Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

Essay Writing: Developing Academic Writing Skills in English
Catherine Schwerin
Designed for use in the obligatory academic writing courses in the second module of studies at the
Institut fr Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitt Hamburg

Von-Melle-Park 6 20146 Hamburg Germany
1999 Catherine Schwerin Catherine.Schwerin@uni-hamburg.de Second revision October 2007
Essay-writing brochure
2007 Catherine Schwerin
IAA Universitt Hamburg
Contents
Contents ...................................................................................................................................... 1 Essay Checklists ......................................................................................................................... 1 Sample Essays ............................................................................................................................ 1 Before you begin ........................................................................................................................ 2 Parts of an Essay ........................................................................................................................ 5 Introductions............................................................................................................................... 6 Body ........................................................................................................................................... 6 Conclusions ................................................................................................................................ 7 Organising Principle ................................................................................................................... 7 Developing a Paragraph ............................................................................................................. 9 TV Step 1: Preparing ................................................................................................................ 13 TV Step 2: Brainstorming ........................................................................................................ 14 TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting ....................................................................................... 15 TV Step 4: Final Plan ............................................................................................................... 16 Media Violence Step 1: Preparing ........................................................................................... 21 Media Violence Step 2: Brainstorming .................................................................................... 22 Media Violence Step 3: Organising and Adapting................................................................... 24 Media Violence Step 4: Final Plan ........................................................................................... 26
Essay Checklists
Checklist: Procedure .................................................................................................................. 3 Standard Essay Outline .............................................................................................................. 8 Readership, content and style ................................................................................................... 18 Some Useful Links ................................................................................................................... 32
Sample Essays
Sample essay on Paragraphs .................................................................................................... 11 Sample Essay on Paragraphs: examination of structure........................................................... 12 Simple Essay: The Importance of Television ......................................................................... 19 Complex Essay: Violence in the Media ................................................................................... 29
Essay Writing
Before you begin

Essays are instruments of communication. Your essay should be a structured treatment of a particular topic, presented in a standard form and in a readable, fluent and logical manner. Your essay is a tool that communicates your ideas (though of course you may be talking about other peoples ideas or even quoting them) and should reflect your interest in the topic. Being able to write essays is an essential skill in your studies and forms the basis of all academic writing. However, to make the most of your essay, there are some things to remember: Check, check, and check again! Develop the text in stages of writing, revising and rewriting. This ensures that the final version of the text flows logically and communicatively towards its conclusion and that unintentional hiccups and breaks in style do not occur. Write from the perspective of the reader. In this manner, aspects of register and style remain more consistent. Plan well and be clear about your topic. Lay the thought basis of the completed text in the introduction, develop the ideas in the body and tie these ideas together in the conclusion. Later you may be writing texts other than essays, so you will also have to pay attention to additional features. Research papers, for example, characteristically have headings, deal with many aspects of a particular theme in some detail, and will use references, frequently in the form of footnotes or endnotes, to relate the contents to the academic context in which the knowledge has evolved. For this sort of writing you will also need to consult a style manual such as the MLA Style Manual to help you. Let's begin now by looking at a checklist of the general procedure for planning and writing an essay. Then we will examine the different parts of an essay before turning to look at how to write one in more detail.
Checklist: Procedure
Taking a systematic approach to essay writing ensures that you thoroughly develop the necessary skills for a meaningful and well-balanced piece of writing. Practise following the steps outlined here. Examples will be provided in the following sections.
1.
Preparing: What is the general subject? What is the specific purpose of the essay? Formulate a preliminary thesis statement if possible at this stage
2. Brainstorming:
Write down all the ideas related to your topic, including seemingly bizarre or outlandish ones. Allow your thoughts free range - you can include sketches, diagrams, tables if necessary.
3. Organising and adapting:
Choose the elements relevant to the specific purpose of your essay and arrange them in thematic groups and these in turn in logical steps. Discard those ideas which do not relate to your purpose. Adapt the subject to your own sphere of interest and knowledge.
4. Gather material: Information on your subject. Quotes, examples that illustrate certain points, references.
5. Make a logical outline:
Plan the structure of your essay, keeping in mind the main purpose. It may help to refer to the essay outline template provided in the following pages. Your outline will serve as a kind of check-list to consult while you are writing. Note the sub-elements under each particular section heading. Modify the outline so that it indicates thesis statement, topic sentences and supporting points
6. Check outline Check topic sentences against thesis statement Check supporting points against topic sentences
7. Write according to your outline:
At this stage you are more or less "padding out" your outline. You expand each section heading, fill in the details, provide examples or descriptions, connect the ideas logically. Who are your readers? This will influence your choice of style and your approach.
8. Check 1st draft: Check against outline to ensure you have covered all points. Check grammar and spelling. Check logic (within the sentence, between the sentences, in relation to the topic sentences, in relation to the thesis). Check flow (Do the ideas flow or jump around? Is it readable? Is it easy to follow?) Is the style and the approach appropriate for your target group?
9. Revise draft: And check again!
10. Write the final version.
Parts of an Essay
Essentially an essay consists of three major parts: the introduction the main body the conclusion Each of these parts has a function. The introduction is intended to lead the reader into the topic and clarify what the essay will specifically deal with. It usually consists of one paragraph, but this depends on the length of the essay and the amount of background information the context requires. The introduction will contain a key sentence (or, if necessary, more than one) that represents the thread running through the whole essay. This sentence is called the thesis statement. The main body deals with the major ideas that support the thesis statement. Each main idea is presented in a separate paragraph (one notion, one paragraph) and developed with supporting ideas in the form of explanations, definitions, or similar, and illustrated with examples where appropriate or necessary. The conclusion brings the reader back to the purpose of the essay and draws all the points together before making a final comment on the result of the discussion/argument. Often this final comment will point towards some consequence the discussion may have for the future or make some observation about what the discussion has revealed on a general level. Ultimately an essay will show a progression from a general level (in the introduction) down to the specific (thesis statement and body) and back up to the general level again (conclusion). The reader will be expecting this so it gives your essay a sense of completion.
Introductions
The introduction lays the basis for the whole of the rest of the essay. It should tell the reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with. However, an abrupt statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readers feel uncomfortable and does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore it is best to lead in to the topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing the topic down before dealing with the issue itself. Note: Unlike the German Aufsatz, the English essay requires that you take a standpoint at the beginning of the essay so that the reader knows what he is to expect. English essays are "reader friendly" and guide the readership through the argumentation. Do not leave the reader guessing about your opinion until the conclusion. This gives the English-speaking reader the feeling that you werent sure about your own opinion and that the essay was not sufficiently planned. This means your thesis statement must clearly show your position on the topic. Make a general statement about your topic Narrow down the topic to lead towards your theme State the issue/question you are dealing with State your thesis/ controlling idea for the whole essay
Body
The body of the essay will contain several paragraphs, each dealing with one major idea that supports the thesis statement. The major idea for the paragraph is given in a topic sentence and all the other sentences in the paragraph are linked to this idea in some form or another. The paragraphs should also contain a transition between the ideas, i.e. moving from the introduction to the first topic sentence and between the body paragraphs. This can be done in sentences or with individual words such as discourse markers (linking words). Topic sentence Supporting ideas Examples
Conclusions
In the conclusion you are drawing your ideas and observations together to make your final point. Do not be afraid if it seems like you are repeating your ideas. It is part of the task to remind the reader of your aims and your main discussion points. This clarifies your purpose. However, do not just repeat word-for-word what you have said before. Contextualise what you are saying. Remind the reader of your topic and intention Show the reader how the discussion has underlined this aim (in a way you are summarising the topic sentences of the developmental paragraphs here) State your perspective as a result of the discussion Sum up the whole concept, e.g. by stating what this may mean for the future
Organising Principle
You can use the standard outline on the following page as a framework when preparing for most kinds of essays. It may have to be varied according to the organising principle and the aim involved, but serves as a solid basis. The organising principle is the logic according to which you put together your ideas. Your choice of organising principle will depend on the effect you want to achieve and the expectations of your readership. For instance: Organising principle Least important to most important point Most to least important Possible effect Climb in tension to climax; dramatic The readers are confronted with the most convincing point at the outset; memorable Narrative effect; familiar structure, easy to follow and remember Depending on focus, can highlight an issue of change; contemplative
Chronological Reverse chronological
Standard Essay Outline

You can use the following as a checklist. Remember: while you are writing always consider your readership and your aims. In the body you will need to have a clear organising principle. Introduction
1. 2. 3. 4.
Introduce general topic Narrow down topic Restate question
State thesis (controlling idea)

There are, of course other ways of approaching the lead-in to the issues in the essay. For instance, you could start by introducing the opposite viewpoint (e.g. Many people believe that television is beneficial) and arrive at your standpoint by pointing out that you do not agree with the other view and indicate why (However, the harmful effects of television far outweigh its benefits), which is then expanded in the essay.
Body (consisting of several developmental paragraphs) Each paragraph consists of:

1. 2. 3.
Topic sentence (topic and controlling idea) Supporting ideas Details Facts, data, quotes Examples Description Explanation Comparison, etc.
Conclusion
1. 2.
Restate thesis (topic focus and controlling idea of essay) Synthesise the main ideas of the developmental paragraphs (restate topic sentences) State your opinion/ preference; give solution; make prediction... Final statement (summing thought). This rounds off the essay and brings it back to a general level.
3. 4.
Developing a Paragraph
Your essay will consist of a series of paragraphs. Each paragraph is made up of a set of related sentences all connected with a single idea and (apart from the introduction and conclusion, because their purpose is slightly different) is constructed according to similar principles. In order to effectively convey your ideas, each paragraph should contain certain features. It should have a topic sentence, follow a single idea, be appropriately developed, and be cogent. In addition, there is a formal feature to consider: paragraphs in printed publications or in handwritten texts generally have an indented first line to clearly indicate where it begins (thus clearly identifying it as a unit). In some forms of writing, for example business letters, paragraphs are indicated by leaving a line before and after. The preferred form for academic writing is indentation. In any case, this formal feature helps the reader identify and process the ideas.
1. The topic sentence:

A topic sentence indicates what idea or argument the paragraph is going to deal with. For academic writing it is most effective if the topic sentence is the first sentence of the paragraph because it makes it easier for the reader to follow the argumentation without having to do additional processing. If you are not yet used to writing in English or are in general an inexperienced writer, it is better for you to place your topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.
Your paragraph should focus on the idea set out in the topic sentence. You should not introduce other ideas or go off on a tangent. If you have finished an idea, you begin a new paragraph. If your discussion of one idea is going to be lengthy, subdivide your paragraph into two or more sub-notions and link them with new topic sentences / linking sentences.
2. One paragraph, one notion:
3. Sufficient development
The idea you introduce with your topic sentence should be sufficiently fleshed out to get across your idea properly. The way you do this in each paragraph may vary, depending on what you aim to achieve, for instance you might use examples, give definitions, provide data, refer to other authors or quote them, outline causes and effects, compare and contrast, summarise or explain.
4. Cogency:
This refers to clarity of thought and argumentation. It is the result of writing coherently and cohesively. It makes the paragraph fluent, logical, and easily understandable. This means putting the ideas in a logical order and using strategies of linking them up. You can do this using: logical bridges: The same idea of a topic is carried over from sentence to sentence An idea is built on from one sentence to the next
grammatical structures: Successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form Successive sentences can be constructed inversely. linguistic bridges: Repetition of key words over several sentences Use of synonyms throughout the paragraph Pronouns and deictic terms to refer back (or forward) to nouns or whole ideas in other sentences Lexical phrases and conjunctions can be used to link ideas from different sentences or indicate attitude
On the following pages you will see an example of an essay based on some of the information you have been given so far - an essay about essays. This is followed by an analysis of its structure. Then I lead you through two essay-writing tasks, one on the importance of television and the other on violence in the media, which both conclude with sample essays.
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Sample essay on Paragraphs

An essay is an instrument of communication. It is a structured treatment of a particular topic, presented in a standard form and in a readable, fluent and logical manner. To write a cogent and communicative essay, you must master the structure of its building blocks, its paragraphs. Paragraphs are expected to have certain characteristics and the paragraphs in the different sections of an essay fulfil particular functions to provide a well-rounded essay. Firstly, the essay begins with an introduction, a paragraph which tells the reader what the essay is about and how the information will be presented. Then, paragraphs which support and develop the idea presented in the introduction form the body of the essay, and finally, the concluding paragraph brings all these parts together again. The introductory paragraph lays the basis for the whole of the rest of the essay. It should tell the reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with. However, an abrupt statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readers feel uncomfortable and does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore, it is best to lead into the topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing the topic down before dealing with the issue itself. The key element in the introduction is the thesis statement, which provides the focus for the rest of the essay and is usually found at the end of the introduction. The introduction is followed by the developmental paragraphs, each of which deals with one major idea that supports the thesis statement. The major idea for the paragraph is given in a topic sentence, which, in an academic essay, is usually at the beginning of the paragraph. This topic sentence states the topic (i.e. who or what) and indicates the controlling idea (i.e. how, when, where, why, etc.). All the other sentences in the paragraph are linked to this idea in some form or another. Since all the paragraphs (specifically, the topic sentences) in an essay should support the thesis presented in the introduction, you can say that the structure of a paragraph is a mini reflection of the structure of the essay. Finally, in the concluding paragraph, you draw your ideas and observations together. You remind your reader of your aims and your main supporting arguments, synthesising them (not repeating them verbatim) to make your final point. What seems obvious to you may no longer be obvious to the reader, so it is part of the task to clarify your overall purpose here and arrive at a final conclusion. Thus, although all the paragraphs in an essay will essentially follow the one notion, one paragraph principle, they will vary in character according to the function they serve, i.e. whether they are introductory, developmental or concluding paragraphs. They will also share the character of linking the ideas within and between them. And when the paragraphs fulfil the requirement of supporting the thesis as they should, you will find you have a readable, clear and well-rounded essay.
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Sample Essay on Paragraphs: examination of structure

Introductory paragraph: General lead-in to topic Narrowing focus Particular issue Thesis (claim) General indication of An essay is an instrument of communication. It is a structured treatment of a particular topic, presented in a standard form and in a readable, fluent and logical manner. To write a cogent and communicative
essay, you must master the structure of its building blocks, its paragraphs. Paragraphs are expected to have certain characteristics
line of discussion
and the paragraphs in the different sections of an essay fulfil particular functions to provide a well-rounded essay. Firstly, the essay
begins with an introduction, a paragraph which tells the reader what the essay is about and how the information will be presented. Then, paragraphs which support and develop the idea presented in the introduction form the body of the essay, and finally, the concluding paragraph brings all these parts together again.
First developmental paragraph: Topic sentence Supporting ideas (expalanation and outline) Idea linking to next
step
The introductory paragraph lays the basis for the whole of the rest of the essay. It should tell the reader about the topic and how the topic will be dealt with. However, an abrupt statement of the topic and the controlling idea makes the readers feel uncomfortable and does not give them time to warm up to the topic. Therefore, it is best to lead into the topic by making a general statement about it, then narrowing the topic down before dealing with the issue itself. The key element in the introduction is the thesis statement, which provides the focus for the rest of the essay and is usually found at the end of the introduction.
2nd developmental Phrase linking to
Topic sentence Supporting ideas (details of features) Parallel as example
previous paragraph
The introduction is followed by the developmental paragraphs, each of which deals with one major idea that supports the thesis statement. The major idea for the paragraph is given in a topic sentence, which, in an academic essay, is usually at the beginning of the paragraph. This topic sentence states the topic (i.e. who or what) and indicates the controlling idea (i.e. how, when, where, why, etc.). All the other sentences in the paragraph are linked to this idea in some form or another. Since all the paragraphs (specifically, the topic sentences) in an essay should support the thesis presented in the introduction, you can say that the structure of a paragraph is a mini reflection of the structure of the essay.
observations together. You remind your reader of your aims and your main supporting arguments, synthesising them (not repeating them verbatim) to make your final point. What seems obvious to you may no longer be obvious to the reader, so it is part of the task to clarify your overall purpose here and arrive at a final conclusion.
3rd developmental paragraph: Linking word Topic sentence Explanation Concluding paragraph: Linking word/signpost Reminder of thesis Reference to main points Bringing reader back
Finally, in the concluding paragraph, you draw your ideas and
Thus, although all the paragraphs in an essay will essentially follow the one notion, one paragraph principle, they will vary in character according to the function they serve, i.e. whether they are introductory, developmental or concluding paragraphs. They will also share the character of linking the ideas within and between them.
up to general level of the topic and context concluding remark
And when the paragraphs fulfil the requirement of supporting the thesis as they should, you will find you have a readable, clear and well-rounded essay.
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TV Step 1: Preparing
Deciding on your thesis and approach Simple example: We cant live without television Very often the topic you will be writing on is already set, in which case the approach is relatively clear. However, sometimes you most respond to a question or a statement. This means you have to examine the question or statement carefully. What are the key words? What is the general topic area? What issue/problem is it focusing on? Is it formulated in a provocative way? Will I have to relativise it or put it into perspective? What is my view of the topic? Do I agree or disagree with the view presented? To what extent? For the sake of simplicity, let us imagine you have been asked to write in response to the statement: We cant live without television. The key words are television and we and cant live without it. Television is the general topic. We suggests it is a social phenomenon. And cant live without it suggests a dependency. The last phrase is emotive and perhaps too categoric. What are we really talking about? Perhaps whether television is really important in our lives. What do you think? Is television important? Is it beneficial? Or is it rather a problem? If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it would be best to brainstorm the topic and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can use during most steps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low. If you already have an idea of where you stand, you can loosely formulate a preliminary thesis statement, which will be your guiding thought throughout the essay. This need not be your final thesis statement but it clarifies what you intend to show in your essay. This is important so that you maintain a consistent line in your discussion and because it needs to be made clear in the introduction what you intend to do in your essay. Once you have formulated an initial thesis statement, your next step will be focused on brainstorming the aspects of this. We will proceed as if you were not entirely sure of your view.
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TV Step 2: Brainstorming
Collecting ideas and formulating / refining a thesis Simple example: We cant live without television If you are not sure yet what you would like to focus on, it is best to brainstorm the topic to get some ideas and then decide. Brainstorming is a strategy that you can use during most steps of your writing, especially if you find your ideas running low. When you brainstorm an idea, you collect ALL the ideas you can think of which relate to the topic, directly or indirectly. Let the ideas flow as rapidly and spontaneously as possible, and do not worry about the order or the value of the ideas. Our example will remain with the subject of television: TV guide Entertainment Information Weather Everywhere Education Instruction Cartoons Films Small world News Documentaries Sports Violence Colour Advertisements Up-to-date Technology Sound Picture
There are two main groupings we can identify: types of programmes (sports, news, films...) and what TV can offer (entertainment, education...). A focus you could choose based on the latter grouping would be: How big a role television plays in our daily lives. Now it is time to formulate a preliminary thesis statement, that is, a statement outlining what you want to show in your essay. This statement clarifies what you intend to show in your essay. For this topic your preliminary thesis statement could be something like the following: Television is important for our society today. Once you have settled on your focus, you can use the ideas you have already collected, or brainstorm further with the focus in mind. The next step is to sort out and select the ideas you will be using.
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TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting

Selecting and Organising the relevant ideas Simple example: We cant live without television Now organise and select the ideas you will use for the essay.

Which ideas can you leave out? Which ideas belong together? Can you organise them under one heading? Is there more than one way to group the ideas?
In order to avoid rewriting at this point, you can use symbols or highlighter to group the ideas: TV guide Entertainment Information Weather Everywhere Knowledge of the world Education Instruction Cartoons Films Small world School programmes News Documentaries Sports Violence Colour Vivid images Advertisements Up-to-date Technology Sound Picture Realism
The symbols stand for the following ideas: What TV offers Types of programmes Method Character of content Ideas I think I dont need Now you can decide on the structure your essay will take.
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TV Step 4: Final Plan

Devising a final outline of the structure Simple example: We cant live without television This is the point where the ideas should be organised into the final framework you will use to guide you in your writing. You may wish to look at the outline template beforehand to assist you. Here is a final overview of the ideas that will be presented in the essay. First, I decided to leave out the paragraph on methods because it does not fit the main topic so well. Second, I have changed the order of the ideas so that they flow more logically. Finally, I have added the outline of an introduction and a conclusion to round off the plan. NOTE: As a rule, the introduction and the conclusion can only be planned AFTER you have planned the body of the essay, since you cannot introduce the argumentation if you have not planned it, and by the same token, you cannot conclude/draw the ideas together if you do not know what they will be. Thus, I only made the outline of the introduction and the conclusion after I had finished making the outline of the body.
The importance of television

Introduction TV common in households Cant imagine no TV TV important for us today (thesis) TV can serve many purposes; offers variety of valuable programmes and content (reasons and guide to reader) Body 1) Variety of programmes Weather Cartoons Films School programmes News Documentaries Sports Advertisements
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2) Informative content Up-to-date Realism Accessible (Everywhere) 3) TV offers us other benefits Entertainment Information Education Instruction Knowledge of the world Conclusion Value of range and form of TV content, many purposes Types of programmes, character of content, what TV offers TV is an integral and vital medium today TV can contribute positively to society in education and awareness Now you can begin writing the essay following your outline. Look at the comments on readership before you begin. If you like, you can look at another, more complex example first in the sections following Sample Essay 1, focusing on the topic Violence in the Media.
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Readership, content and style

Addressing the reader appropriately
It is important to write your essay with your readers directly in mind. Address them with the words you write. It will help to ask yourself the following questions before you begin: Who are my readers? Are they specialists or non-specialists in the subject? What are they likely to know about the topic already? What will they want to learn from me? What is their attitude likely to be? How can I maintain the attention of those who have little interest? What aspects of the subject may be of particular importance to them? Will it be more appropriate to be personal or impersonal in approach?
Opening
Introduce topic as if the title doesn't exist (who, what, how, when, where, why). Try to arouse the readers' interest (e.g. question, anecdote). Save formal introductions for long and complex reports or investigations
Main Body
Deal with each point systematically Avoid unnecessary explanations and indirect approaches as these destroy the impact. Be simple and direct. Do not over-generalise. You will only undermine your own credibility. Provide examples, descriptions, explanations, personal experiences (if appropriate). If necessary, make footnotes or endnotes. Indicate sources (see MLA citation style at http://www.liunet.edu/cwis/cwp/library/workshop/citmla.htm ).
Conclusion
Recap all the main points and draw them together to support the point you wish to make If necessary, point out what direction your conclusions may lead for future discussion.
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Simple Essay The Importance of Television

To show how the outline fits with the essay itself, I have placed each paragraph next to a basic general outline. The points follow in the same order. Outline Introduction 1. Introduce general topic (TV) 2. Narrow down topic (household without TV?) 3. Focus on thesis (TV important) 4. Reasons and reader guide (valuable programmes, content, purposes) Essay Today it is very common in industrialised countries for a household to have at least one television. In fact, it is so common that it is difficult to imagine a household without TV. This shows just how significant television is to us, but we can see that its importance is far greater than just being an object we own if we look at the variety of programmes and valuable content it offers and the purposes it serves in daily life. First of all, there are many different types of programmes on television that are useful. The viewer can watch a weather report to prepare for the day. Cartoons and sport provide relaxation and fun. School programmes, documentaries and the news teach us about the world. And advertisements inform us about products and new ideas. Secondly, the content is relevant because it is realistic and up to date. As TV is a medium that combines moving, colour images and sound, it resembles real life, so the viewers can identify with what they see. Furthermore, modern technology means that the content is up to date, for example, news reports can be broadcast live and from all over the world. This means that information is available almost anywhere at any time. Finally, TV can be used to enhance many important aspects of everyday life. People seek entertainment and distraction, and TV can give us that in the
Body: developmental paragraph 1 (Variety of programmes) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling idea: many programme types) 2. Supporting ideas (list some types) 3. Details (function)
Body: developmental paragraph 2 (Informative character of content) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling idea: what makes content attractive) 2. Supporting ideas (realistic, etc.) 3. Details (value for viewers)
Body: developmental paragraph 3 (serves many beneficial purposes in daily life) 1. Topic sentence (topic and controlling
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idea: how does TV meet peoples needs) form of films or cartoons. People want education, information and instruction 2. Supporting ideas (peoples needs) because they are inquisitive and like to 3. Details (specific functions) learn. TV gives us these in documentaries or educational programmes, in reports or cultural magazines. People enjoy creativity, and TV gives us that in the work of all the people involved in creating clever film scripts, effective scenery, witty dialogues or magnificent camera shots. TV gives us the world, other cultures, other people, languages and ideas. It introduces us to knowledge. Conclusion 1. Restate thesis (controlling idea of essay: valuable programmes, content, purposes) 2. Restate each topic sentence from developmental paragraphs (programme types, character of content, what TV offers) 3. State your opinion/ preference; give solution; make prediction... (TV vital and integral) 4. Final statement (summing thought: education, awareness ) As we have seen, television offers us a wide range of valuable programmes and content and serves many purposes in our daily lives. Television not only provides many types of programmes with interesting and broad content, but also serves to fulfil our needs in terms of entertainment and knowledge. It is far more than just an object we own. It is an integral and vital medium today, which can contribute positively to the education of society and to people's awareness of others.
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Media Violence Step 1: Preparing

Identifying the topic and the task Complex example: Violence in the Media Most of the time your essay will be based on a prescribed topic. If you have a question or a statement requiring a response, you will need to read the question carefully and ask yourself 2 main questions: What is it about? What am I expected to do? To ensure you identify the whole task, underline the key elements and, if necessary, number them. Look at the following task, which is based on a past TOEFL writing test question:
crime in our (western) society. However, many people disagree that violence in society can be related to violence in the media. Discuss the possible reasons for both points of view and give your own opinion as to whether or not violent programs should be censored. So proceeding step by step we ask ourselves: What is it about? The question is about VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA. What am I expected to do? 1. Discuss reasons for both points of view. a. Media violence is the cause of violence in society b. Media violence is not the cause of violence in society 2. My opinion of censorship question Now you can formulate a preliminary thesis statement. In this case, your preliminary thesis statement may be something like the following: There are two sides to the question of whether media violence causes violence in society, both of which have strong arguments. However, censorship is a dubious solution which will cause its own problems. Once you are clear about what the question requires of you, you may begin brainstorming your first ideas.
Task: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidence of
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Media Violence Step 2: Brainstorming

Complex example: Violence in the Media You have now identified the topic and the task you are expected to carry out: At this stage you should write down as many ideas on the topic you can think of. Limit yourself to 4 or 5 minutes. If you have difficulty starting, it is often helpful to start by asking and answering the following basic questions: What is meant by...? Who What How When Where Why Media = TV, radio, Internet, newspapers, magazines, books... Esp. children affected; programmers who decide, ... Crime, blackmail, theft, even murder, particularly gruesome acts Desensitising, bad examples, ... Now Europe, America Shown as normal, social problems, children copy 'heroes', TV ubiquitous
This will help us think of concrete examples and reasons when we are developing our essay, and provide a basis for more encompassing comments. In addition in this case, as the question already indicates three major areas, it will help if we collect the ideas under each area:
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Media cause of violence Accent on violence in news Children copy Violent cartoons Heroes violent Heroes outsiders Ideas for crime Lack of positive example Lower threshold Sensationalism
Media NOT cause of violence Social pressures Arbitrary release of aggressive feelings TV educational Individualism and materialism Lack of parental help People can't cope Unable to find help Unemployment
Censorship Who should decide? What will be censored? What else might go? Broadcasting controls Change channels Critical viewing Education of viewers Viewers can switch off TV entertaining
Include all the ideas you think of even if they seem far-fetched to begin with. You may be able to use these ideas later to give your essay an unusual perspective. Note any examples or anecdotes which may occur to you, or even diagrams or sketches. Current events may also provide illustration for your topic, for example, the spate of school children running amok with weapons in the United States is a topical illustration for this essay. If you run out of ideas and feel what you have is not sufficient, focus on one of the sub-points and work on from there. You can also try simple word association to set you on track again. Once you have gathered enough ideas, move on to step 3: organising and adapting.
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Media Violence Step 3: Organising and Adapting

Collating, selecting and organising the material Complex example: Violence in the Media Please note, the time you spend on planning and the amount of detail you include will of course depend on constraints such as time or space placed on the essay. This essay is being planned in greater detail than you may be required to use. However the framework of your essay will emerge from the time you allot to your planning. Our 2nd sample essay here consists of a relatively high degree of detail since we are moving step by step through the task. To begin with we have our topic and task: VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA 1. Discuss reasons for both points of view. a. Media violence is the cause of violence in society b. Media violence is not the cause of violence in society 2. My opinion of censorship question
I have gathered a number of ideas in table form since a general grouping was apparent from the start. Now organise and select the ideas to be used for the essay.

Which ideas can you discard? Which ideas belong together? Can you organise them under one heading? Is there more than one way to group the ideas? C Censorship Who should decide? What will be censored? What else might go? Broadcasting controls
A Media cause of violence B Media NOT cause of violence Accent on violence in news Children copy Violent cartoons Heroes violent Society to blame Arbitrary release of aggressive feelings TV educational Individualism and materialism
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Heroes outsiders Ideas for crime Lack of positive example Lower threshold Sensationalism
Lack of parental help People can't cope Unable to find help Unemployment
Change channels Critical viewing Education of viewers Viewers can switch off TV entertaining Evidence not conclusive
These are categorised in the following way: A Media violence is to blame: 1. 2. 3. 4. Violence is normal Violence is entertainment Negative example only Children particularly susceptible
B Media violence not to blame: 1. 2. 3. Social pressure/ social change to blame Individual inability to cope Parental guidance lacking
C Should there be censorship? 1. 2. 3. 4. Problems Alternatives Individual behaviour Additional considerations
This is merely one approach to grouping the ideas that can be used for this material. You may prefer a different method or include other ideas, but once you have reached this stage, the next step is to plan the outline.
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Media Violence Step 4: Final Plan

Complex example: Violence in the Media Let us reconsider the question:
of crime in our (western) society. However, many people disagree that violence in society can be related to violence in the media. Discuss the possible reasons for both points of view and give your own opinion as to whether or not violent programs should be censored. We have identified the main elements: VIOLENCE IN THE MEDIA 1. Discuss reasons for both points of view. a. Media violence is the cause of violence in society b. Media violence is not the cause of violence in society 1. My opinion of censorship question
Question: Violence in the media has been blamed for the rising incidence
Moreover we have formulated a preliminary thesis statement: There are two sides to the question of whether media violence causes violence in society, both of which have strong arguments. However, censorship is a dubious solution which will cause its own problems. It is now necessary to collate the ideas you sifted through in the organising stage and set them out in a logical order, making alterations and additions where necessary. The introduction will largely be based on the question, the task identification and the thesis statement. The conclusion will refer back to these and the main points of the body before making a final pronouncement. Thus our outline could take the following form: A Media violence is to blame: Violence is presented as normal or even entertainment a. Violence in news, cartoons, films, radio, papers. Films without violence or weapons rare b. Violence is a source of 'humour' (children's cartoons) c. Yellow press/ reality TV present sensationalism as pseudo-information
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d. Many musicians and songwriters glorify/condone violence in their lyrics and performances Negative example is not balanced by a positive view a. 'Heroes' are frequently violent, take law into own hands, outsiders b. Lack of positive examples c. Violence is frequently presented as the only solution to a problem Result a. Threshold to committing violence lowered b. People get ideas for crime from film, newspapers c. Children are particularly susceptible - cannot distinguish between reality and fantasy d. Children copy dangerous and unacceptable behaviour and learn unacceptable values B Media violence not to blame: Social pressure and social change to blame a. Pressures of modern society: unemployment, homelessness, pressure to succeed, lack of perspective for young people b. Individualism and materialism leave emotional emptiness c. Responsibility shirked Individual inability to cope a. Inability of individuals to cope with new social and economic situations (divorce, workplace pressures b. Inability to seek/find help c. Aggressive feelings vicariously released Parental guidance lacking a. Parents do not supervise children enough: emotional and moral guidance lacking b. Parents do not guide their children's TV viewing habits or taste in entertainment c. People should question and be critical C Should there be censorship? Problems of censorship a. Who will be responsible for censorship?
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b. Who will decide what will be censored? c. What if censors overstep their responsibilities or interpret their task too strictly? Alternatives a. Define content appropriate for particular broadcasting times - and enforce! b. Educate the viewers to be selective, critical c. Encourage writers and programmers to offer other more balanced content Individual behaviour a. Encourage viewers to show their viewing desires by switching off or changing channels if they disapprove of the programmes b. Point out to people that they as consumers (e.g. by buying trashy newspapers) are responsible for content Additional considerations a. No conclusive evidence that the media is responsible for violent behaviour b. Media may reflect life rather than life the media Now you can begin writing the essay following your outline. Look at the comments on readership that follow and refer to the essay outline given at the beginning to help you write.
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Complex Essay Violence in the Media

In recent years we have witnessed an alarming increase in the crime rate, especially among young people. We have been left shocked and at a loss to find explanations for why teenagers rob and blackmail, why young people commit physical violence, why children become murderers. Some people place the blame on the way violence is represented in the media and, as a consequence, demand that there should be stricter controls, or even censorship, put in place. However, this way of dealing with the problem is not undisputed. It is necessary to take a closer look at whether or not violence in the media really is responsible for this development and then to examine what censorship may entail before taking such a far-reaching decision, as it may, in fact lead to more problems rather than providing solutions. Many concerned people, ranging from worried parents through to reputable psychologists, deplore the ever-present nature of violence in the media, claiming that this is the reason why people are increasingly prepared to commit violent acts. They argue that violence is being propagated as normal or even entertaining. Violence is in the newspapers, on the news, in film plots and in cartoons. Violence is a source of laughter in children's programmes; films present it as staple fare; it is served as pseudoinformation in sensation-hungry newspapers and on reality TV; and it is even glorified by some musicians in their lyrics and performances. In fact in the public domain, it is difficult to find material that is not linked to violence in some form. Those who are worried by this development also point out that the negative examples provided by the media are not balanced by a positive view. Criminals are often seen as daredevil and debonair or are presented so as to arouse sympathy. The so-called 'heroes' in TV series and films, be they Dirty Harry, the Power Rangers, Butch Cassidy or the Mighty Ducks, are frequently violent and tend to take the law into their own hands. Not only this, the situations are often so contrived that the hero apparently has no other choice but to turn to violence to solve his problem. Thus, success in media terms means achieving a goal by means of violence and crime, so people naturally see this means as an acceptable alternative for achieving what they want too. Since the media depicts violence as a normal state of affairs and an acceptable problem-solving option, this is seen as inevitably leading to a lowering of the threshold to committing violence and crime. It does not stop here, for film, television and the popular press even offer ideas for ways to commit crime and violent acts. Indeed, the detail given and emotional involvement evoked in film in particular even provide ideas as to how to carry out certain crimes. A prime example is the recent report of the high school massacre in Littleton in the United States, where the teenage killers wore trench coats and mowed down their victims in a manner reminiscent of scenes from a popular film. The teenagers and children of today are immersed in the media, and children above all are particularly susceptible to its influence, as they are not yet in a position to be able to distinguish adequately between reality and fantasy. They grow up experiencing violent acts being committed daily in cartoons, in films and on the news, so it is not surprising if they believe that violent behaviour is normal behaviour. They copy
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this dangerous and unacceptable behaviour and assimilate dangerous and unacceptable values. Nevertheless, there are voices which challenge the assumption that violence in the media is the cause of increased violence in society. They would say that society itself was to blame as a result of the social pressure and social change people must face. Modern society subjects individuals to an array of pressures such as the lack of perspective for young people, the threat of unemployment or homelessness, as well as the necessity to succeed in economic terms and terms of status. Furthermore, there is a lacking sense of responsibility and a tendency to pass the blame. Individualism and materialism leave little room for the fulfilment of emotional needs. This situation is coupled with the inability of the individuals themselves to cope with new social and economic situations such as divorce or the changing demands of the workplace. Once caught up in a cycle of strife, people frequently find themselves unable to seek or find help. They are trapped in an anonymous and seemingly uncaring world. As a result, feelings of frustration, despair or aggression build up until they can no longer be contained and are then suddenly, horrifically and vicariously released. There is also the suggestion that the society 'outside' is not the only source of concern, that in fact a great deal of blame lies at the feet of thoughtless or irresponsible parents. Parental guidance is said to be lacking because parents do not supervise their children enough to guide their emotional and moral development. Very often the much-berated media is employed as a babysitter: TV and video games keep the children and teenagers occupied and out of the way. What is missing is the shared experience, the guidance in viewing habits and taste in entertainment, and the critical discussion and explanation of what the children have encountered in the media. Parents must teach their children to question what they see and hear and be there for them. So in all of this, is there a need for censorship in the media? The question of censorship raises a number of problems. Decisions would need to be made as to just who would be responsible for carrying out the task and in what form. Would it be the task of one person or a committee? Who would have the right - or the privilege - to be represented on a committee of this nature? The range of groups who would wish for a say extends from parents through church groups to the media representatives themselves, and this would clearly present a tug-o-war on many levels of interest: moral, educational, economic, aesthetic, and exploitative, to name a few. In addition, there is no guarantee that the criteria for determining the suitability of content nominated by this committee would better protect viewers than the arbitrarily functioning dynamics currently operating. In fact, there may be a need to set up controls to regulate what will happen if censors overstep their responsibilities and interpret their task too strictly or even irrationally. Indeed, this raises a further question: who would be the one to censor the censors? There are certain alternatives to the extreme of censorship. Rather than rigidly setting up regulations to be strictly enforced, media groups could be encouraged to establish a code of practice. In addition to this, programmers need to define the
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content appropriate for particular broadcasting times, which would, for example, ease the difficulties that parents may have in supervising their children's viewing habits. This is already in practice to some degree in many places, but the difficulty is to ensure that the guidelines are followed. Further to this, script-writers need to be encouraged to offer more balanced content. There is a belief, whether well-founded or not, that violence sells and this can only be overcome if producers and programmers are prepared to move in other directions, accepting more variety in content, and viewers are prepared to show that the belief has little basis. Viewers, readers and listeners need to become more aware of their power and learn to be selective and critical of what the media offers for consumption. The TV viewer's programming desires can be demonstrated by switching off the television or changing channels if the programmes meet his disapproval. The reader can take active steps by not purchasing papers or magazines that glorify or sensationalise violent content. The listener can also switch stations or call in on that talk-back programme to state his opinion. Audiences can boycott products that are advertised during films or other programmes that show inappropriate content or are shown at inappropriate times. Thus, individuals must be aware that they are to some extent also responsible for the content, since the signals they give to filmmakers and advertisers suggest that violence is indeed what they want. This brings us back to the point of what role violence in the media has to play in influencing society's behaviour. The discussion has shown that while violence appears almost ubiquitously in the media, providing a lopsided view of acceptable behaviour and how to deal with problems, thus certainly having at least the potential to influence those exposed to it, it need not be the sole cause of the rising incidence of violence in the community. There are enough examples of the difficulties and complexities of society that people must face today to show that violence may stem from failure to cope with these pressures and lack of outlet for emotional problems. In other words, it may be that the media reflects life, rather than life reflecting the media. Whatever the case, the role of parents and guardians in supervising and guiding the media consumption of those in their care cannot be underestimated. Censorship would only remove the responsibility out of the control of the people who are most directly affected by programming content, and is thus not a desirable alternative to the present situation. Measures such as responsible programming, incentives for more creative and well-balanced scripting and production, and encouragement of reflection on the part of broadcasters and the press to the point of even establishing a code of practice would be preferable steps to take. But above all, people need to be taught to be selective and responsible in dealing with not only the media, but all aspects of everyday life, and to recognise that they as individuals must make decisions and take action themselves in order to influence not just the media, but the fabric of the whole of our community.
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Some Useful Links

Grammar and Writing Skills Style Manuals
http://www.englishgrammar.org/
http://www.mla.org/ http://webster.commnet.edu/mla/index.shtml http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/chicagogd.html http://www.aresearchguide.com/12biblio.html http://owl.english.purdue.edu/ http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~riceowl/table_of_contents.htm http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/mla#mla http://www.bartleby.com/141/index.html
Bibliography styles Writers Workshops MLA Citation Style Elements of grammar and style British Council UK IELTS TOEFL test
http://www.britishcouncil.org/ http://www.ielts.org/ http://www.toefl.org/

1999 Catherine Schwerin Second revision October 2007
Institut fr Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitt Hamburg Von-Melle-Park 6 20146 Hamburg Germany
Catherine.Schwerin@uni-hamburg.de
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Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

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Essay Writing CatherineSchwerin

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Essay Writing: Developing Academic Writing Skills in English

Institut fr Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitt Hamburg

1999 Catherine Schwerin Catherine.Schwerin@uni-hamburg.de Second revision October 2007

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Before you begin

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

3. Organising and adapting:

5. Make a logical outline:

7. Write according to your outline:

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

9. Revise draft: And check again!

10. Write the final version.

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Chronological Reverse chronological

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Standard Essay Outline

Introduce general topic Narrow down topic Restate question

State thesis (controlling idea)

Body (consisting of several developmental paragraphs) Each paragraph consists of:

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

1. The topic sentence:

2. One paragraph, one notion:

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Sample essay on Paragraphs

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Sample Essay on Paragraphs: examination of structure

2nd developmental Phrase linking to

Topic sentence Supporting ideas (details of features) Parallel as example

Finally, in the concluding paragraph, you draw your ideas and

up to general level of the topic and context concluding remark

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

TV Step 3: Organising and Adapting

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

TV Step 4: Final Plan

The importance of television

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

2007 Catherine Schwerin

IAA Universitt Hamburg

Readership, content and style

2007 Catherine Schwerin