1.2.3 Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of elements and compounds.

Composition of earth Dense core made of Fe & Ni Mantle magnesium oxides & silicon oxides Crust Si, Al, Fe, Ca, K, etc.

Layers of the Earth Atmosphere Heterogeneous, mixture of gases consists of N, O, CO2, also Ar, H2O.

Lithosphere Mixture of minerals composed of rock and soil e.g. SiO2 Few elements exist uncombined, e.g. Au, Ag, Pl

Hydrosphere Mixture of liquids Oceans, seas, lakes, rivers Overlaps lithosphere

Biosphere Living part of the earth (portion of earth inhabited & used by living matter) Organic compounds based on carbon Contains carbohydrates and proteins

1.2.6 Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists. Analysis is the process of identifying the components of something.

GRAVIMETRIC QUANTITATIVE
(How much of each component)

(By Mass)

ANALYSIS QUALITATIVE
(What its made up of)

VOLUMETRIC
(By Volume)

Example Calculating the percentage composition of a mixture

Sand/Salt mixture: Before: 1.52g After: 1.49g

Therefore
1.49 1.52 100 = 98.07% 100 98.07 = 1.93% loss

Salt
Evaporating Basin & salt Evaporating basin 42.61 42.25 = 0.36g Salt = 0.36g 0.36 1.52 100 = 23.68% of sand from the total mixture

Sand
Filer paper & sand filter paper 2.09 0.96 = 1.13g Sand = 1.13g 1.13 1.52 100 = 74.34%

Errors
Due to the spitting of the salt particles the total mass of the original mixture was not fully contained after the separation methods/processes. Due to this a total of 1.97% of the mixture, calculated as 0.03g was lost, as seen in the calculations above.

Conclusion
The sand and salt mixture was separated into two separate components by filtration and evaporation. The mixture was made up of 74.34% sand and 23.68% salt.

2.2.2 Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals according to their physical properties. Metals

Metallic lustre (shine) Generally solids at room temperature Malleable Ductile Conduct heat and electricity Exist as extended planes of atoms Combine with other metals to form alloys which have metallic characteristics Form positive ions, e.g. Na+, Mg2+, and Al3+

Non-metals

Rarely have metallic lustre (shine) Generally gases at room temperature Neither malleable nor ductile Poor conductors of heat and electricity Usually exist as molecules in their elemental form Combine with other non-metals to form covalent Generally form negative ions, e.g. Cl-, SO42-, and N3-

The differences of metals and non-metals: 1. Metals have relatively few electrons in their valence shells. 2. Metals have larger atoms than non-metals. Semimetals (Metalloids)

A class of 8 elements that have properties of both metals and non-metals. B Si Ge As Sb Te Po At

Common characteristics:

Generally look metallic but are brittle (not malleable or ductile) Neither good conductors nor insulators; instead they are semiconductors.

2.2.3 Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties. Metals and non-metals vary in their uses. Their uses depend on their physical properties. Examples: 1. Copper is used for electrical wiring - good conductor of electricity, malleable & ductile. 2. Iron is used for bridges very hard, high MP 3. Aluminium is used to make aircraft strong, very light, low density 4. Carbon in the form of graphite is used as a dry lubricant soft and slippery 5. Liquid nitrogen used as a cooling agent low freezing and MP. 6. Silicon is used to make computer chips electrical conductivity

2.3.1 Plan and perform an investigation to examine some physical properties, including malleability, hardness and electrical conductivity, and some uses of a range of common elements to present information about the elements as metals, non-metal, or semi-metals.

Element Sample
Al Fe C Sn Pb Mg Cu S Zn

Lustre Hardness

Electrical Conductivity
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes

Malleability

Hardness

Shiny Shiny Dull Shiny Shiny Shiny Shiny Dull Shiny

High Low Low High Low High High Very Low Medium

Soft Very Hard Soft Soft Soft Soft Soft Very Soft Medium

In conclusion S was a non-metal because it had no metal like properties, and C was a semi-metal because it shared both metal and non-metal characteristics. All other elements were metals.

3.2.1 Identify that matter is made up of particles that are continuously moving. All matter is made up of particles, made up of atoms & molecules which are in constant motion and interaction. 3.2.2 Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms Chemical reactions are based on electrons. Electrons are precisely organised into energy levels or shells. 1st shell up to 2 e2nd shell up to 8 eBeyond here it is much more complex. The noble gases all have their valence shell with 8 e- but are still stable even though other shells hold up more than 8. The common feature here is that 8 is a stable number. The only two elements with COMPLTETE energy levels are He & Ne. There are two ways atoms can achieve a stable state: Ionic (donating unwanted e- to other elements in need metals to combine with non-metals) and Covalent bonding (sharing e- between two or more non-metals) Valency The valency of an element is the number of electrons its atom needs to lose, gain or share in order to be in a stable state. 3.3.3 Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number Atomic number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an element's atomic number. The number of protons also equals to the number of electrons. Mass number (A) The mass number is attained by adding the atomic number with the mass number. (Z+A) No. Of neutrons = A-Z 3.3.4 Describe the formation of ions in terms of gaining or losing electrons. Ionic compounds transfer of electron(s) resulting in the formation of ions which are electrically attracted to one another thus forming a compound. Although they are made of charged particles , the overall compound is neutral. + & - charges =. Ionic compounds form from the reaction of a metal and a non-metal. E.g. Na reacts with Cl to form NaCl. The empirical formula of an ionic compound is a ratio rather than actual numbers of ions.

Ions formed from atoms: Metal atom metal ion + electrons (needs to lose) e.g. Na Na+ +eAl Al 3+ + eNon-metal atom + electrons (needs to gain) Non-metal ion e.g. Br + e- BrO + e- O23.2.6 Apply Lewis dot structures to the formation of ions and the electron sharing in some simple molecules. Lewis dot structures: diagrams which indicate the electrons in the outer shell, they represent the organisation of electrons. Atoms

Ions

OR Li+

OR Be2+

(brackets are not needed)

Compounds Ionic -

Covalent

3.2.7 Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of attraction of ions of opposite charge An atom which has lost or gained electron(s) is called an ion. An ion is a charge particle formed by gaining/losing electrons. Cation positively charged ion formed by losing an electron(s) Anion negatively gaining

E.g. Fl- ion. Is negatively charged (anion) because it has gained an electron.

Charge = no. Of protons no. of electrons Outer shell full = best energy state

3.2.8 Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other Molecules are particles which can move independently of each other. Some composed of single atoms, e.g. Ne, He. Others consist of more than one atom covalently bonded atoms, e.g. 02, N2 (diatomic), 03, H20 (triatomic), P4, and NH3 (tetra-atomic). 3.2.9 Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom. The noble gases are composed of single atoms, e.g. Ne, He. They are monatomic, their atoms do not join together to make molecules. A compound of two elements is named by putting the element with the least electro negativity going first (on the left of the P.T). The end of the 2nd is chopped off and replaced with ide, e.g. MgS Magnesium Sulfide. If both elements are non-metals they must be given prefixes. Prefix Mono Di Tri Tetra Penta Hexa Hepta Meaning One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Example CO Carbon Monoxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide SO3 Sulfur Trioxide SeCl4 PBr5 SF6 IF7

Metal & non-metal indicated by giving valency. Four elements in P.T. that have more than one valency: 1. 2. 3. 4. Pb 2+ or 4+ Cu - + or 2+ Sn 2+ or 4+ Fe 2+ or 3+

The valency in this case is given in roman numerals, e.g. FeO is Iron (II) Oxide Fe2O3 Iron (III) oxide Cu2O Copper (I) oxide CuO Copper (II) oxide

Polyatomic ions however consist of several atoms covalently bonded together which have an overall charge. Here are some common polyatomic ions.

Common Acids HCl is hydrochloric acid HNO3 is nitric acid H2SO4 is sulphuric acid *Ammonia is NH3

3.2.10 Describe the formation of Covalent Molecules in terms of sharing of electrons Molecules are composed of two or more atoms. Held together by sharing electrons between pairs of atoms. This is covalent bonding. Occurs when both atoms need to gain electrons to attain noble gas configuration. The shared electron will spend some time on each atom. Examples, F2, Cl2 double bonds, N3 Triple bond Covalent compounds are given a molecular formula: e.g. P2O5 diphosphorus pentoxide, SO3 sulphur trioxide, O2 Oxygen gas

4.2.1 Identify the difference between physical and chemical change in terms of rearrangement of particles. PHYSICAL CHANGE No new substance formed Easy to reverse Relatively small energy changes Mass conserved CHEMICAL CHANGE New substances formed Difficult to reverse Relatively large energy changes Mass conserved

Examples: Physical: Evaporation of perfume, dissolving salt in water, melting lead. Chemical: Tarnishing of silver, Photosynthesis, bleaching fabric. 4.2.2 Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference between physical and chemical change 4.3.2 (b) gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to: observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that water is a compound an application of the use of this reaction. Boiling of water - This is a physical change that requires heat energy.

Electrolysis of water this is decomposition reaction requiring electrical energy to break the strong intramolecular forces in order to have two separate elements. Equation: H2O H2 + O2 = 2 H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)

Bubbles on the negative electrode had more bubbles released. These bubbles are also rising faster than the cathode. H gas is being produce in the negative electrode, O gas in the positive. In conclusion water is a compound that can be broken down into its component elements through the process of electrolysis. 4.3.3 Analyse and present information to model the boiling of water and the electrolysis of water tracing the movements of and changes in arrangements of molecules. Diagrams showing/comparing changes in particle arrangement:

Electrolysis

Boiling water

4.2.3 Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life Light, heat and electricity are common forms of energy used in synthesis and decomposition reactions. Synthesis reactions (to make)

Are reactions where simple chemical substances combine to make a more complex substance. Substances combine so they can exist at the lowest possible energy level. During this process energy is released. E.g. Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium Oxide Sodium + chlorine sodium chloride Decomposition reactions (decompose = break down)

Where a compound breaks apart into simpler compounds or elements. Energy is required for this. Water Hydrogen + Oxygen (electrolysis) Electricity required Copper (II) carbonate copper (II) oxide + carbon dioxide Heat is required and released 4.2.4 Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond, between them The stronger a bond the more energy is needed to break it. Physical changes involves breaking of intermolecular bonds thus requiring energy, this is usually in the form of heat energy. The energy required for this is not a lot, therefore the bonds being broken are weak. Chemical changes involves the breaking of inter & intra molecular forces thus needing a lot more energy to break down. Usually in form of heat and electricity.

Generally Physical changes less energy Chemical change more energy

4.3.1 Plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition of a carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide and the oxides as products of the reaction. Metal carbonates can be decomposed to produce metal oxides and carbon dioxide, then reacted further to produce the metal. Experiment : Decomposition of a carbonate CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g) CuO(s) + C(g) Cu(s) + CO(g)

Results: copper carbonate turns black (residue), gas produced (CO2) travelled through gas delivery tube and reacted with the limewater (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2) forming a whit solid, turning it into a milky colour.

4.3.2 (a) gather information using first-hand or secondary sources to: observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of the use of this reaction. Decomposition of a pure substance with light When the 2 colourless substances were added (step 1) a white solid formed & settled to the bottom of the beaker, the white solid was then left exposed to sunlight. (step 2)

Step 1

Step 2

24 hours later once removed from sunlight a black layer (in form of solid) settled. Common uses from this reaction are medicine, biology and photography.

5.2.1 Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures. Chemical properties - Describes how a substance reacts. Examples: Whether reactive or inert Stable or decomposes when heated, whether it reacts with water, acids and bases.

Physical properties those that can be found by studying the substance itself rather than its reaction. Examples: Hardness Conductivity MP & BP Malleability, etc.

Properties of elements and compounds Each element has its own physical and chemical properties. When 2 or more combine chemically they lose their properties. The new compound has its own properties. These differ from the initial elements. Water (H2O) Chemical Properties Puts out fire Burns explosively in air or oxygen Promotes burning NaCl Chemical Properties Will not burn Doesnt react with water Doesnt react with hydrogen Burns in air and oxygen Reacts explosively with water Reacts explosively with Hydrogen Burns in air, Reacts with oxygen, Reacts explosively with hydrogen Physical Properties White crystals, Dissolves in water, doesnt conduct electricity when solid but conducts when molten or dissolved in liquid. Soft silver solid, conducts electricity when solid or molten Green-yellow poisonous gas, doesnt conduct electricity Physical Properties Colourless liquid Boiling point: 100C Colourless gas Boiling point:-253C Colourless gas Boiling point: -183

Water Hydrogen Oxygen

NaCl

Na

Cl

Properties of mixtures Components of mixtures keep their own properties. Mixture does not have own properties, properties depend on what the components ar. Properties change as components change.

5.3.1 Perform a first-hand investigation to compare the properties of some common elements in their elemental state with the properties of compound(s) of the elements (e.g. magnesium and oxygen) After magnesium was tested for its properties it was put into a crucible where heat was applied, once the magnesium formed an oxide layer further results were taken. Properties Physical state Colour Electrical conductivity Solubility in water MP (C) Reaction with HCl Magnesium Solid Silver Yes No 650 Gas produced, bubbles appeared, dissolved Oxygen gas Colourless No -219 Magnesium Oxide Solid White No No 2852 -

Conclusion the physical and chemical properties of the elements where different to that of the compound. 5.2.2 Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular covalent network Property Chemical Bonding MP Electrical conductivity Hardness and Malleability Examples Metallic Metallic High Solid Yes Molten yes Malleable and Hard Al, Fe Ionic Ionic High Solid no Molten Yes Brittle and hard NaCl, NaFl Covalent Molecular Covalent Low Solid No Molten No As solid soft and brittle Water, dry ice, sucrose Covalent Network Covalent Very High Solid No (except graphite) Molten No Very hard and brittle Carbon diamond and graphite, SiO2

5.2.3 Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds. 5.2.4 Describe Metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons 5.2.5 Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions 5.2.6 Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula 5.2.7 Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices 5.2.8 Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures. 1. Metallic Bonding Consists of an orderly arrangement of cations bound together by a sea of electrons. These electrons are delocalised. The movement of valence electrons provide the metallic bond. Atoms are able to slide over one another if a strong enough force is applied. This layer of ions and electrons exist in a 3D dimensional layer lattice.

Structure relation with physical properties: High MP & BP strong metallic bonds between metal cations and sea of electrons Conductor of electricity valence electrons free to move about & carry electric current Malleable & ductile atoms are able to slide over one another without braking any bonds. Shiny lustre sea of electron reflect light.

2. Ionic Bonding An ionic compound contains ion held together by ionic bonds. Most are crystallised solids. An ionic bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between positive and negative ions (cations & anions). These bonds are very strong and a lot of energy is needed to break them.

Ionic substances include: Salts e.g. NaCl, iron sulfate Bases metallic oxide and hydroxides Acids dissolved in water dilute HCl, H2SO4

Empirical Formula (formula for ionic compounds) Formula of ionic compound doesnt show actual number of ions. Empirical - shows simplest ratio of ions. Structure relation with physical properties: High MP & BP strong electrostatic bonds extending throughout the lattice Poor conductors of electricity (solid state) ionic substances dont have free electrons, firmly held in lattice. Good conductors of electricity (molten state) if enough force is applied to break bonds between ions, the bond break apart. They are then able to freely move to carry charge. Good conductors of electricity ( dissolved in solvent) water molecules come between ions breaking the structure of the lattice. Once crystal is broken ions are free to move and carry charge.

3. Covalent Bonding Covalent molecules are attractive forces between atoms of non-metals. When covalent bonds hold atoms together in small grouping, this group of atoms is a molecule. During change of state intermolecular forces are broken i. Covalent molecules Elements as molecules Group 8 elements, each of which only contains one atom. Other elements (group 5,6,7) exist as diatomic molecules, with two atoms of the same element. Compounds as molecules - Atoms of elements in group 4,5,6 & 7(non-metals) combine by sharing electrons forming covalent molecular compounds.

Intermolecular weak forces between the molecules

Intramolecular strong forces within the molecules

ii.

Covalent Network/Macromolecules

Can occur in both elements and compounds Elements In group 4, C & Si. Both have 4 electrons in valence shell, all can be shared with other atoms of the same element. Atoms join to form large lattices/networks. Held together by covalent bonds, these extend throughout the lattice. Common example of carbon is diamond. Compounds also form giant lattices, e.g. Silicon Dioxide. Structure relation with physical properties: A. Covalent Network Very High MP & BP strong covalent bonds extend throughout lattice Hard - strong covalent bonds extend throughout lattice All covalent substances- dont conduct heat and electricity, no mobile ions or free electrons. B. Covalent Molecular Relatively low MP & BP although strong covalent molecules are within molecules, only weak intermolecular forces are holding them together. Not hard usually liquids or gases because weak intermolecular forces cause low MP & BP. When solid they are soft and brittle. 5.2.2 Choose resources and information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the limitations of lattice models. Ionic Covalent Molecular Covalent Network