SIPHONIC CONCEPTS EXAMINED: A CARBON DIOXIDE GAS SIPHON AND SIPHONS IN VACUUM Joshua J. Ramette ramette.mn@comcast.net Richard W.

Ramette L. M. Gould Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus Carleton College, Northfield MN ! " r#ramette@minds$ring.com %i$hons &from Gree'( $i$e, tu)e* are used fre+uently and ingeniously, from gasoline theft and fish tan' cleaning to toilet flushing &,*. -hey $ro.o'e curiosity )ecause li+uids are not e/$ected to 0run u$hill.0

1ig. , %im$le li+uid si$hon Nearly e.eryone 'no#s ho# to set u$ a si$hon, )ut e/$lanations of the de.ice ha.e long included misconce$tions. 2f one Googles 3ho# does a si$hon #or',4 thousands of hits a$$ear. 1ortunately one of them is to Wi'i$edia &5*, #here good reasoning mostly $redominates. -#o $ersistent claims are &a* si$hons function through intermolecular attractions, and &)* si$hons do not rely on air $ressure, and #ill #or' in a .acuum. -hese .ie#s #ere recently and forcefully es$oused )y 6ughes &7*, #ho #rote8

In a siphon, the water falling down one side of the tube pulls up water on the other side. The column of water acts like a chain with the water molecules pulling on each other via hydrogen bonds. A useful analogy is that of a chain...If a chain is arranged so that the drop on one side is greater than the rise on the other, the chain is pulled over the top. A curved tube of water is in effect a chai n of trillions of water molecules in parallel linked by hydrogen bonds.

6ughes continues8
Another seeming ubiquitous misconception is that the ma imum height of a siphon is dependent on atmospheric pressure. The ma imum height of a water siphon actually depends on the tensile strength of water, i.e. the ma imum weight that hydrogen bonds are able to support. !nce again, the chain analogy can be put to good use. If the height of a "chain siphon# were to be continually increased we would reach a point where one of the links close to the top would break due to the weight of the chain below. Atmospheric $pressure% does have some influence on the operation of a siphon in that it compresses the water in the tube increasing the ma imum operating height of a siphon.

9nd still further8

The chain analogy can be easily implemented in the classroom. A thin metal chain can be placed on a bench with some of the chain draped over a tube, for e ample a hori&ontal glass cylinder. The chain will fall to the ground pulling the rest of the chain off the bench. 'tudents can readily see that it is the weight of the downside of the chain that pulls the chain (. In this case it is obvious that atmospheric pressure is not pushing the chain up over the cylinder and it is also fairly easy to imagine that this e periment would work on an airless environment, i.e., a vacuum, such as on the )oon

:;et, #hen one $lunges a hand into a )uc'et of #ater, it isn<t $ossi)le to haul out a )ig glo). 9lso, #e can si$hon non=$olar li+uids such as car)on tetrachloride.> 2n 0-he 1lying Circus of Physics0 &?* #e find8
*ontrary to much popular belief, the fluid is not pushed over the siphon by air pressure, as is disproven by the fact that siphons can operate in a vacuum. The force that pulls the fluid over the

siphon is its own intermolecular force. +hen the siphon works, there is more fluid on the outlet side, and the resulting imbalance of weight causes the fluid to flow up, over, and then down the siphon. As the fluid travels up the inlet side, its pressure is reduced the further up it goes. If the siphon is high enough, the fluid pressure is eventually reduced to the point where bubbles ,of air or other gases- begin to form. 'uch bubble formation limits the height of the siphon because it breaks the intermolecular bonding between the fluid molecules and destroys the siphoning. 'iphons work better at atmospheric pressure than in vacuum, because the pressure on the two ends of the siphon increases the fluid pressure at all points in the siphon. Thus, with atmospheric pressure outside the siphon, the height at which bubble formation occurs is increased.

2n the second edition of this )oo' the comment a)out o$erating in a .acuum is missing, )ut #e find ne# em$hasis on 0chains0 &?*8
.Although liquid flows and does not have the substance of a solid, it is nevertheless cohesive. That is, each portion is attracted to ad/acent portions. +hen the liquid in the tube#s downflow section begins to fall out of the tube, portions near the top pull other portions over the top, which pulls still more portions up to the top. The whole action is as if a chain were in the tube. As long as the chain section outside the container is longer than the section inside the container, gravity will pull the chain up, over, and down the tube.

Contrary to common )elief, the atmos$heric $ressure does not $ush li+uid u$ the tu)e. 2ndeed, if the atmos$heric $ressure changes, the si$honing action is unaffected.0 E.en the .enera)le Encyclo$edia @ritannica offers the follo#ing & *8
$'iphon% action depends upon the influence of gravity ,not, as sometimes thought, on the difference in atmospheric pressure 0 a siphon will work in a vacuum- and upon the cohesive forces that prevent the columns of liquid in the legs of the siphon from breaking under their own weight. At sea level , #ater can )e

lifted a little more than ,! metres &77 feet* )y a si$hon.4

-he se.eral assertions that a si$hon #ill #or' in a .acuum trace )ac' to a re$ort )y No'es &A*. @ecause this article is not easily found, #e<.e $osted it for interested readers &"*. 6o#e.er, his #ater si$hon could not ha.e )een in a .acuum, )ecause the .a$or $ressure of #ater is a)out ," mm 6g &57! mm 6 B* #hich $ro.ides am$le $ressure for maintaining his 5 si$hon. 2n fact, No'es #rote8 02f #ater is used, the tu)e should )e sealed off #hile the #ater is )oiling( it then #or's .ery #ell.0 -his suggests that the #ater #as .ery hot, #ith a .a$or $ressure a$$roaching one atmos$here. 6o#e.er, No'es stated that his .acuum si$hon also #or'ed #ith mercury #hich, gi.en its lo# .a$or $ressure, is $ro)lematic. No'es #rote, 0-he li+uid is therefore in tension and sustains a longitudinal strain #hich, in the a)sence of distur)ing factors, is insufficient to )rea' the column of li+uid. -he chief distur)ing factors #hich tend to )rea' the column in an e.acuated a$$aratus are8 &,* gas dissol.ed in the li+uid( &5* adherent gas on the #alls of the tu)e( &7* mechanical shoc'8 &?* tur)ulent flo# of the li+uid &caused )y irregularities of the inner surface of the tu)e, or )y too ra$id a flo#, or )y )oth*.0

Experimental Pro e!"re# an! Re#"lt#: A$ Re#pon#e to laim# t%at #ip%on# operate &' mole "lar attra tion#$ We demonstrate that a gas #ith essentially Cero intermolecular attraction, can )e si$honed as easily as #ater. Car)on dio/ide #as chosen )ecause it has a greater density than air, is non=$olar, can )e detected )y .arious methods, and can )e $rocured in the form of dry ice. -he siCes and dimensions of the si$hon tu)e and the u$$er and lo#er .essels are not critical. Bur si$hon tu)e #as a =foot length of $lastic tu)ing, #ith inner diameter of !. inch. Mil' cartons ser.ed as the u$$er and lo#er .essels, $laced so that the height difference in the tu)e ends #as 7! inches. -he tu)e rose A inches a)o.e the u$$er .essel. -he latter #as filled #ith dry ice #hich continuously su)limed to re$lenish the

si$honed car)on dio/ide gas. -o start the si$hon sim$le mouth suction #as used on the lo#er tu)e end. -he follo#ing o)ser.ations esta)lished that car)on dio/ide #as indeed )eing si$honed8 9 thermometer that #as ada$ted to the tem$erature in the lo#er .essel sensed a tem$erature dro$ in the lo#er .essel, #hich indicates that the cold car)on dio/ide gas had )een si$honed. -he change #as not dramatic8 #hen the e/it end of the tu)e #as directed to the thermometer )ul) the tem$erature dro$$ed from 5!., to ,D.7 degrees Celsius. %ince the dry ice is at ="D. degrees Celsius, the gas e.idently #armed efficiently during its $assage through the non=insulated tu)e. 9fter 7! minutes of si$honing, the contents of the lo#er .essel #ere $oured into another container containing a )urning candle, #hich #as immediately e/tinguished. 9lso, a )urning match, held near the end of the lo#er tu)e end #hen it #as si$honing, #as e/tinguished. -o measure the flo# rate of the car)on dio/ide through the si$hon, a )urning candle #as set on a su$$ort inside a mil' carton. -he .olume of the mil' carton u$ to the le.el of the candle #ic' #as a)out a liter. -he lo#er tu)e end #hile si$honing #as $laced at the inside )ottom of the mil' carton. B.er four tests, the a.erage time it too' to e/tinguish the candle #as ,7 seconds, yielding a rate of D! mL $er second. 1. P. Gram has sho#n &D* ho# the flo# rate of a si$honing li+uid in am)ient air is $redicta)le from si$hon length, height and radius, and fluid .iscosity and density. 1or a @9%2C im$lementation of Gram<s method see this #e) site &"*. -he calculation $redicts a flo# rate of ,5! ml $er second for CB 5 )ut does not ta'e into account the .arying density and .iscosity of gas that starts our at ="D. celsius and ends u$ at ,D celsius. 9'in to the .enera)le lime#ater test to sho# the $resence of car)on dio/ide in human )reath, the si$hon tu)e #as directed to the surface of saturated calcium hydro/ide solution #hile stirring the solution. -he solution turned from clear to mil'y #hite after a)out ?! seconds of e/$osure. %u)Eecti.e e.idence of si$hon action #as that the car)on dio/ide could )e felt streaming out of the tu)e #ith a )are hand, es$ecially if it #as slightly #et.

9nother test, that #e did not $erform, #ould )e to direct the CB flo# to 5 the surface of a stirred slightly )asic acid=)ase indicator solution, so that a #ea' )uffer forms #ith a $6 lo# enough to change the color. B$ Re#pon#e to laim# t%at #ip%on# (ill (or) in a *a ""m$ Mer "r' #ip%on: -#o filter flas's #ith side arms #ere fitted #ith one=hole ru))er sto$$ers that accommodated a $lastic tu)e #ith a length of 5? inches and an inside diameter of F inch. -he tu)e #as $ositioned #ith its ends near the flas' )ottoms and rose to a height of a)out ,! inches. -he side arms #ere fitted #ith ru))er .acuum tu)ing and attached to a -=connector #hich in turn #as connected )y tu)ing to a .acuum $um$ good to less that , mm of mercury. 1illing a si$hon #ith mercury re+uires care to a.oid tra$$ing air )u))les on the sides of the tu)e. -o minimiCe such contamination, #e did the follo#ing8 one flas' #as filled #ith mercury, the tu)e and the other flas' #ere left filled #ith air. -he system #as e.acuated #ith )oth flas's connected to the $um$. -he connection to the em$ty flas' #as closed #ith a sto$coc', and then air #as gradually admitted into the flas' filled #ith mercury, causing the mercury to flo# slo#ly through the tu)e and into the $re.iously em$ty flas'. 1inally, air #as admitted freely into )oth flas's, resulting in a static si$hon, i.e., ha.ing e+ual mercury le.els in the flas's. No air )u))les could )e seen on the sides of the filled tu)e. When the system #as then ree.acuated the mercury immediately se$arated at the to$ and )oth columns colla$sed. When air #as readmitted the t#o columns rose )ac' to the to$ of the si$hon tu)e and the static si$hon #as reesta)lished. 9 tiny air )u))le #as $resent at the to$ of the si$hon, $erha$s )ecause e.acuation during the filling ste$ #as not $erfect.

+ater #ip%on: We o)ser.ed the effect of reduced atmos$heric $ressure on static si$hons, using #ater to $reser.e the $ossi)ility that hydrogen )onding might )e an im$ortant factor. -he a$$aratus #as similar to that descri)ed a)o.e for the mercury si$hon. 1or a $artial .acuum source #e used a common #ater as$irator, ca$a)le of reducing the

$ressure to near the .a$or $ressure of #ater, #hich is a)out 5? cm of #ater. Gissol.ed air in the #ater is a maEor $ro)lem, )ecause under reduced $ressure it forms )u))les in the si$hon tu)e. -o minimiCe this interference, #e $reconditioned the system as follo#s8 Water #as )oiled for se.eral minutes to remo.e dissol.ed air, and #hile hot #as $oured into one of the flas's. Gentle 3suction4 on the side arm of the other flas' resulted in flo# of the hot #ater through the tu)e and into the flas', resulting in a static #ater si$hon. @oth flas's #ere then connected to the as$irator, causing .igorous )oiling of the hot #ater and then #ere closed off. 9t this $oint the system #as nearly air free and contained chiefly #ater and #ater .a$or. -he flas's #ere cooled to room tem$erature, #hile under reduced $ressure, )y )o#ls of ice and #ater. 9ir #as then admitted, and the #ater in the si$hon tu)e #as s#e$t through )y action of the as$irator, in order to remo.e any small air )u))les that may ha.e )een $resent. When the as$irator #as restarted, the tu)e remained filled #ith #ater instead of colla$sing as e/$ected. 6o#e.er, ra$$ing on the tu)e 0)ro'e0 the si$hon and )oth legs dro$$ed to a)out , cm a)o.e the #ater le.els in the t#o flas's. -his result #as o)ser.ed using tu)ing #ith inside diameter of ,HD inch, #ith heights of 7! cm and , ! cm. When ,H? inch tu)ing #as used, #ith height of 7! cm, results #ere similar. 9gain the tu)e remained filled under reduced $ressure, and the si$hon )ro'e #hen ra$$ed. 2n one trial it )ro'e #hen normal si$hon flo# #as started )y raising one flas'. -hese results suggest that, des$ite reduced $ressure, #ater si$hons, at least static ones, can $ersist due to hydrogen )onding. @ut such $ersistence seems to )e a metasta)le condition, su)Eect to colla$se #hen distur)ed )y ra$$ing. We admire the e/+uisite design of No'es< a$$aratus &he #as a s'illed glass #or'er* and his meticulous care in degassing and li+uid $urification, and a.oidance of the distur)ing factors listed earlier. We s$eculate that he may ha.e achie.ed a metasta)le si$hon of short height sustained )y mercury cohesion = a si$hon 0li.ing on the edge,0

so to s$ea', .ulnera)le to colla$se from a small shoc', a'in to a su$ersaturated solution of sodium acetate, easily $ro.o'ed into massi.e crystalliCation )y a scratch or seed crystal &I*. We ho$e that others #ill attem$t to confirm his findings )y re$roducing his a$$aratus. 9s for No'es< o$eration of a mercury si$hon under normal atmos$heric $ressure, yet e/ceeding )y ? cm the e/$ected height limit of "A cm, #e note that he s$ecified a 0fine Eet0 at the e/it $oint. We calculate that for an e/it diameter of !., mm the surface tension of mercury at this e/it #ould $ro.ide a )ac' $ressure of ,? cm of mercury, a $lausi)le e/$lanation of the increased height.
Con l"#ion# -he )asic e/$lanation of si$hon action is this8 Bnce the tu)e is filled, the flo# is initiated )y the greater $ull of gra.ity on the fluid on the longer side com$ared #ith that on the short side. -his creates a $ressure dro$ throughout the si$hon tu)e, in the same sense that 3suc'ing4 on a stra# reduces the $ressure along its length. -he am)ient atmos$heric $ressure at the in$ut $oint res$onds to this reduced $ressure )y forcing the fluid u$#ards, sustaining the flo#, Eust as in a steadily suc'ed stra# in a mil'sha'e.

-here are three fundamental re+uirements for si$hon action8 &,* -he si$honing fluid must ha.e a density greater than that of the am)ient atmos$here = other#ise, the atmos$heric )ac' $ressure #ould $re.ent flo#. &5* -here must )e a gra.itational field. 2n the s$ace station, #here or)ital motion simulates Cero gra.ity, a si$hon and its fluid #ould all )e #eightless and stationary. &7* -here must )e an am)ient $ressure at least high enough to counter the $ull of gra.ity on the shorter side of the si$hon. Bn the Moon there is gra.ity, )ut no atmos$here, so an attem$ted si$hon #ould colla$se in )oth legs. 2n a .acuum there is no force to 'ee$ the short side filled #ith fluid. Just as a classical -orricellian )arometer, a straight .ertical tu)e longer than "A cm and filled #ith mercury, #ill dro$ to Cero height #hen $laced in

a hard .acuum, so does the li+uid in )oth sides of a si$hon dro$ to Cero height in a .acuum. 2n a $artial .acuum a si$hon can #or' to #hate.er height the reduced atmos$here can su$$ort. 1or e/am$le, an e.acuated #ater si$hon at 5 celsius #ould #or' to a height of a)out 57 cm. &-he .a$or $ressure of #ater is a)out ," mm 6g, or 57! mm 6 B*. 9 mercury si$hon no higher 5 than ," mm should #or' in an e.acuated system saturated #ith #ater .a$or. e.g., using a #ater as$irator. -he ma/imum height of a #ater si$hon is a)out 77 feet, )ecause a column of #ater that high #eighs the same as a column of air #ith the same cross= sectional area reaching to the to$ of Earth<s atmos$here. Normal air $ressure can su$$ort no more J it has nothing to do #ith a higher column 3)rea'ing under its o#n #eight.4 2t is not coincidental that .acuum $um$s are limited to 0$ulling0 #ater no higher than 77 feet. -he $um$ is not $ulling anything8 it is merely remo.ing air from the $i$e in the s$ace a)o.e the #ater surface. 2t is the atmos$heric $ressure at the inta'e that is doing all the #or' of $ushing the #ater u$ the tu)e. 9ny fluid, li+uid or gaseous, &$erha$s e.en $eanut )utter =someone #ho<s really $atient should try this*, can )e si$honed in the usual #ay. 2t should )e $ossi)le to si$hon air in a helium atmos$here, and car)on tetrachloride at the )ottom of a s#imming $ool. 2ndeed, Pascal is credited #ith demonstrating the si$honing of mercury under #ater &,!*. 6o#e.er, a #ater si$hon #ould )e static if immersed in #ater. 2ntermolecular forces are not re+uired for si$hon action, as $ro.ed )y the si$honing of car)on dio/ide gas. 1or li+uids a sim$le demonstration confirms this assertion8 %tart u$ a #ater si$hon in the usual #ay and, #hile it is running, +uic'ly raise and lo#er the in$ut end in the source reser.oir. 9n air )u))le rushes in and is readily s#e$t u$, o.er the to$ and out the e/it, se$arating the #ater into unconnected sections. Clearly there #as no hydrogen )onding ma'ing the flo# continue. Professor 6ughes &of ref &7** #as #idely recogniCed in 5!,! for noting that the B/ford English Gictionary has, for ,!! years, included a faulty definition of 3si$hon4 that neglects the re+uirement of gra.ity. &,,* We ho$e that the $resent $a$er #ill )e useful in de.ising a re.ision. 1inally, #e note that the e/$eriments descri)ed here are easily ada$ted to classroom demonstrations for high school and introductory chemistry and $hysics classes, and can )e related to gra.itational fields, density,

.iscosity, intermolecular forces, su)limation, $reci$itation, 6enry<s La#, and air $ressure. 9lso, further e/$eriments #ith li+uid si$hons might $ro.e interesting as science fair $roEects and introductory undergraduate research. 1or e/am$le, larger diameter tu)ing could )e tested, as #ell as sol.ents such as alcohol, and #ater solutions of electrolytes. ,ITERATURE CITED: &,* How Toilets Work htt$8HHhome.ho#stuff#or's.comHtoilet.htm &5* Siphon8 htt$8HHen.#i'i$edia.orgH#i'iH%i$hon &7* 6ughes, %te$hen W. A practical example of a siphon at work. Physics Education, -./01. &5!,!* $$ ,A5=,AA htt$8HHe$rints.+ut.edu.auH7,!IDHDH7,!IDa.$df &?* Wal'er, Jearl The Flying Circus of Physics, Wiley, ,I" . 5nd ed. 5!!" & * Siphon8 htt$8HH###.)ritannica.comHE@chec'edHto$icH ?A?? Hsi$hon &A* The Siphon8 M. C. No'es, %ch. %ci. Re.. 02, 577=? &,I?D*. &"* Dick amette!s Home Page, htt$8HH###.minds$ring.comHKr#rametteH2nde/.html &D* Gram, 1. P., The Siphon &,IID*, htt$8HHinstruct.tri= c.eduHfgramH#e)Hsi$hon.html &I* Fun with so"ium acetate# htt$8HH###.youtu)e.comH#atchL .Mn.6rNr JaEgONRM, &,!* Cal.ert, J. @. Hy"rostatics,
http122mysite.du.edu23/calvert2tech2fluids2hydstat.htm45efs

&,,* Dictionary "efinition of !siphon! has $een wrong for nearly a century# htt$8HH###.guardian.co.u'HscienceH)logH5!,!HmayH,!Hdictionary=definition= si$hon=#rong AC3NO+,EDGEMENTS:

We are grateful to Prof. %te.en Gre#, and Mr. @rian Mars, )oth of Carleton College, for $ro.iding e+ui$ment and la) s$ace for the reduced $ressure e/$eriments, to Prof. 1redric' P. Gram, Cuyahoga Community College, for hel$ful comments, and to James and Cale) Ramette for su$$ort and assistance..