TRANSFORMERS A.Introductiontotransformers 1.Principles,needs,types 2.Autotransformers,instrumenttransformers,threephasecoreandthree phasebanktransformers B.OperationandAnalysisofTransformers 1.IdealTransformer 2.Current,voltageandpowerrelationshipsinidealtransformer;polarity marks 3.Realtransformer:current,voltageandpowerrelationships. 4.Equivalentcircuit:referredtoprimaryorsecondaryandperunitbased; phasor (vector)diagram;voltageregulation C.Testsandparametersoftransformers 1.

Opencircuittest,shortcircuittest,parameters 2.Efficiency D.PracticalAspects 1.Connectionsofthreephasetransformers 2.Vectorgroup 3.Paralleloperation

A.Introductiontotransformers 1.Principles,needs,types 2.Autotransformers, instrumenttransformers,three phasecoreandthreephase banktransformers

Transformer: A transformer is an ACAC converter that changes the voltage level of electrical energy to another level at the same frequency and transfers the energy from one circuit to another circuit through the action of a magnetic filed i.e. more specifically two coils wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core (inductively coupled).

Vp Vs

Theremaybeanotherwindingonthe samecorethatwillbetermedtertiary.

Faradays law of electromagnetic induction is the basis of transformer opeartion Ifafluxpassesthroughaturnofacoilofwire,voltagewillbeinduced intheturnofthewirethatisdirectlyproportionaltotherateofchange ofthefluxwithrespectoftime
eind = d dt

IfthesamefluxispassedthroughanothercoilwithNnumberofturns thenthevoltageinducedwillbe:
eind = N

NotethenegativesignaboveisinaccordancewithLenzsLaw which states: Thedirectionofthebuildupvoltageinthecoilisassuchthatifthe coilwereshortcircuited,itwouldproducecurrentthatwouldcausea fluxopposingtheoriginalfluxchange. IftwocoilswithNp andNs numberofturnshaveaflux incommon thenvoltagesinducedinthosecoilsarerespectively

d dt

Why transformers needed? AC power is more advantageous than DC because of the ease of changing the voltage level. P= VI cos or for 3 system P = 3 VLILcos So if a given amount of power at a fixed power factor is transmitted over a long distance at a higher voltage then the current will be lower leading to less I2R loss and less voltage drop (IR + j IX). In fact higher the power transfer the higher is the transmission voltage used e.g. maximum 300 MW can be transmitted through a double circuit 132 kV transmission line while 600 MW through 230 KV double circuit line and 2 GW through 475 kV or 500 kV double circuit line. So it is the transformers that step up power generated at 1115 kV to a grid voltage of 132 kV to 1000 KV depending upon the power quantum and the transmission distance and then steps down to 11 kV to 33 kV range for local distribution and finally to 0.12 kV or 0.23 kV (1)/0.4 kV (3) for the end users.

Generatorsshownwithouttheunittransformersi.e. thetransformerthatstepsupfrom11or15kV to132or230kV Tiebustransformer (autotransformer)between 132kVand230kVbuses

Stepdown transformersfrom 132kVto33kV

Fig.:SingleLineDiagramofBangladeshPowerSystemtoillustrateapplicationsoftransformers

Applications of Transformers: As power transformers e.g. unit transformers (11 kV/ 132 kV), tie transformer (230 kV/132 kV), substation transformer (132 kV/33 kV or 11 kV), distribution transformer (11 kV/0.4 kV), low voltage single or three phase variable voltage supply (often termed variac) As instrument transformers e.g. CT (current transformer: such as 1 kA/5 A), PT( potential transformer: such as 230 kV/110V) used in meters for high current, voltage and power, in protective relays and in sampling currents and voltages for realtime data loggers. As converter transformer e.g. transformers in ACDC (rectifier), DCAC(inverter), HVDC (High Voltage DC) system, SPMS( Switched Mode Power Supply), and the specially designed step down transformer in Arc furnace that melts scrap iron. In audio and other electronic appliances e.g. transformers for isolation, impedance matching in radio set/PA (public address) systems, high voltage or flyback transformers used in television sets and CRT (Cathode ray tube) computer monitors.

Basic Construction: The most widely used type is the power transformer which comprises the copper wire windings usually insulated by oilimpregnated paper. The windings surround a ferromagnetic core (core form) or is surrounded by the core (shell form). The core is always made of thin ferromagnetic material laminations electrically isolated from each other to minimize eddy current loss. The core material is usually grain oriented silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss. The core and winding assembly is immersed in a steel tank containing super refined mineral oil that serves as the cooling and additional insulating medium. Oil transformers are cheaper and available for any range of voltage and power. However, for space constrained or hazardous sites or where the cost of required extra civil construction is a tradeoff, dry type or gas insulated transformers (available up to a medium voltage e.g. 36 kV range) are used.

ConceptualshelltypeTF

The core form is more economic and suited for up to 75 MVA and 230 kV transformers but for larger transformers shell type is justified due to more insulation from the core and less leakage reactance (HV windings being wrapped on top of LV windings in practical shell type transformer).

To improve cooling of large power transformers, the oilfilled tank may have external radiators through which the oil circulates by natural convection. Very large or highpower transformers (with capacities of thousands of kVA) may also have cooling fans, oil pumps, and even oiltowater heat exchangers.
Conservator

Bushings

Silicagel

Fins

Additionalnotes: Conservators:
Oil filled transformers (rated 250 kVA or more) have a conservator (an oil tank above the transformer) and may have a gas detector relay (Buchholz relay). These safety devices detect the build up of gas inside the transformer due to corona discharge, overheating, or an internal electric arc. On a slow accumulation of gas, or rapid pressure rise, or falling of the oil level , these devices can trip a protective circuit breaker to disconnect supply to the transformer. Transformers without conservators are usually equipped with sudden pressure relays, which perform a similar function as the Buchholz relay. The transformer oils flash point i.e. vaporization temperature (min) and pour point i.e. at which becomes semisolid (max) are 140 C and 6 C respectively. The dielectric strength of new untreated oil is 120 kV/ cm (RMS) and after treatment it should be >240 kV/cm (RMS).

Transformer Breathing:
When load on transformer increases or when the transformer under full load, the insulating oil of the transformer gets heated up, expands and gets expelled out in to the conservator tank and subsequently pushes the dry air out of the conservator tank through the silica gel breather. This process is called breathing out of the transformer. When the oil cools down, air from the atmosphere is drawn in to the transformer. This is called breathing in of the transformer.

Use of Silica gel breather

During the breathing process, the incoming air may consist of moisture and dirt which should be removed in order to prevent any damage. Hence the air is made to pass through the silica gel breather, which will absorb the moisture in the air and ensures that only dry air enters in to the transformer. Silica gel in the breather will be blue when installed first time and they turn to pink colour when they absorb moisture which indicates the crystals should be replaced. These breathers also have an oil cup fitted with, so that the dust particles get settled in the cup. Thus Silica gel breathers provide an economic and efficient means of controlling the level of moisture entering the conservator tank during the breathing process.

Largetransformersleads broughtoutthroughbushings

Polemounted distribution transformer with centretapped secondary winding. This type of transformer is commonly used in North America to provide 120/240 volt split phase" power for residential and light commercial use. Note that the centre "neutral" terminal is grounded to the transformer "tank", and a grounded conductor (right) is used for one leg of the primary feeder.

Threephasestepdowntransformer mountedbetweentwoutilitypoles

Typesoftransformersbasedon:
core :Coreform,Shellform numberofwindings :twowinding,threewinding,autotransformer(onewinding) numberofphases :singlephase,threephase:(3x1 i.e.banktransformer,3leggedsinglecore3 transformer,zig zag transformer) insulatingmedium :Oil,Dry(CastResin),Gas(SF6) coolingtype:AN(AirNatural)fordrytype,ONAN(OilNaturalAirNatural),ONAF:(OilNaturalAirForced i.e.withcoolingfans),OFAF(OilForcedAirForced)foroilfilledtransformers. tapchanging:Offloadtapchangingtransformer,TCUL(tapchangingunderload)transformer applications :Power,instrument,converter,audiotransformersetc.

Eachlimbisanautotransformer withtwooppositelywoundwindings whichofferhighimpedanceto normallinecurrentsbutlow impedancetothecurrentwhen alinetogroundfaultoccurs

Gasinsulatedtransformer

Zig zag transformerforprovidinganeutralpoint

Drytypecastresintransformerupto36kVand20MVAfromSIEMENS

Auto transformer :main advantage is reduction in winding size (VA) than that in conventional two winding transformers to handle the same amount of VA.

Note:VLIL=VHIH;VCIC=VSEISE Totalpowertransferred/Power transferredthroughcommonwinding =VHIH/VCIC istermedtheratingadvantage

Alowvoltage1 variac whichisbasicallyan autotransformer

AcommercialthreephasewoundtypePT11kV/0.11kV

Acapacitorvoltagetransformer (CVT)orcapacitancecoupledvoltage transformer (CCVT)usedformeasuringvoltagesinexcessofone hundredkilovoltswheretheuseofwoundprimaryvoltage transformerswouldbeuneconomical.

B.OperationandAnalysisof Transformers 1.IdealTransformer 2.Current,voltageandpower relationshipsinidealtransformer;polarity marks 3.Realtransformer:current,voltageand powerrelationships. 4.Equivalentcircuit:referredtoprimary orsecondaryandperunitbased;phasor (vector)diagram;voltageregulation

IdealTransformer:A lossless devicewithaninputwindingandanoutputwinding.

Noeddycurrentorhysteresis loss; nolossinwindings; thetotalfluxsetupbyprimary currentalsolinksthesecondary windingi.e.noleakageflux; nosaturationinthecoreand hencenetmagnetomotive force iszeroandnodistortionofwave shapes.

Sketchofanidealtransformer

VoltageandCurrenttransformation(relationships)inIdealTransformer: Ideal transformers are assumed to change only magnitude level but not phase angles of primary and secondary quantities so that the instantaneous or phasor values can be related to turns ratio or transformation ratio (a) as follows. i p (t ) 1 v p (t ) N p Np ip (t) = Ns is (t) Vp/Vs =a;Ip/Is =1/a = =a = vs (t ) N s is (t ) a

P,Q,Srelationships: Pin =Vp Ip cos p ;Pout =VsIscos s ;Sincevoltageandcurrentanglesare Vp unaffectedp =s =sothat (aI p )cos andPout=Vp Ip cos =Pin . Pout =
a

Similarly,Qout =VsIssins =Vp Ip sin=Qin andSin =Vp Ip =VsIs=Sout

Impedancetransformation(relationship):
ZL = VL IL

or

ZL =

VS IS

Theapparentimpedanceof V theprimarycircuitofthetransformeris Z L ' = P

IP

SinceprimaryvoltageVP=aVS, andprimarycurrentIP=IS/a

ZL '=

aVS V VP = = a2 S IP IS / a IS

or,ZL=a2 ZL
which shows that it is possible to match the load impedance to a source impedance simply by a transformer with a properly selected turns ratio.

PolaritymarksandDotconvention: Toknowwhichendsoftwowindingwillhaveapositivepolarityatagiven referencetimewithouthavingtoopenthetransformerandphysicallyexaminethe modeofwindings,adotconventionisadoptedbythetransformermanufacturers. Theconventionisbasedonthefollowing:

1.Iftheprimaryvoltageis+ve atthedottedendofthewinding withrespecttotheundotted end,thenthesecondaryvoltagewill bepositiveatthedottedendalso.Voltagepolaritiesarethe samewithrespecttothedotsoneachsideofthecore. 2.Iftheprimarycurrentofthetransformerflowsintothedotted endoftheprimarywinding,thesecondarycurrentwillflowout ofthedottedendofthesecondarywindingsothatthenet magnetomotive force(mmf)iszeroinanidealtransformercore ornearlyzeroinarealtransformercoreifnotsaturated(i.e. almostzeroreluctance). Thisisbecauseacurrentflowingintothedottedendofawinding producesapositivemagnetomotive force,whileacurrentflowing outofthedottedendproducesanegativemagnetomotive force. ThusinFigure(c),thenetmagnetomotive forceis Fnet =NPiP NSiS =0(foridealtransformer) and=R 0(forunsaturatedrealtransformercore itsreluctanceR0) (c) whichalsoestablishesthecurrentrelationship iP = N S = 1
iS NP a

vp

vp

Equivalent circuit of ideal transformer : The easiest way for circuit analysis that has an ideal transformer is replacing one side of the transformer by its equivalent at the other sides voltage level and then solving the resulting new circuit (without a transformer being present) which is termed equivalent circuit. This process is termed referring the first side of the transformer to the second side or vice versa.
Example: A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is Connected through a transmission line with an impedance of 0.18+j0.24 to a load of 4+j3. a).Ifthepowersystemisexactlyasdescribedin Figure(a),whatwillthevoltageattheloadbe? Whatwillthetransmissionlinelossesbe? b).Supposea1:10stepuptransformerisplacedatthe generatorendofthetransmissionlineanda10:1 stepdowntransformerisplacedattheloadendof theline(Figure(b)).Whatwilltheloadvoltagebe Now?Whatwillthetransmissionlinelossesbenow?

Real Transformer: In practice an ideal transformer can never be achieved but the one close to it can be designed and built which is known as real transformer. For an ideal transformer, we assume that 100% of flux would travel from the primary to the secondary windings. However, in reality a small part of the flux which does not reach the secondary coil rather returns through the air or the surrounding. This is termed leakage flux. The remaining part of the flux that reaches the secondary side is termed mutual flux.

P = M + LP

where,

P =totalaverageprimaryflux M =fluxcomponentlinkingbothprimaryand
LP
secondarycoils =primaryleakageflux Forthesecondarysidealso,similardivisionapplies (justreplacePwithS)

ThenFaradayslawappliedtotheprimarysidecanbereexpressedas

vP(t) = NP

d dP d = NP M + NP LP dt dt dt
eP (t ) = N P d M dt

vP (t ) = eP (t ) + eLP (t ) or, Theprimaryvoltageduetothemutualfluxis

Similarequationsholdgoodforthesecondary

dS dLS dM vS (t) = NS = NS + NS dt dt dt
or,

v S ( t ) = e S ( t ) + e LS ( t )
e S (t ) = N S d M dt

Sowecanhave

eP (t ) dM eS (t ) = = NP dt NS

So in real transformer the ratios of voltages caused by only mutual fluxes is equal to turns ratio (a). However, in a welldesigned transformer both

or, eP (t ) = N P = a
eS (t ) NS

LP and LS << M
sothattheratiooftotalvoltagesisapproximately vP (t ) N P andalso V p = N p a = a
vS (t ) NS Vs Ns

The current and power relationships for a real transformer: As already discussed in the basis for dot convention , the net magnetomotive force on the core due to primary and secondary currents is, Fnet = NPiP NSiS = R 0 (for unsaturated real transformer core reluctance R 0 ) which then establishes the current relationship
IP NS 1 = = IS NP a

The relationships for P,Q and S in an ideal transformer then automatically apply to the real transformer as well.

The noload or excitation current in a real transformer:

This is the current denoted by iex that flows in the primary circuit even when the secondary is in open circuit condition. The current components may be divided into 2 components: 1.Magnetization current, iM : current required to produce flux in the core. 2.Coreloss current, ih+e : current required to compensate hysteresis and eddy current losses. iex = iM + ih+e We know that the relation between magnetization current and flux is proportional since,
F = Ni = R i =

1 v P (t ) dt NP

Dependingupon thephaseangle oftheapplied voltageatthe start(i.e.switching onatransformer) themaximum fluxandhencethe magnetization currentcan behighduringfirst severalcyclesi.e.in thetransientcondition whichistermed currentinrush.

The fundamental component of iM is in phase with and hence lags v by 90

R
N
The fundamental component of ih+e is 90 out of phase with and hence in phase with v

So for an applied sinusoidal voltage the resulting flux is also sinusoidal but the magnetization current (proportional to ) and the core loss current (proportional to d/dt) both become distorted because the transformer core will reach to a state of near saturation at the top of the flux cycle.

Equivalentcircuitofarealtransformer:
There are several losses that has to be taken into account in order to accurately model the real transformer, namely: Copper (I2R) Losses Resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. LS which escape the core and pass through only one of the Leakage flux The fluxes LP and transformer windings are leakage fluxes. They then produce selfinductance in the primary and secondary coils. Eddy current Losses resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer. Hysteresis Losses these are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the ferromagnetic material core during each halfcycle of the mmf resulting from the AC voltage. They are complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.

Modelling eachlossandcurrentcomponentandderivingExact equivalentcircuit:

1. Copper losses are resistive losses caused by the total currents IP and IS and hence modeled by placing a series resistor RP in the primary circuit and a series resistor RS in the secondary circuit. The leakage flux produced due to total currents IP and IS will be modeled by placing two inductors LP = NP2/R and LS = NS2/R (when R is reluctance of leakage flux path mainly air and = 1/P when P is permenace) and hence two reactances XP and XS respectively as series in the primary and in the secondary circuit. [Proof shown later] . The fundamental component of the magnetization current iM (proportional to but lagging from the applied voltage by 90 ) will be shown as a reactance XM across the primary voltage source. The fundamental component of the coreloss current ih+e (proportional to and in phase with applied voltage) can be modeled by a resistance RC across the primary voltage source i.e. in parallel with XM.

2.

3.

4.

Exactequivalentcircuitofarealtransformer

Theexcitationbranchisshownafter RP andXP becausethevoltagethatis transformedisactuallytheapplied primaryvoltageVp lessthedropsin itswindingresistanceRPandleakage reactanceXP .

Equivalenttransformercircuitreferredtotheprimaryvoltagelevel

Equivalenttransformercircuitreferredtothesecondarylevel

Derivationofleakageinductance:

Approximate equivalent circuit for real transformer: The main problem with solving an exact equivalent circuit is the addition of an extra node due to the presence of the excitation branch. Remedy: Since in the steadystate the excitation or noload current Iex is very small compared to the load current of the transformer, Iex produces a negligible voltage drop in RP and XP and so the excitation branch can be moved to the front leaving the primary and secondary winding impedances in series with each other creating an approximate equivalent circuit as in Fig. a and b that work as well as the exact equivalent circuit.

Referredtotheprimaryside

Referredtothesecondaryside

Further simplified equivalent circuit: In some applications the excitation branch may be neglected entirely without causing serious error so that the equivalent circuit of the transformer reduces to the simple circuits shown in Figs. c and d.

Withnoexcitationbranch,referredtotheprimaryside

Withnoexcitationbranch,referredtothesecondaryside

Perunitbasedequivalentcircuit:
The process of solving circuits containing several transformers by referring all the different voltage levels on different sides of the transformers to a common level can be quite tedious. The perunit (pu) method of computations eliminates this problem. The required voltage level conversions are handled automatically by the method. Furthermore, the equivalent impedance referred to primary is the same as that referred to secondary when converted in pu of a common base voltampere Sbase and respective base voltages (such that Vp,base/Vs, base = a) so that there is only one equivalent circuit then i.e. no need to label the equivalent circuit with reference to primary or secondary.

Approximateequivalentcircuitonpu basisSimplifiedequivalentcircuitonpu basis (withallthequantitiesVp,Ip,Req,Xeq,Rc,Xm,Vs,Is expressedinperunit)

Per unit computations: In perunit system, each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of some base level. Any quantity can be expressed on a perunit basis by the equation actual value

Quantity per unit =

base value of quantity

Two base quantities are selected to define a given perunit system. These are usually voltage and power. All other values can be computed once the base values of S (or P) and V have been selected. Choice of Base Power or Apparent Power: In a power system, a unique base apparent power equal to the rating of the largest component or a common arbitrary value (e.g. 100 MVA) is chosen for the entire system. A transformer has no effect on the base apparent power of the system, since the apparent power equals the apparent power out. Choice of Base voltage: Voltage changes as it goes through a transformer, so Vbase changes at every transformer in the system according to its turns ratio. This is why the base voltage at different points of a system are so chosen that the base voltages on the two sides of a transformer are related to each other by the turns i.e. voltage ratios of transformer. Thus the process of referring quantities to a common level is automatically taken care of.

Relationshipsofbasequantities:
Inasinglephasesystem,therelationshipare: Pbase,Qbase orSbase =Vbase Ibase S1,base =S3,base/3 Ibase =Sbase /Vbase I ,base =S1,base/V, base Zbase =Vbase/Ibase =(Vbase)2/Sbase Zbase =(V ,base)2/S1 ,base or,=3(V ,base)2/S3,base Intermsof3 quantities: Ina3phasesystem: (relationwith1 )

Conversion of per unit impedance from one base to another base:

Forconnection:VL,base =V ,base IL,base =3I,base Z pu on base 2 = Z pu on base 1(V base 1/V base 2)2 (S base 2/S base 1) To avoid error, line to neutral voltage base should be used with single phase base voltampere while line to line base voltage with threephase base voltampere. ForYconnection:VL,base =3V,base IL,base =I,base Ingeneral: S3,base=3VL,base IL,base IL,base =S3,base/3VL,base Zbase =(VL,base )2/S3,base

Advantages of pu method of computations: 1. The equivalent impedance referred to primary is the same as that referred to secondary when converted in pu so that transformers can be modelled without any reference to primary or secondary i.e. without voltage level conversions and impedance transformation. 2. Machine and transformer impedances expressed in pu on the base of respective ratings fall with in a narrow range; e.g. Req is usually 0.01 pu while Xeq varies between 0.02 and 0.1 pu (i.e. 2% to 10% ). So this helps estimate the missing parameters of a transformer by using those of a transformer with a comparable rating. 3. The voltage and currents at a given point when computed in pu are the same whether computed using single phase or three phase base quantities.

Proof that equivalent impedance of a transformer referred to its primary and secondary are the same if converted in pu:

Eq.cct.withnoexcitationbranch,referredtotheprimaryside

Eq.cct.,withnoexcitationbranch,referredtothesecondaryside

Zp,base =Vp,base/Ip,base =aVs,base/(Is,base/a)=a2 Vs,base/Is,base =a2 Zs,base Req,p inpu withrespecttoprimary=Rp/Zbase,p +a2 Rs/Zbase,p =Rp/(a2 Zs,base )+a2 Rs/(a2 Zs,base ) =Rp/(a2 Zs,base )+Rs/Zs,base = Req,s inpu withrespecttosecondary Similarly,itcanbeprovedthatXeq,p inpu withrespecttoprimary=Xeq,s inpu withrespecttosecondary

Exampleonperunitbasedequivalentcircuit: A simple power system is shown below. This system contains a 480V generator connected to an ideal 1:10 stepup transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 stepdown transformer, and a load. The impedance of the transmission line is 20 + j60, and the impedance of the load is . The base values for this system are chosen to be 480V and 10kVA at the generator.
a. Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in the power system. b. Convert this system to its perunit equivalent circuit. c. Find the power supplied to the load in this system. d. Find the power lost in the transmission line.

Phasor diagramandvoltageregulation(VR):
Phasor diagramisavisualrepresentationoftheequation:

VP = VS + Req I S + jX eq I S a

Referredtothesecondaryside

ExcitationbrancheffectonVRnegligible

Idealtransformer,VR=0%.

x 100% VS , fl Atnoload,VS =VP/athus, (VP / a ) VS , fl VR = x 100% VS , fl

In real transformer voltage regulation depends upon the series impedance and the phase angle of the current flowing through the transformer.
Lagging PF Unity PF Leading PF VP / a > VS VP / a > VS VS > VP / a VR > 0 VR > 0 (smaller than VR lag) VR < 0

VR =

V S ,nlVS , fl

Equivalentcircuitonpu basis Inperunitsystem,

VR =

V P , puVS , fl , pu VS , fl , pu

x 100%

C. Tests and parameters of transformers 1.Open circuit test, short circuit test, parameters 2. Efficiency

DeterminingtheEquivalentcircuitparametersfor Transformer
The values of the magnetization branch parameters and total equivalent reactance and resistances in the transformer model can be determined experimentally. An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained with the opencircuit test, and the shortcircuit test.

OpencircuitTest:(providesmagnetizationbranch parametersinohms)
This test can be done with either the HV or the LV side as the primary, though it is easier to test with low voltage i.e. from LV side. The transformers secondary winding is opencircuited, and its primary winding is connected to the fullrated line voltage. Take care not to come in contact with the open secondary. Since there is no load, all the primary current will be flowing through the excitation branch of the transformer. The series element RP and XP are too small in comparison to RC and XM to cause a significant voltage drop. Essentially all input voltage is dropped across the excitation branch. Full line voltage is applied to the primary input voltage (Voc), input current (IOC), input power (POC) measured. Then, power factor of the input current and magnitude and angle of the excitation impedance YE can be calculated.
Opencct testsetup

= cos 1

Now,

POC VOC I OC

YE =

I OC VOC

=GC jBM

1 1 j RC XM

So equating real and imaginary parts from both sides RM and XM can be obtained.

Shortcircuittest(providestotalseriesequivalent impedanceparametersinohms)
This test is usually done with HV side as the primary and LV side as the secondary because of the convenience in shorting LV side. The primary is connected to a variable low voltage source and the secondary is shorted.
LVside

Shortcct testsetup

The input voltage to the primary is adjusted until the current in the primary is equal to its rated value. The input If the test is done using LV side as the primary voltage (VSC), current (ISC ),and power (PSC ) all are measured then the equivalent impedance referred in the primary side. to the LV side will be obtained. The excitation branch is ignored, because negligible current flows through it due to low input voltage during this test. Thus, the magnitude of the series impedances referred to V the primary is: Z SE = SC I SC Powerfactor,PF=cos =PSC/VSC ISC (lagging)
Therefore,
and
Z SE =

While DC values of Rp and Rs can be measured separately using a multimeter, there is no easy way to split Xeq into Xp and Xs . However, in normal applications such a separation is not warranted.

= cos 1

PSC VSC I SC

VSC 0 VSC = = Req,p + jXeq,p = (RP + a2 RS) + j(XP + a2 XS) I SC I SC

TransformerEfficiency:

Noloadlosswhichisindependentofloadcurrent andhencealmostfixedforagiventransformer

where, VS :secondary(loadside)voltage,IS:secondarycurrent; Pcu =IS2 Req,s andPcore =(Vp/a)2/RC,s withRC,s referredtosecondary

Exampleontestforparameters: Theequivalentcircuitimpedancesofa20kVA,8000/240V,60Hztransformeraretobe determined.Theopencircuittestandtheshortcircuittestwereperformedonthe primarysideofthetransformer,andthefollowingdataweretaken: Opencircuittest(onprimary)Shortcircuittest(onprimary) VOC =8000VVSC =489V IOC =0.214AISC =2.5A POC =400WPSC =240W Findtheimpedancesoftheapproximateequivalentcircuitreferredtotheprimaryside, andsketchthecircuit.Alsosketchtheapproximateperunitequivalentcircuit.

Exampleonparameters,voltageregulation,phasor diagramandefficiency:
A15kVA,2300/230Vtransformeristobetestedtodetermineitsexcitationbranchcomponents,its seriesimpedances,anditsvoltageregulation.Thefollowingdatahavebeentakenfromtheprimary sideofthetransformer: Opencircuittest Shortcircuittest VOC=2300VVSC=47V IOC=0.21AISC=6A POC=50WPSC=160W a.Findtheequivalentcircuitreferredtothehighvoltageside. b. Findtheequivalentcircuitreferredtothelowvoltageside. c. Calculatethefullloadvoltageregulationat0.8laggingPF,1.0PF,andat0.8leadingPFand sketchtheirphasor diagrams. d. Find the efficiency at full load with PF 0.8 lagging.

D. Practical Aspects of Transformers 1.Connections of three phase transformers 2.Vector group 3. Parallel operation

ThreePhaseTransformerConnections

Eachunitcanbe replacedindividually intheeventof atrouble. Asinglecore3 TF 3x1i.e.threephasebankTF Lighter,smaller, cheaperand slightlymore efficient. Thisformisthe recentpractice formost applications.

The primary sides and secondary sides of any threephase transformer (whether bank or single core) can be independently connected in either a wye (Y) or a delta () so that 4 possible forms are : YY, Y , Y, and . The important point to note when analyzing any 3phase transformer is to look at a single phase or a single transformer in the bank. Any single phase transformer in the bank behaves exactly like the singlephase transformers already studied. The impedance, voltage regulation, efficiency, and similar calculations for three phase transformers are done on a perphase basis, using same techniques as singlephase transformers.

Note:

Calculating3phasetransformerturnsratio V Thebasicconceptofcalculatingtheturnsratioforasinglephasetransformerisutilisedi.e. a = P
VS

a=

VP VS

1 VLP 3 VLS

a=

VP VS

VLP VLS

forYYand

a=

VP VS

= 3

VLP VLS

Advantagesanddisadvantagesoffourconnections:
Connection Phaseshift** betweenprimary andsecondary voltage 0 Effectofunbalancedload Effectof3rd harmonic* (i.e.150Hz)componentin voltage Secondary voltagewillbe severelydistortedi.e.non sinusoidal Remarks

YY

Phasevoltageswillbe severelyunbalanced

A solidly grounded neutral at the primary side (i.e. connected with the source neutral) can provide a return path of the unbalanced or 3rd harmonic current components. A connectedtertiarywinding(incaseofasinglecore3 transformer)canalso provideacirculating pathforthe3rd harmoniccurrentthatconsumestheinduced 3rd harmonicvoltage,andalsocompensatefortheunbalancedcurrents. YYconnectionisseldom used.Itis,however,usedinatietransformere.g.132 kV/230kVwitha33KVconnectedtertiary.

Secondaryvoltage lagsprimaryby 30 ifconnectedas abc forthephase sequenceabc. Secondaryvoltage lagsprimaryby 30 ifconnectedas acbn forthe phasesequence abc 0

Noeffectaspartially redistributesany imbalancethatoccurs

Noeffectastheresulting 3rd harmonicvoltagesare consumedinthe circulatingcurrentinthe side. Noeffectastheresulting 3rd harmonicvoltagesare consumedinthe circulatingcurrentinthe side. Noeffectastheresulting 3rd harmonicvoltagesare consumedinthe circulatingcurrentinthe side.

Normallyusedinstepuptransformersforgenerators e.g.11kV/132kV. Delta connection requires higher insulation strength because each phase encounters a voltage 3 times the voltage it would have if it were in a Y connection.

Noeffectaspartially redistributesany imbalancethatoccurs

Normallyusedinstepdowngridsubstation transformerse.g.132kV/33kVor33 kV/11kVanddistributiontransformerse.g.11kV/0.4kV.Inthelastcasefourlines includingtheneutralarebroughtoutfromthesecondary.

Noeffectaspartially redistributesany imbalancethatoccurs

**phaseshift:thisshouldbetakenintoaccountwhileparalleling3 TF *The 3rd harmonic components in phase voltages appear due to the nonsinusoidal excitation

Normally used in industrial applications. A defective singlephase transformer in a DeltaDelta threephase bank can be disconnected and removed for repair. Partial service can be restored using the remaining singlephase transformers in openDelta (also termed V mode) until a replacement transformer is obtained. With two transformers threephase can still be obtained but at a reduced capacity i.e. 57.7% of that in closed or normal delta. This makes it a very practical transformer application for temporary emergency conditions.

elselargecirculatingcurrentwouldflowinthewindingsdamagingthem. current in a transformer whose core is non linear. If a path is provided for the flow of the 3rd harmonic component of the excitation current (i.e. not suppressed) then the resulting flux will be sinusoidal so that the induced voltage will have very little or no 3rd harmonic component at all. It should be noted that there are 3 cycles in the 3rd harmonic for each cycle of the fundamental frequency so that the 3rd harmonic current in the three phases simply add due to their being 3x120 = 360 phase shift i.e. inphase and hence would require a separate path to return unlike the fundamental or other nontriplen (not multiple of 3) components.

Exampleonthreephasetransformeranalysis A 50kVA 13,800/208V Y distribution transformer has a resistance of 1% and a reactance of 7% per unit. a) What is the transformers phase impedance referred to the high voltage side? b) Calculate this transformers voltage regulation at full load and 0.8PF lagging, using the calculated high side impedance. c) Calculate this transformers voltage regulation under the same conditions, using the perunit system.

Vector Group: This is a nomenclature usually followed in British industries to provide important information about the way in which three phase transformers windings are connected and about the phase shift that occurs. As for instance , transformer nameplates carry a vector group reference such at Yy0, Yd1, Dy1, Dyn11 etc. Interpretation:
Phase Displacement Usually 4 groups are used in which respectively the digits 0, 6, 1, 11 relate to the phase displacement between the HV side phase toneutral and the corresponding LV side phasetoneutral voltage using a clock face notation. The phasor representing the HV winding is taken as reference and set at 12 o'clock. It then follows that: Digit 0 means that the LV phasor is in phase with the HV phasor. Digit 6 that it lags by 180 degrees i.e. opposite to the HV phasor. Digit 1 that it lags by 30 degrees. Digit 11 that it leads by 30 degrees. However 0 and 6 will be only in YY or or windings while 11 and 1 will be in Y or Y windings. The neutral point may be real (as in a star connection) or imaginary (as in a delta connection). WindingConnections HVwindingsaredesignated:Y,DorZ(uppercase) LVwindingsaredesignated:y,dorz(lowercase) where: Yoryindicatesastarconnection Dordindicatesadeltaconnection Zorzindicatesazigzagconnection Nornindicatesthattheneutralpointisbroughtout

Dy11 vectorgroup

Yd1 vectorgroup

Dyn11 vectorgroup

USPracticeofphaseshiftnomenclature:

The ANSI (American National Standards Institute ) adopts a marking scheme of the terminals in Y or Y transformers in terms of H1,H2,H3 and X1,X2,X3 such that the voltage to neutral VHN on the HV side would lead voltage to neutral VXn by 30. So if phases ABC (abc) are connected to a transformer terminals as in Fig (a) then VAN would lead Van by 30 which is equivalent to Yd1 or Dy1 of British system respectively if the HV side is Y, LV side is or vice versa. If the phases are connected as in Fig (b) then VAN would lead Vbn by 30

Parallel operation of three phase transformers: Paralleling is done with a view to handling larger load and enhancing reliability. Conditions For parallel operation of two transformers those must have: 1)the same primary and secondary voltages, 2)the same tapratio in case those are tap changing transformers, 3)the same percentage (per unit) values of series equivalent impedances, and 4)the same vector group. else large circulating currents will flow between them and also they will not share the load in proportion to their respective capacity. However, a Dy11 transformer can be paralleled with a Yd1 or Dy1 if the external connections of any two phases on the secondary side of one of the transformers are just interchanged i.e. transposed. On the other hand, a Yy0 (or Dd0) transformer can not be paralleled with a Yy6 (or Dd6) unless the internal connections of the secondary windings of one of the transformers are changed.