Finite Element Methods in Engineering

ME 523
Lecture #9
27.01.2014
Instructor
Dr. Karuna Kalita
3-0-0-6
Model Boundary Value Problem
0 for x L < <
0
d du
a cu f
dx dx
| |
+ =
|
\ .
( )
0 0
0 and
x L
du
u u a Q
dx
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
Consider a problem of finding the function u(x) that satisfies the differential
equation
and boundary conditions
One dimensional domain O = (0, L) subject to a suitable set of specified
boundary conditions at the boundary points x = 0 and x = L.
x
L
Maintained at
temperature,
u
0
Internal heat generation, f(x)

Convection from lateral
surface, c(x) u(x)

Exposed to
ambient
temperature, u

Heat transfer in a fin

Axial deformation of a bar

Mathematical idealization of the problem

x
L
Specified
displacement,
u
0
Body force, f(x)

Subjected to
axial load, P

L
x
( )
0
0 u u =
0
x L
du
a Q
dx
=
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
f x
L
x
Whole domain
Finite element discretization (mesh)
O
1
O
2
O
3
O
4
O
4
A

B

x
1
=0
x
2
x
3
x
3
x
N
x
N+1
=L
x
A

B

h
e
x
e
=x
a
x
e+1
=x
b
Discretization of the domain
The derivation of the finite element equations, i.e. algebraic equations among
the unknown parameters of the finite element approximation, involves the
following three steps:
Derivation of Element Equations
Construct the weighted-residual or weak form of the differential equation.
Assume the form of the approximate solution over a typical finite element.
Derive the finite element equations by substituting the approximate
solution into the weighted-residual or weak form.
Step 1: Weak Form and Minimum of a Quadratic Functional
1
( )
n
e e e
h j j
j
u u x
=
=

where are the values of the solution u(x) at the nodes of the finite element
O
e
, and are the approximation functions over the element.
e
j
u
e
j

L
x
Whole domain
Finite element discretization (mesh)
O
1
O
2
O
3
O
4
O
4
A

B

x
1
=0
x
2
x
3
x
3
x
N
x
N+1
=L
x
A

B

x
x
a
x
b
x
0 x =
e
x h =
x
L
( )
1 a
u x u
2
b
e
x x
du
a Q
dx
=
| |

|
\ .
( )
q x
( )
2 b
u x u
1
b
e
x x
du
a Q
dx
=
| |

|
\ .
The weighted-integral form is
where w(x) denotes the weight function and O
e
= (x
a
, x
b
) is the domain of a
typical element.
0
x
x
b
a
d du
w a cu f dx
dx dx
(
| |
= +
|
(
\ .

}
Integration by parts
0
x
x
x
x
b
b
a a
dw du du
a cwu wf dx wa
dx dx dx
(
| | (
= +
|
(
(
\ .

}
Boundary term
x
x
b
a
du
wa
dx
(
(

The coefficients of the weight function w in the boundary expression is
called a secondary variable, and its specification constitutes the natural or
Neumann boundary condition. The dependent unknown u in the form as the
weight function w appearing in the boundary expression is termed a primary
variable, and its specification constitutes the essential or Dirichlet bounday
consition.
0
and
du
u a Q
dx
| |
=
|
\ .
1 1 2 2 2
( ) , , ( ) ,
e e e e e e
h a b
du du
u x u a Q u x u a Q
dx dx
x x x x
a
b
| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .
= =
If we select such that it automatically satisfies the end conditions
, then it remains that we include the remaining
conditions
( )
e
h
u x
1 2 2
( ) and ( )
e e e e
h a b
u x u u x u = =
1 2
,
du du
Q a Q a
dx dx
x x
a
b
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
The weak form becomes
( ) ( )
1 2
0
x
a b
x
b
a
dw du
a cwu wf dx w x Q w x Q
dx dx
(
| |
= +
|
(
\ .

}
This completes the three-step procedure of constructing the weak form of the
model equation. The finite element model based on the weak form is called
the weak form Galerkin finite element model.
The weak form contains two types of expressions: those containing both w
and u (bilinear form) and those containing only w (linear form)
( , )
x
e
x
b
a
dw du
B w u a cwu dx
dx dx
| |
= +
|
\ .
}
1 2
( ) ( ) ( )
x
e
a b
x
b
a
l w wf dx w x Q w x Q = + +
}
( , ) ( )
e e
B w u l w = The weak can be expressed as
( ),
e
I u
1
( ) ( , ) ( )
2
e e e
I u B u u l u =
2
2
1 2
1
( ) ( )
2
x x
a b
x x
b b
a a
du
a cu dx uf dx u x Q u x Q
dx
| |
| |
= +
| |
\ .
\ .
} }
0 ( , ) ( ),
e e e
I B w u I w w u o o = = =
This is same as the statement of minimum of the quadratic potential

0
e
I o =
The statement in solid and structural mechanics is also known as the
principle of minimum total potential energy.
0
e
I o =
It should continuous over the element and differentiable, as required by
the weak form.
It should be complete polynomial, i.e., include all lower-order terms up to
the highest order used.
It should be an interpolant of the boundary variables at the nodes of the
finite element (at least the nodes on the boundary of the element so that
the continuity of the solution can be imposed.
As in classical variational methods, the approximation solution must
fulfill certain conditions in order that it be convergent to the actual solution u
as the number of elements is increased.
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
( )
e
h
u x
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
1 2
( )
e e e
h
u x c c x = +
where are constants.
1 2
and
e e
c c
1 2 1
( )
e e e e
h a a
u x c c x u = +
1 2 2
( )
e e e e
h b b
u x c c x u = +
1 1
2 2
1
1
e e
a
e e
b
u c x
x u c
| |
=
` `
|
) ) \ .
1 1 2 1 1 2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
2
e e e e e e e
b a
e
c u x u x u u
h
o o = +
2 2 1 1 1 2 2
1 1
( ) ( )
2
e e e e e e e
e
c u u u u
h
| | = +
1 2 1 2
and ( , , 1, and 1)
e e e e
e b a b a
h x x x x o o | | = = = = =
If i =1 then j = 2; if i = 2 then j = 1
( ) ( )
1 1
1 , 1 ; ,
j j
e e e e e
i j i a b
x x x x x o | = = = =
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
( )
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
1
( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e e
h
e
u x u u u u x
h
o o | | = + + + (

( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 1
e e e e e e
e e
x u x u
h h
o | o | = + + +
2
1 1 21 2
1
( ) ( ) ( )
e e e e e e
j j
j
x u x u x u
=
= + =

1 1 1 2 2 1
1 1
( ) and ( )
e e e e e e
b a
e b a e b a
x x x x
x x
h x x h x x
o | o |

= + = = + =

where
which are called the linear finite element approximation functions.
1 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
e e e e e e
h a a a
u u x x u x u = +
2 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
e e e e e e
h b b b
u u x x u x u = +
implies
1 2
( ) 1 and ( ) 0
e e
a a
x x = =
gives
1 2
( ) 0 and ( ) 1
e e
b b
x x = =
when the approximate functions are derived to interpolate function values only and not the
derivatives of the function, they are known as the Lagrange interpolation functions. When the
function and its derivatives are interpolated the resulting interpolation function are known as
Hermite family of interpolation functions.
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
and
1 1 1 2 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e
h a a a
u u x x u x u x x = + = +
1
0
( )
1
e e
j
if i j
x
if i j

1
( ) 1
n
e
i
i
x
=
=

Linear interpolation function Linear finite element

approximation
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
To illustrate the derivation of the interpolation function of higher order, we
consider the following quadratic approximation of
1
( ) 1
e
e
x
x
h
=
2
( )
e
e
x
x
h
=
and
In terms of the local coordinate
x
( )
e
h
u x
Linear approximation Quadratic approximation
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
2
1 2 3
( )
e e e e
h
u x c c x c x = + +
2
1 1 1 2 1 3 1
( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e
h
u u x c c x c x = + +
2
2 2 1 2 2 3 2
( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e
h
u u x c c x c x = + +
2
3 3 1 2 3 3 3
( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e
h
u u x c c x c x = + +
( )
( )
( )
2
1 1
1 1
2
2 2
2 2
2
3 3
3 3
1
1
1
e e
e e
e e
e e
e e
e e
x x
u c
u x x c
u c
x x
| |

|

|
=
` `
|

|
) )
|
\ .
where is the global coordinate of the node of the element O
e
. ( 1, 2, 3)
e
i
x i =
3
2 2
1
1
1
, ( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e
i i i j k k j
e
i
c u x x x x
D
o o
=
= =

3
2 2
2
1
1
, ( ) ( )
e e e e e e
i i i j k
e
i
c u x x
D
| |
=
= =

3
3
1
1
, ( )
e e e e e e
i i i j k
e
i
c u x x
D

=
= =

Step 2: Approximate Solutions

where denotes the determinant of the matrix.
e
D
For example
where are the quadratic Lagrange interpolation functions.
if 1, then 2 and 3
if 2, then 3 and 1
if 3, then 1 and 2
i j k
i j k
i j k
= = =
= = =
= = =
2 2
2 3 1 1 3
2 2
3 1 2
1 3 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
e e e e e
e e e
e e e
x x x x
x x
x x
o
|

=
=
=
3
1 1 2 2 3 3
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
e e e e e e e e e
h j j
j
u x x u x u x u x u
=
= + + =

2
1
( ) ( ) for ( 1, 2, 3)
e e e e
i i i i
e
x x x i
D
o | = + + =
e
j

Step 2: Approximate Solutions

When the interior node, node 2, is placed at a distance , 0 1
e
x h o o = < <
1
1
( ) 1 1
e
x x
x
h h

o
| || |
=
| |
\ .\ .
2
1
( ) 1
(1 )
e
x x
x
h h

o o
| |
=
|

\ .
3
1
( ) 1
(1 )
e
x x
x
h h
o

o o
| |
=
|

\ .
For o = , i.e., when node 2 is placed at the midpoint of the element
1
2
( ) 1 1
e
x x
x
h h

| || |
=
| |
\ .\ .
2
4
( ) 1
e
x x
x
h h

| |
=
|
\ .
3
2
( ) 1
e
x x
x
h h

| |
=
|
\ .
Step 2: Approximate Solutions
Approximate functions can also be found out from the interpolation property
1
2
( ) 1 1
e
x x
x
h h

| || |
=
| |
\ .\ .
2
4
( ) 1
e
x x
x
h h

| |
=
|
\ .
3
2
( ) 1
e
x x
x
h h

| |
=
|
\ .
( )
1 1
1
( )
2
e
e e
x c x h x h
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
1 1
2
1 2
1 0 0 i.e.
2
e
e e
c h h c
h
| |
= =
|
\ .
( )
1
2
2 1 2
( ) 1 1
2
e
e e
e
x x
x x h x h
h h h

| | | || |
= =
| | |
\ . \ .\ .
Finite Element Methods in Engineering
ME 523
Lecture #10
29.01.2014
Instructor
Dr. Karuna Kalita
3-0-0-6
Step 2: Finite Element Model
The finite element model can be developed for any arbitrary degree of interpolation:
1
( )
n
e e e
h j j
j
u u u x
=
~ =

1 1 1
1
0 ( )
e e
i i
e
e
i
i
x x
n
j
x
x
dw du du
a cwu wf dx w x a
dx dx dx
+ +
=

| | (
= +
`
|
(
\ .

)

}
1 2 2
1
3 1
1 2 2
3 1
0 ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
e
n
e e e
e
e e e
n n
x
e e e
x x x
x
e e e
n n
x x x
dw du du du du
a cwu wf dx w x a w x a w x a
dx dx dx dx dx
du du du
w x a w x a w x a
dx dx dx

| | | | | | | |
= +
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
| | | | | |

| | |
\ . \ . \ .
}
1
1 1 2 2 3 3 1 1
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
e
n
e
x
e e e e e e e e e e
n n n n
x
dw du
a cwu wf dx w x Q w x Q w x Q w x Q w x Q
dx dx

| |
= +
|
\ .
}
1
1 2 2
3 1 1
1 2
3 1
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
e
n
e
e e e
e e e e
n n n
x
e e
x
x x x
e e
n
x x x x
dw du du du du
a cwu wf dx w x a w x a a
dx dx dx dx dx
du du du du
w x a a w x a a
dx dx dx dx
+
+

(
| | | | | | | |
= + +
(
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
(

(
| | | | | | | |
+ +
(
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ .
(

}
( )
e
n
e
n
x
du
w x a
dx
(
| |

(
|
\ .
(

Step 2: Finite Element Model

where denote the left and right sides, respectively. Thus, for an
element with n nodes. the weak form becomes
and
e e
i i
x x
+
1
0 ( )
b b
a a
x x
n
e e
j j
j
x x
dw du
a cwu dx wqdx w x Q
dx dx
=
| |
= +
|
\ .

} }
Note that represent the unknown point sources at the end nodes
and all other are the specified point sources, if any, at the interior
nodes.
1
and
e e e e
a n b
Q Q Q Q = =
( ) 2, 3, 1
e
i
Q i n =
1
1 1 1
1 1 1
0 ( ) ( )
b
a
e
e
n n n
x
j e e e e e e e e
j j j j j
x
j j j
d
d
a u c u x f dx x Q
dx dx

= = =
(
| |
| |
= +
( |
|
|
( \ .
\ .


}
(1
st
equation)
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 ( ) ( )
b
a
e
e
n n n
x
j e e e e e e e e
j j j j j
x
j j j
d
d
a u c u x f dx x Q
dx dx

= = =
(
| |
| |
= +
( |
|
|
( \ .
\ .


}
1 1 1
0 ( ) ( )
b
a
e
e
n n n
x
j e e e e e e e e
i
j i j j i i j j
x
j j j
d
d
a u c u x f dx x Q
dx dx

= = =
(
| |
| |
= +
( |
|
|
( \ .
\ .


}
(2
nd
equation)
(i
th
equation)
1 1 1
0 ( ) ( )
b
a
e
e
n n n
x
j e e e e e e e e
n
j n j j n n j j
x
j j j
d
d
a u c u x f dx x Q
dx dx

= = =
(
| |
| |
= +
( |
|
|
( \ .
\ .


}
(n
th
equation)
Substitute u and into the weak form
1 2
, , ,
e e e
n
w w w = = =
1
0 ( 1, 2, , )
n
e e e e
ij j i i
j
K u f Q i n
=
= =

( )
b
a
e
e
x
j e e e e e e
i
ij i j i j
x
d
d
K B a c dx
dx dx

| |
= = +
|
|
\ .
}
11 1 12 2 1 1 1
e e e e e e e e
n n
K u K u K u f Q + + + = +
21 1 22 2 2 2 2
e e e e e e e e
n n
K u K u K u f Q + + + = +
1 1 2 2
e e e e e e e e
n n nn n n n
K u K u K u f Q + + + = +
{ } { } { }
e e e e
K u f Q ( = +

The matrix K
e
is called the coefficient matrix or stiffness matrix in structural
mechanics application. The column vector f
e
is the source vector or force vector in
structural mechanics problems.
1
,
b e
a e
e
e
x x
j e e e e e
i
ij i j i e i
x x
d
d
K a c dx f f dx
dx dx

+
| |
= + =
|
|
\ .
} }
1
e
x x x = +
where,
1 1
,
e e
d d
dx dx
dx dx

= =
1 2
( ) 1 , ( )
e e
e e
x x
x x
h h
= =
11
0
1 1
1 1
1
3
e
h
e
e e
e e e e
e
e e
e
x x
K a c dx
h h h h
a
c h
h
(
| || | | || |
= +
( | | | |
\ .\ . \ .\ .

= +
}
Linear Element
For a mesh of linear elements, the element O
e
is located between the global nodes
x
a
= x
e
and x
b
= x
e+1
.
12 21
0
1 1 1
1
6
e
h
e e
e
e e e e
e e e e e
x x a
K K a c d x c h
h h h h h
(
| | | |
= = + = +
( | |
\ . \ .

}
22
0
1 1 1
3
e
h
e
e
e e e e
e e e e e
x x a
K a c d x c h
h h h h h
(
| | | |
= + = +
( | |
\ . \ .

}
Similarly,
1 2
0 0
1 1
1 , ,
2 2
e e
h h
e e
e e e e e e
e e
x x
f f dx f h f f dx f h
h h
| | | |
= = = =
| |
\ . \ .
} }
{ }
1 1 2 1 1
,
1 1 1 2 1 6 2
e e
e e e e e
e
a c h f h
K f
h

| | | |
(
= + =
`
| |

\ . \ . )
Quadratic Element
For a mesh of quadratic elements, the element O
e
is located between the global
nodes x
a
= x
2e-1
and x
b
= x
2e+1
.
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
0
0
e
e
e
e e
e
e
e
x
j e e e
i
ij e i j
x
e
e
h
j e e
i
e i j
x h
e e e
i i e i e
x
d
d
K a c dx
dx dx
d
d
a c dx
dx dx
f f dx f dx

| |
= +
|
|
\ .
| |
= +
|
|
\ .
= =
}
}
} }
( )
( ) 1, 2, 3
e
i
x i = where are the Lagrange quadratic interpolation functions.
2
11
2 2
0
3 4 3 4 3
1 2
7 2
3 15
e
h
e
e e
e e e e e e
e
e e
e
x x x x
K a c
h h h h h h
a
c h
h

(
| || | | |

( = + + + +
` | | |
(
\ .\ . \ .


)
= +
}
2
12 21
2
0
3 4 4 8 3
1 2 4 1
8 2
3 30
e
h
e e
e e
e e e e e e e e
e
e e
e
x x x x x x
K K a c d x
h h h h h h h h
a
c h
h

(
(
| || | | | | |

= = + + + (
` ( | | | |
( \ .\ . \ . \ .


)
= +
}
22 21
0
4 8 4 8
4 1 4 1
7 2
3 15
e
h
e e
e e
e e e e e e e e
e
e e
e
x x x x x x
K K a c d x
h h h h h h h h
a
c h
h

( (
| || | | | | |

= = +
` ( ( | | | |
\ .\ . \ . \ .

)
= +
}
2
1
0
3 1
1 2
2
e
h
e
e e e
e e
x x
f f d x f h
h h
| |
| |
| = + =
|
|
\ .
\ .
}
2
0
4
4 1
6
e
h
e
e e e
e e
x x
f f d x f h
h h
| |
| |
= =
|
|
\ .
\ .
}
3 1
e e
f f =
Quadratic Element
Quadratic Element
7 8 1 4 2 1
8 16 8 2 16 2
3 30
1 8 7 1 2 4
e
e e e
e
a c h
K
h

| | | |
| |
( = +

| |
| |

\ . \ .
{ }
1
4
6
1
e
e e
f h
f


=
`

)
Quadratic Element
7 8 1 4 2 1
8 16 8 2 16 2
3 30
1 8 7 1 2 4
e
e e e
e
a c h
K
h

| | | |
| |
( = +

| |
| |

\ . \ .
{ }
1
4
6
1
e
e e
f h
f


=
`

)
Connectivity of Element
1. If the node i of element O
e
is connected to the node j of element O
f
and
node k of element O
k
, the connectivity of the primary variable u requires.


when elements are connected in series, the continuity of u requires.
( ) ( ) ( ) e f g
i j k
u u u = =
( ) ( ) 1 e e
n a
u u
+
=
2. The balance of secondary variables at connecting nodes requires .


where I is the global node assigned to the nodal point that is common to the
three elements, and Q
I
is the value of externally applied source, if any
(otherwise zero) .
( ) ( ) ( ) e f g
i j k I
Q Q Q Q + + =
( ) ( ) 1
1
0 if no external point source is applied
if an external point source of magnitude is applied
e e
n
I I
Q Q
Q Q
+

+ =

Connectivity of Element
Connectivity of Element
Consider a structure consisting of three bar elements as shown in the figure.
Suppose the connecting bar is rigid (i.e. not deformable) and is constrained to
remain in the horizontal at all times.
2
1
2
2 1
1 2
1 2
3 4
3
1
3
2
h
2
h
1
h
3
Rigid member

2P

Steel E
s
, A
s
Brass E
b
, A
b
Aluminum E
a
, A
a
h
1
= 8 ft., h
2
= 4 ft., h
3
= 6 ft., d
s
= 0.5 in.,
d
b
= 0.875 in., d
a
= 1.0 in, E
s
= 30 10
6
psi,
E
b
= 14 10
6
psi, E
a
= 10 10
6
psi,
P = 3000 lb
1 3 2
2 1 2 3
u u u U = =
1 3 2
2 1 2
2 Q Q Q P + + =
1 1 1 1
1
11 12 1 1
2 2 2 2
2
11 12 1 1
1 2 1 3 3 1 1 3 2 1 3 2
3
21 21 22 11 22 11 2 1 2 2 1 2
3 3 3 3
4
21 22 2 2
0 0
0 0
0 0
U
K K f Q
U
K K f Q
U
K K K K K K f f f Q Q Q
U
K K f Q
(
(


(
= +
` ` `
(
+ + + + + +

(

)
) )
| |
3 1
3 2
3 4
B
(
(
=
(
(

1
1 1
0 u U = =
1 3 2
2 1 2
2 Q Q Q P + + =
1 1 1 1
1
11 12 1 1
2 2 2 2
2
11 12 1 1
1 2 1 3 3 1 1 3 2
3
21 21 22 11 22 11 2 1 2
3 3 3 3
4
21 22 2 2
0
0 0 0
0
0 0 0
0 2
0
0 0 0
U
K K f Q
U
K K f Q
U
K K K K K K f f f P
U
K K f Q
= ( =
(

=
=

(
= +
` ` `
(
+ + + + =

(

=
=
)
) )
Imposition of Boundary Conditions
2
1 2
0 u U = =
3
2 4
0 u U = =
This contains four equations in four unknowns:
1 2 3
3 1 1 2
, , , and U Q Q Q
Solution of equations
The unknown primary degrees of freedom are determined first by considering
the algebraic equations corresponding to the unknown primary variables.
3
1 2 3
22 22 11
2P
U
K K K
=
+ +
1 1
1 1 1
11 12
1 12 3
2 2
2 2 2
11 12
1 12 3
3 3
3 3 3
21 22
2 21 3
4
0 0
0 0
0 0
U
K K
Q K U
U
K K
Q K U
U
K K
Q K U
U

(


(

= =
( ` ` `
(
) )
(

)
11 12 1 1
21 22 2 2
(
=
` `
(
) )
K K U F
K K U F
Known
Known
Unknown
Unknown
11 1 12 2 1
+ = K U K U F
21 1 22 2 2
+ = K U K U F
( ) ( )
1
2 22 2 21 1

= U K F K U
Computation of the primary and secondary variables at point of interest;
primary variables are known at nodal points.
Interpretation of the results to check whether the solution makes sense (an
understanding of the physical process and experience are the guides when
other solutions are not available for comparison.
Tabular and/or graphical presentation of the results.
Post-computation of the solution
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
1
2 2 2
1
1
( )
( )
( )
n
h j j
j
n
h j j
j
n
N N N
h j j
j
u x u x
u x u x
u x
u x u x

=
=
=

where N is the number of elements in the mesh.

Post-computation of the solution
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
1
1
2 2
2
1
1
( )
( )
( )
n
j h
j
j
n
j h
j
j
N N
n
j N h
j
j
d x du x
u
dx dx
d x du x
u du x
dx dx
dx
d x du x
u
dx dx

=
=
=

( )
1
1 1
3 1 3
1 12 3
def
1 1
0
h
du U U U
Q EA EA EA K U
dx h h
x
| | | | | |
= = = =
| |
|
\ .
\ . \ .
=
( )
1
2 2
1 12 3
def
0
h
du
Q EA K U
dx
x
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
( )
3
3 3
4 3 3
2 21 3
def
3 3
1 3
h
du U U U
Q EA EA EA K U
dx h h
x h h
| | | | | |
= = = =
| |
|
\ .
\ . \ .
= +
( ) 1
2 2
e
e
u U
+
+
=
( ) ( ) 1
2 2 1
e e
e
u u U
+
+
= =
( )
1
e
e
u U =
( )
( )
e
h
u x
( )
( )
1 e
h
u x
+
( )
( )
e
h
u x
x
( ) ( )
2 1
e e
e
u u
h

( ) e
h
du
dx
x
( ) 1 e
h
du
dx
+
( ) e
h
du
dx
( ) ( ) 1 1
2 1
e e
e
u u
h
+ +

Discontinuity
Gradient of the finite element solution
Post-computation of the solution