of determinants are:
1. det( )
n
I I = where
n
I is the n n identity matrix.
2. det( ) det( )
T
A A = where
T
A is transpose of A.
3.
1
1
det( )
det( )
A
A
= where
1
A
is inverse of A .
4. For square matrices A and B of equal size,
det( ) det( )det( ) AB A B =
5. det( ) det( )
n
cA c A = for an n n matrix
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6. Conic Section
In the Cartesian coordinate system the graph of a quadratic equation of two variables
represent a conic section which is given by
2 2
0 Ax Bxy Cy Dx Ey F + + + + + = .
The conic sections described by this equation can be classified with the discriminant
2
4 D B AC =
- if 0 D < , the equation represents an ellipse
- if 0 D < , A C = and 0 B = , the equation represents a circle which is a
special case of an ellipse;
- if 0 D = , the equation represents a parabola
- if 0 D > the equation represents a hyperbola
- if we also have 0 D > , 0 A C + = , the equation represents a rectangular
hyperbola
Note that A and B are polynomial coefficients, not the lengths of semi-major/minor axis
as defined in some sources.
Conic
section
Equation Eccentricity Semi-lactus
rectum
Polar equation Parametric form
Circle
2 2 2
x y a + =
0 a r a = cos , sin x a y a u u = =

Ellipse
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
+ =
2
2
1
b
e
a
=
2
b
l
a
=
1 cos
l
e
r
u = +
1 0 < < e
cos , sin x a y b u u = =

Parabola
2
4 y ax =
1 e = a 2
1 cos
l
r
u = +
2
, 2 x at y at = =
Hyperbola
2 2
2 2
1
x y
a b
=
2
2
1
b
e
a
= +
2
b
l
a
=
1 cos
l
e
r
u = +
1 > e
tan , sec x a y b u u = =

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7. Probability

Probability
The probability
r
p of occurrence of an event r in a system is defined with respect to
statistical ensemble of N such a systems. If
r
N systems in the ensemble exhibit the event
r then

r
r
N
p
N
=
Probability density
The probability density ( ) u is defined by the property that ( ) u du yields the
probability of finding the continuous variable u in the range between u andu du + .

Mean value
The mean value of u is denoted by u ( ) as defined as
r r
r
u p u ( ) =
where the sum is over

all possible value values
r
u of the variable u and
r
p is denotes the probability of
occurrence of the particular value
r
u .Above definition is for discrete variable .
For continuous variableu , u ( ) = ( ) u u du
}

Dispersions or variance
The dispersion of u is defined as
2 2 2
( ) ( )
r r
r
u p u u o = ( ) = ( )
which is equivalent
to
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
r
u u u o = ( ) = ( ) ( )

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Joint probability
If both events A and B occur on a single performance of an experiment, this is called the
intersection or joint probability of A and B, denoted as ( ) p A B .

Independent probability
If two events, A and B are independent then the joint probability is
( ) ( ). ( ) p A B p A P B =
Mutually exclusive
If either event A or event B or both events occur on a single performance of an
experiment this is called the union of the events A and B denoted as
( ) p A B
. If two
events are mutually exclusive then the probability of either occurring is
( ) ( ) ( ) p A B p A P B = +

Not mutually exclusive
If the events are not mutually exclusive then
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) p A B p A P B p A B = +

Conditional probability
Conditional probability is the probability of some event A, given the occurrence of some
other event B. Conditional probability is written ( / ) p A B , and is read "the probability
of A, given B". It is defined by

( )
( / )
( )
p A B
p A B
p B

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where a > 0 18. 1

where the sum is over

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