Robotic Culture (Truncated Version)

Lindsey Akashi
Originally published in Japanese in 2004
(http://www.ppp.am/p-project/japanese/paper/Johnston.pdf) as Robot Bunka.
Translated, updated, and edited into English in 2006
Sections regarding media influence on actual robotic technology and the future of
Japanese robotic technology have been removed.

These sections are available in the

original Japanese at the link provided above.

I.

Introduction
During to the robotics boom of the 1980s, during which Japan came to own

54% of the worlds industrial robots, the country came to be known as a robot
kingdom. Numerous types of industrial robots were developed, and swiftly put into
operation in Japan. Robotic labor has been credited for the rise in industrial efficiency,
and may have even factored into helping the economy of post-war Japan develop at
such unprecedented speed. The overwhelming rise of efficiency in the production of
electronic goods, the change in overall quality of commercial products, and the
remarkable progress made by Japanese car manufacturers in the second half of the
twentieth century can all be attributed to the usage of industrial robots.1

Japanese

industrial robots have begun the move from the factory into the service industry, as
food-service robots and secretarial robots have even been produced.2
At the same time, Japanese production on so-called entertainment robots,
those robots developed expressly for purposes other than industrial use, has continued,
and the results of these efforts are drawing attention from overseas as uniquely Japanese.
Popular examples can be found in the dog-shaped AIBO, which can be said to have set
off the craze for sophisticated pet robots in animal forms, or the humanoid QRIO, a
robot that has been used to conduct orchestras on television and even as a voice actor in
the North American version of the animated remake of Astro Boy.

Both of these robots

are already available as commercial products from Sony. Honda, too, has developed
the sophisticated ASIMO as a result of their research on the P-Series, often credited as
the Worlds first bipedal robots. ASIMO has been seen in television commercials,
performing with the popular idol group SMAP during the 2004 New Year Kouhaku
Uta Gassen television program.3

Toyota also revealed a pair of sibling robots, one

bipedal, and one propelled by two wheels, that have manmade lips, enabling them to
play the trumpet, in 2004.4
Among Japanese youths, Robo-Cup and other such contests where robots
are made to compete at a variety of games have grown steadily in popularity. These
competitions have become popular enough to serve as focal points and backdrops in
bestselling television dramas and manga series.
1
2
3
4

National Research Council (NRC), 5

NRC, 7
Sena, 31
Ikeda, 3.12
2

The amount to which such robot

contests have now permeated society is difficult to believe for the Japanese who studied
robotics in the 1980s and 1990s.5
The contemporary age in Japan is often referred to as the otaku era, or
childrens era, and among popular anime, manga and character goods, Astro Boy,
Tetsujin 28-go, Mobile Suit Gundam, Doraemon, Neon Genesis Evangelion and other
such franchises based around robotic characters have garnered an extreme amount of
popularity.

In Osakas Nipponbashi electronics district alone, there are countless

stores which deal exclusively in small-scale robot models and the tools used to build
them. There is even a store known as GUNDAMS, which is operated by the
Kansai-area appliance chain, Joshin. The only shop of its kind in the country, it
exclusively deals in items directly related to the long-standing animated robot franchise
Mobile Suit Gundam.

Visiting the store, fans from all around Japan gather under the

four-story, life-sized Gundam photograph each morning, lining up to wait for the doors
to open. This love for robotics and robots is often dismissed as a byproduct of the
prominence of high technology in Japan, but even so, how can robot characters really be
this popular?

Additionally, what does this popularity mean for the study of robotics?

To answer these questions, I would like to first consider the cultural background behind
robotics in Japan, and compare it to that of the West.
II. The Phenomenon of Entertainment Robots
Overseas, the Japanese entertainment robot phenomenon is often viewed as odd
or mysterious, even to the point of becoming a popular subject within foreign news.6
This can be attributed to the fact that in the West, where industrial robots continue to be
the primary focus of robotic development even today, quirky and unique Japanese
entertainment robots are often believed to be little more than high-tech toys. When the
most famous of the entertainment robots, Sonys AIBO, was first developed, childrens
toys modeled after robotic pets gained some measure of popularity in America as well
as in Japan. Despite this face, the AIBO itself was considered by many to be too
expensive for a toy, and did not sell as well as in its native Japan.

Unlike Japan,

Western consciousness does not tend to view technology so readily as a tool for
enjoyment, due to the divergence of technology and entertainment after the Industrial
Revolution.7
5
6
7

There is also the fact that many of the machines developed after the

Sena, 211251
Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part One.
Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part Two.
3

Industrial Revolution in the West were not robots controlled by computer that could be
programmed to work in an unmanned environment, but machines that still required
humans to operate.

In the West, the idea of introducing unmanned robots into industry

was perceived as threatening by labor unions.

Despite the fact robots were introduced

to the American automotive industry in America in the 1980s, they came along with
regulations that ensured that 85% of the labor force would remain employed.8
On the other hand, in Japan, entertainment robots have existed since the Edo
Period, in the form of karakuri ningyou.

Karakuri ningyou are dolls which use simple

clockwork mechanisms to perform a variety of basic motions.

Dolls that carry tea on a

tray are the most well known, but there are also other karakuri ningyou. Karakuri
ningyou are also commonly seen in the form of dolls that shoot arrows, as well as those
attached to the floats used in festival parades.9

While Japanese karakuri ningyou were

playthings, they held practical functions as well. This idea that practical technology
can be tied to the elements of play in this manner can be seen in Japan even today,
pervading products such as multi-function cellular phones and partner robots who can
communicate with humans.
Multi-function cellular phones, as well, are no longer restricted to the original
practical function of being a portable phone for use anywhere. Modern phones also
have e-mail and text messaging functions, not to mention a variety of other functions
that have more entertainment value than usefulness in communication.

There are

phones with schedules, alarms, games, fortune telling, Internet search, web browsing,
photography and video recording, GPS, a fully customizable environment, and a
modem for computer use, combining the original practical function with a set of
entertaining functions which have become, in Japan, as much of an indispensable part of
the mobile phone as the original function itself.
Partner robots like AIBO, too, are programmed to imitate animals, in order to
entertain their owners. However, there are a variety of other high-level practical and
entertainment functions programmed into these machines. There are special AIBO
skateboards and toys that the robots can play with, and the owners can program songs
and dances into the unit via its computer software, making it perform. 10

The

fourth-generation AIBO, the ERS-7, even has the added function of guarding the house
while its owner is absent.

When the owner leaves the house, they can access the AIBO

from any computer in the world to check their house via the camera equipped onto the
NRC, 6-7
Suematsu, Karakuri Frontier
10 Sena, 142144
8
9

AIBO.

The ERS-7 can even measure how much battery it has remaining, returning

automatically to its charging unit to dock and charge itself before running out.

These

sorts of products may be toys, but they contain high-level practical functions as well,
and can be interpreted as indicative of the characteristically Japanese lack of strict
distinction between entertainment and practicality.
II.

The Japanese Pet Robot Boom

Another uniquely Japanese entertainment robot that sparked an international

craze for fostering games, (sodate-ge-) is a toy called Tamagotchi. Fostering

games appeared as an entirely new form of entertainment in Japan, and subsequently
North America, in 1996. At that time, the more recent pet boom had not yet occurred
in Japan, and the idea of raising a pet was not as socially accepted as it is now.

Many

Japanese live in apartments or condominiums, and so there is little space in which to

raise pets, not to mention that in most apartment housing, pets are not permitted.
Bandai developed the Tamagotchi as a sort of prototype for the partner robot, and once
on the market, it set off an explosive trend. The original Tamagotchi was a small
console attached to a keychain, with an image of an egg displayed using pixels on the
small screen. After time had passed, the egg would hatch, and a strange alien life form
would emerge. The manner in which the creature evolved as it matured would be
affected by the way in which the owner treated it.

If the owner did not feed it or clean

up after it, there were even cases in which it would die.

What ultimately became an issue, however, was the fact that when a
Tamagotchi died, the owner could get a new egg to try again simply by pushing the
button equipped on the back of the machine.

In both Japan and overseas, there were

claims that this function caused children to become incapable of understanding the
preciousness of the life.

There were also reports of children who purposely tortured

and killed their Tamagotchis for fun, sparking claims and debate about whether or not
these toys fostered a sense of cruelty in children. Of course, with the Tamagotchi
boom, many different varieties of imitation Tamagotchis were released soon after. The
popularity caused the development of hundreds of similar products, including versions
where you had to raise all sorts of animals, the character Pikachu from Pokemon, or
even Mickey and Minnie from the Disney universe.
However, it is precisely because Tamagotchi had been so popular that it was
easy for the Japanese to grow accustomed to the idea of AIBO, released in the summer
of 1999, and other such pet robots. The sophisticated AIBO has such high-level,
5

complicated functions that it is difficult to compare to an inexpensive childs toy like

Tamagotchi, but it is clear that it was developed to fulfill a similar niche within Japanese
society. AIBO was extremely appealing to the Japanese, whose living environment
was, and still is, severely limited in terms of time and space.
The name AIBO was derived from a combination of A.I., short for artificial
intelligence, the English word eye, and the term aibo, meaning partner, in
Japanese. The developers of AIBO were strongly influenced by robot media, even
commissioning the famous robot illustrator, Sorayama Hajime, to design the original
AIBO.

According to Sony, it was important that AIBO retain a robotic look, instead of

having fake fur to imitate a real dog.

Before being put on sale to a general public, the

AIBO was limited to Internet preorder in Japan, and the three thousand pieces to be sold
in Japan at the initial release were sold out in only twenty minutes, a story which
became news even overseas. At the same time, the two thousand pieces for sale in
America took a full four days to sell out.

This gap in sales can be interpreted to

display a general Japanese tendency toward interest in robots.11

III.

Robot Media Influenced by the Cultural Background of the West

The differences in traditional religious standards in the West and Japan also

strongly influence the way the two societies view robots.

In the West, in classic

robot-related science-fiction literature, such as Frankenstein, and R.U.R., the play by

Czech author Karel apek which is credited with inventing the term robot, the
creation of artificial humanoids is looked on as a crime, usually ending in tragedy.12
This can be seen as being influenced by Judeo-Christian tenets, which state that God
created man in his image.
Because of this tradition, when the famous author of robot science fiction,
Isaac Asimov, imagined robots and humans as socially coexistent, he proposed the
Three Laws of Robotics. These three laws state that a robot may not injure a
human being or through inaction allow a human being to come to harm, that a robot
must obey orders given to it by human beings except where such orders would conflict
with the First Law, and that a robot must protect its own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law. Even today, these three
laws exert a strong influence on the design of robots, both in fiction and in reality13.
11
12
13

Sena, 134149
Tachi, 13143235
Tachi, 3638
6

Outside of the scope of literary fiction, the early American popular science fiction
author H.G. Wells often portrayed robots as invaders from outer space.

These

examples of robot science fiction are connected with the UFO craze that occurred in
America during the first half of the 20th century, and can be thought to have prolonged
the Western image of the robot as an invader, or enemy.14
Early robot media in Japan was strongly influenced by Western science fiction.
After World War II, American science fiction magazines were translated into Japanese
for sale to the general Japanese public. However, as Japanese did not hold the same
feelings of fear towards artificial humanoids as was common in the West as a result of
not sharing the Judeo-Christian ideology, Japanese authors were not culturally bound by
the idea that robots absolutely had to play the part of tragic enemies. Japanese robot
science fiction soon diverged into two distinct types.

Those two types can be

represented by two of the most popular examples of Japanese robot science fiction;
Astro Boy, and Mobile Suit Gundam.15
IV.

The Two Types of Robots in Japan

One of the major types of robots frequently portrayed in Japanese science

fiction is that represented by Astro Boy, and later, Doraemon. These robots are defined
as being robots as the other, capable of becoming friends with, or enemies of,
humans.
It is often noted that Astro Boy has exerted an incredibly large influence on the
actual development of robots in Japan. The drop of the atomic bombs during World
War II signaling the start of the nuclear age transformed science into a frightening force
to the Japanese. Directly after the war, hydrogen bomb tests were performed one after
another at Bikini Atoll and the Korean War broke out, creating an atmosphere in which
science seemed to directly threaten the future of mankind.

In order to return the trust

of the Japanese populace to science in this era, doctor-cum-manga artist Tezuka Osamu
created Atom Taishi, (Ambassador Atom,) a robot character who facilitated human-alien
relations, in 1951. Wanting to instead create a robot that could act as a companion to
humans instead of being a slave, Tezuka moved on to create Astro Boy in 1952. Atom,
the main character of Astro Boy, was a robot in the shape of a boy, and was powered by
atomic energy. Atom had been created by a character named Dr. Tenma to replace the
son he had lost in a tragic accident. However, Dr. Tenma, resigned to the fact that a
14
15

Sena, 252254
Sena, 256
7

robot cannot replace a human being, discarded Atom, who was saved by Dr.
Ochanomizu, ultimately being remade into a robotic super-hero.16
Atom is often considered the first Japanese-style robot.

Unlike the cold

robots modeled on appliances that adhered to Asimovs three laws, he was given
emotions like those of humans via his heart simulator, ultimately becoming a
powerfully heroic being well-loved by the Japanese people.

Atom, whose manga

adventures continued for more than seventeen years, became popular all throughout the
world.

Along with introducing a peaceful application of nuclear energy, he is said to

have brought hope for the future to the Japanese.

In 2003, an animated remake of

Astro Boy aired in both Japan and the United States, and a live-action Hollywood
remake is said to be currently in production.17
Conversely, giant robots such as the singular Tetsujin 28-go and Mobile Suit
Gundam, are also extremely popular in modern Japan.

In this case, the design and size

of the robot are given priority over personality, as most are not equipped with artificial
intelligence.

These are robots as an extension of the self, usually piloted by a person

riding inside of the robot.

These sorts of robots, as exoskeleton-shaped manpower

amplifiers, were researched in the 1960s by the United States Army and General
Electric in a plan called MAIS: Mechanical Aid for the Individual Soldier. However,
the project suffered many setbacks. There are several reasons for this.

Firstly, these

robots were determined to be extremely dangerous for the pilot, and the machines being
researched were just a bit large for the pilots in them. As there was no place for the
computers of that time to fit well into the bodies of the robots, the idea to make the
robot on a colossal scale was proposed, but as that made it difficult for the robot to do
things humans would normally be able to do, the plan was ultimately cancelled.
Despite the fact this research has been long abandoned, it has become the basis for a
whole trope of giant robot science fiction in Japan, continuing to evolve within this
realm.18
Currently, the robot as an extension of the self, generally called a mecha, is
has gained a great deal of popularity within science fiction media. The Japanese
concept of the giant robot has existed from the time of Tetsujin 28-go, which was
published at the same time as Astro Boy, but it is said that the event that caused mecha
to become a culture-wide phenomenon was the release of Mobile Suit Gundam.
Mobile Suit Gundam was a television animation that aired in 1979.
16
17
18

Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part One.

Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part One.
Tachi, 146149
8

It was created by

author Tomino Yoshiyuki, who had worked on the scripts for the animated version of
Astro Boy. By the mid-seventies, the era where good and evil were clearly delineated
had come to an end in Japan.

In Gundam, absolute good and evil are difficult to

differentiate, and the entire premise hinged on the idea that times and circumstances
could cause humans to do things both wonderful and terrible. Just like Astro Boy,
however, Gundam showed a shift in consciousness on the part of the author regarding
World War II. Using a fictional situation at an unspecified time in the future, Tomino
logically considered the situation of Japan during the war.

In reality, the show was

surprisingly unpopular when first released, and ended up being cancelled. The next
year, it was cut up and remade as a three-part movie, which kick-started a huge trend
due to clever marketing.
Along with the release of the original movies for Gundam, Bandai produced
Gundam plastic models, which were, in short, models that the fans could assemble
themselves.

By appealing to children and fans using both these models and

shokugan, (collectable toys packaged along with candy or snacks,) the company
caused a major trend.

Even now, almost 30 years after the creation of the series,

Gundam is still very popular. There have been numerous television shows, movies,
original video animations, not to mention a monthly magazine based entirely on the
franchise, called Gundam Ace, which is sold at many of the convenience stores across
the country. This magazine contains information regarding Gundam plastic models,
shows, and goods, current manga that deal with the Gundam universe as a theme,
shorter parody or comedic comics, and even illustrations and stories about Gundam
submitted by the readers.

As previously described, there is even the single store

devoted entirely to Gundam located in Osakas Nipponbashi district, and the franchise
continues to be popular among both new generations of Japanese youth and viewers
who were young when the series was first released.
VI. Why are Robots so Popular in Japan?
Animism
It can be thought that animism, a concept found in the Shinto belief system,
which forms the basis of ancient Japanese culture, is deeply connected to why robots
like Astro Boy have been so well-loved by the Japanese. Animism is the idea that
everything has a soul or spirit, and this idea deeply influences Japanese arts.
particular, this concept can often been witnessed in traditional Japanese drama.

In
It is

thought that these various forms of drama, such as noh, where humans are transformed
into nearly doll-like beings, or oppositely, bunraku, where the soul and energy of the
9

puppeteer are transferred into the doll as he operates it, are based around Japanese ideas
of animism, which considers the humanoid as a vessel for the soul.19
This concept factors in to traditional yearly events such as musha-ningyou
(Boys Festival warrior dolls,) and hina-ningyou (Girls Festival dolls depicting ancient
princesses and princes,) which are continued even today, but it is also thought that one
of the factors behind feelings of connection with robots stems from animism, which has
served to create a generally positive opinion of robots within Japanese culture.

In

other words, in contrast to the West, where the creation of humanoids is traditionally
contrary to Gods will, the idea of coexisting with robots is one that holds little sense of
incongruity to many Japanese, as robots can be considered to have the capacity to have
a spirit or soul of sorts.
Even now, it is widely believed that electronic appliances and other technology
can have spirits living within, and Shinto exorcism ceremonies are carried out regularly
on computers and cars.

AIBO owners understand on a logical level that their

animal-shaped robot companions cannot have emotions, but it has been reported that in
many cases these owners believe that they are loved by their AIBO. This affection is
not exclusive to animal-shaped or humanoid robots, either, as even industrial robots in
Japan are often given human names such as Momoe-chan, or Chousuke.20
Tendencies Towards Anthropophobia
However, animism is not the only factor responsible for the Japanese love of
robots. Another issue is illustrated within the Japanese societal structure, particular in
the ideas of dependence, (amae) and anthropophobia, or the tendency towards fear of
personal relationships.

Though multi-function cellular phones are currently

commonplace in Japan, youths rarely use them as telephones.

In many cases, e-mail

and text messaging are used exclusively, a trend which has been criticized for causing
young Japanese to be unable to communicate on a meaningful level.

In Japanese

conversation, the speaker takes into account the status of the listener and the situation,
and modifies the speech to fit to these factors appropriately and avoid causing the
listener discomfort or offense.

In Ueji Yasuos Nihon Bunka no Tokucho ni Tsuite (On

the Peculiarities of Japanese Culture,) it is explained that anxieties and fears are likely
born regarding interpersonal relationships in Japanese-style human relations against this
aesthetic background of being terribly humble regarding ones self, while calling others

19
20

Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part Two.

Tatsumi, The Century of Astro Boy, Part One
10

by exaggeratedly honorific titles.21

This factor contributes to the Japanese preference

towards indirect communication as compared to direct communication, illustrated in the

previous example regarding telephone usage of young Japanese. There are many cases
in which Japanese claim to feel more comfortable interacting with machines than people,
and the psychology that considers inanimate robots as potential companions can be seen
as influenced by this.
A. Bishoujo/Bishounen Games
As for one example of the Japanese tendency towards shutting out social
relationships, we have the uniquely Japanese genre of video games, known commonly
as

Bishoujo/Bishounen

games,

(beautiful

girl

or

beautiful

boy

games.)

Bishoujo/Bishounen games, also known as date simulators, are games where the
player can enjoy romantic relationships with the fictional characters in the story. Most
of these Bishoujo/Bishounen games contain a variety of characters in order to
maintain a broad appeal. Many of the titles also follow the artistic style and plot
devices commonly used in manga and anime, and there are even products on the market
where one can date the characters from Neon Genesis Evangelion, Sakura Wars, and
other popular robot-related anime series.
Information regarding the newest titles and releases is dispensed at national
chains such as Gamers which deal in manga and anime goods, and most stores that
carry computer software will also stock a number of these titles. There are fan pages
for each character on the Internet, and even message boards where fans can chat with
other fans of the same series. These dating simulations are common and relatively
popular among Japans youth in the current otaku era.

As Japanese animation has

gained immense popularity in the West in recent years, several of these bishoujo
games have been released in North America, but these programs do not garner much
popularity at all in the United States, even among anime fans.
B. Japanese Ge-sen
These trends towards avoidance of interpersonal relationships in Contemporary Japan
can be seen within the structure of the Ge-sen as well.

Ge-sen, short for the words

game center, (video game arcade,) are extremely numerous in Japan. However, the
interiors of these ge-sen are completely different from those of American arcades. In
American arcades, the game machines are large, and players play standing, lined up
21

Ueji, 101 (Translation: Akashi)

11

next to each other. Many games are made for two players, but four-player games are
not uncommon. Since the 1990s, due to numerous kidnappings that took place at mall
arcades, American arcades have had an increasingly dangerous image, and have recently
become very few in number. On the other hand, Japanese game centers are numerous
and often close to train stations and other places that large numbers of pedestrians pass
daily. Children and teens returning from school and workers coming back from their
jobs often visit the arcade on their way home.
Japanese game machines are much smaller than American game machines, and
often cannot be used while standing.

In Japanese arcades, many of the machines are

built for only one player. Two-player games do exist, but while in America the two
players would stand next to each other almost exclusively, there are many cases in Japan
where you must play with your opponent entirely hidden from your view by the game
machine. Additionally, when a player goes to the ge-sen alone and without friends, it
is rare that the player would try to face off against a stranger on one of the two player
games.

In many cases, when a stranger is using one side of a two-player machine, the

player will generally wait for the stranger to finish playing, without challenging them to
a match. This is very different than America, where players often elect to play a
two-player game with a stranger rather than playing alone. Older one-player games,
on the other hand, are often played on screens completely encapsulated by a large
pod-shaped construct consisting of walls and a bench, with the outside world shut
entirely out.

Japanese game centers can be viewed as an unusual space that is

somewhat designed to effectively minimize contact with strangers, even when crowded.
C. The uniquely Japanese monument boom
Similar trends can also be seen as hinting at the reasons for the popularity of
giant robots.

For example, this interest in giant robots could be viewed as similar to

the admiration given to objects like the symbolic Battleship Yamato, or other huge
monuments.

With the mass movement of young Japanese to Tokyo and a handful of

other large cities, rural localities in Japan continue to depopulate at a frightening speed,
causing smaller, remote cities to develop a number of plans to try and win back tourists
and residents.

The towns and cities that have built huge monuments or facilities one

after another for this very purpose are not few in number. This trend is not limited to
the countryside, either, but can also be seen in the cities, where large-scale building
projects are continually being proposed, resulting in a nation-wide monument craze.
Oftentimes these facilities, for the most part, simply exist, without fully serving any

12

useful purpose.22

Japanologist Alex Kerr explains the recent monument boom in Japan

using the example of the new Kyoto Station. It divides the city as before, and does
away with every reference to Kyoto's history and culture. The New Kyoto Station is a
dull gray block towering over the neighborhood, so massive that Kyoto residents have
taken to calling it the battleship.... As Kyoto slides deeper into mediocrity, the station
tries to impress by its sheer size.23 Why are huge monuments so admired in Japan?
There are explanations that this may be an almost fetishistic longing towards large-scale
objects that stems from the Japanese obsession with their own fears of interpersonal
relationships.

There are many Japanese who claim a sense of release while looking on

colossal objects, similar to that felt while viewing vast, open plains.
Youchi-ryoku.
Japan is not just known as the robot kingdom, but also is often referred to as
the childrens paradise.

It is true that the country still has a relatively low rate of

violent crime, and culturally a pleasant place for children. Television animation, pet
robots, toys, game centers and other similar childrens culture abound in Japan.

In his

Asahi Shimbun column, Akasegawa Genpei has spoken about this childish culture.
Being childish has become a trend. The usage of childish language on the part of
young women is a sign of thisI found the word arteligent, which made me laugh.
Art has finally become a new artificially flavored art-flavored business method. The
word Youchi-ligent (from the word for childish, youchi) soon came up. However
even while we currently recognize childishness as a trend, our consciousness of it in this
way will soon evaporate, and the childishness will become a force of its own.24

In

short, Akasegawa states that in Japan, this childishness has passed the level of trend, and
is becoming a subconscious part of contemporary Japanese culture.

As the line

between child and adult has become increasingly blurred (with Japanese-English words
like kidult appearing with greater frequency,) goods and products traditionally geared
towards children like have become more commonplace among all ages in Japan.
However, youchi-ryoku, (roughly, childish power) as it has been named by
Japanese contemporary artist Takashi Murakami, has started drawing the attention of the
world at large recently as a Japanese cultural peculiarity. When the social classes in
Japan largely disappeared in the post-war period, the now ubiquitous middle-class
popular culture was born. Art and visual culture, formerly the realm of the upper
22
23
24

Kerr, 167169 Japanese Version.

Kerr, 168169 Japanese Version.
Murakami, 448 (Translation: Akashi)
13

classes, was transformed after the war to be inseparable from popular culture such as
anime, manga and games, evolving out of these media. The childish culture created by
popular art forms has been supported by Japanese societal structure, and has now
become a prominent facet of contemporary culture. Because of this, Japanese childish
culture is largely accepted even among adults, and can be viewed as a reason that robot
animation and other similar media, seen as exclusively the childs realm in the West,
could become so loved among the general populace. Additionally, the concept of
childish power in Japan has given cuteness, first priority in contemporary society.
This cute culture, has influenced the design and functions of entertainment robots
such as AIBO and QRIO, and factors into the popularity of robot toys, even among
adults.25
Fear of Foreign Objects
In recent years, the robot as an extension of the self, piloted by a human main
character, have outnumbered Atom and other robots as the other-style robot heroes.
However, despite the fact that these mecha were originally researched in the United
States, science-fiction heroes who pilot mecha were rarely seen in American media
until Japanese animation began to influence American science fiction on a large
scale.26

Conversely, the heroes shown in American comics have often been given

mysterious superpowers by way of radioactive waves or unknown chemical

substances.

Additionally, there are many cases in which the hero becomes a

superhuman cyborg robot by the implantation of robotic parts into a primarily human
body.

The popular American comic, X-Men, portrays all of these types of

characters.

In contrast, the Japanese have a strong fear regarding changes in the

body due to introduction of foreign substances into the physical self. This may be
connected to the post-war period in Japan, as citizens experienced firsthand the
aftermath of the atomic bomb.

Many people suffered bodily changes due to the

aftereffects of radiation, and as previously described, science had transformed into a

malevolent force, which may be connected to why this character setting is perceived
as threatening, and never became popular in Japanese manga.

In actuality, rather

than heroes and cyborg robots with have superhuman bodies, the usage of robots as a
tool to consciously make the hero stronger is frequently seen in Japan.

It can be said

that the popularity of this robot as an extension of ones self has a separate meaning,
as well. Rather than looking up to a superhuman robot as a powerful other, the
25

Murakami, 44845

14

usage of robots as tools can be considered to demonstrate the potential for the average
person to become a being of super-strength.

This can be viewed as a shift in

consciousness, away from respecting science as the other, and towards a state in
which science becomes the property of the hero, used to strengthen the self.
VIIConclusion
It is said that in Japan robotics and mechanical engineering are among the
career fields currently gathering the most attention.

It may be that this environment is

fertile for robotics researchers wishing to improve their technologies, due to religious,
social and cultural factors.

Along with the recognition of high-technology and

entertainment at a nearly equal level, robots are, as a concept, thought of positively due
to the spiritual basis of animism and other such factors.

In this same way, because of

the tendency towards anxiety regarding interpersonal relationships, many modern

Japanese can be said to crave the simplicity of relationships with machines.
Additionally, it is specifically because of this positive outlook towards robots and
robotics at the level of ordinary society that colleges from around the country, as well
as research groups receiving funding from the government can get together to discuss
the results of various research projects, and that robotic technology in Japan has
developed at this accelerated pace.
However, robotic engineering is not just a matter of combining mechanical
engineering and computer programming.

In order to further the development of

robotics in the future, it is necessary for us to thoroughly study and understand human
emotions, biology, recognition systems and other such integrated functions, as well as
the complicated feelings that humans have towards robots and machines. In particular,
understanding the Japanese love for robots will not only help the development of
robotics in the West, but can be thought to ultimately benefit Japanese researchers in
taking their next steps towards the future.

15

Referenced Materials

(Alex Kerr, 2002, Dogs and Demons: Tales from the Dark Side of Modern Japan,
Kodansha. Japanese version used.)

(Ikeda Noboru, 2004, The birth of a robotic brass band, Toyotas recreation of the
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(Ueji Yasuo, 2003, Another Okinawa, Nihon-ron Matriarchy and Patriarchy,

Shinpusha.)

p.
(Takashi Murakami, 2004, Transmit cute to the world youchi-ryoku is the very
philosophy pulling Japanese culture, Nihon no Ronten 2004, Bungei Shunju, Pages
448-451.)

(Sankei Shimbun Editoral Department, 2004, The Bipedal Famous Robot Conductor
QRIO, Conducting a Symphony of Destiny with his Baton, Sankei Shimbun,
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http://www.suelab.nuem.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~suematsu/karafro.html

(Suematsu

Yoshikazu,

Date

Unknown,

Karakuri

Frontier

Research,
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http://www.suelab.nuem.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~suematsu/karafro.html, April 8 , 2004.)

(Sena Hideaki, 2001, Robots in the 21st Century, Bunshun Shinsho.)

16

(Tachi Susumu, 2002, Introduction to Robots The Philosophy of Creation, the

Knowledge for Use, Chikuma Shinsho.

(Tatsumi Takayuki, 2003, The Century of Astro Boy/Tetsuwan Atom, Approaching his
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National Research Council, 1990, Approaches to Robotics in the United States and
Japan: Report of a Bilateral Exchange, National Academy Press.

17

18

I.
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IX

46

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p.

http://www.suelab.nuem.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~suematsu/karafro.html

48


National Research Council, Approaches to Robotics in the United
States and Japan: Report of a Bilateral Exchange
National Academy Press

SPA!
..

49