Social Class, Speech Systems and Psycho-Therapy Author(s): Basil Bernstein Source: The British Journal of Sociology, Vol.

15, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 54-64 Published by: Wiley on behalf of The London School of Economics and Political Science Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/589030 . Accessed: 08/01/2014 20:41
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SOCIAL CLASS, SPEECH SYSTEMS AND PSYCHO-THERAPY* BasilBernstein

T
ODAY VARIOUSformsofpsycho-therapy arebeingextended to include a greater number of individuals from different social backgrounds. Training programmes for probation officers, social workers, psychologists and members of the prison and borstal services are gradually being extended at different rates to include an understanding of psycho-dynamic processes and a therapy-oriented relationship.I shall start from an assertionthat sensitivityto the psychotherapeutic relationship and the form of communication considered to be appropriateis less available to members of the lower working-class, not by virtue of innate deficienciesin intelligence but because of a culturally induced speech system whose dimensions of relevance and significance do not orient the lower working-classpatient in the therapy relationship. Conversely the speech system of the therapist creates for him sets of expectations which are not met by the lower working-class patient. By lower working-class I refer to individuals who are employed in lower manual occupations, approximately 30 per cent of the labour force. Let us start by examining some general aspectsof the psycho-therapy relation with which I shall be concerned. (I) It is a form of social relationship which exerts a tension on the patient to structure and re-structurehis discrete experience in a verbally significant form. In terms of the patient's other relationshipsthe therapy relationshipattempts to elicit from the patient a unique orderof communication. (2) The referentfor this communication is the patient--or rather his motivational processes and the implicit or explicit social relationships which they engender. The 'I' of the patient is undergoing a continuous transformationby virtue of those unique communications. (3) The form of authority within the therapy relationshipis unclear and ambiguous. The patient often is given no clear understandingof what is or is not expected of him. The shape of the social relationshipis
* Paper delivered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Aberdeen, September 1963.

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SOCIAL CLASS AND PSYCHO-THERAPY

not defined in any detail. Differences in social status which serve as orientation for behaviour outside of the therapy relationship do not serve to indicate appropriate behaviour with it. (4) In as much as the patient's communications are filtered through the purposes, goals, beliefs and emotional imperatives of the patient's natural group then the patient's appropriate perception of himself is often considered to be hindered. The conventions which confer upon the patient his social identity are viewed from the point of view of the therapist as material to be worked through. Put more simply the form of the therapy relationship involves the patient in a position of suspended isolation; he stands in relation to his group rather like a figure differentiatedfrom his ground. (5) Finally, successfultherapy is based upon 'mutual belief on the part of both therapist and patient that the illness may be removed by participation in a social relationship where the major activity is the transformation of discrete experience through the medium of communication essentially through speech'. Summarizing these points we get something like this. The therapy relationshipis based upon the belief that the conditions which brought the patient into the relationshipmay be ameliorated by communication in a context where the normal status relationshipsserve as no guide for behaviour in a context which involves a suspension of the patient's social identity and where the referentfor the communication is the discrete experience of the patient. This is a somewhat unusual social relationshipinvolving some strange requirements. It will be argued that members of the lower workingclass who are limited to a particular speech system are likely to find these requirements difficult to meet. Such individuals are likely to benefit less from therapy, to break off treatment early, whilst the therapist will tend to find the relationship unrewarding. He will require a sensitivity towards his patient of a different order than that necessary for a middle-classpatient. From the therapist'spoint of view the lower working-class patient's communication will seem to be inadequate, there will be a low level of insight, the patient may seem to be negative and passive, so forcing the therapist into taking a more dominant role than he would wish, above all the therapist will meet an unwillingness on the part of the patient to transformhis personal feelings into unique verbal meanings. The lower working-classpatient will have difficulty in verbalizing his personal experience and in receiving communications which refer to the sources of his motivations. I shall argue that these difficulties do not necessarily stem from low intelligence but originate in the speech system the child learns in his culture and that this speech system creates for the developing child dimensions of relevance and
learning wholly appropriate for his natural environment but inappropriate for orientating the individual in special relationships like therapy. 55

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BASIL BERNSTEIN

Research indicates that the verbal I.Q. scores of members of the lower working-class are likely to be severely depressed in relation to scores at the higher ranges of non-verbal tests. Furthermore,research based upon small groups of middle- and working-classsubjectsmatched for average verbal I.Q. and non-verbal I.Q. indicates that the workingclass groups use a markedlydifferent speech system than the matched middle-class groups. The working-classgroups' speech is characterized by a reduction in qualifiers, adjectives, adverbs, particularly those which qualify feelings, the organization of the speech is comparatively simple, there is a restrictionon the use of the self-referentpronoun 'I' and an increase in personal pronouns. The written work of matched groups of middle- and working-classboys indicates a similar pattern of differences and also that the working-classprefer much more concrete than abstract propositions.As these limited studies were of small groups matched for I.Q. the sourcesof the differencesin the speech and the relations to which the speech creates access must lie in differences between the cultures. These differences found in the speech I shall take as indices of a particularform of communication; they are not in any sense accidental but are contingent upon a form of social relationship,or more generally, a social structure. These differences I shall argue indicate the use of a linguistic code. It is a code which does not facilitate the verbal elaboration of meaning; it is a code which does not help the user put into words his intent, his unique purposes,beliefs and motivations. It also does not help him to receive such communicationsfrom others. It is a code which sensitizes the user to a particular form of social relationship which is unambiguous, where the authority is clear-cut and serves as a guide to action. It is a code which helps to sustain solidarity with the group at the cost of the verbal signalling of the unique differenceof its members. It is a code which facilititates the ready transformationof feeling into action. It is a code where changes in meaning are more likely to be signalled non-verbally than through changes in verbal selections. From this perspectivethe psycho-therapyrelationshipinvolves, for a member of the lower working-class, a radical change in his normal coding process. What requiresto be made relevant for this relationship is almost the antithesis of what is made relevant by the coding process the individual normally uses in his cultural environment. How does this way of translating experience come about? What in the culture is responsible for the speech system?To begin with there is nothing unusual or unique about the speech system. It is not helpful to considerit a form of sub-standard English. It is not a speech system induced by innate intelligence.
Different social structures will generate different speech systems. These speech systems or codes entail for the individual specific principles of choice which regulate the selections he makes from language at 56

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SOCIAL CLASS AND PSYCHO-THERAPY

both the syntactic and lexical level. What the individual actually says, from a developmental perspective, transformshim in the act of saying. As the child learns his speech or in our terms learns specific codes which regulate his verbal acts he learns the requirementsof his social structure.From this point of view every time the child speaks the social structure of which he is a part is reinforced in him, and his social identity develops and is constrained. The social structure becomes for the developing child his psychological reality by the shaping of his acts of speech. If this is the case, then the processeswhich orient the child to his world and the kind of relationshipshe imposes, are triggered off initially and systematically reinforced by the implications of the speech system. Underlying the general pattern of the child's speech are critical sets of choices, in-built preferencesfor some alternatives rather than others, planning processes which develop and are stabilized through time-coding principles through which orientation is given to social, intellectual and emotional referents. Children who have access to different speech systems, and so to the coding principles which sustain them, by virtue-and only by virtue--of their arbitrary position in the class structure, may take quite different lines of development, may adopt quite different intellectual and social procedures which are only tenuously related to their purely psychological abilities. I shall start by asking the following questions: What kinds of social relationships generate what kinds of speech systems? What kinds of principles or planning procedures control the speech systems? What kinds of relationships in the environment do these planning procedures, or rather the linguistic options which are taken up, both give access to and stabilize? I shall confine my attention to one speech system or code. I am going to define this speech system in terms of the ease with which it is possible to predict the syntactic alternatives which are taken up to organize meaning. If it is fairly easy to predict the syntactic alternatives used to organize meaning across a range of speech I shall call this system a restricted code. It is possible to predict these syntactic alternatives because the range of alternatives used in this code are relatively few. The speech is comparatively simple in structure. We can go a little further and say that in the case of a restrictedcode the vocabulary will be drawn from a narrow range. Although the code has been defined in terms of syntaxwe can go on to suggestcertainpsychologicalcorrelatesof this code. If a speakeris moving towards a restrictedcode then the code, that is the linguisticoptions he is taking up, will not facilitatethe speaker in his attempt to put into words his purposes, his intent, his unique
experience in a verbally explicit form. Further, the events in the environment which are given significance create a particular order of learning. 57

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BASIL BERNSTEIN

Let us start off by asking what is responsiblefor the simplificationof the structure of the speech in this code, what is responsible for the narrow range of vocabulary choices, what is responsible on a psychological level for the constraints on the verbal signalling of the unique experience of the speaker?If we know this we shall begin to have an idea of the social leaining which this code gives access to and stabilizes. I shall suggest that both the simplification in the structure and the constraint upon the verbal signalling of intent have their origin in the form of the social relationship constraining the speakers. In the case of a restricted code the speech is played out against a back-cloth of assumptions common to the speakers, against a set of shared interests and identifications,in short against a cultural identity which reduces the need for the speakers to elaborate verbally their intent and make it explicit. If you know somebody very, very well, an enormous amount may be taken for granted; you do not have to put into words all that you feel because the feelings are common. But knowing somebody very well is a particular kind of social relationship; knowing somebody very well indicates common interests, identifications, expectations, although this need not necessarily mean common agreements. Concretely a restrictedcode is not necessarilyclass-linked but will arise in closed communities like a prison, combat units in the armed services, but also between close friends, in the peer group of children and adolescents. In fact, wherever the form of the social relationship is based upon some extensive set of closely shared identifications self-consciouslyheld by the members. In these social relations which generate a restricted code the speech will tend to be fast, fluent, with reduced articulatoryclues, the meanings are likely to be condensed, dislocated and local to the relationships. There will be a low level of vocabulary and syntactic selection. The how rather than the what of the communication becomes relevant. Finally, and of critical importance, the unique meaning of the person will tend to be implicit and not verbally elaborated. forms as this. In fact the sequences will have the same general Examples It's all according like well those youths and that if they get with gangs and that they most they most have a bit of a lark around and say it goes wrong and that and they probably knock some off I think they do it just to be a bit big you know
getting publicity here and there (Transcript of a tape-recorded discussion)
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The point I want to make is that a restrictedcode is available to all members of society as the social conditions which generate it are universal. But it may be that a considerablesection of our society, in particular members of the lower working-classwho work in unskilled or semi-skilledoccupations, 30 per cent of the labour force, are limited to this code and have no other. We have a special case, a case where children or adults can use only one speech system. What this code makes relevant to them, the learning generated by the apparentlyspontaneous acts of speech may not be appropriate for the demands of the psychotherapeutic relationship. I would like to look more closely at some of the psychological and sociological implications of this code with psycho-therapyin mind. When a child learns a restrictedcode he learns to perceive language in a particular way. Language is not perceived as a set of theoretical possibilitieswhich can be transformedinto a facility for the communication of unique experience. Speech is not important media for communicating relatively explicitly the experience of separateness and difference. Speech is not a primary means for a voyage from one self to the other. In as much as this is so then areas of the self are not likely to be differentiatedby speech and so become the object of special perceptual activity. It is also likely that the motivations of others will not serve as starting points for inquiry and verbal elaboration. Of some importance the identity of the individual will be refracted to him by the concrete symbols of his group rather than creating a problem to be solved by his own unique investigations. In a sense a person limited to a restricted code has a problem of identity because this problem is irrelevant. I would like to consider next a family where only a restrictedcode is used. Here the 'I' of the mother, her uniqueness,the way she communicates separatenessand difference is likely to be conveyed non-verbally rather than through controlled verbal discriminations. If this is so then much of the awarenessof the developing child of his mother is less available for verbalization because it has rarely been verbalized. A powerful bond of a non-verbal form is forged. The motivations, the intents of mother and child are less available to each because these are not objects of verbal inquiry. A critical aspect of the family is the means of expressionof authority, particularlythe type of verbal interaction authorityrelationshipscreate. I shall argue that associatedwith parentslimited to a restrictedcode is a specific form of authority relations. Authority can be expressedso as to limit the chances of verbal interaction with the relationship, or authority can be expressed so as to increase verbal interaction. The area of discretion available to the
child may be reduced to an uncompromising acceptance, withdrawal or rebellion within the authority relationship, or the social context of control may permit a number of responses on the part of the child. 59

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BASIL BERNSTEIN

Authority may be expressedthrough commands and threats or it may rest on appeals. These appeals used by authority may be of two basic kinds: person-oriented or status-oriented. If the appeals are statusoriented then the behaviour of the child is referredto some general or local rule which constrains conduct 'shouldn't you clean your teeth', 'you don't behave yourself like that on a bus', 'children in grammar schools are expected to behave rather differently'.* Status appeals may also relate the child's behaviour to the rules which regulate his conduct with reference to age, sex or age relationships, e.g. 'Little boys don't play with dolls', 'you should be able to stop doing that by now', 'you don't talk to your father, teacher, social worker, etc., like that'. These are important implications of status appeals. If they are not obeyed the relationshipcan quickly change to reveal naked power and may become punitive. Status appeals are impersonal. They rely for their effectiveness upon the status of the regulator.The effect of these appealsis to transmit the culture or local culture in such a way as to increase the similarity of the regulated with others of his group. If the child rebels he is challenging very quickly the culture of which he is a part and it is this which tends to force the regulator into taking punitive action. Finally the social context of control is such that the relationshipis unambiguousthe relative statuses are clear-cut. The person-orientedappeals are very different. In these appeals the conduct of the child is related to the feelings of the regulator (parent) or the significance of the act, its meaning is related explicitly to the regulated, to the child, e.g. 'Daddy will be pleased, hurt, disappointed, angry, ecstatic if you go on doing this', 'If you go on doing this you will be miserable when the cat has a nasty pain'. In the case of person-oriented appeals the conduct of the child is referredto thefeelingsof the regulator,in the second case the significance of the act, its meaning, is related directly to the child. There are important consequences of the person-oriented appeals. Control is effected through either the verbal manipulation of feelings or through the establishing of reasonswhich link the child to his acts. In this way the child has access to the regulator as a person and he has access to the significance of his own acts as they relate to him as consequences.The person-orientedappeals tend to work through the verbalizing of intent, whereas the status-orientedappeals, especially if they move quickly to power, are concerned with consequencesof actions and not with intent. The status-orientedappeals rely for their effectivenessupon differences in status whereas the person-orientedappeals rely more upon the manipulation of thought and feeling. The person-oriented appeals elicit
* Intonation can, of course, give these statements the character of commands; however, they do permit further interaction of a kind that serves to clarify the norms which inhere in the specific status of the regulated. On the other hand, the regulator may shift the basis of the appeal to that of person-oriented or fall back on power.

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SOCIAL CLASS AND PSYCHO-THERAPY

guilt in the child in terms of the effects of his actions upon persons and things. The child learns to adapt to the tensions involved in relating to persons and things mainly by being able to tolerate guilt and through having a more conscious awareness, through language, of the consequences of his actions. Where the child is subject to status-oriented appeals which change swiftly to a power relationship then a whole order of relationships are not learned. I suggest that where the sole speech system of the parents is a restrictedcode, then power and statusoriented appeals will be used more. The child will become sensitive to a particular kind of control and the learning involved and may well be bewildered in a context of control where person-orientedmeans are

used.

I should like to consider some areas of affective difficulty which may be elicited, maintained and strengthened by a role relationship where both members are limited to a restrictedcode. It has been argued that extra-verbal channels will carry messages bearing the mutual intents of mother and child. Inter-personalaspects of this relationshipin which each will uniquely qualify each other's experience will tend not to be raised to the level of verbal elaboration and be made explicit. The areas of discrete intent will not be areas of elaborated speech. This does not mean these areas have no significance, only that whatever significance they may have is less available for linguistic regulation. Tensions arisingin these areas are more likely to be denied as the means of dealing with them consciously are less available. Further, if it is the case that authority relationshipswithin the family tend to be status and power relations rather than person-oriented relations then the focus of the discipline of relation will be upon the consequence of the act rather than upon the intent of the child. Thus it could be argued that where the focus is upon consequence the relationship moves towards one of an inter-status type whereas if the focus is upon intent the relationship moves towards one of an inter-personal type. What is made available for learning, what is made relevant in person or status-orientedrelations is radically different. The linguistic codes which transmitthese relationshipsbehaviourallyare also different. in a status- or power-oriented relation is such that what is The speech taken over by the child is the status aspect of the relation not the personal aspect of the relation. Again it should be noted that this reinforces the primacy of the extra-verbalchannels for the perception or decoding of discrete intent. It is necessary to repeat that the perception of discrete intent occurs but the orientation of the perception is towards the extra-verbalchannels. Lack of clarity or ambiguity in the inter-status relation is likely to raise the level of tension for an individual limited to a restricted code
and these tensions are less subject to verbal control. It is then much more likely that these tensions will be dissipated quickly through some 6i

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BASIL BERNSTEIN

immediate channel; changes in muscular tension, somato-motor set or expressive behaviour. Further the individual may try to neutralize his affective involvement in a situation of inter-personal strain by denial or attributing the responsibility for the strain to an encumbent of another status. There is a probability that although the individual will hold notions of wrongness and justice, feelings of guilt and personal involvement may be dissociated from the notions of wrongness. Psychopathology will tend to be shaped in terms of high guilt thresholds, low anxiety thresholdsand an inability to tolerate anxiety. In situations which elicit perceptions of ambiguity or ambivalency the individual may be unable to tolerate the resultant tension involved in loss of structure.He will tend to move towards a well-articulatedsocial structurewhere hierarchy, age, age relations and sex will provide clear unambiguous prescriptions for appropriate behaviour as a means of controlling stress. Thus a special group of defence mechanismsof an unconsciousorder are likely to be associated with this code which help to maintain its stability. The defences are likely to include denial, disassociationand displacement rather than more elaborate defences which rely upon verbal procedures like rationalization. These defences may help to shape the type of psychopathology. There is one further point of a more sociological nature which needs to be made. Different modes of speech issuefrom differentrole relations. Individuals may be unable to produce appropriate speech modes because they are unable to deal with the role relation necessaryfor the appropriate communication. If a person is using an elaborated code that is where the person'sintent is raised to the level of verbal explicitness, where his 'I' is mediated by extensive verbal discriminations, a range of discretion must inhere in his role if such speech is to be produced at all. Further, the person's social history must have included practice and training for the role which social relations require. Role here refers to the particular relations necessaryfor the production of a restrictedor elaborated code. In the case of an elaborated code the role relations receive less support from implicit identificationsshared by the participators.The orientation of the individual will be based upon the expectation of psychological difference, his own and others. Individuated speech pre-supposesa history of a particular role relation if it is to be prepared and delivered appropriately. Inasmuch as difference is part of the expectation there is less reliance or dependency on the listener; or rather this dependency on the listener is reduced by the verbal explication of meaning. The dependency underpinning the use of a restrictedcode is upon the closely shared, extensive range of identifications which serve as a back-cloth to the speech and define the role relation. The dependency underpinning the use of an elaborated code is upon the verbal explication of meaning. The sources of role strain
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SOCIAL CLASS AND PSYCHO-THERAPY

which inhere in these codes and so in the social relations which generate them are different. Simply, to produce an elaborated code the person must be able to cope with the measure of social isolation which inheres in the role relations which these communications generate. This kind of isolation does not inhere in role relations which generate a restricted code. In terms of what is said verbally a restricted code is a an status-oriented whilst a elaborated code is code. code, person-oriented I shall now try and pull together these various implications of a restricted code. The code is generated in social relationship where the intent of others may be taken for granted. This sharing or expectation of common intent simplifiesthe structureof the speech and so makes it predictable. It removes the need in the speakers to elaborate verbally their unique experience. Hence the reduction of qualifiers of various kinds. The speech is relatively impersonal and serves to transmit similarity rather than differences in personal experience. The code functions to permit the signalling of social rather than personalidentity. The latter tends to be signalled through non-verbal and expressive means rather than through elaborate varying of verbal selections. The code tends to make relevant the concrete here and now action situation rather than point to reflective, abstract relationships.* It does not facilitate a sustained interest in processes, particularly motivational processes. The self is rarely the subject of verbal investigation. Speech is not used as a means for a voyage from oneself to the other person. Behaviour is controlled in a social context in which status is unambiguous and in which the intent of the regulated and regulatoris rarely verbally explored and so feelings of guilt and personal involvement in misdemeanoursmay be reduced. The code strengthenssolidarity with the group by restricting the verbal signalling of personal difference. This does not mean that no differenceswill be signalled but that they will rarely be systematically explored. A strong sense of social identity is induced probably at the cost of a sense of personal identity. Finally the code is not generated by I.Q. but by the culture acting through the family relationships. From this point of view the psycho-therapyrelationship involves, for an individual limited to a restricted code, a relationship where the signals are antithetic to his own way of making relationships. For the status relationshipsare ambiguous, give no indication for here and now behaviour. It is a person-orientedrelationship which increasesthe tension upon the individual to structure and re-structure his experience in a verbally unique way. For the patient it involves a loss of social identity which his very code promotes, and exposes the patient to the
* It is important to of feelings are offered, qualify at this point. Often powerful descriptions e.g. 'The smoke from the factories makes me lonesome', 'It hurts like my head's coming off my neck', 'It's like broken glass inside me'. Difficulty often occurs when one moves away from metaphor and simile.
E

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reflections on his personal identity in a social relationshipwhich from the patient's point of view is unsupporting.A lack of insight into the sources of motivation combined with the dependency of the patient will tend to force the therapist into taking, from his point of view, too active or dominant a role in the relationship. The restricted-code patient's main defence against the tensions induced by the therapy relationship is a great passivity and dependency. The therapist has to deal with feelings in himself that this kind of relationship invokes. Thus, the therapy relationship involves for the restricted-codepatient a situation of change of code and with this, a majorchange in the means whereby the patient orients to his natural world.* It is thought that if the therapy is successfulthere will be a change in the patient's code. I am not suggestingthat therapy with patients limited to a restricted code cannot be rewarding and beneficial. The absence of so-called appropriatecommunication is pregnant with meaning and significance for the therapist if he has a more sensitive understanding of the predicament of the patient and a willingness to adapt his technique.
* A point may well be reached where therapist and patient face each other in an unproductive silence. The therapist not knowing how to elicit responses from the patient and the patient not knowing how to give them.

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