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1914
THE
JOURNAL
OF THE
INSTITUTE
VOLUME
OF
XII
METALS
EDITED
BY
G.
SHAW
SCOTT,
Secretary
M.Sc.
{Right of Publication
and
Translation
is
reserved)
LONDON
PUBLISHED
CAXTON
BY
THE
INSTITUTE
OF
METALS
S.W.
HOUSE,
WESTMINSTER,
1914
Copyright]
[Entered
at
Stationers'
Hall
MAY
I.ECTURERS
(See
Frontispiece)
Professor
W.
GowLAND,
A.R.S.M.,
F.R.S.,
"The
Art
of
Working
Metals
in
Japan."
{Journal
of
the
Institute
of
Metals,
No.
2,
1910,
vol.
iv.)
Dr.
G.
T.
Beilby,
F.R.S.,
"The
Hard
and
Soft
States
in
Metals."
[Journal
of
the
Institute
of
Metals,
No,
2,
1911,
vol.
vi.)
Sir
J.
Alfked
Ewing,
KC.B.,
F.R.S.
,
"
The
Inner
ture Struc-
of
Simple
Metals."
{Journal
of
the
Institute
of
Metals,
No.
2,
1912,
vol.
viii.)
1^
THE
INSTITUTE
OF
METALS
President.
Engineer
Vice-Admiral
Sir
H.
J.
Oram,
K.C.B., F.R.S.,
London.
Past=Presiden
ts.
Sir W.
H.
White,
Sir Professor
(deceased).
A.
Muntz,
Bart., Birmingham,
Gowland,
K.
Professor
Huntington,
Honorary
T. A.
Treasurer. Norton.
Bayliss, King's
Vice-Presidents.
G. G.
T. A.
Beilby,
Boeddicker H.
LL.D.,
F.R.S.
. . .
'
Glasgow.
Birmingham.
London.
Professor
C.
H.
Carpenter,
M.A.,
Ph.D.
Summers J. T.
Hunter
Tynemouth.
London.
Milton
T.
Professor
Turner,
M.Sc,
A.R.S.M.
.
Birmingham,
Members
of
Council.
L.
Archbutt A.
Derby..
Barr,
D.Sc.
Professor A. G. R. W. The
Arnold
Glasgow. Glasgow.
Horwich.
Cleghorn
Hughes
.
S. HUTTON, Murray
Hon.
D.Sc.
.
Sheffield. London.
Morrison
Sir
C.
A.
Parsons,
A.R.S.M.
K.O.B.,
F.R.S
Newcastle-on-Tyn"
Portsmouth. London.
Philip, B.Sc,
K.
Sir
W. A. Sir
T.
Rose,
D.Sc.
ROSENHAIN,
E. W. Seaton E.
D.Sc,
F.R.S.
Teddington.
London. London. Manchester.
Sheffield.
Smith,
M.Sc.
Wilson
C.B.
L.
Sumner,
H.
Cecil
Hon. G.
Auditor.
Secretary.
G. Shaw
G.
Poppleton,
Address"
"
C.A., Birmingham.
Instomet,
Vic. London."
Scott, M.Sc.
"
Telegraphic
The
Telephone
Victoria,
IZiO.
Institute Caxton
of
Metals, Westminster,
S.W. December 1914.
House,
CONTENTS.
SECTION
I."
MINUTES
OF
PROCEEDINGS.
PAGE
May
Vote
Lecture
.......
1
to
of Thanks
Professor
......
Heyn
1
....
Election
"
Internal
Cold-wrought
May
Lecture.
Metals,
and
some
Troubles
caused
3
thereby."
Statutory
Council Vote
By
Professor
E.
Heyn
Meeting
for 1915
.
38 39
of Thanks
to
retiring
Treasurer
40 41 43
Election
of Members of Papers of
Acceptance
Expression
Sympathy
with
Belgium
conteibutkd
by
43
Papers
"
The
Widmanstatten N. T. Belaiew
Structure
.......
in various
Alloys
By Captain
46
Communications
"
on
Captain
of Hanson
Belaiew's
at
.....
paper
50
The
Tensile
Properties
and D.
on
Copper
High
and
Temperatures."
Hanson's
By
G.
D
56
Bengough
Communications
"
Messrs. 460" C.
Bengough
in Zinc-copper paper
paper
The
Critical
Point
at
on
Alloys."
....
By
O.
Communications
"
Mr.
Hudson's of Brass."
Note
on
the
Annealing
on
By
paper
.....
F. Johnson
....
Communications
"
Mr. R.
on
Metal The
Spraying."
Effect of
By
116 of Gold."
....
"
Hydrogen
on
Annealing
paper of Corrosion. Arnold
By
John
Phelps
Condenser
125 131
Communications "Contributions
to
Mr.
Phelps'
By
the
History
Mr.
Part
III.
"
Coke,
Tubes,
and
Corrosion."
on
Philip
....
133 154
Communications
"
Philip's paper
Metals." paper when
The
Surface
Tension
on
of Molten Mr.
By
....
Sydney
in
W.
Smith
.
168
210
Communications
'"
Smith's
Behaviour
of
Copper-zinc
and
on
Alloys
heated
....
Vacuum."
By
W 214
Thorneycroft
Communications
Thomas Messrs.
Turner
Thorneycroft
by
and
Turner's
paper
226
.
Notes
"
contributed
Members. Lake
The
Extraction H. C. H. of
of
Native
Copper
.......
at
Calumet,
Superior,
U.S.A."
By
230
Carpenter Temperatures
and its A.
"
The
Elf ect
higher
and
a
than
Atmospheric
with
on
Tensile
Tests
of and 234
Copper
Steel." "The Heat
Alloys,
K. of
Comparison
......
Wrought
H. S. Primrose
Iron
By
Huntington Admiralty
.......
Treatment
to
Gun-metal."
By
Additions
the
Library
Obituary
..........
VI
Contents
SECTION FERROUS
II."
ABSTRACTS METALS
OF AND
PAPERS THE
RELATING INDUSTRIES
TO
THE CONNECTED
NON-
THEREWITH.
The
Propeeties
of
Metals
and
Alloys
I. Properties of metals
Absorption
of of
lightby
copper
films
.
AUotropy Annealing
Atomic
common
metals copper
cold-rolled and
homology Capacity of bare copper conductors Catalytic influence of gold surfaces Cobalt and its possibilities Colouring aluminium Complexity of lead
.
heat
molecular
Conductors Contact
without
resistance of
differences
curves
potential
Cooling
Corrosion
of metal
at
high temperatures
and chromium
temperatures
manganese
Palladium
hydrogen
rare
high
by
means
of copper
Pyrophoric
Reduction Resistance Resistance Solutions
metals
of oxides
of
by carbon
in
a
antimony
in
of nickel of metals
at
in acids
Specific heats
low
temperatures
deformation
Volatilization II.
of metals
at
very
high temperatures
Properties of alloys
....
tests
Annealing
Bismuth Bismuth Calcium
carbide
preparation
Contents
Vll
PAGE
alloys amalgams Conductivity of sodium brass Cracking of drawn Electrical conductivity of liquidalloyis and its dangers Ferro-silicon
....
.
Cobalt
Growth Hall
Hardness
arsenic
views and
alloys
291
.
alloys
and intermetallic
292 293
silver
sulphide compounds
Specificheat Specificheat
Thermo-electric Titanium
of metals
293 294
294 294
alloys
oxidation
.
Type
metal
alloys
network of
a
feeders
Application
Babbitt and
protective metal
by spraying
296 297 299 299 299 300 300 300 300 300 301 301 302
bearing metals and alloys of metals Bronzing and cast iron bearings Bronze machine Cold striprolling Copper-coil forming machine holes in glass Copper for drilling brass cup circular a Drawing
other
. .
riveting device
Locomotive
Making
Metals
the
dies for
drawn
copper
shell
Manufacture
and
of seamless
tubes
Making
half-round
Non-ferrous
tubes Straightening aluminium uses Tungsten Useful annealing device Wire rings for leaky stuffing-boxes
. .
Vlll
Contents
ELECTRO-METALLURGy I.
AND
ElECTRO-CHEMISTRY
Electro-metallurgy Deposition
Electrical Nickel of nickel
treatment
on
aluminium of copper
ores
Electrolytic
soldering electro-deposit
.
Plating in Stripping
Treatment Zinc II.
colours of
plated goods
ores
of tin
by electricity
electro-metallurgy
Electro-chemistry
Alaska
as
industries
preparation of Alloys,electrolytic
of Brass, electro-deposition
solutions
Nickelling of aluminium
Power for
deposition electrolytic
of Zinc, electro-deposition
Analysis,
I.
Testing,
....
and
Pyrometry
Analysis
Aluminium,
detection
of
Antimony, qualitative recognition of of antimony sulphide Composition for nickel Dimethylglyoxime method
Electrode for zinc estimation
. .
of nickel Electro-deposition
Electrolytic analysisof copper and brass methods Electrolytic micro-chemical Electrolytic separation of copper
Free Iron and arsenic
cyanide
and
estimation
in
manganese
groups
Metallography
New
in three
dimensions
colorimetric
process
Phosphorus in phosphor bronze Pyrophoric alloys analysis Titanium separation from iron, aluminium, Tinplate sampling and analysis Tungsten metal analysis in coinage bronze Zinc estimation
II. Testing Brinell
....
and
phosphorus
hardness limits
tests
Fatigue
Density
Effect
of metals
in metals
Crystal formation
of molten of
metals
zinc
impurities in
Contents
IX
PAGE
Hardness
determination sclerometer
.
of aluminium
Testing Testing
III.
of metals metallic
coatings
using
resistance thermometers
335 336
Pyrometry
Combination and
336 33G
.
Recording pyrometers
Resistance Furnaces I.
and
Foundry
Methods
Furnaces Aluminium
nitride
as
furnace
lining
metals Annealing furnace for non-ferrous non-ferrous metals and casting Melting Melting points of refractory materials New lead furnace
Portable
lead-melting
combustion
Refractory materials
Sui-face
Tilting reverberatory
Zirconia II.
as a
refractory material
Foundry
Abrasives
Accurate
....
grinding wheels patternmaking flask Adjustable aluminium snap Brass foundry difficulties Brass foundry losses metal Elastic and vulcanite cutting Electro-magnetic
hammer
and
346 347
347
Graphite High-pot die-casting machine High-speed cold saw Improved tube cutter Magnetic separator
.
.
Making
Method Neutral
heavy
of coke
bronze
valves
making phosphor-tin
Diehl-Faber process
.
Polishing
Problems Sound Tin
aluminium in the
castings
manufacture
.
of copper
alloy;
copper
castings
recoi'ery of metals
care
by compression
of crucibles
graphite
furnace
353 354
annealing
furnace
Contents
page
Electric
furnace
efficiency
furnace furnaces
Laboratory Large
crucible
electrical
smelting
for
Protective Small Statistics Aluminium American American Canada's Colorado German Metal Mineral
Utah
coating
arc
electrodes for
electric
furnace
melting
and
refining
357 359
......
in
India
....
359
aluminium
"
output
metals trade
359
.
secondary"
360 360
aluminium metal
production,
of
1913
360
exports
output
resources
composition
Dakota,
the 1913 non-ferrous world
metal,
1912 and
"c.
.
of
South of
Belgian
Congo
metal
output,
of the
output output
.
metals
of
Subject Name
Index
.
372 383
Index
LIST
OF
PLATES.
Frontispiece:
May
Lectukers,
1910,
1911,
1912.
PAGE
Plate
I., Professor
T.
Turner,
1914
M.Sc,
......
A.R.S.M,,
Honorary
Treasurer,
190840
II. to
by Captain Captain by
Messrs.
N.
T.
Belaiew
48 52 Hanson 72 96 112
.
IV.,
V.
illustrating
to
Belaiew's
paper and
VII.,
to
illustrating
paper
Bengough
0. F. A. F. Hudson
VIII. XIII.
,,
XII.,
illustrating illustrating
by
by
to to
XV., XVII.,
to
Johnson
XVI. XVIII.
"
illustrating
by by
Philip
152
.
XXI.,
illustrating note
Professor
Huntington
240
THE
INSTITUTE
OF
METALS
SECTION
I.
MINUTES
OF
PROCEEDINGS.
MAY
LECTURE.
At
General of
Meeting
of
the
Institute
held
at
the
tion Institu-
Mechanical
S.W.,
on
Tuesday, May
Oram, K.C.B.,
delivered
Engineer
President,
Vicein
Admiral
the
Sir
Henry
J,
E.
F.R.S.,
the
chair.
Professor
Heyn
fourth
May
Lecture.
The London
were
Minutes
on
of
17
the and
Annual
General
Meeting,
taken
as
held
in
March the
18,
1914,
were
read, and
signed by
Chairman.
Professor
of
"
E.
Heyn Strains
then
in
delivered
his
lecture
on
the
and
subject
Some will
be
Internal
Cold-wrought
a
Metals of
Troubles found
on
Caused pages
Thereby,"
3-37.
full
report
which
of
Thanks
to
Professor
Heyn.
proposed,
was
and
Dr.
W.
Rosenhain,
that
his
a
F.R.S.,
vote
seconded,
of thanks
carried
to
unanimously,
E.
hearty
be
given
Professor
Heyn
for
lecture.
Election
of
Members.
The
who
Secretary
been
read
the
following list
Members of
of the
names
of candidates
:
"
had
duly
elected
Institute
Election
of
Members
The
proceedings
terminated
at
1 0
o'clock
p.m.
1914
May
Lecture
1914
MAY
LECTURE.*
INTERNAL
STRAINS
IN AND
COLD SOME
WROUGHT TROUBLES
METALS,
CAUSED
THEREBY.
By Professor E. HEYN
and
(Royal
Technical
Institute,
for
Charlottenburg,
Testing
Director
of
the
Royal
Prussian
Institute
Materials,
Berlin"
Lichterfelde).
In
the
first
place
the
desire
has
to
express
my upon
thanks
me
for
the
privilege your
me
Council
conferred
by inviting
I avail
to
some
to
deliver of the
myself
work
your
attention years
which
carried
in
recent
in
the
Gr, Lichterfelde, by my friend Konigl.Materialprlifungsamt, Bauer and Professor some myself with a view to clearing up of cold-wrought metals, peculiareffects in the behaviour which came to our knowledge and which caused much trouble to the practical engineer. deal The about to come phenomena with which I am internal strains." If portions of a solid under the heading of of solids formingtogether of a number or one are rigidmass from hindered which assuming the natural length, they would
"
assume
in the
absence
of
number
or
or
strain.
dition con-
brought about
any
(1) by
actingon
the solid
from the
outside
solid
strains
(2) without
external
"
observable has
"
ceased. the
solid
internal
is, so
secured
say,
self-
strained."
For bolts
as or
members
togetherby
or
rivets,
well
the
surfaces
same
which
true
they
for
press,
are
elastically
members of
deformed.
which have
The been
*
holds
structural
coupled togetherby
Delivered
the process
shrinking
May
12, 1914,
at
Westminster.
1914
May
Lecture
strains have and been
on.
In
cases
internal
intentionally
to possible
produced
estimate
structural
members,
for
it is
the
of these strains ;
besides, in
strains
loads
by
the
external
ones
of the the
other
up
in structural
and without being provided for,and unintentionally if it so happens that the internal strains are added to the the member is strains caused by the external load which designed to bear in service, failure may be caused suddenly after repeatedloadingand unloading. It may even or happen
members
that
the
uncontrollable
come so
internal
to
a
strains
in
the of the
structural
member
that
to
close
the
tensile limit
material,
additional
strains of
I
suffice amount trifling may of need only refer to the explosion due to unequal coolself-straining very of boiler
the
or
sudden
in
failure
an
ends, which
and
so
have
on.
been Seen
treated
unsuitable
manner,
of point of view, internal strains appear as a source serious danger,or at least of serious troubles. of internal In order to illustrate more clearlythe nature The first of these shows strains,I refer to Figs. 1 and 2. helical springs, three unloaded I, V and II, with the respective and I and I') II). On lengths l^ (for springs l^(spring in connecting these springs by two cross-heads,Q, as shown the common /,which Fig. 2, they are forced to assume length, the springs I and V exceeds l^ and is less than l^. Hence in length elastically, giving rise to internal strain in grow and is tension, whereas spring II is compressed elastically, model thus subjectedto internal The compression strain. The of a self-strained system. illustrated by Fig. 2 is typical two springs I and V tend to bring the two cross-heads, QQ, each the to other with force P^,the spring II, on nearer a
this
other with
we
a
hand, tends
force
to
increase
the
distance
between
Q and
must
be established,
By closely consideringFig. 2
method
can
be
found
for
Internal
Strains
in Cohi-ivrouQ'htMetals
under internal
a system distinguishing
strains from
an
strained un-
one.
(")
initial
If in
the
model
strained
solid)the
distance
/ amount
Fig. 2 (model of a selftwo springsI and V are cut through,the cross-heads of the two Q will instantly
illustrated in
iThcrease to the
l^"l.
reversed
in
Fig. 2, that is to say, if the is in which unloaded springs I and I' be of equal length l^, selfof the length /.,of the unloaded springII, a new excess strained system will exist with the springs I and I' under through compressionand springII under tension. On cutting
(h) If things be
the
will
distance value
I of
the
two
cross-heads
/.
Z'6
Fig.
1.
Fig.
2.
(c) We
unloaded
have
to
consider
third
are
case,
in which
the
three After
cross-
and
manner
II
of
shown internal
model
free the
from
two
strains and
obtained.
On
cutting through
distance
The
I of the
springs I
will
ensue.
change of the
be
cross-heads made
appliedto of a rod of circular section illustrated in Fig. 3. the case as If the rod is free from internal strains the length / of the remain portion II must unchanged after the outer layerI is turned off on This would lathe. a correspondto the case (c). It is obvious that the measuring and re-measuring of the carried be out at length before and after turning must identical temperatures. Since in turning heat is generated,
(a)
to
deductions
under
(c) may
1914
May
Lechtre
sufficient time
assume
must
be
left after
as
turning for
the
the
piece II
to
the
same
temperature
before.
layer I the remaining portion II of the rod increases in length,the existence of case Then, in the originalbar, the portion I (a) is established. under tension, the portion II under was compression strains. after turning off the layer I, the portion II is If, finally, shortened, this corresponds to case ("); that is to say, in the under originalbar the layer I was compression and the core
If, however, after
taking
away
tension. considerations
in
a
devised whether
the bar
give the key to a method, which has for ascertaining Konigl. Materialprlifungsamt,
or some
other
structural
idea
member of the
is self-
strained
or
not, and
of
as
also for
obtaining an
The
order
of
magnitude
in
the
internal
for
strains.
method
the in the
is illustrated
Figf.4
may
it is used be
determining
a
internal direction
on
strains,
of
two
which axis.
present in
a
round
bar
its
posite opare
The
distances
and
"/6' of marks
made
of the
bar
by
the
the
aid
of
comparator.
definite
.
length
off
ah
marks
thin
each
successively. After
and
bar
are
turned
the
distances
a%'
was
are
re-measured.
from
these
remain
unchanged,
the
free
longitudinalinternal strains. If,however, bar had been subjected to internal strains, be drawn to their magnitude in the as may
in the
followingway
Let
distances
b and
a'b^
first
layer /'^, X^
the
change
the
is removed, and so layer/'., and moval X^^ the corresponding change after the refinally, of the layer /'",let E be the modulus of elasticity of material of the bar, /'" the sectional area of the "th layer distances after the
second
taken
off
of
/'"_i
after
the
sectional
the
areas
the
the
nth. and
turning off
1914
May
as
Lecture
absorbs and moisture from
made the
of
material
such
to
a
wood, which
air,giving rise
then
straining may
absorb
be
length.
different
Self-
the
layers
different
amounts
(c) By transformation. If
consist of
a
(Fig. 3)
is
supposed to
of
a
definite range
in the
perature, tem-
undergoes a
of volume, and does
not
accompaniedby
change
II
transformation
same
portionsI and
set
go
on
the
case
in, as
in the
Summarizing, we
in all
cases
may where
say
that
must self-straining
a
be
a
duced proof
a
portionsof
by
any
cause
solid
or
of
are
set
connected rigidly
solids
whatever
given
and when different lengths, by cohesive tendency to assume this tendency and are from forces they are hindered following to a common forced to length by elastic adapt themselves deformation. The latter is
an
essential feature.
If
we
could
deformation,
the
differences
in
cause
length
would
induced
be
in
various
by any portionsof its mass leaving the yielding, plastic reached If the plastic yielding total fracture or limit,partial
equalized by
strains.
solid
a
free from
internal
degree exceedingthe cohesive would be brought about. filling Most of the materials used by the engineerare far from fuland cannot the condition of such perfect undergo plasticity,
without
are
deformation
when
concomitant
elastic deformation.
above of
a
Thus,
they
subjectedto
these
deformations
are
their elastic
range, and
in different
when
deformations
different
degree
of their mass by cohesive coupledtogether portions arise between forces, differences in length must neighbouring which can ing, yieldby plastic only partlybe equalized portions, by elastic deformation, leavinga remainder to be equalized
so
must
be
the
unavoidable with
The
of
increases selfstraining
a
elastic
equalizing. As
rule (not
with
temperature.
The
of internal
strains
therefore
will,other conditions
Internal
Strains
in Cold-ivronzlitMetals ^"
generallyincrease with decrease of temperature and will which flow is be more at unequal brought about, than in hot- working.* pronounced in cold-working It is the questionof internal strains caused hy cold work which I propose somewhat at length, to discuss more giving only occasional references to phenomena produced by hotsome working. Let the springs in Fig. 1 be replacedby three metallic bars of equal initial length, and which by different degreesof coldI the lengths /^(bars to working are permanently stretched and I')and /., of l^. Suppose the (bar II),l^ bemg in excess three bars coupled as in Fig. 2, so that they are forced to to the same equalize length /. A system with internal strains
being the
same,
will result.
A
out
similar
in the
eftect
can
be
obtained
as
on
unequally stretching
Fig. 3 so that the core II, the influence of a stronger degree of cold-stretching, under tends to assume the greater length l^, the outer layer whereas is inclined to I, subjectedto a less degree of cold-stretching, of the two take the length /^less than l^. On account tions porI and II being coupled togetherby cohesive forces,they must one common length /, thus giving rise to agree upon will be the case, the plastic internal strains,if,as generally of the is accompanied by a bar yielding of the substance In the case under concertain degree of elastic deformation. sideration, II the outer layer I is under tension, the core under compression strains. If,on the contrary, the portionI is subjected to more than the core II, severe cold-stretching is reversed ; compression strains result in the surface the case and tension strains in the core. layer,
cold
a
bar
such
in
The
former
work
case
is,as
far
as
can
be
deduced
from
the
perimental ex-
at
hand, realized by
the cold-drawing,
latter
and cold-hammering. In the process of drawing by cold-rolling the superficial layersof the metal are kept back by friction is stretched in a higher whereas in the drawing-die, the core however, the superficial degree. In cold-hammering, parts of
exception is, for instance, to be noted in the case of steel, for which the due to critical range for producing self-straining unequal flow is at the so-called
*
An
most
"
blue
200"
to
350" C.
10
1914
May
the the of
metal
core an
are
subjectedto
substance Thus the
the immediate
a
blows, part
of the
playingto
flow is
certain
degree
the
anvil.
in the
layers
than
core. means a
It is
by
no
cold-working
Various this
bars say been
may
induce
internal made
substances.
observations
in
certain
much
way.
But
I venture
to
more
elucidation and
been been
than
has
brought
about
by occasional
causes
observations
have have
not
even
frequentserious
examined
troubles, the
and
as
of
which
and thoroughly, be
systematically misunderstood,
need
far
as
can
concluded
from
publications.I
only
Fig.
4.
make the
reference so-called
"
to
the various
theories
"
season-cracking of
ascribed
and
other
copper
which alloys,
the
fancy of
that
not
inclined of internal
to
think
strains
will
without
interest
those The
concerned
first case,
of cold- worked
to
metals.
in
impetus
the
researches
the cracking of steam-turbine of blades made was question, high per cent, nickel steel (about 25 per cent.). The blades in Fig. 5, with rather fine edges on were shaped as shown both sides. not They were subjectedto external forces which
could
account
for
the
in
serious
crackinsr
on
the
side A
of
the
and
blades, as
illustrated
Fig. 5, nor
as
could
cause
microstructure of the
analysisgive
any
clue
to
the
failure.
The
Internal
blades had
Strains
in
Metals Cold-ivrought
11
received
In order
their final
to
shape by
idea
of bars
the
process
of
coldof
drawing.
of this
get
some
of
the
magnitude
alloywas
Nickel Carbon Silicon
procured with
the
rod
25-1
0"3
0"2("
.......
0"73
0-012
0-022 0"070
The
hot
had
been
reduced
from
34
metres milli-
3 1 millimetres
without by cold-drawing
in section is
reheating ; intervening
2 0
the
reduction
per
the
jected portionA of the bar was subto the measuring method described above, in the diagram Fig.6. In results beingplotted
cent.
One
this the
on
both
sides of the
of
horizontal
the
the
magnitude
0-,^
longitudinalinternal
per square
in
a
stresses,
(in
grammes kilo-
in the centimetre)prevailing
layern cylindrical
internal
seem
of
external
and d,^_ ^
and f^,,_i/2
diameter
d^^(as shown
take
the
Fig.
5.
Fig.4).
It would
adequate,to
radii
the
as d^^j'2
abscissa?, defining
the bar. this the
position of the ?tth layer within diagram Fig. 6, however, the abscissie f
w
In
the
are
for
layer
and of the
,t_i
'
-"ri-i,
O
that
is
half
sectional and
n"
area
cores respective
layer n
have
been
turned
oK ^hc
Since
basis
/'" the
cd of cach
section
of the nth
'^^ f'n=fn-i"f"n
measures
half
ac
=
the
section
/'"
manner
of
the
layer 6) (Fig.
the
ordinate
'bd
in this
layer.
o-,^ which
and alcd areas advantage that the shaded diagram,representing together the product of of the ?ith layer in f',^ immediately indicate the internal
in
the
the
area
which forces
this
stress
=
by prevails,
o-,,
^n
^n'f'n-
The
12
1914
May
horizontal
Lecture
zero-Hne
shaded
areas
above
the
forces,those
the
must must
beneath
that
state
of
the equilibrium,
one
compression
above
the
forces
balance be
zero-line
sum
equal to
areas
shaded
area
below
this line.
The
of
the shaded
up in the
gives some
idea of the
potential energy
severe
stored
internal of its
strains
existed
in
the
cold-drawn
direction
((
Fig.
Portion
6. A.
"
Cold-drawn
"
Nickel
Distribntion
of Internal
axis, tension
the
to
strains in
the
outer
in
central
3500
maximum
amounted
per
square
square maximum
(about 50,000
to
lb.
compressive stress
(about 54,000
3810
kilogrammes
square
In
square the
centimetre
lb. per
inch).
order
to
check
employed, another
hour
at
a
of the measuring method accuracy bar Avas heated one portion B of the same
of
temperature
must
850"
C, and
left
to
cool
slowly.
result
Internal
strains
be
removed
by
this process.
The
Internal
of
Strains
in
Cold-wroughtMetals
13
subsequent measurements
that
is
areas
shows
the
shaded
of equilibriumwithin the mass small, indicatingthe magnitude method the assumption that no on left in the annealed
of
have
become
involved
by
have
strains whatever
none
bar, and
that
have
been
produced
in
by
the
the
manner
cooling.
to
It is obvious direction
that in addition
of
the
strains longitudinal
the
axis
of the
cold-drawn
In
bar, there
order
bar
to
must
internal necessary
to
strains.
bore
out
measure
these, it would
be
the
from
within,
of the
taking off
outer
successive after
diameter
variation
Fig.
7." Cold-drawn
of Internal in
Nickel Strains
Steel Bar.
in the Bar per square after
Portion
at
B.
"
Distribution
C. per
(T"
850"
stresses
kilogrammes
14,200
lb. per
centimetre
centimetre^
inch).
of 25
per
cent,
nickelwere
of the that
A
made, which
stresses stresses
showed
maximum maximum
tension
at prevailed
(Fig.5), the
the
of
an
compressive
The internal
to
in the
stresses
neighbourhoodof
were
sharp edges.
not
tension ultimate
amount
much
inferior
that
the
even
tensile
It is obvious
due
to
external
to
forces, or
to
any
cause,
may
to
raise
these
stresses
the
giverise
It would
that
the cracks
erroneous
shown
to
in draw
Fig. 5.
the
was
be
conclusion unsuited
from
the
above
high per
it is the
cent,
nickel-steel
for turbine-
blading,since
material way without in which
to possible
manufacture
blades
Later
to.
of this
on
serious be
strains mentioned.
will be
the
this may
achieved
referred
14
1914
May
Lecture
be
ing given as to the meanof the strain diagrams,such as Figs.6 and 7. The stress ac (Fig.6) need not be constant throughout the layerccl, "T^ would from the staircase-like as shape of the shaded appear value of all the stresses areas, cr.^ indicates only the average in the layerccl. For instance,the curve ABA' in Fig.8 might
Some
additional
information
may
be assumed
the bar
to
represent the
consideration.
true
distribution
of stresses
within
under
This
true
curve
could
only
be
Fig.
8.
if experimentally
the
number
of the the
successive
la3'ers
of be
by turning were
infinite and
thickness which
of each
cannot
layers infinitesimal,a
requirement
of the met. If, for instance, the sectional area practically outer layer I be f\, as shown in Fig. 8, the average value of EH of the be found stress equal to the ordinate CG (Tj would bution erected on the base CH=/'i/2. In fact the distrirectangle
=
of stresses
within
the
sectional
in the in
area
/'i2
film of the
is the
represented
by
CA
the may
curve
ADF.
Thus,
surface
excess
high
stress
exist,which
is much
average
value
16
May
Lecture
the press
core.
on
outer
core
boring portionsof
layerI of the section of the bar must like a ring shrunk on (Fig. 10). If by the core removed, the outer are ring I can
t"
Fig.
10.
to
assume
smaller
diameter, thus
results of
the
outer
diameter
d^^. The
tabulated
below
after
the
boring
out
inner have
would cylinder
mercury
case.
remaining hollow dipped in a longer develop cracks when The experiment proved this to be the bar reasons a portion of the cold-drawn
Internal
no
Strains
in
Cold-wroughtMetals
after the
1 7
removal diameter
of of
outside
15
also of interest
in the cold-drawn
to
determine
bar
the
internal longitudinal
above. The
strains is
mentioned
result
As was to be expected, plottedin the diagram Fig. 11. the outer layers proved to be subjectedto tension,the central to compression. It must be noted core here that the maxi-
1500
Fig.
11.
;
"
Round
Bar,
Cold-drawn.
cent. ;
Copper, 57
Distribution
8 per cent.
Lead, 135
left the
per cent.
of Internal
Strain
Days
Drawing-plate.
at
some
mum
tension from
immediately at
amounts to
the surface,but
1575
distance
per
about
square
centimetre
(22,400
jBve
measurements
began
to
see
days
any
drawing-die.
In order
whether
would be
same
internal
stresses
the distribution
in
course was
of
of time,
re-tested
B
another
portion of
the
bar
18
1914
May
rest
Lecture
for
two
I
years.
The
after the
having
measurement
been
left at is shown
result
of
diagram Fig. 12, which that some would to indicate seem change in the distribution of tension has been having brought about, the maximum assumed somewhat a higher amount, viz. 1870 kilogrammes centimetre (26,600 lb. per square inch),and the per square
in
the
2000
Fig.
12.
;
"
Round
Bar, Cold-drawn.
40'8 per after
cent. the ;
Copper,
Distribution
57 "8 per
cent.
Zinc,
Lead,
had
1-35
per
cent.
of Internal
Strain
Two
Years
Bar
left the
Drawing-plate.
location
of The
to
this
forces
2520
maximum
layer. Fig. 11
the
at
to
the
surface
case
in the
on one
of
of
side
horizontal
the
have zero-line),
years
2290
kilogrammes
end
of two
that of
the
potential energy
I wish
to
to show (Fig.12). This would seem in course did not change materially
time.
postpone
definite conclusions
until
as
to
the the
changes brought
about
by time,
the
results
of
Internal
continued
are
Strains
in Cold-wrouQ-Jit Metals
more
19
experiments after
effect of
1500
prolonged intervals
bar
at
of time
at
hand.
The
heating the
cold-drawn
various
tem-
Fig.
1;1
"
Round
Bar, Cold-drawn.
cent.
at
Copper, 57
8 per
cent.
Lead,
Reheated
1G0" C.
peratures
and 14.
may The
be
seen
by comparing
refers
to
a
the
Diagrams
bar
same
11, 13,
in its
to
the
cold-drawn
the
state, original
I
soo
portion of
bar
after
I
^
t
^^
I ^
I
I
^
500 3 Z
I
0/23
Fig.
14.
"
Round
Bar, Cold-drawn.
40"8 per
cent.
at ;
Copper, 57
"0 per
cent.
Zinc,
cent.
Reheated
three
hours
230" C.
three
hours'
reheating at
three hours' the results
160"
C, and
the
third
to
another
portion after
summarizes
of
reheating as
abscissoe,and
ordinates
the
maximum
20
1914
May
Lecture
the in
internal
tensions
(+
of
o-"^^^ ) and
areas
forces
in
kilogrammes
and
curve
shaded the
14,
P
horizontal
The
0
"
100
of
200
300
"C
"
Temperature
Round
REHEfiTtNG
Fig.
15.
"
Bar, Cold-drawn.'
cent. ;
Copper, 57 '8
Effect of three
"\
per
cent.
Lead,
on
1'35 per
the
cent.
hours'
Reheating
in bar. of
Various
stress
Temperatures
Internal
Strains.
Maximum = -t-(rinax. P
=
tension
Ordinates ^ Abscissas.
"
Forces the
kilogrammes,
which
of
Temperatures
reheating. Degrees
illustrates the
decrease
in
potentialenergy
be
in
the
bar
by
concluded
that that
reheating
this limit effect
at t.,.
strains, and
the
apparent
much
below
temperature
Internal
which the effect of
Strains
2 1
cold-working(increasein
decrease of
tensile
strength,
graph (mono-
increase
is perfectly elongation)
of Kudriumow
consideration,range
alloy
specimens reheated
100"
C. showed
three
temperatures
cracking,when dipped in mercury solution,whereas specimens reheated three hours at 100" C. stood the dipping test without cracking. and more facts revealed by the experiments dealt with in the The of importance for the manufacturer are paragraphs preceding demand of cold-drawn metals, since often specifications high which of tensile strength, be obtained amounts can only by and the other hand, too since, on severe cold-working, high be avoided for the sake of a degree of internal strain must of the manufactured the safety products.
In order
to
corroborate
the
effect of
be
heatingon
to
cold-drawn
to
metals, as shown
made
with
above, I may
a
allowed which
refer been
ments experireduced
steel round
bar
had
millimetres in diameter to 39 by cold-drawing from 41*5 of sectional area millimetres (reduction by about 1 2 per cent.). effected for four hours at 100", 200", 300", Reheating was 400", 450", and 500" C. with subsequent slow cooling. The results of internal strain-measurements somewhat are irregular, bar evidently had been straightened since the cold-drawn in unknown some Avay, which gave additional strains arranged
to the axis of the bar, and varying over its unsymmetrically the general effect length. Notwithstanding this irregularity,
of
from the
mass
Fig. 16,
of of
to
in which
the forces P
the
bar, and
way
to
the
amount
potential energy
in it,are
as
plottedas
The
ordinates internal
and
the
reheatingtemperatures
gradually decrease
a
abscissae.
strains reach
increasing temperature
500"
very
low
amount
C,
the
temperature
may be
limit
t, for
to
removing
the
effect of
cold-working.
Some
remarks
devoted
the
of the spontaneous cracking of cold- worked without often occurs any perceptible cause,
22
1914
May
Lecture
tin-bronze,
cold-worked
cent,
severe
brass, aluminium-bronze,
so
high
affected
after
per
on,
if these
metals
are
strains.
have
subjected to phenomenon
Cracking may occur long wards cold- working,sometimes years afteris generally which, in the literature,
by they
termed
season-crackinsf,"
10000
o
6000
f^9
6000
9000
^_^
2000
/OO
"""
zoo
300 OF
900
500'C
TeMPafif\TUR"
Steel Round per
;
ReHEATINC
Fig.
16.
;
"
Bar, Cold-drawn.
Carbon,
0'29
per
cent.
Silicon, 008
Phosphorus,
Effect of four hours'
0"03i per
the
cent.
at
per
cent.
Reheating
which
are
the
Temperatures
as
Abscisste
on
Internal in
Strains.
Forces
in
kilogrammes
equilibrium within
the
mass
of the bar.
bar
of aluminium-bronze the
Figs.17
and
18.
The
composition of
alloy
is the
followino^ :
The
internal time
strains of
were
of
such
an
amount
that, after
certain
cracks storingthe bar, transverse developed in Fig. 18. to a depth shown spontaneously, penetrating of such cracking? What be the cause may
24
1914
May
If
Lecture
sectional
area
of
tliis
layer.
the
by local scratchingat
area
some
surface
we "^,
the
sectional
of
layerI
be diminished
have
equation
/"!
where
o-
(/, -'^K
"
is the
stress
in the
section f\ injured
(p\consequently
length /,over which removed strains the are by the scratchingeffect, is only On above the infinitesimal. contrary, according to the in the injuredsection Avillbe increased. equation the stress In addition to this the scratch acts like a notch, thus causing in the depth local increase of stress considerable intensity
not occur,
a-
since
the
of
the
scratch.*
If
by
this
increase
start
the from
ultimate
the scratch,
tensile
strengthis reached,
A very
similar
actingon
not
the surface
or
of cold- worked
local attack
involve
pitting. (Uniform
since it effect,
decreases
acts
does
this
surface action
internal certain
strains.) The
In the the
alloyshaving strong
case
mentioned. in
of
as
brass in
substances
contained
air, such
periodsof
It is have
no
conjunctionwith moisture, sulphurous acid, and so on, may, action, cause cracking.
rare occurrence
that condenser
tubes
of
brass,which
yard,without having been in service, illustrated for instance in as suddenly show severe cracking, Their liability to crackingcould be revealed Fig. 19. by the fact that portions of the tubes still free from cracks split up after being dipped in mercury solution. The corrodingeffect may sometimes be a very unexpected For instance, a person paintingbrass tubes with cinnabar one. of the fact that he is therebyendangering will not be aware
been
*
stored
in the
Notching effect:
see
Marlens-Heyn, Handbuch
der
Internal
Strains
in
Cold-wroughtMetals
"zo
Fig.
I'J.
Fig.
20.
Fig.
21.
26
X'^W
May
Lecture
a
brass
or
bronze
in objects
were cases
most
serious
way.
To
this,cartridge cases
mouths of these
made rather
of cold-worked
severe
brass,
the
been
produced by intentionally
with
a
cold-work.
and
ing paint-
them
and the after
cases
mixture
to
of cinnabar
ordinaryvarnish,
exposingthem
the air in the presence of moisture, The the mouth. moisture actingon the
contact
with
the copper
its effect if the
cases
of the
reaction
forming sulphide of
on
The
the
latter exerted
same
the
were
just in
way
as
dipped in
The time in which this effect is solutions. mercury is shorter the less the proportionof varnish in the the presence of
moisture
the
reaction
is
observed
in
cold-rolled
to
aluminium
sheets In weeks'
be
recorded
kinds of
similar
causes. some
certain
exposure,
these
sheets
show, after
covered with white bulging and blistering efflorescences,and they finally split parts of their up at some The edges like a pack of cards, as may be seen in Fig. 20. water has, in this case, played the part of the corrodingagent, which mechanical by local attack and perhaps besides by some effect of the products of corrosion, produces strains in addition strains brought about to the initial internal by the process of that local destruction The so occurs. cold-rolling, finally kind of water after having sheets, exposed to the same same the detrimental been annealed, no effect just longer showed
local
due
to
had cold-working
removed. the
This
by Fig. 21.
internal have strains
in
Touching
luorked
questionof removing
characteristic
cold-
metals, some
features
alreadybeen
t..,which
mentioned.
(a) Reheating
removes
at
temperatures
time
above
the the
limit
on cold-working
strengthproperties,
strains. As
the
same
eliminates
the
internal
mentioned the
eft'ects towards
even
degree of
be limit.
that
Internal
the very of the formation {") In
St7'ains in
Metals Cold-ivrozight
27
inoecss
dangerous internal
strains
the by regulating
reduction
For different parts of the sectional area. in Fig, 5, it would of the turbine-blades instance, in the case
in the
be
to
give a stronger
at
reduction in the
die
than
between
two
edges. cold-hammering are apt to produce coldwhereas of the worked tension strains in the core pieces, drawing,on the contrary, brings about tension strains in the internal be possibleto diminish layers,it must superficial and cold-rolling. strains by alternate cold-drawing In forgings sometimes illustrated in Figs,22 occur as defects made of and 23. Fig. 22 refers to a hot-forgedpiston-rod
and cold-rolling malleable
a
brass short
(about 40
II
cone
per
cent,
of
zinc).
the
It
broke
after
very
period of working,one
of
fractured
broken
pieces
lines in The
(indicated by the
II.
separated from each other by an coherent intervening space, and were only within a small annular of the thickness d. This latter being unable to area bear the working load, to which the piston-rod was subjected,
parts I and
II
were
failure
Avas even
sure
to
ensue.
There
was
in
the
the rod,
after
on finishing
of the the
dangerousinternal
in Fio-. 2'A.
to applies
tensile test-bar
machined
in the
Pulled in ordinaryway, showing no sign of any irregularit3\ the testing into three it broke machine low load at a very of which in Fig.23. two are They fit into pieces, reproduced each other like a dagger into its sheath. In order to give the explanationof the phenomena stated in the precedingparagraph, attention be directed to the must well-known following experiment. A round bar of soft steel hammered in the cold under was a rapidlyacting machineits axis. the bar being uninterruptedly turned round hammer, The in Fig. 24. mutual of hammer and bar is shown position The effect was crack ?t in the axis of the bar, a longitudinal in Figs.24 and 25. shown as If we consider cross-section through the bar (Fig. 24, a
28
1914
May
Lecture
Fig.
22.
Fig.
23.
Internal
Strains
outer
in Cold-zvro2iQ;Jit Metals
a
29 the
right hand),
blows than
of the the
the
hammer
layer
and
^,
is
by
is therefore
acts
severely
Hence the
central
to
core
which
its
like
anvil.
ringa
this outward
tends
increase
diameter, whilst
the
tendency,being
direction. the degree,
itself
When
stresses
radial
opposes strains in an
core
is continued the
to
sufficient
power
up
may
exceed
are
resisting
Since will
the
be
stresses
greatest in the
axis, internal
produced
line
rv
along the
25.
to
in
lead
the
lar simiis
too
Fig. 24.
work of
done
small
under
a
hammer
with great weightfalling when the bar was or velocity, unequallyheated before forging. in the Whilst ferred example re25 the to in Figs. 24 and ultimate tensile strength was
exhausted
to the
in
direction
wise cross-
rise also
of
to
crack, it longitudinal
consequence
that,in possible
more
of
the
FiG.
25.
layers as
inferior
reach
the
the
the
must
stresses longitudinal
may
lead
to
internal
transverse
fractureswithin
these
fractures
in the diff'erent layers in unequal stretching from the axis. Finally the fractures show 23. illustrated in Figs. 22 and
various the
distances
appearance
ivhat
Let
us
now
consider
the
whether question
may
and be
to
degree
all
the indications
of
the
hy interned affected
Above
test
strains,for instance
it is
correct
by
those
due
to
cold-working.
the
important
amounts
to
know
whether
limit of
of the
30
1914
May
between
Lecture
stress
relation
internal
and
strain
in
test-
stresses.
area
of the
,,
outer
layerI
core
in II
Fig. 3.
,,
central
;,
,,
/
the
"
/l+/lTin (tension)
_
internal
"
stress
"
I.
crojj eoj
elastic
"
in
I,
II
brought about
"
by
stress +
croj.
eojj be
the
elastic
about
brought
E
(T
"
be
the
modulus
stress
unit of
length in
reckoned
per
unit
of sectional
area.
"
,,
strain marks
stress
(T.
on
length, measured
under
a
between
load
producing
more was severe
Let
us
assume
that the
core
II
has
undergone
as
than cold-stretching
outer
layer I, which,
stress
stated internal
above, leads
to
internal
"
tension
+ croj in order
I, and
compression
may
stress
crojj in
II.
In
that
"
equilibrium
fOn/n, the
be established
between
equation
^"n
fi
strains and
e
In
the
(reckoned
the
stresses
per
e
unit
of
abscissae
as
(reckoned
of is
of sectional
area)
by
the
pointsC
and
and OD
D, OC
the
indicating
com-
stress
T-o-Or,
internal
32
1914
May
=
Lecture
and
to
are are
crj
EF
crjj =
EG.
The
true
curves
assumed in the
represent the
relation
portionsI and II of the bar. On in I of elasticity of the moduhis account being the same within the elastic ranges and II,the two will be parallel curves AH and BF respectively.On the assumption that the core II is more severelycold -stretched than portion I, the yieldpoint F in the former will, according to a law generally accepted,be raised by the process of cold-workingabove the less cold-work. H of the portionI, which received yield-point the curves From I and II it is possible to find the curve
stress
giving the
relation between
/ of the
the
strains
=^
(A being
the surface
the of
change of
the
the distance
and the the load
gauge-marks
p
-
on
bar)
stresses
(t
(where
of the
is the
external
load
applied and /
Under
and the the
sectional
P
=
area
bar).
X
0, the
amount
change
of
e
of
the
gauge-distance
consequently the
curve
co-ordinates. e^ measurable
to
the
to
stress
Hence equal to zero. take rise in the origin0 of the system of must load P^,involvingthe strain A definite external gives rise by the change X^ of the gauge-length, EG in core in portion I and EF II, a-ji o-j is
= =
and
the
average
stress
o-^
in the
total
section
/ of the bar,
o"j
-.
For
equilibriumwe
must
have
(Tj is
represented by
the
the
ordinate
El
of the
so
curve
M, provided
that
point 1
The
in
Fig. 26
is located
that Fl
^-^t^FG
and
Gl
^^FG.
==
proof is
as
follows
E 1
EG
-I-Gl
EG
-f
-^^FG
Intei^nal
Strains
33
El
=.,^+
.""-,
consequently
El=o-j.
in the By proceeding and strains Pg P.^,
. .
same
manner
P^,
of
.,
the
curve
M
curve
The
tensile test.
The
how shows comparison of the three figures affected by the presence of internal strains.
these
it figures
is assumed
that the
sum
kept
of
of the sectional
areas
/ii
portionsI and II varies from 1 : 1 in Fig. 2 7 to 1 : 3 in I and Fig. 28 and 3 : 1 in Fig. 29. The shape of the curves II is supposed identical in all three cases, only the position of the pointsA and B with respect to the origin 0 varies as the
ratio and
"
The
. ,
ordinates
.
of H
and
F, in which
the
curves
/n
begin to deviate from the elastic lines V and II', sent reprelimits of proportionality the respective 40 *) and crPj( I and II. o-Pjj ( 60 *) of the material in the portions Though these limits are supposed to be invariable in the in Figs.27 to 29, the corresponding shown three cases limits M found in the curves crPjj by the tensile test experimentally in the case of Fig.28 the limit o-P^^ may differ widely. Thus * in Fig. 27, and to 30 in Fig. 29. lowered to about 10 to 20
II
= =
Next
a
let
us
consider the
set
x,
or
amount
of the stresses
a-x
producing
stresses
permanent
to
to
put it in other
words, the
givingrise
I, by the abscissae of the curves and M dotted to the finely II, exceeding those corresponding lines I',II'', M' by the amount x. straight Assuming x to be 4*1 0~* (in arbitrary units) the stresses a-x in the portionsI
*
strains indicated
Expressed
in
units. arbitrary C
34
1914
*
May
o-/e
=
Lecture
69. The
curves experimental
and M
II
are
cr^i
52
and
of of fr" : in the case followingamounts 44, in Fig. 28 (/i:/ii=l:3) Fig. 27 (/i:/n=l:l) cr^M o-^,j==58-5,and in Fig. 29 (/i:/ii=3 : 1) o-,^',l 47.
will indicate
the
"^
-6
-1-20 Fig.
-tWIO
27.
From
the above
,
can
he those
seen
that
the
values
of
the
limit
of 2oro-
o^Pm,or portionality
tensile test, must
stresses
of any
other
he
highlydependenttipon
over
*
of internal
area
and
upon
their distribution
Expressed
in
of
the
arbitraryunits.
Internal
har tested.
It is
a
Strains
even
in Co/d-zvrouo-kt Metals
the limits
and crP^j o-xy[,
35
that possible
according to
laio well
are established,
Fig.
29.
as cold-icurk,
instead of raised,because the effect of appear depressed masked be completely indicated by the tensile test,may mentioned
by
the above-
This
the
curious
fact shown
in
Fig.30,
which
has
cold-rolled
copper-sheets.A
36
1914 of
May
Lecture
was
in thickness 7"o millimetres copper cold-rolled to 5, 3-4, 2'3, I'o, 1*0 millimetres successively sheet hot-rolled thickness ratios without the
in
f^ifof
reheating. The corresponding intervening section /^ before cold -rolling to the original
1-5, 2-21, 3*26, 5, 7'5, and
are
plotted as
ultimate
the
abscissae
tensile
The ordinates Fig. 30. represent the metre), strengtho-g (in kilogrammes per square centiin
0-^.,,o-^.^,0-0.05
limits
tooo
3000
\o
2000
1000
Fig.
30. "Influence
of
Cold-rolling-m
=
the
Electrolytic Copper
Al,
traces;
Remelted"Sn
0;
Zn,
traces;
stress
Cd=0;
in
0;
per
Fe"0-01;
cent.
"7-B= Ultimate
tensile in
kilogrammes
per square
. .
centimetre.
I Stresses
"..
kilogrammes
set
producing I,-.._
."
p
(rOOoj
"
r,-
permanent ^
of
...
J 0*05 per
in
n.nc
cent.
PO '05=
hardness Ball-pressure
a
permanent
pressure
a
kilogrammes
ball.
of and
5-millimetre
after
of the sectional
of the
sheets before
cold-rclling.
square
giving rise to a permanent set of 0'2, O'l, and hardness the ball-pressure 0"05 respectively), per cent, in kilogrammes. Pq-os that with increasingamount Inspection of Fig. 30 shows the limits o-o-g,Cqi, ctoos- ^nd the hardness of cold-rolling Pqos,
first rise to
a
centimetre
maximum
latter
there
is
marked
decline. if it
as
were
The
not
quite abnormal,
internal
strams
explainedby
above.
influence
of the
set forth
Internal
Strams
in
Cold-%vro7ight
Metals
37
venture
to
say
that
perhaps
with
a
good
to
deal
of
former
search re-
work
of cold-
carried the
out
view of
elucidating
materials internal
the
has strain
effect
been
work
on
properties
metallic
of
baffled
has In
by
been
that
mysterious explained.
I wish
to
influence
which
just
conclusion,
touched
to
express
this
the
lecture than
hope
may I
that
be could
the
line
of
upon
and
in
pursued
do strains
in
elucidate hidden
dissipate, dangers
more
myself,
in the
manifold
of
entailed
by
internal
mass
structural
members.
38
StatutoryMeeting
STATUTORY A General Metals
was or
MEETING. Meeting
of
Statutory
at
the
Institute
OF
held
the
on
Offices of the
Institute, Caxton
Engineer Vice-Admiral
The Seceetary President from
Sir
notice the
The
stated
that
meeting
had
were
was
very
different
the
one
that
the
as
originally
aware,
arranged.
to
It had
been
intended,
the members
Meeting of the Institute at Portsmouth that day, September 10, and on September 11, 1914, and on details connected with for the purpose of arranging the many such a meeting a local committee, of which mander Engineer-Comand Mr. Arnold R. B. Dixon the Honorary Philipwere been formed far back Joint-Secretaries,had as as January had last. An attractive programme been arranged,which
hold
the Autumn
was
to
include
an
of the members
on
behalf
of the
of Municipality J. H.
by
his
Alderman
Foster, the
chairman
Committee,
kindly arranged for the Portsmouth Municipal College to be of the Institute. to have placed at the disposal Papers were and been read both discussed on days of the meeting,and
there number the
was no
doubt
that
there
at
would
have
been
to
record
of
members
present
Portsmouth
take
events
part in
that H.M.
to
discussion
been
of those
had
arranged.
a
social
a on
visit
Dockyard, and
whilst
on
dinner
the
following day
of
in
the works
at
Messrs. J. Samuel
Limited,
to
the
works
which
they
of
kindly invited
also
number
to
other
visits had
be
made
connected
with
the
meeting
40
StatutoryMeeting
Honorary
*Mr. T. A. Treasurer. Bayliss.
Council.
Members
of
to
(Nine
be
elected).
t Mr. t
* *
A. A.
E.
Seaton.
Mr.
Cleghorn.
Mr. Dr.
J. Dewrance. G.
A.
D.
Bengough,
C.B.
M.A.
t Mr.
t
* *
Sir W.
Sir T.
Rose, Kt.
Allen.
Mr.
W.
H.
t Mr.
*
C. H.
Wilson.
for re-election. f Retires, eligible
New
nomination.
The
be
President
at
stated
the
that
the
result
of the
ballot would
be held in
declared
Annual 1915.
General
The with
Meeting,to
President
the
at
London the
in the
spring of
members
also
reminded
meeting that,in
ten
a
accordance
Articles,Section
the
those
III.,
16, any
nominate the
might also,
other than
one
present meeting,
nominated
candidate
none
of
by
Council, but
of the members
in attendance
exercised
their
rightin
Vote
this
matter.
of
Thanks reminded
the
to
Retiring the
Treasurer.
The
President
nominations, which
in that
not
for the
as
of Professor
Treasurer
Turner
did
appear
onerous
that
Honorary
Professor
of the
Mr.
Institute,
this
as
assumed
by
Turner
T. A.
Bayliss,
the
from
July 1,
Treasurer and
the
1914.
had
been
Honorary
in his
of the Institute
early
for
1908,
Institute
was
greatlyindebted
also
him
services, not
at
only
he
as
Treasurer, but
and
regular
the for
attendant
the
Council
could
Committee
be
Institute, where
debt
to
always
The for
Institute
in having,
under
further
Turner
its
earlydays,provided
Plate
Lafayette Professor T.
Honorary
TURNER,
Treasurer,
M.Sc,
A.R.S.M.
1908-1914
StatutoryMeeting
it with the
a
41 of
temporary
home
in the
Department Metallurgical
Universityof Birmingham, in which citythere existed a local section of the Institute, which was established flourishing largely owing to the labours of Professor Turner, and over the deliberations of which he had presidedfor a long period. The Chairman of thanks Turner to Professor a hearty vote proposed
for his many
services
to
the
Institute,and
this
was
carried
unanimously.
Professor
Turner,
the had
in
said reply,
to
that
Sir
he
had
had
Oram
great
had and
pleasurein doing
referred,and had
work
which
in
Henry
in
his reward
seeingthe
continuous
forming many
Election The
Secretary read been
of
Members.
of
names
the
list following
of candidates
:
"
who
had
duly
elected members
of the Institute
42
Election
of Members
StatutoryMeeting
Acceptance The been President
of
4'3
Papers. had
accepted for
Captain
G. D. N. T.
1.
Belaiew
and
on
"The
Widmanstiitten
Structure
in
Various
2. Dr.
Alloys
Metals."
Bexgough,
on
Tests 3. Mr. O. F.
M.Sc,
at
"
on
Tensile
"The
Critical
Point
460"
C. in Zinc-
4. Mr. 5. Mr.
Johnson,
K.
M.Sc,
on
on
"A
Note
on
the
Annealing
of
of Brass."
R.
MoRCOM,
"The
Deposition
Effect
Metals
by
the
Process." 6. Mr. J.
Phelps, M.A.,
on
"The
of
Hydrogen
Contribution
on
the
of Gold."
7. Mr. A. of 8.
"A
to
the
Condenser
"
Tubes,
Surface
and
Corrosion."
of Molten
Mr.
S. W.
The
Tension
Metals."
9. Mr.
"
W.
E.
Thorneycroft,
of
B.Sc,
and
Professor when
T.
Turner,
in
a
M.Sc,
Vacuum."
on
The
Behaviour
Copper-Zinc Alloys
President of thanks be
heated
On
as
the
motion
a
of the
these
to
read, and
heartyvote
it
were was
taken
passed.
of the thought hard by some that authors they had not had an opportunity actuallyof of that meeting readingtheir papers, but the circumstances and he were thought, thoroughly were, quite exceptional, debted inthey were appreciated by the several gentlemen to whom He
agreed
that
might
for these
valuable
to
communications.
be
on
The
papers
would,
however, be
other
of the
considered
that had
papers
been be
Institute, and
as
would
exactlythe same plane as all presented at general meetings publishedand discussed in the
Journal
usual.
of
Sympathy
with
Belgium.
that it would be ago held
fresh within
the first
foreignmeeting
the
44 in
StatutoryMeeting
Belgium, and
that
a
travelled largeparty of their members Ghent. most Here via Ostend to kindly received they wore and hospitably entertained. They would all call to mind the Town Hall, and splendid municipal receptionat the Ghent
the
to
ancient
treasures
in art and
architecture
of
which
were
shown
them
under
the
Braun.
direction
A
tlie courteous
and of the
cheery
Institute
at
M. burgomaster,
party of members
Iron
of Metals
afterwards
were
joined the
at
and
Steel
Hotel
Institute de
Brussels, and
the
received Max.
the
ancient
Ville
by
They journeyed through Namur, and the Meuse where they inspected to Liege, Cockerill works the John at Seraing,under the courteous tained enterAt Liege also they were leadershipof M. Greiner. Institution of Engineers of that by the world-famed industry impressed by the peaceful city. Doubtless all were tions of that small kingdom of Belgium, and by the evident indicaof progress and be seen which to on were prosperity burgomaster,M. of up the valley
every side.
The
advance
years
was
which
had
been
made
in Brussels
itself in and
recent
the
tality hospiwould
was
kindness
of
that But
occasion
now
fresh in their memories. long remain had been changed. Cities and villages were was standing idle. A dreadful war
of
all
thousands
of
soldiers the
had
been
killed
wounded
; and
the
non-combatant He
was population
without
to
in parallel
warfare.
ventured
therefore
mit sub-
followingresolution,though it would be impossible sad such sentiments under their adequately to express
circumstances
"
:
"
That
this
meeting
and kindness hospitality received from the Belgian people on the occasion of the visit of the Institute to Belgium a year ago, desires to place on record its heartfelt sympathy with the brave Belgian nation in the unparalleledperiod of suffering the horror and through which it is at present passing,
gratefulremembrance
of
the
members
of
the
Institute
at
the
to
cruelties
to
which
earnest
and Belgium has been subjected, hope that the country may soon
46
Belaieiv
The
WidinanstiUten
Structure
in
THE
VVIDMANSTATTEN
VARIOUS
By
STRUCTURE AND
N. T. BELAIEW St.
IN
ALLOYS
Captain
METALS.*
(Michael
Artillery
Academy,
Petersburg).
I
etchingin
under
are
The the
surface
way
of
meteoric
iron
after
and polishing
usually adopted,prior to examination characteristic figureswhich microscope, shows most or parallelograms. These part triangles
observed
for the first time of in the 1808
the
the
for
figuresAvere
de WidmanWorks
at
by M,
Alois
Director the
Imperial Porcelain
although Widmanhis discoveries, himself had published statten nothing regarding a knowledge of them spreadvery quickly,and what he had known the name of under Widsoon were seen universally then generallyconsidered that manstiitten figures."It was iron and characteristic of meteoric that these figureswere found in terrestrial iron. Guillet-Laumont in not *j* they were the two varieties of 1813 an analogy between already saw for a long time were iron ; but the majority of investigators and the views of Guillet-Laumont of a different opinion, were forgotten. shown interest in meteorites The by Dr. Sorby, the founder of metallography, and the brilliant of the science especially of Osmond, attention led anew researches to being directed Thus it was of Widmanstiitten. that in 1900 to the figures the discoveryii" the head announced of a steel M. Osmond recalled, he said, "the triangleswhich ingot of equilateral which known of Widmanstatten, to belong to the are figures
"
Ilraschina
meteorite, and
octahedral regular
*
system."J
French of
not
Translated of the
from
the
the since
War,
quence originalMS. of Captain Belaiew, and, in conserevised read Taken as at Statutory by him.
1914.
Meteoritenkuttde,
la
Figs.24
McWilliam
and
25.
The
same
tion observa"
made
by Professors
of Carbon
Arnold
memoir,
The
Thermal No.
Transformation
Steel," Journal
of
the Iron
Institute,1905,
II. p. 35.
Various
In
Alloys and
*
Metals
described
47 steel
at
previous
0*55
paper
cent,
the
author
taining con-
per
of
carbon, prepared in
with the
1908
the
the
works author.
of
Igewsky
This
in
accordance
showed
directions
mass
of
steel
throughout
were so
its
beautiful
Widmanstiitten
were
which figures,
to
developed that
they
the
naked
analogy
meteorites
the
so
structure
eye (Fig.1, Plate II.). The of this alloy and that of the considers
a
that it may
be
regarded as
and that
manstatten
syntheticproduction of
to
meteoritic
as
structure,
it is fair
structure
refer
to
this
structure
the
Wid-
(Figs.2
and
3, Plate
II.).
be henceforth only could the meteoritic structure of iron artificially reproduced at will, but the crystallization be could well as its crystallography as easilystudied from such examples. led to the Although the question of the conditions which of this structure seemed extremely interesting, appearance
Not
nevertheless
moment
or
it was
to
considered
wise
to
leave it
on
one
and
commence
"
with
what
"
might
be
termed From
less
not
detailed
morphological
see
examination.
this it
was
difficult to
that
the
in
character
a
be
whose
showing the figures but they are precisely expected in different sections of a regular four systems of cleavages were to parallel
its surfaces,
case an
givenarea,
pairs of
in
arrangement
it made
was
known
was
for
long time
the
of
the
hedral octa-
manifest the
by
structural
elements
between
age cleav-
planes during
*
"
recrystallization. J
la
structure
The
octahedral
Sur
la N.
reproduction
T.
artificielle de Revue de
de
Widmanstatten
dans
I'acier
au
carbone,"
Belaiew,
they are Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 in the previously mentioned paper; Iron and in The A. Sauveur's book. Steel, Metallography of Chapter X., reproduced Figs. 7-13. solid depositssuccessively several solid phases, the secondary and When a liquid or % certain of the cleavage planes (plans lodge between tertiary deposits often preferentially thus illustrate its structure." "Sur la of the primary deposit, and cristallographiques) de Mitallurgie, 1906, p. 658. Revue Note Cristallisation et Cartaud, du Fer," Osmond
t See
also
"
"
by Editor.
48
Belaiew
The
Widmanst'dtten
iron is
Structure
in
of of alloys crystallization
admitted,* and the generally iron-carbon diagram belongsto the type of in the solid state. there is recrystallization the alloysof brilliant theory of Osmond,
in
and
of nickel
the
case
of
meteorites
ought to
follow
confirmed entirely
We well
as see
by
in
the
the
beautiful
two cases,
experimentsof
in that
Benedicks.
as
that
of meteorites
in that of terrestrial
iron,the
connected
of these Widmanstatten figuresis appearance facts the character of the fundamental with two
"
primary
This
octahedral
therefore, is
it
not
in
the
least confined
to
iron each
and
its
alloys ;
alloy or
throws
system, and in
solution
equallywell encountered in in the which each metal crystallizes regular solid the crystallized which, after solidification, that is to say, is out secondary deposits, might
be
there would In a pure metal subject to recrystallization. be an allotropic change in the solid state, as, for example, the the separation in an in Fig. 4, Plate III. iron shown alloy, of a new phase; and as diagrams of this kind are well known, be at all diflBcult to find examples of the to it ought not in alloys other than iron. structure Widmanstatten To this class of alloysbelong,for example, the different the brasses and bronzes. Gulliver, of copper, particularly alloys volume metallic alloys,t in his interesting on givesnumerous of SnCug in the examples of this,mentioning the separation and alloysof copper and tin, of SbCug in those of copper antimony,of the constituent beta in brasses with about 35 per cent, of zinc (see Gulliver,Fig. 200), or of delta in the alloys with 70 to 75 per cent, of zinc (seeGulliver, Figs.205 and 206). is able to reproduce in Plate III. a photograph author The 55'1 per cent, of copper (cooled (Fig.5) of a brass containing and in sand kindly sent to him by annealed),which was it shows This photograph has great interest, as M, L. Guillet. structure. the Widmanstatten on the action of reheating
"
See
also Revue
"
Sur de
Belaiew,
la
structure
des
321.
Plate
II
'^V,:!^^.
'"'m^
Fig.
1.
"
Widmanstattcii
Structure 8.
in Carbon
Steel
cent.
Alloy No.
Magnified 8 diameters.
IG.
2."
Widmanstatten
Fig.
3. No.
"
Widmanstatten
Structure
in Carbon
Steel 8.
(Carbon,
reduced.
Plate
III
Fig.
4. of C
"
Swedish
Iron Fusion
heated
to
the
Point la 16
Fig.
5.
"
Widmanstatten
Structure
cent.
in
Bronze, Cooled
Les
Copper.
,
and
Annealed
(L. Guillet
diameters.
Laitons and
Nickel).
Magnified
30
diameters
reduced. slightly
Fig.
6." of 90
Widmanstatten per
cent.
in
Alloy
per
Fig.
7.
cast
"
-structure
in
Zinc,
10
cent.
Aluminium
alliages du
Magnified
reduced.
(Chouriguine, Sur les I' Platine Aluminium). avec and diameters 50 slightly
Magnified
reduced.
shghtly
50
Cominunications
on
Belaieiv
Paper
COMMUNICATIONS.
Professor Belaiew this
some was
C. A. F. Benedicks
that
rightin drawing
the left
:
detailed
Captain study of
Widmanstatten
to
structure,
might
be well
discuss
case
whether of
a
(1) this
substance
octa-
structure
considered
to exist
only
in the
which
and
contained
orientated hedrically
enclosures
case
the
term, and
stiitten
as
was
with be
the meteoric
occur
structure
to
said to
if
the
regularsubstance
"
orientated
case
accordingto
in
a
other
;
planes than
or
hedral octa-
as
was
the
even
of
case
martensite
of
austenite
(3) it might
crystalloany
be used finally
in the
substance
to any belonging
enclosures
uniformly orientated
the
accordingto
planes. crystallographic
eightdiff'erent directions
as view, as in Fig.6 as many four to be observed,while only were were sible posthus in the case of octahedral other than octahedral planes; planes In Fig. 7, for zinc, occurred in Fig. 6. the crystalsystem was known writer had scarcely ing includto be hexagonal. The against any objection
to
adopt
last
and
in
the
term
Widmanstatten
structure,
which
thus
was
of the meteoric iron syntheticreproduction referred and to 1910, by Captain Belaiew, by laid on the main point that nickel iron on slow cooling stress was split and stable constituents That fact was, tsenite). (kamacite up into two he thought,clearlyborne out by the photomicrographsgiven. Owing to the excellent photographsobtained especially by Captain Belaiew of time steels and carbon at that much less attention already published
the
in
"
was
paid might be
to
the
of illustrating
the
to
Widmanstatten
see
structure.
As
it
of
however, interest,
present in the
that
even
the
Widmanstatten
alloyprepared by the writer in synthetic 1910, a photomicrographwas reproduced in Fig. 8, Plate IV., which taken horizontal section of the originalingot (the an on recentlywas sections in the previous publications, photographed showing in general direction predominating, vertical ones). one were single kamacite band In the present photomicrograph the tajnite lamellae appeared dark.
structure
was
" "
The
than
examples of
iron,as
Widmanstatten
the
structures
in occurring
other substances
author, could be supplementedwith the by Widmanstatten observed structure by the though minute, very typical, writer in oxidized nickel iron alloyoccasionally obtained on slow cooling.*
Professor H. C. H.
mentioned
Carpenter,
in
M.D., Ph.D.
paper
wrote (Vice-President),
on
his expressing
*
interest
in the
Captain Belaiew's
Nov. Act.
the
Widmanstatten
10, 1910
;
Figs. 4 and
15
paper
Eevue
Cominuni
structure
cat ions
on
Bclaieivs
Paper
51
in metals
and
bearingsince,as
gave
the author
alloys. The subjecthad an importantpractical pointed out, this particular type of structure
"
and
rise to very inferior mechanical properties in the it in overheated steels." Moreover he showed as
to
case
was
of cast steels
by
no
means
confined
iron and
its
but alloys,
was
found
in
varietyof
important
certain conditions of heat treatment. alloysfollowing upon attention to writer it be The of interest if he drew thought might the fact that excellent examples of Widmanstiitten structure tained conwere in 1913. in Dr. Guertler's Handhoolc of Meiallography, published Plate 2, volume i.,facing p. 80, furnished a beautiful example of the
non-ferrous
nickel-iron alloy), of a meteorite (natural crystals than one which intersected at an more angle of 60". Such crystals, in the of the meteorites sections inch long,might be seen in polished Collection of the Natural at South Mineralogical History Museum Kensington. smaller .size, Equally perfect instances, though of considerably among prepared non-ferrous alloyscould be seen, e.g. in a nickelartificially
enormous
size of the
silicon
of
could
the clear because by suitable heat treatment, and it was particularly solid constituent solution etched very differently from the segregating it. depositing As the author showed, in however, the Widmanstatten
one
structure
could
containingonly alloys
if they phase,particularly
transformation
of the
structure typical
in the solid state, and this presumably was exhibited by zinc in Fig. 7. A deeply
atoms
etched
cent,
specimen
of
of
per
a was investigations, magnesium, which, accordingto with remarkable structure one phase system, showed the Widmanstatten clearness (Fig.78, p. 208). From that the above the practical aspect the important point was vietastahle structures, to chemical were though corresponding equilibrium, in from a crystallographic fact, pseudomorphs standpoint. They were,
Urasow's
of
pre-existing systems,
That
and
could
well in
treatment.
had
been
shown
always by
an
be removed
Fraenkel and
by
suitable
heat
and
Tammann,
meteoric under
by independently
There
was
no
Benedicks
his brilliant
to
need
therefore
reject
a
conditions
was
of
was
coolingit
a
exhibited
treatment
Widmanstatten
that
structure.
needed
heat
the
would
it into
Desch
on
(Glasgow) wrote
steel, some
structure
Captain
made
the
Belaiew's which
important
were now
memoir
of
the
illustrations of
steel
in
quite
of identity
with
that of meteorites
also of the
alloys
52
Communications
on
on
Belaiews
Paper
an
mentioned
extension the The It
p.
48, was
term
undue
as
of the
made
to
include
such
structures
Timotheieff
(Fig.7).
of the fundamental of properties necessary consequence that in w hether metallic structure a physical crystal, crystal any changes directions. The of to certain or chemical,took place parallel straining
was a a
metal,
even
when
planes. Fig.
observed in
7 showed
other
metals, such
to
were
Plate
differences of level
composition.
true
Such
IV.). twinning. The light and dark lines represented of chemical due to orientation, and not to differences structure a might be said to be of type I. In the
structure,
on
These
twinning on certain thing was readily mony bismuth (Fig.9, Plate IV.), and antiand structures appeared on etching,
Widmanstatten
the
other
hand, there
was
distinct
difference
as
of chemical
and be the
the
lines
the constituents compositionbetween appearing stituents (type III.). The conbackground respectively
ferrite and kamacite and plessite, or or an pearlite, might solution and be similar. effect would Such a a /3 solid ; the general of constituent from solid structure was produced by crystallization one solution, the separation taking place by preferencealong certain planes.
a
The
between
martensitic the
two
structure
was
probably
intermediate
It
was
in
character
a
just
described
(type11. ).
usually on
Widmanstatten
in
similar,and
and the
the
difference
Edwards less easilyrecognized. Professors ground-mass was had and maintained, from their observations of steels and of Carpenter structure was aluminium-copper alloys,that the martensitic entirely due to repeated twinning of type I. on a very small scale.* The present writer had found himself unable to accept that view, mainly on the factorily. ground that the hardness of such alloyswould not be explainedsatishad in He martensitic obtained soft structures recently and steel after metals, includingpure zinc (Fig.11, Plate IV.), pearlitic slow Plate chemical In his view a cooling(Fig. 12, IV.). partial very
resolution
of the
of
solid
solution
was
essential to
the
the
formation
of hard Such it
was
martensite, or
resolution took
non-ferrous equivalentsamong alloys. in the and certain place along planes crystal,
Edwards'
to
its
Professor
observations
on
that
these
were
twinning
intended
publishevidence
that
this
point elsewhere.
statten the Widman-
M.
PoRTEvix
in
wrote (Paris)
he had
observed
structure
tin,and
of
a
that he had made of copper-aluminium, alloys copperhe had examined the photomicrographs copper-zinc. Further,
of
number
authors,
and
had
been
able
to definitely
detect
this
structure
in the
: following alloys
Journal
of the Iron
and
I. p. 138.
':^^.i^
Plate
IV
Fig.
S. Nickel Iron
SyntheticMeteoric
Iron, 12 per
Shows
cent.
(Benedicks, 1010).
Fig.
9. Bismuth.
Fig.
10.
Twinnins;
in Cast
Twinning
in Cast
Antimony.
Fig. II.
"
Fig. Zinc.
' '
12.
Martensitic
"
.Structure in Cast in
Martensitic
"
.Structure in Pearlite.
All
reduced slightlv
Communications
1.
on
Belaiew
Paper
53
Copper-tin (Baykoff). fiir MctalloZeitschrift (Carpenter and Whitelev, Internationale grafhie, 3, 162, 1912). 3. Aluminium-platinum, with 90 per cent, platinum (Chouriguine, A'/ez'^s de Metalby M. Belaiew. lurgie,i.\.881, 1912), observed 4. Silver-tin (Petrenko,Zeitschrift fiiranorganische Chemie, 53, 200, 1907). 5. Iron-molybdenum Zeitschrift fiiranorganische Chemie, (Lautsch and Tammann,
2. Silver-zinc
55, 386, 19071. 6. Nickel-silicon (Guertlerand Tammann, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, 49, 93, 1906). 7. Nickel-tin (Voss, Zeitschrift fiiranorganische Chemie, hi, 34, 1908). 8. Cobalt-silicon Chemie, 59, 293, 1908). fiir anorgofiische (Lewkonja, Zeitschrift 9. Nickel-phosphorus (Konstantinow, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie, GO, 405,
1908). fiiranorganische Chemie, 63, 169, 1909). Gold-magnesium (Vogel, Zeitschrift 11. Silver-calcium fiiranorganische Chemie, 70, 352, 1911). (Eaar, Zeitschrift and 12. Aluminium-zinc (Lorenz Plumbridge, Zeitschrift fiir anorganische Chemie,
10.
and
Hill, Journal
of
the
Institute
of Metals, above
No.
1,
He
order
bad
to
in
to
the
list in
study
That
circumstances
giving
he
rise
the
to
a
Widmanstiitten
structure.
time
on
but being,
had
had
suspend
for
the
be in
to proceed position
had
drawn
(Ghent)wrote that he considered Captain Belaiew in the structure of a important matter very in regard to its industrial significance. alloys,particularly
attention
to
the Widmanstatten
defects
figureshad
the heat
come
to
be associated
in
steels
serious
in
treatment
and
consequent
physical
propertiesof
the
its lattice
metal, it appeared that the characteristic structure, in other concomitant of weakness a formation, was
was a
of brasses containing both cases under his (Mr. Primrose's) observation /3 constituents had come but the most in ofl:' previously, pronounced instance of a serious falling similar the structure to physicalproperties being accompanied by a Widmanstatten had been encountered in examining so-called figures bronze. That in brass ing a alloywas having the followreality manganese : composition fact
a
in the
Per
Cent.
Copper
Zinc Iron
59*2 38-4
I'o
. . . . . .
Manganese
lin
0"4
.
0-3
.......
Aluminium
trace
The
material
had
been
rolled into
rods,
and
had evidently been heated proved to be defective, it On tensile an repeated tests gave average inch and of only 8 per cent, on 2 inches. an elongation square average That compared very unfavourably with the strength of similar bars of which tensile an good material properly heat treated gave average of inch and an strength of 33-6 tons per square elongation average
"
"
35
per
cent,
on
2 inches.
54
Communications
on
Belaiew
Paper
The the
and
microstructure
The of
of weaker these
structure.
the
samples
exhibited
clearly
revealed
the oriented
found
cause
of
difference.
in
distinctly
needles
crystals,
in uniform
and
each
occurred The
the
intersecting
bars
of
the
Widnianstjitten
good
absence
had both
perfectly
structure,
and
showed work.
complete
oriented
crystals
interlacing
The the
low
lattice-
accompanying
and the bad
and
photomicrographs
metal,
illustrated 13
the
the
difference material
of
between
with very
two
good
Fig.
14
representing
uniform
elongation,
Fig.
showing
distribution
the
constituents.
The
origin
without
of
the
Widmanstjitten due
or
structure,
incorrect
to too
clearly
treatment
shown
caused
in
Fig.
either
13,
was,
doubt,
to
the
heat
by
was
excessive
not
annealing possible
in
by
heating
the
high
into
temperature
the
but
it
found
shown
to
change
14
structure treatment
satisfactory
The
order heat
to
ment arrangetreatment
Fig.
by by
heat
alone.
had
to
be
accompanied
working
in the
in
effect
factory satis-
rearrangement
of
finished
material.
56
Bengough
and
Hanson
The
Tensile
Properties of
THE
TENSILE AT HIGH
By guy
in
PROPERTIES TEMPERATURES.*
D.
OF
COPPER
bengough,
University
AND
M.A.,
of
D.Sc.
(Lecturer
Metallurgy,
Liverpool),
D.
HANSON,
M.Sc,
of
the
National
Physical
Laboratory.
in
the of
present paper
of which
was
the research
carried
was
by
one
of the authors
an
account
publishedat
the Annual
Meeting
of this Institute
in
1912.|
The discussion of that
and
to
with suggestions,
certain criticisms paper brought out the present authors now which propose levelled
at
deal.
In the
was
the
special type
of
ram
machine testing
used,
on
the
to
ground that
time, and
the
would
time
in
reply to this is given in Table I.,in series of comparative tests carried out in
The
Table \." Teats at
which
an
is recorded
tensile ordinary
18"
G.
Taken D.
as
t G.
Journal
Bengough,
of the
September 10, 1914. Statutory Meeting, London, A Study of the Properties of Alloys at High Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1912, vol. vii, pp. 123 et seq.
read
at
"
Temperatures,
57
in
machine,
paper
and
in
the
machine
described the
the
mentioned
are
above.
Bearing in
between afforded
differences
of
non-
which
ferrous
to
found ordinarily
duplicatetests
be
It
will
noticed
cover
a
that
metals
of
selected
wide
range
to
and
been
were
as precisely
described be
in the former
the
out
work in the
now
described, certain
the
out
changes
a
were
design of
to
view
enablingtests
new
be carried
the
form
of
apparatus
an an
A,
to
which
a
is half
inch
inch
in diameter for
a
turned
2i
down
parallel
quarter of
length of
inches, is held
of by means ball seatingsas
asbestos sheet
wound
are
resistance furnace
provided
is wound
with
on
shown.
The
nichrome
wire
bayonet catch, and drilled for the entrance of gas and thermocouple. The thermocouple holes were lined with fibre. The water-cooled top jointwas shown this enabled at C, and the plug to be kept gas-tight as by a coatingof hot-neck grease. In view of the remarkable for recorded elongationcurve B.S. copper in the earlier paper, and now reproduced in Fig. 9, it seemed desirable to ascertain whether the high elongations
a
"
wrapped round an iron tube which At the top by a water-seal B. steel plug D provided with fitting
is closed
at
the lower
end well-
end
it is closed
by
"
observed
all
between
780"
or were
C. and
920"
C.
were
characteristic of
dependent in any degree upon such the nature matters of the atmosphere in which the test was as carried out, the past history of the specimen, thermal and and the presence of small quantities of impurities. physical, As a starting decided point for the present research, it was
to
types of copper,
carry
out
series of tests
The
on
well-annealed
this
copper.
analysisof
materials
used
was was
material,
in the
to
well
as
the
analyses of
Table
round
other
The
in the
research, is given in
form of
II.
copper
obtained turned
|-inch
down
i-inch
diameter
before
testing.
5 8
Bengough and
Hanson
The
Tensile
Properties of
W\
^ms:
r/z/^j^/////////////.
Gas In Jet*
^^
v/////y//y/.L-tyyM
\(
ss^.
Fig.
1.
59
II.
"
Afialyses of Materials
Used.
Tlie
that
the same Avas procedure in testing the rate of loading has been kept
as
formerly, except
as
constant,
former
suggested
by
rate
Dr.
Rosenhain
as
in the discussion
most
of the the
selected
ton
convenient
0 5
per
rate
square
of
inch
per
a Strictly speaking,
definite
pointedout by
be
been
has been
could
not
carried
out
total
measured.
adoption of
is
definite
of
useful
defined and precisely that the shapes of the stressthough it is possible reproducible, obtained curves by this temperature and strain-temperature of testing difterent from those that would method are slightly be obtained by adopting a definite rate of straining. Previous to testing at the various temperatures, the electroannealed for two hours at 750" C. in an atmosphere copper was of COg. The results of the tensile tests are given in Table in Figs. 2 and 3. III., and are plotted
of the
mechanical
material
at
once
curves
those
for B.S.
copper
in
the
latter have
noticed
the
that the
same
two
maximum
stress
curves
are
approximatelyof
of
form, but
a
portion
case
the
curve
occurs
at
higher temperature
at
the
Analysed
after
750' C. in CO.,.
t Analysed before testing. X Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1913, No.
I. p. 244.
60 of
Bengougk
the annealed
and
Hanson
The
Tensile
and
Properties of
not
so
electrolytic copper,
is
sharply
defined.
Table
III.
"
Electro-
Copper, annealed
2 hours
at 750"
C. in CO.,.
Temperature
"C
COPPE
R-AnNEALED
Fig.
2 hours at 750''C in
2.
CO,
The
two
curves elongation
present much
The
greater differences,
in especially
the upper
parts.
Copper
in the
case
at
High Temperatures
between
61
of B.S. in the
copper
case
750"
and
950"
were
not
observed
of of the
were
the
annealed
electrolytic copper.
the maximum
stress
Moreover,
and
in the
case
latter metal
of the
same
curves elongation
critical ranges
under
at
about is not
750".
high temperatures
characteristic
all circumstances.
100"
200"
MO"
wr
500"
tf/r
t u r e
1000"
1100"
Tempera
Copper-Annealed
2 hours atj^o'dn
Fig.
3.
It
seemed
desirable
in the the
next
case
to
ascertain
whether
the
hiei^h
shown elongation
was
due
to
nature
were
of B.S. copper at high temperatures of the atmosphere (in this case, tested.
none Unfortunately a
air)in
bars
which
of the But
two
B.S. original
was
available for
direct
test.
of the
850",
i.e. in
are
results
tested in air at 800" were electro-copper the high elongation of the B.S. copper. range that given in Table IV., and it will be seen
in elongation
air is three
or
four times
that of the
same
62
Bengoiighand
in B.S.
Hanson:
it is not
The
Tensile
Propei^ties of
as was
metal with
to to
COg, though
nearly as high
the
case
Part of the difference may perhapsbe due copper. the rather slower rate of loadingin the older tests, and part The interesting the differences in the two types of copper.
1000
i
MAKIMVJM
10
5TPEb5
15
20 Toos
25
So.Ucio. (air
30
Fig.
8.
point about
effect of the pure copper
these
results
is the
upon
a
demonstration the
of the
great
atmosphere
bars. It is
somewhat confer
oxidizingatmosphere
neutral
; atmosphere
a
should
discussed
later.
64
Bengough
metal
and
Hanson:
exhibits
The
no
Tensile
Properties of
phase changes has never that it is not possible before been published, to say whether so form. the curves The experiments now presentedare of typical and of Rosenhain Humphrey on steel are not available for direct comparison,since the shapes of the curves obtained for much of allothat material modified were by the occurrence theless, Nevertropic changes,and probablyby the presence of carbon. of the theories that have in view been recently put forward in a series of papers by Rosenhain and his associates, it may be interesting to discuss the curves now publishedin the lightof those views.
annealed
which
In the former
forward
at
"
that
of the
was
put
of properties accounted
pure substance
a
alloys
by supposing
are
metal
normally
the
"
bound
another
by
and
some
stronger than
was
themselves," crystals
in
a
that
this substance
arranged
substance layerround then supposed to be an amorphous material similar to that was but formed discovered by Beilby, lization. during the process of crystalIt was further,that it could be crystallized supposed, by long annealingat high temperatures. In the discussion thin continuous
65
that
was
paper
a
Rosenhain distinct
outlined
modification
of this of
that
on
improvement
the
in
number
theory particulars
paper, and he has since developed with his views great skill upon a basis of actual experiment. For the purposes of the present paper, Rosenhain's theorymay stated as follows. be briefly Metals in
that
suggestedin
by elastic
to
consist of crystalline general aggregates surrounded of primary cement fication. formed during solidienvelopes
low in
At
stresses
temperatures the
of its At low
cement
accommodates the
itself
so
virtue
but elasticity,
do crystals
cement
deformation. by plastic
temperatures the
is
and fracture under stress crystals, passes the cement through the crystals.As the temperature rises, weakens falls and its elasticity more rapidlythan the crystals the cement is as weak as, or even weaker off. Finally than, the and its elasticity has disappeared. Fracture will then crystals, will result under and permanent elongation be intercrystalline, of the the action of very small stresses owing to the deformation to slide over another. one cement, which will allow the crystals The final elongation observed in a tensile test will depend of straining, and rapid straining will give low the rate on elongation.
stronger than
the
The
now
results
obtained
in
in
the
tests
on
annealed
copper
will
lightof this theory. Turning first that to the tensile curve given in Fig.2, it will be observed the maximum stress correspondingto the rate of loading but regularly, adopted falls off slowly, up to a temperature of
be
reviewed
the
about off
more
700" C.
Between
700" C. and
800" C. the
has
falls strength
rapidly.
800"
C. the
In this
regionit
curve
is difficult to been
get closely
dotted.
concordant
results,and
rate
the
shown
strengthwith temperature and the curve becomes line. less, approximatesto a straight On Rosenhain's be interpreted as theory this curve may follows : At all temperatures below about 700" C. the strength of the cement is greater than that of the crystals, and fracture will take place through the body of the crystals.Between 700" C. and 800" C. the strength of the cement and the crystalswill be approximatelyequal,and fracture may pass through either,though the tendency at the higher temperaE.
Above
of fall of
6 6
and BcngoiigJi
will be for
Hanson
to
The
Tensile
the
of Properties
and
at
tnres
it
pass
through
cement,
the
lower
through the crystals.In this range of temperature there of structure is a certain degree of instability throughout the of obtaining results. metal ; hence the difficulty agreeing closely 800" C. fracture should pass wholly At temperatures above weaker than the through the cement, Avhich has become in this crystals. Apparently the strength of the cement, the temperature. to proportional region of temperature, is inversely
These
tested
by microscopic
In order
to
observations preserve
the
test-bars.
it edge of the fractures during polishing, the edgesof the test-bars by a supporting to plate was necessary metal, as was Copperpointed out by Rosenhain. originally since it exhibited not preferential satisfactory, plating was thin coating of nickel was used, which a etching. Finally, The afterwards covered with a thick depositof copper. was method adopted was as follows. cleaned in potassium cyanide to remove fracture was The a tarnish,and covered by a coatingof nickel by electrolyzlng saturated solution of nickel-ammonium-sulphate. The men speciand a current of 0'2 ampere rotated during deposition was of nickel occupied 2 to 3 hours, and The used. deposition acid sulphate then transferred to an the specimen was of copper had been deposited. copper bath until a thick coating The specimen was then cut and polishedin the usual way. but eventuof considerable difficulty, ally Etching was a matter tion obtained with a 1 0 per cent, soluresults were satisfactory of ammonia. of ammonium-persulphate containing excess
the actual
"
"
Plates
V.
to
VII.
show
some
of
the
structures
observed. before
4
2 show
the
before and
the low
show
examples
passes
of
temperature
type
of
fracture, which
are greatly elongated through the crystals.The crystals show in the direction of fracture,though the photos do not These this quite as severely clearly as could be wished. difficult to etch, though strained structures were exceedingly
neighbouring parts
farther
up
away
from
the
fracture, but
less
severelystrained,etched
readily.
Copper
Figs.7
and and
8 show
at
High Teinpei'aturcs
broken
at
67
896"
C. For
719" C.
The
fractures
inter cry stalhne. clearly 720" and the melting point the cracks
can
metal found
be
inch much for distances as an as crystals cracks Such from the actual point of fracture. intercrystalline It is particularly to be in Figs. shown 5, 6, and 8. are clearly noticed that there is
no
distortion
fracture.
These
fracture
results has
are
Previously this
temperatures
as
type
within
of
a
only
the
to
few
now
degreesof
been
it has
found
at
temperature
first becomes
much
as
350" C.
where be
below
the
the
observable
stress-temperature curve
19, which
was a
begins to
broken
at
flatten.
It should
719" C, showed
of fracture passing throughthe places, in the microit passes between them, as shown characteristically and clear that the strengthof cement photo. Thus it seems are slightly nearlyequal at 719" C, with the crystals crystals C. At 710" the crystals at this temperature. the stronger even plastic were decidedlyweaker than the cement, and showed deformation by slip(see Fig.3). With the exception of bars tested at about 719" C, all the bars were perfectexamples of either
one
type of fracture
to interesting
never
or
the
other. the
It is of
fracture No.
Photo
6), thus
at
a
material
exists
intercrystalline type takes place along a twin boundary (see that no cementing proving the prediction twin boundary.
notice that low
Fig. 10
which
was
shows
the
at
a
temperature
distance
away bar
type of deformation
from
found
some
the
centre,
i.e.
highlyheated
(D. 36).
obtained that than the the up to takes
2, 1913,
Turning now
same
to
the
from
the
ductility
maximum 600"
beginsto
stress.
at
lower
the
the bars
*
C.
place by
vol.
x.
Rosenhain
Y,-^zn,Journal
of Metals,
No.
pp.
119-140.
6 8
Bengougk
and
Hattson
The
Tensile
of Properties
in the crystals.Thereafter deformation, i.e.by slipping plastic tion the ductility falls off rapidly, though the most noticeable reducin strengthonly takes place at a temperature higher by of this phenomenon is not easy to see. 50" C. The explanation At higher temperatures the reduction in the elongation
must
be
supposed to
through
has which taken
be
due
the
to
the
loss
of
strengthof
before the any
cement.
the
cement
fracture the
passes
great
The
extension
placeby
and
of yielding that
no
(Nos. 5 photomicrographs
of the
at
occurs crystals
7) show
720"
tion deformaplastic
temperatures
800"
to
below
can
certain
amount
of above
deformation plastic
about be due C. any
place.
temperatures
the
at
that the bars may ductility of the crystals bodily over sliding
Looking
Rosenhain
fit the
the
results
the
as
theory of
whole
it would
facts experimental
observed
in the
for
one
pure
annealed
metal
mentioned. particular that Longit is interesting to note In the last connection loss of ductility at and Campion * have bottom observed a a of Admiralty lower temperature than strength in the case bronze 87"96, tin 9*77, alloys of the composition,copper the zinc 1*94, so phenomenon probably has an important They put forward the view that the cement loses significance. its ductility before its strengthas an explanation. This to the paratively authors, since at the comsatisfactory hardly seems
" "
low
temperatures
cement
under is
consideration
the
teristic charac-
property of the
the
cement
that fracture
true rather than elasticity is lose its elasticity does not still passes through the crystals
regionof temperature
itself to stresses.
the consequently
cement
can
accommodate
of Mechanical Effect
It will from but
*
Work.
now same
be
to interesting
consider
the
results obtained
the
sample
Journal
of the
Institute
of Engineers
and
69
the
two
sets
of
results
might
throw
some
questionof
"
the
or identity
resemblance
between
cement
formed
and
of a duringthe crystallization
metal
from
the
"
molten
of
state
Beilby which
The
results and
what
be termed
the
"
secondarycement
IV. and
by
are
"
work."
of
5.
in
Figs.4
In the in the
plotted
that
was
be noticed
the heat
treatment
tensile
test
short too to being carried out was produce a complete, or nearly complete, annealing eftect at any temperature
"
100"
2Bd"
100"
soar
sor
wr
3iio"
mr
im
Temperature
"C
Copper
Rolled
Fig. 4.
(Broken
/n
coj
below
1000"
C. ; in other
words, the
same curve
tensile
curve
wholly above
seem
the
for annealed
cement
has secondary considerable of persistenceat high temperatures, powers it cannot survive 2 hours though annealing at 750" C. The of the curves are general forms similar, though the the most of rapid diminution range of temperature in which is apparentlyslightly strength occurs of higher in the case the
to
indicate
that
the
important
differences
are
seen
70
when
Bengough
the
two
and
Hanson
The
Tensile
of Properties
examined. curves are elongation-temperature In the case of the rolled metal there is a rapid diminution in at quitelow ductility temperatures, which is not observable in of the annealed the case metal. Previous workers, including Le Chatelier,Huntington, and one of the authors have observed in copper loss of ductility at low temperatures. a Except in the case of Huntington's experiments,* the drop has only been in unannealed observed metal. rolled or worked Huntington observed it in annealed The electrolytic temperature copper. it occurs minimum at which but to seems vary considerably,
nor
/m"
Temperature
"C
Copper-
Rolled
Fig.
(Broken
5.
co^).
between is usually observed ductility 450" C. Looking at the results as that naturally suggests itself is that
the
a
limits
300"
C.
to
is observed ductility which the amorphous material in the temperature range over is recrystallizing most formed actively. There are by work The first is that a region of low to this view. two objections of annealed found was ductility by Huntington in the case ments electro-copper. Since, however, at the date of his experi" "
low
(1906)
annealing was
*
there
was
no
reason
to
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals, No.
126-144.
72
Bengough
Turning
now
and
to
Hanson
the
The
Tensile
arsenic
of
two
on
Properties of
the
sets
mechanical
of
tests
on
propertiesof
arsenical
copper,
copper
V.
(of the
Arsenical
compositiongiven
Copper (asrolled).
in
Table
II.) are
Table
"
Tested
in Air.
Table
VI.
"
Arsenical
Copper (asrolled).Tested
in
Hydrogeii.
Plate
:^:^
c*3
Fig.
1.
"
Fig.
2."
for
750" C.
Fig.
3.
"
Rolled
at
broken
Fig.
4."
Annealed
at
broken
350" C.
elongation of
fracture. diameters.
a
crystalsat fracture.
Magnified of Ammonium
been added.
400
diameters.
ichich
Persulphate,to
excess
of Ammonia
had
Plate
VI
Fig. 5.
"
Fig.
6.
Annealed
at
Electro-copperBar
719" C.
near
broken
896" C.
Shows
inter-
(D.
"
Shows fracture.
diameters.
diameters.
if.
Fig.
7.
"
Annealed
at
Electro-copperBar
719" C.
Shows
Fig.
8.
"
Rolled
at
Electro-copper Lar
896" C. Shows fracture.
\\J. o(i/
broken
crystalline inter-
fracture. intercrystalline
Magnified
solutioti
600
diameters. jvhich
specimensetched
with
an
\Q per cent,
of Ammonium
been added.
Persulphate,to
excess
of Ammonia
had
Plate
VII
Fig.
9.
"
Shows intercrystalline Electro-copperBar (U. 2U) broken at 918" C. The white liningto fissures is deposited nickel. fissures.
Magnified
GOO
diameters.
Fig.
10.
"
Rolled Shows
Electro-copper
Bar
(D. o(J)broken
at
S9G" (.'.
Xot
near
fracture.
type of deformation,
the bar.
owing
to
fall of temperature
along
Magnified
All
1000
diameters.
specimensetched
with
an
If)per cent,
solution
of Aiiniioiiium
been added.
Persulphate,
to which
excess
of Ammonia
had
74
Bengottghand
Hanson
lie
The
an
Tensile
extension
Properties of
of the
in carbon
curve
dioxide, which
720"
at
on
hydrogen
air
as
a
above
C.
set
Looking
whole
from
the
of
curves
for of
bars
tested
in
the
point of
in
view
Rosenhain's
the
theory,the
planation ex-
that
arsenic
or
occurs naturally
is that
causes a
presence
of either
oxygen
copper
2Br
ior
m"
500"
m'
Temperature
"C
Arsenical
(Above
CoPPE
R OLLED
records in carbon Fig.
tests
(Broken
in dioxide.
in
;
Hydrogen)
the full
curve
hydrogen )
tests
7.
and
that
the
appreciably greater
cement
together is softeningof
It would this also
not
the be
results
to
in
low
a
expected
verified
lead
the
to
case
in
of
copper,
which
over ductility
the whole
zone
temperature range
of the tests, of
in has
the
narrow
in the
neighbourhood
copper
300"
alreadybeen
In the
case
discussed.
arsenical
of
this range
of
low
ductility
75 which
more
extensive, and
extends
to
500"
C, above
of considerable ductility and the arsenical bars occurs range bars show greater elongationthan the rolled electro-copper broken Thus in
COg.
that both
cement curves,
the view
oxygen
affords with
case are
a
and
arsenic
cause
ing soften-
of the the
primary
series of
whole
the
which ductility
"
occurs
in the
tests
of
unannealed
"
pure im-
bars.
Further
meaning
The
the
main
conclusions
may
that
have
reached
as
result
of this research
1.
2.
stated as follows : briefly The the tests were nature of the atmosphere in which carried out has most a important effect upon the results obtained. An oxidizingatmosphere at high temperatures giveshigh ductility. its superior Pure maintains unannealed rolled copper strengthover annealed copper at all temperatures from atmospheric to 1000" C. Annealed preserves copper its superiorductility peratures. temto approximately the same be These results
were
obtained
in
neutral
atmosphere.
3. In
the
case
of the At
pure
annealed
all
copper, above
fracture below
passes
about
through
700"
C.
at crystals
temperatures
all temperatures
the take
about
750"
C.
crystals. At
either
course,
intermediate
peratures tem-
4.
The
in
intercrystalline. existence of a range of low ductility at temperatures the neighbourhood of 250" C. to 450" C. is confirmed.
effect of
5. The
arsenic in or introducing either oxygen small into copper is to lower the tensile quantities tility strength at high temperatures. An increase in ducis also observed.
6. The
as
whole,
can
be
factorily satis-
explained on
of
the existence
cement
of is
which
basis of Rosenhain's
76
Tensile
Properties
of
Copper
at
High
Temperatures
temperatures,
but interest
at
weaker
must,
at
high
be
temperatures.
Two
points
statement
of
however,
excepted
from
this
present,
7.
Bars
tested
in
hydrogen
weaker than
at
temperatures
bars tested in
above
about
720"
or
C. neutral
are
an
oxidizing
per square
atmosphere
is
due
by
about
to
half
ton
inch. which
the
This
probably
in
reduction
and
of
copper
oxide,
may bars.
result
weakening
finally
cracking
The
desire National
to
express
their
indebtedness for
work for for
to
the
Director facilities
Physical
out
Laboratory
granting
in the
carrying
his
to
of
to
the
microscopic
Rosenhain
laboratory suggestions
some
under and
tests
charge
Mr. T.
G.
Dr.
numerous
Bamford,
copper.
M.Sc,
carrying
out
of
the
on
arsenical
Communications
on
Bengougk
and
Hansons
Paper
77
COMMUNICATIONS.
Professor
wrote
A.
Campion
and
Professor
J.
G.
Longbottom
(Glasgow)
that
of the of
they noted with pleasurethat in the main the conclusions authors agreed with those arrived at by the writers as the result
which had been in progress for some investigations years in the Royal College. the test-piece and furnace They thought that an arrangement Avhereby in horizontal that to a was were on position placed preferable figured that it not possible to obtain perfectequality was They believed p. 58. of temperature throughoutthe specimensby means of a vertical arrangement, the hotter than the lower. as portionwas always slightly upper of only the ultimate elongation Apparently the authors had measured that they had made gations investithe specimens,and it was to be regretted no of the materials. of the elastic properties They (thewriters) thought that it would have conduced to clearness, had all the curves and facilitated comparison, been plottedin the same In maximum 2 stress a was on Fig. vertically plotted temperature way. stress base. a on base, whilst in Fig. 8 temperature was plottedvertically and Hanson remarked Messrs. Bengough (p. 67) on crystalline fractures and intercrystalline that, in regard to the latter, previously Technical
"
this type of fracture has only been observed at temperatures within a few been degrees of the melting points of metals,whereas it has now found
melting the paper point." presented by the writers to the Institution of in Scotland in the month of July 1914, and to Engineersand Shipbuilders made which reference was by the authors, they recorded the fact that
to
occur
at
temperature
as
much
as
350"
C. below
the
In
of 260"
this type of fracture occurred in Admiralty gun metal at a temperature 350" than C. below the melting more C, which was considerably the material.
pointof
Further,it was
detect
not
necessary
to
resort
to
scopic micro-
to phenomenon was in the photographs of the actual fractures of the specimens seen clearly which of only two they have given in that paper at a magnification diameters. observed the same They had also previously phenomenon in
examination
The
at
about
the
same
on
temperature.
pp. 67
follow and regardingelasticity have to fused con; they appeared and ductility, elasticity or, at all and 68
authors'
arguments
extremely difficult to
no
events, submitted
of the cement"
It
was
evidence
that
"
low temperatures." "comparatively discuss properlythat portionof knowing exactly Messrs. Bengough and Hanson's and "ductility." The writers stillbelieved "elasticity"
at
difficult to
paper the
out with-
conception of
that
in the
the
paper
referred of
to
offered
full and
at
theory complete
peratures, tem-
explanationof
and
mechanism
in accordance
materials
various
to be
results of experimental
their
C. H.
Carpenter,
M.A., Ph.D.
wrote (Vice-President),
78
that
Communications
of the
on
Bengough
was
and
Hansons
the
Paper
had
shown
the
clearly intercrystalline type of fracture, with no distortion of 350" C. below the melting point. took place as much as crystals,
that the the the evidence tending to show point of great importance was of Rosenhain's which had nothing cement "primary" theory
the
"
highestinterest
authors
Another that
to
"
do
with
results of
of
mechanical
work
was
different
from
the
was definitely produced regarded it as probable (thewriter)had never that these were and was interested in the evidence identical, especially now being brought forward which indicated there might be important them. He hoped the authors would follow up this differences between which of theoretical was importance,and would institute high jjoint,
secondary by mechanical
cement
theory,which Beilby's
work.
He
experiments of
The had
statement
decisive character.
on
p.
66
"
that
was
"severely strained
one
structures
were
difficult to exceedingly
He found
etch
that he could
thoroughlyconfirm.
which had been
to
the
same
punched
develop
area
in the
any the
cold.
Moreover, it
at
was
in impossible certain
a
this instance
of
punched preliminary annealing. Such ferrite and difference in etchingbetween led to the normal a treatment in the cold punched specimen neither constituent would whereas pearlite, certain distance of the fracture, etch within tained a although the steel constructure
a
all within
distance
the
unless
were sjiecimens
given
0 44
per
cent,
of carbon.
agreed that amorphous very strong cement theory. There was, however, one part of the author's explanation which the writer was not quite clear. Above about 750" C they upon due of the opinionthat the elongation observed was to the sliding were each in of crystals other the of the of bodily over softening consequence assumed that this If, as he understood, it was amorphous cement. the existed thin between cement merely as an infinitely crystals, layer the only cause of the elongahe found it difficult to accept suoh sliding as tion In view of the size and these at irregular shape of temperatures. for the crystals the crystals he could not quitesee how it was to possible
O. F. Hudson,
Avrote
Mr.
M.Sc.
(Birmingham)
confirmation
that
he
of
Rosenhain's
slide
bodily over
unless
one
another
to
any
but
minute them
extent
was
without
of
formatio de-
the
material plastic
there
were
between
other
appreciable
He
thought
three
and be
spaces;
amount
would
very
not
observed
the metal
owing
of
to
a
rapidcrystal growth at
the
(3)
as
the presence
a
comparativelylarge amount
between it
was
that
behaved
the
of
crystals, possiblydue
that the
conceivable
small
of many
eutectics
an
with
although separatedonly by
cement
amorphous
in
soft condition.
The
Communications
on
BengougJiand
Hansons
Paper
79
of electrolytic of arsenical copper above 750 C. and tested in air copper be in to the third of at the due, least, causes might part suggested. Professor
A.
K,
Huntington,
A.R.S.M.
wrote (Past-President),
that
to
from his in order to discuss the paper curves plotthe author's and his own This had
on
points
to
of view
same
it
was
necessary
the
scale and
together.
been
same on
done
data
the
discussion
the
AA^ were based (p.80). The curves those given by him (Professor as Huntington) in the the Eighth Eeport to Alloys Research Committee.*
in
Figs.1
and
in his paper also included in the curves The Effects of on They were than of Temperatures Higher Atmospheric on Tensile Tests Copper and its Alloys,"c.," read before the Institute of Metals, f Curves BB^ were from Dr. Bengough'spaper read before this institution in 1912,J replotted
"
reproducedon
discussion. and
pp.
pp. 62 Curves
and
63 of and
Bengough
DD^
were
and
Hanson's
CC
replottedfrom
69 and
70 of these
authors"
paper.
[See also
Effect of
of
cluded in-
in Professor
Higher
contained
In
than
Ed.]
of 1912 for
his
the
of various It
was
were compared with the copper alloys and reduction that a fall in elongation
curve area
copper. be
due
shown 1.50" to
commencing
to
about
.some
250"
C. occurred he had
curve
in
them
copper
all,and
unless
that
it must
change
taking place
which If A^
a
in the
all these
not.
metals
that
had
satisfied himself
were
they had
it would
examined
be
seen
change had
been A^
cut
place after
a causing
1-50" to 200" C. had temj^erature of about in the elongation.The falling reduction curve had
reached,
curve,
which
dropped
curve
very in the
little from
0" at about
350"
C.
On
the
other
650"
was
reached, when
from much in fact rather the
more
'"
the lowest point direction, opposite B^ hand, dropped but very little it curved upwards. AA^ "on and BB' that
the copper
quite
obvious
curves
work The
it than
the former.
wa.s,
The
"A"
suppliedas
"
low,
showed
soft,and
that it
in
addition,
and soft,
C. for two
hours.
than
high
very A
"
by the elongation curve. all of the the broken nearly test-pieces Fortunately
An
confirmed
"
stillin existence.
on
examination
of them
showed
was
that
were
complete fracture
of two
not
"
not
one
cracked showed
part temperature
on
tests
at at to
316" C.
the
cracks
did
whilst
higher temperatures
last test been
this
the
test-
showed cracks increasingly pieces up (1000"F.). Many other series of hot jn 1897.
*
made
at
523" the
C.
tests
had
made, commencing
and
their
alloysshowed
change in
con-
t Journal
Proceedingsof the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, No. 1, 1907, of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1912, vol. viii.pp.134-142.
1, 1912, vol. vii. pp. 143-4.
p. 320.
J Ibid., No.
loc. cit.
80
Communications
at
on
Bengough
and
Hansons
Paper
curves
given in
were
"
cut
off close
were
to
the made
fractures
at
various
temperatures
examined
in low fracture
meltingwhite
and
metal. micro-
Sections T/o'
20
13 16
to perpendicular
If
A?
"^
10
"3
WO
200
300
900
SOO
600
700
800
300
WOO'C
Temperature.
Fig. 1.
100
50
^
^
90
:-"-.
Cj Ji7-=^^-=-=
zo\ "-u
10
loo
loo
lob
m)
'sob
Temperature
Fig. 2.
eoo
roo
eoo
ooo
looo'c
graphically.It
in the
case
was
seen
of the
which test-pieces
through
the
crystalsin those
not.
[See also
"
Note
on
this
subjectby Professor Huntington in the present volume. Dr. Bengough had not stated at what temperature the
*
Ed.]
copper
of
curve
Loc.
cit.
8 2
Communications
and alloys, had
on
Bengough
adhered
It
to ever
was
and
Hansons
Paper
of
that
com*
certain
been
work. be that
not
imply
that
given in
the
Avorks. referred to
further
cojDpers
were,
by
the authors
as
possibly not
an
completely annealed
in
as
fact, completelyannealed,
arsenical (0"234
untested 1912
pieceof
paper
the
was
writer's
copper examined
described
As)
in the
It microscopically.
showed
sign of
bands be had
two not
with
being magnifications up
of that
thoroughlyannealed.
to
There 1000
were
no
indications There
every of slip
to
diameters.
at 600" at 750"
happened
hours
two
test-bars
metal
were
annealed
which
and
been
used.
Those
reannealed
hours
tested.
The metal
tests
were
with
those
made
on
the
same
annealed
600"
C.
for
two
hours.
not
It would
be
seen
that the
On
p.
69
are
the
authors
"
The
differences examined. in
case
seen
when
case
two
In
the
of
temperatures which
sudden
is not
observable
in the
on
of the the
as
annealed
was
metal."
way
curve
curve
plotted.
D^
the
in the
plottedat
authors
and
in
Fig. 2.
"
The
continued
one
Previous
Huntington,
copper
at low
of the authors
temperatures.
Except in
the
of
rolled or worked drop has only been observed in unannealed observed it in annealed Huntington electrolytic copper." The tions authors, if they referred to the writer's paper, would find that the condiof annealing hours 600" two at were definitely stated,viz., C, and the
metal.
reference
was
to
pure
disclosed the
the
writer
had
also
done, he
necessityfor annealing before making such series of emphasized Le Chatelier curve tests.* The Fig. 2 of Prof. Huntington's Note in [see similar the presentvolume. to those published was Ed.] by the writer. very that of a soft copper, not of a cold- worked The elongationwas copper. writer where The not Dr. Bengough had was aware published his observation of a loss of ductility in copper at low temperatures. It was shown in Fig. 9, p. 63 of the authors' paper, and it was stantiated subnot not in the same by the data on which Fig.5 was plotted paper.
"
Congrds hiternatiofiales
des Mi!thodes
D'Essai,
tome
ii.
Communications
on
Bengottghand
more
Hansons
tliat copper
Paper
which cold
83
had
Probably
not
it would worked
even more
be
correct
to
say
been
cold
showed
the
fall in
and elongation,
worked
if annealed.
That that
discussed.
from
two
lighton
one
point
had
if tests
were
made
copper,
of which
been
and
the
not
a
other
at too
rolled without
cold
working
been
high
temperature.
there had
By
in
coincidence
of
just
"
* published
Annealing
abstract considered which
to
Copper
by
It
paper would
on
The
be
found
form
that
present number
Journal.
Bardwell
(about 600"
and he
C.) was
anneal
copper,
quotes Grard
of the had practice which confirmingthe desirability (ProfessorHuntington's) laboratory during the last fifteen
to
According
C. from
Bardwell
copper
would
be
overheated
if annealed
750"
It followed low
the
discussion foregoing
that the
regionof relatively
by
and
in cop])er and its alloysto which attention first drawn was ductility in completelyannealed the writer in his 1912 paper rf/ri occur copper, that the authors' authors therefore suggested explanation
and
did not
It
hold
was
good.
open
to
The
annealed
at
tested in carbon
dioxide.
carbon H.
questionwhether
a
the
neutral
atmosphere.
1200"
C. In
On
dioxide
constituted
Deville,
between
carbon
dioxide and
partially decomposes
carbon
1100" formed
of carbon
carbonic
oxide
might
be well
be
at still lower
carbonic be
on
oxide
temperatures, the oxygen going to form also diffuse into the It would might copper.
for
CuoO.
The
to
the
lookout
oxide
might
a
exist in
oxide,having a
as existing
"
Cu.^O,COo, and carbonic possibilities. the outside and equilibrium yet carbonic copper, different diffusion rate to CO^, might reduce the CugO
of the copper, and so render the copper cally mechaniwhat was appeared to be the condition of the and
"
all such
constituent
"
rotten,"which
"
C
an
"
at
temperatures above
mind
on
about
700"
C.
entirely open
between
metal
amorphous
in
a
cement
the
the
that
to
worked
be the
formed
between
low
cement
likely
the of the
the lamellie
about
of
crystalsthemselves.
temperatures
which it the
great deal
weakness
had
at
been
said
strengthat amorphous
metal
high temperatures
even
a
suggested
Was
existed
in
un
worked
between
crystalgrains.
the writer had
to
it not
rather
question of
rigidityand
Some of
and
a
.? pZas^u'zY?/ ago
years
car.
examine
fractured
motor
The been
way
the
steel
that showed
American
in a direct line, just as if the pillar the the grinding case-hardening away that it was made of very tough material. of Mining Engineers, August
1914.
Bulletin
of the
Institute
84
When
the
Coinmunications
tlie case-hardened
on
Bengough
been
and
Hanson
Paper
result that that
to subjected
bending moment,
the
case-hardeningfractured
metal
first at
some
point, with
at
the the
beneath
was
supported than
it
all other
pointswhere
followed
remained intact, and case-hardening this fracture took in tough metal place fractured.
"
naturally
the
The
became
concentrated
at
the
casing had had been prevented from bending by the and the efiect of the bending moment it, had point at which the case-hardening
where
brittle
fractured.
It
"
was
suggestedthat
assuming
the
cement
the
"
it to exist
temperatures
was
between aries boundcrystal amorphous cement similar in behave At low a manner. might fracture took place through the and rigid, the cement became and the plastic
crystal grains. At
high temperatures
at
inter-crystalline cracking
It
was
much
be
a
as
350"
below
the
melting point.
feared
occur
that
more
it would
than
Mr. F.
another
greater shock to them to find that it could 350" 0. lower still in normal ! copper
the would
at
Table
that Johnson, M.Sc. (Birmingham), wrote he of b ut interest, II., p. 59, were particular
to
see
analyses in
have
ferred pre-
materials
used
which
lent themselves
the
to
fairer
comparisons.
that
"
It
was
not
he thought, to fair,
compare
sufi"ered in the
following respects :
in the
oxygen and
present.
oxygen
considerablymore
its
in the latter.
present than
was
electrotained con-
physicalcondition
lead
as
different from
that
was
was
nearly as much
tin wished
There
writer
present.
to ask
if the
authors
had
taken
condition physical
in combination
of the oxygen and the probable presence The with oxygen. influence of the lead
nowhere
had
the
authors
indicated
that
view authors
"
of these
drawn
by
the that
An
(No. 5,
the effect of
as They yet, not justifiable. p. 75) was, in small e ither arsenic or introducing oxygen
stated
tities quan-
at
loss to
see or on
were
in
tion posicase
influence of oxygen
arsenic
a
alone, since in
standard
he
the
of oxygen
they had
published no
was
tests
for the
case
not
of
than He
in the other
an
much
impressedwith
the
statement
that
high ductility. It
influence of which
seemed
constituent
Authors'
in the cold
was
Reply
to
Bengough
and
Hanson
Paper
85
just au
as
the
at high temperatures have should impair ductility, facts such in keeping with known effect. Yet this was opposite peratures and at ductility high temhigh degree of malleability relatively of cuprous oxide as such a proportion of copper containing
would On
render Plate
it unserviceable
for
or drawing rolling
in the cold.
a micrograph of rolled published electro-copper showing slip-bands.They also stated that the specimen those slip-bauds whether He would be glad to know had been etched. visible before etching. were
the
authors
Mr.
were
Hanson
wrote, in
note
replyto
the
the
communications, that
the authors
to gratified
that
they
and pp. and
had
drawn, agreed in
68
were
results of their work, and the conclusions the main with those of Professors Campion their
to
clear
to
Professors
they would
more
refer
them
p.
65,
on
which
stated
somewhat
to
themselves
jected opinionthat metals, when subin the crystals stresses at low temperatures, stretched by slipping along the cleavageplanes. This caused an alteration in the
fully. They
were
of the
shape of
imply
and
the
cement
envelope was
This did
and
able
not
to
modate accom-
thinness.
the
that
the
cement
did
and it,
not
associated
with
possess it must be
hardness
necessarily strengthgenerally
many
borne
in mind
that
hard
could not be distorted in large masses, brittle substances, which to a of very thin sheets, be bent in the form elastically could, when this view evidence in of considerable support degree. Experimental very had
shown been
by Humfrey,* published
when
and
by Rosenhain,t and
that
it then
treatment. cement
it had
been
that
was
steel
a
was
subjected to stresses
of
than gi-eater
its elastic
limit it
lower
left in
condition
strain, so
it did
possessed a
That
strength in
to to
compressionthan
of the
before
is
ascribed
to
were
the
tendency
than
stretched elastically
The
return
their
original shape.
of Rosenhain in
view
that
the cement is
rather elastic,
of the
ductile,in
this
range,
was
observations published
no practically
one
another the
this low-
temperature
cement
or ductility
temperature increased
by
the
movement
the relative
each other, with a considerable over change in crystals of interand o f the with the positions boundaries, production cracks and spaces. crystalline He (Mr. Hanson) would point out to Professors Longbottom and
Campion that
was
the method
of direct metal
photographyof
on
themselves
impossiblewith
that the method
more
the
of
used
account
small
structure,
and
was
to likely
*
laborious,
86
He
Authors^
noted
Repcy: Bengough
interest that Professor
"
and
Hansons
Paper
Carpenter could confirm their strained structures difficult that statement were severely exceedingly had been of considerable a to etch," as this experimental source difficulty in obtainingphotomicrographs of the highly trouble to them, especially
with strained In
not
fractures. Mr.
reply to
at
Hudson's intention
communication, he
to
would
the
state
that
it
was
the
authors'
imply
a
:
that
when
slid crystals
over was
one
another
high temperatures
the
which
continuous the
an
served pre-
between
All the bars
boundaries broke
a
evidence
all to the
contrary.
with
microscopicexamination,
spaces
over
the
whole
of
the turned
portion.
These
were
shown
VI. and VII.). clearlyin photomicrographs (5 and 9 (Plates especially Mr. In regard to the other two Hudson, possiblecauses suggestedby he (Mr. Hanson) did not consider that either playedany very important
of any rate in the case 0*1 per cent, of say, about eutectic of amount present in
part, at
pure the
metal.
In
impurity,there
metals
pure be would
metal
no
ing, containit
appreciable
since
was
well-annealed would
metal,
absolute
of
known
to
some
was
that, on
theoretical
all grounds,
no
dissolve
impurities
metals the
a
He
such
thin
thing as
case
insolubility.
confer
that
in the
impure
films
presence
the
form
at
of
eutectic
might
manner
the
metal
high
temperatures, in the
gested sug-
contribution
to hear at
as
Huntington for his long and interesting interested He (Mr. Hanson) was to the discussion. greatly Professor Huntington had observed intercrystalline cracking
to thank
Professor
as
316" that
aware.
C. in the
case
of his copper
bars.
He used
this observation
He
had
not
been previously
so published,
he
case
was
the
not
material
by
.so
in the
now
of copper
impossible to
the
fractures
He thought it was intercrystalline. fracture however, that the change to intercrystalline which the maximum of that at temperature neighbourhood
were curve
became of the
about
650"
C.
In
this the
the
of
case
type
fracture
bars the change to the intercrystalline rolled copper 710" C. and 760" C., but occurred somewhere between 710" in C.
determined not more accurately. At change point was fracture to be seen as was passed through the crystals, No. 3
a
at
760"
C.
it
He
thought,from
very
the two
curves
occurred
close
the
750" occurred
than in
C.
It
to be noted
change pointsin
case
the
throughoutat
the
case
of rolled copper
due
to
of
annealed
be might possibly
difi'erences in He
was
size. crystal
by
sets
Professor
of
curves
Authors
AA^
made and
Reply: Bengougliand
It
was
Hanson
Paper
Guillet
*
87
had
BB.^
worthy
pure copper which
of
experimentson
between
the
same
copper-zinc alloysto
cold-rolled
and
detect
differences and
material
been
annealed,
and
material
after
being
tests
rolled without
the cold
cold-work
no
then
annealed. similarly
between He
two
Tensile
in
showed
differences
the
materials.
was
thought it
curves
the
differences
manner
between
the
might
BB^ after
be
were
to differences in the at
of
testing. The
took could
bars of
all
cases
curves
loaded
such
same
rate
that
fracture
placein
Professor
approximatelythe
AA^ of the
of
were
time
so
under far
as
no
load.
he
Huntington's
from
curves
determined,
of
of
gather
It
the
account
method
under testing,
defined definitely
load. influence and
or
conditions
was on now
of rate known
rate loading,
manner
that the
a
of
the
of properties of
metal,
at especially
temperatures,
to take
that
an
greatly varyingresults
uneven
could
be obtained
by adopting a
advisable
different
rate
testing.
when with
It would
surelybe
these
of
making comparisons.
Professor
agree
Huntington that
drastic.
an
were
the conditions
annealingof
the authors'
those
the bars
test-bars
were
were
too
He
would
point out
carbon air.
be
that
annealed the
in
atmosphere of
annealed
in
dioxide,
Professor formed
He
at
while
of Professor
"
Huntington
presence oxygen
Huntington said,
still lower
went
on
In
of
coj)pei' CO
to
might
going
form
Cu.,0."
then
CO.,, and
also diffuse into the copper. Cu.^O, exist in and the outside vet CO.,, equilibrium might copper,
might
to
having
as a
constituent
copper."
He
the CU2O
extremely improbablethat
the reaction
2Cu-hCOo-"CuoO CO.
should
also take
He in
temperature.
been detected
direction in the copper at the that had been the case it would
were
same
have
at
bars which
kept
for
two
hours
He
C.
cold
They
reactions
been
signsof
the metal. carbon
of the either
weakness
was
in
of
took
opinion that no appreciabledissociation of the placein the presence of copper under the conditions
Had
of
dioxide
such oxide
in
on
been the
the
case or
it would
have
been
He
detected
the
bars
by
weakening of
cold.
for two
mechanical
not
the
annealed
an
metal
when
tested
could
at
agree
was
The
1 and
hours be
seen
750" C.
from
not
drastic.
could
200
photomicrographs
excessive.
of magnification
had somewhat
diameters,was
the
Mr.
on
Johnson
misunderstood
authors'
were
experiments
made
on
the effect of oxygen. The analysesgiven in Table II. the material before the tests were In the case carried out.
*
of those
bars
Bulletin
de la Sociiti
Encouragement
July 1914.
88
Aiithors
Reply:
Befigoitgh
and
Hansons
Paper
which
at
were
tested
of
in
test.
CO.,
there
Those
was
no
increase
were
in heated the
the 0*24
the
oxygen
content
the
end
a
the
bars
which
content
in
of
air,
the
content
however,
test.
showed
one
very
considerable
of
a
oxygen tested
at
at
end
In in
case,
that
bar
the
800" found
C.
in
to
air,
be for
oxygen per
cent.
the
part
was
surrounding
considerably regard
in
to
fracture than
was
That
copper
value
bars. of
higher
that
given
10,
he
had
the
not
arsenical
With
photomicrograph
unetched
material.
noticed
any
signs
the
slip-bands
the
90
Hudson
The
on
Critical
tlie paper
Point
several
at
460"
C.
tributors, con-
In
tlie discussion
speakers and
that
to
including the
did
not
consider the
the
eutectoid
proved by
evidence
be
they conclusively
Dr. Desch
"^
"
stated that he would definitely preferto adopt the alternative of a polymorphic change in the /3, and explanation suggested Fig. 2 as the diagram in the /S region. To meet these objections Professor Carpenter started an
in
fresh entirely given to the
set
Zinc-CopperAlloys
the experiments,
of Metals
at
91
of
results of which
were
January meeting of 1912.* Three were alloys prepared: (1) a pure ^ alloy;(2) with a little a; and (3) an with a an alloyof /3, alloyof /5, little 7. sealed in glasstubes were Specimens of these alloys ing and annealed at 445" C. (B.P, of sulphur). Six weeks' annealof the pure ^ alloy showed that (p. 76) Broadly speaking had resolution of the original occurred." no apparent /3 areas With the two other alloys pronounced increase in the amounts,
"
Institute
the
oc
/3
"f/O'
ex
./3'
/?'
/3'^y
S5
5^
S3
62
Fig.
5/
2.t
50
and served, obwere together with coalescence, of 7 respectively, after eight and nine weeks, they both and eventually, penter's and stated to consist of were Accepting Professor Car7. of the structures, it seemed that the interpretation and structural resolution of Q into proved beyond 7 was the graphs question. But, later,considering publishedphotomicroProfessor the Carpenter'sinterpretation, apart from author's did not to the evidence complete conviction carry
a a a
mind.
Thus
no
from
the
and
No.
17, there is
*
clear
on
reason
"Further
Experiments
the
Copper-Zinc Alloys,"
has
now
ournal
t A
slip in
"
drawing
of the
minor
of
the
originaldiagram
been
corrected.
Ed,
92
Hudson:
a-\-^
The
Critical
Point at 460"
C.
a
rather than
of
Again
series
was photographs
annealing of
structure
as was
the
succeeded
first
the earlier stages in the illustrating in which shown /3 alloy, a was pearlitic by a finely granularone, and interpreted resolution
had
the
stages in the
that the
a
of
/3.
That
is
to
say, it
implied
mixture followed
of further
structurally changed into a and of visible however, Carpenter, -y. Professor these photographs by one (No. 6) showing the effect he said the structure in which annealing(ten days),
out crystallizing
/3
shows
"
of
apparent ,8 areas."
In
these
circumstances,
confirm
thought it desirable to attempt to Professor Carpenter's periments observations, and annealing exstarted. were consequently Owing, however, to a
the author of
causes
number
the
work
was
much could
hindered, and
be reached.
it
was
Meanwhile which
he
(a)
effect of
resolution
of
have
proved
a
/3 could
be resolved
to
structurally
the
same
distinct
doubt
and
With the
regard
these
as
existed
in
author's
mind
to
correctness
structures
of
Professor
some
by the results of the author's own although annealings had not experiments, as yet been carried on as long as those of Professor Carpenter. found that not only did So far as the experiments went, it was and 7, but resolved into structurally ^ not become separate there was no sign of any such tendency. positions however, several specimens of different comEventually, the critical point for periods below annealed were up
illustrated. doubt
was now
intensified
to
eleven
Two
1.
weeks.
methods The
were glass tubes which in the vapour of boiling immersed sulphur (445" C). entirely used method This was by Professor Carpenter,and details Further were Experiments on given by him in his paper, the Critical Point at 470" C. in Copper-Zinc Alloys." J
of
used, viz. :
in
"
Journal
of the
51.
Institute
of Metals,
No.
t Ibid., p.
X Ibid., No.
in Zinc2.
Copper Alloys
93
sealed in small glass annealed tubes, were specimens, in electrically heated tube furnaces, the temperatures of which controlled unctions the glass were by thermo-j placedalongside All the photographs of annealed tubes. structures given in the plates were of specimens treated by this method, no * differences being observed in the structures of specimens annealed Two furnaces were by the sulphur vapour method.
The
used
made
for
this work,
"
one
Nichrome the
was
"
wound
a
tube
furnace
wound
in the
laboratory,and
The former
run
other used
platinum
Heraeus and
furnace.
was
for the
ings, longeranneal-
continuouslyoff the battery circuit,the temperatures during the night being checked by a thread The used for the shorter annealings, recorder. and latter was off the lightingcircuit and was run during the day only. An intermittent annealing is,of course, allowable here since the annealingtemperatures are helow the critical point. The available in either case current and it not absolutely was steady, difficult to keep the temperature quiteconstant, even for a was It was, however, found few hours. to be possible to avoid a variation than C. 10" In the notes over long periods. greater of annealingtemperatures included in the descriptions of the -where the photographs,the upper limit is given in cases
actual
temperature variation is
results may
on alloys slightly
not
recorded.
as
The
be summarized
follows
1, In
the
a
side of pure
^
a
very
decided
increase in the
short
to
amount
a
of
few
was
annealingof
no
hours.
be
further
in the
increase
of the
increase with
2. .3.
to
a
size
observed, after
forms. rounding of sharp,angular Pure /3 showed of breaking down. no sign whatever In alloys the y side of pure /3 there appeared on slightly
some,
no
be
but further
not
decided
at
and first,
wards after-
and
rounding.
there
any
In
no
singleinstance
breakdown
the
these in
sign
Dunn
*
of the and
of
any of /3 into
in
of the
a
was alloys
and
author
have been
in "j")
given of the
in
the
a
presence
Some
"
Vanadium
Brass," Journal
Institute
Institute
by
No.
t Journal
of the
of Metals, No.
94 Professor
Hudson
The
Critical Point
assisted
at
460"
C.
Carpenter
then
as
stated
very
powerfully the
were
structural inversion.
As far the author's
own
results
concerned,
they could be perfectlywell explained by a polymorphic direct evidence no change in ^ at 460" C., but there was againstthe eutectoid explanationof the transformation which It remained, therefore, to find some proof positive occurs. that /8 (or rather /3i)could exist as a stable phase below this object the two With 460" C. ments followingsets of experiwere
carried
out
A.
An
made
by pouringa
molten
per
in
had
The
whole
was
allowed
to
cool
disturbed. un-
to
consist
of
the
top, with
The
then cut through, and found specimen was and y at bottom at the practically pure copper composition layers of alloys of intermediate
between.
thin
a
layer of
+
and
in
a
some
on
/3-f y
cut out
on
one
side
and
annealed
specimen was the /3 layer found that it was examined at intervals,and days had graduallyincreased in width, and after thirty-two from inch in width to 0*075 inch, with correspond0-05 ing grown
closed tube below decrease in
a
(435" C).
The
and
y.
The
increase
in
amount
of
3
below
460"C.is illustrated
all of which It thus
were
Nos. byphotographs
at
a
1, 2, and
(PlateVIIL),
diameters.
taken
of twenty magnification
appears
that,even
in the presence of nuclei of both a and of these two phases up into a mixture below
460"
C, but
on
the
other hand
of indicate both
the
a
in amount alone
by
seems
the
tion absorp460"
C.
This
be
a
result
stable
clearlyto
"
that
there
,8 phase below
the large photographs also show that /3 recrystallizes Avhich then slowlygrow break crystals up into smaller ones, also points to a polymorphic change in the ^. a fact which This recrystallization of /3 has been observed by the author in other cases, and also by Professor Carpenter.* The
"
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals,
No.
in
B. A
Zinc-Copper Alloys
95
in molten zinc piece of copper was immersed which was just above its melting point (but below 450" C) The whole hours. and kept at this temperature for thirty-six
small
was
then
allowed
In
to centre
cool,a section
was
a
cut, and
the
structure
amined. ex-
the
core
of unaltered
was
surrounded
the
by layers of
centre
definite
order, from
of
a
outwards:
(2) layer
bluish-white yellow alloy ; (3) a layer of a hard, brittle, is evidently which of alloys richer in zinc. The alloy, 7; (4) layers is illustrated by photo No. 4 (PlateIX.). At first sight structure it would seem that the yellowalloy be a, and that /3was not must
formed
at
all.
the
careful visual
was yellowlayermight be /3 and that the be missing. Also if the yellow layer were really it would expected that it would gradually into the copper, merge it was whereas sharply divided from it. The explanation of ^ from copper and 7 keeps probably is that the formation
that
pace
no
a
with
diffusion of zinc (or ^) into the copper. Hence be present. To test this explanationthe layer would
the
a
repeated, using brass (70-3 0) in zinc instead of After annealing the specimen for fifty-six hours copper in zinc. 450" C, a layerof ^ was found at a temperature not exceeding been formed between and sharplydivided from the a and to have in photo No. 5, Plate IX. This experiment was tried 7, as shown repeatedly, using various annealingtemperatures from 400" C. upwards, and it was found that in every case a layer of ,8 was between the and form of test specimen The formed 7. finally adopted for these experiments consisted of a small of 70-30 inch brass, | inch in diameter and about cylinder in which a hole 1 inch in diameter drilled. This hole was long, experimentwas
a
'\
was
then
filled with
in to the
an
inch
a
hammered
zinc result i.c,well
form
was
the
and
of
below
the (Plate IX.), shows experiment at 420" C. to 430" C. (three days), the critical temperature, and the layerof /3 is
to
brass.
Photo
distinct. The seems fact, which perfectly and proved,that /8 is produced from 7 be the that only explained on assumption phase below the critical point.
a
be
definitely
C.
can
a
below
460"
there is
stable
/3
96
Hudson:
The evidence the
in
The
Critical Point
view
at
4:60" C.
at
support of the
that
460"
C. the
zinc-copperalloysundergoes an eutectoid change into a and almost observations the of on entirely y rests Professor Carpenter that (3 in the presence of nuclei of either
a
/3
of
or
y
a
converted
into
of
after
460"
C.
tions observahas
author, after
in any obtained C. It way
prolonged and
to
repeated attempts,
On the is
a
been author
unable has
confirm.
that
other stable
hand
the
evidence
seems
there
(3 phase
therma^l
below
460"
probable,then,
that
the
460" C. in those at about change which undoubtedly occurs which contain be due to /3 must a zinc-copper alloys morphic polyand that the modification change of ^ into (3^, in Shepherd'sequilibrium which be introduced must diagram is similar to that suggestedby Dr. Desch "fin the discussion the original The accurate on paper of Carpenterand Edwards. determination of the form of the new will and position curves of considerable doubtless be a matter A difiiculty. purely
thermal
does investigation
not
promising,as the temperature in probablyonly very small, and likely by undercoolingeffects. So far the
definite
can
to
be
obscured
no
author
has
no
obtained
results drawn
from
a
work
on
these
and lines,
of
curves
conclusions
A
be
until
largernumber
of the
structure
is available.
careful
known
examination
of
alloysof accurately
compositionannealed at different temperatures would, however, probablygive sufficient data to enable the approximate form of the diagram in the /3 region to be determined. Thus some preliminaryexperiments which are about to be is decidedlyless soluble described appear to indicate that in ,8^ of the y seems than in (3, while the change in solubility to be only slight. In the course of the annealingexperiments carried for on it was of various compositions, always long periodswith alloys
a
occurs
weight should not be given to the analogy of the eutectoid change which it as /3of the tin-copper, aluminium-copper, and other alloys,particularly has been shown that in the case of the antimony-copper alloys (H. C. H. Carpenter, International Zeitschrift fiir Metallographie, Bd. iv.,Heft 4, 301) the corresponding at about 430" C. undergoes /3phase polymorphic transformation Institute Xo. vol. the Journal v. t 1, 1911, of of Metals, p. 172.
Too much in the
Plate
IX
A=
Unaltered
B C
D, E
in Zinc.
No. 4. Copper annealed in contact with Zinc 10 diameters. Vertical Illumination. Magnified
"
".
'^
^"^
No...')."I ij
.;"I
y
^. "-vv
w
iTid" C.
Persulphate.
No. 6.
MnanifipH
"
in
contact
inn
Tlliiminat,V.n
aL
at
490"-49fi"
"
""
V"
Plate
Jo. 7"
+ /3
501
at
per
cent.
No.
480"-490" C.
Allov G (S/-).Copper 501 per cent. Annealed for 8 hours at 480'-4;iO- C. Quenched and then re-annealed for 15 hours at 425" C.
S." + 7.
"^^f'-
'^'
"^/
"?"".-
;^V-"^^^'
No.
a
9.
+
"
AlloyH (3a). Copper 55'4 per cent. No. 7. as 13. Treatment the same
No.
10."
a
AlloyH (3i^). Copper 55-4 per cent No. 8. the same as /3. Treatment
^^
so.
11. "Alloy H (3f).Copper 55*4 per cent. No. 12." Alloy KIO, containing 3 per cent, of for 8 hours at 480"-490" C. tin. Consists of a and /3with the 5 (clear + p. Annealed Quenched, re-annealed 15 hours at 425" C. white) of the tin-copper series. Annealed and then again annealed for 2 hours at 490" C. 8 days at 450" C. and quenched,
a
,
Vertical Illumination.
etched
with Ammonium
10,
Plate
XI
^"""^:. -:^-i.-
.'
'^-P:^-.^^^^\\H^-i^ '^t?'?:'^j^
No.
13.
"
cent.
No.
a
14.
+
"
Alloy
per
cent.
p.
Annealed
440" C.
15.
.
"
Alloy H
Annealed
at
per
cent.
No.
16.
a
"
Alloy
{\c). Copper
for 3
55'4
at
per
cent.
ji.
440" C.+14
|3.
Annealed
days
425" C.
hours
425" C.
No.
Copper
for 12
days
cent.
ji. No.
18."
Alloy H8.
Annealed
Copper
for 8 weeks
C.
/3.
of Magnification and
all the
were
17, which
Vertical Illumination. Etched photographs, 100 diameters. (exceptNos. etched with Ammonium Persulphate) by a polishattack with Ammonia.
15
in Zinc
noted showed that
a
-Copper Alloys
were
97 the
a
just
amount
within of
case
/3 field
a
the
after those
paratively com-
while annealing,
in
the
of
alloys
less
just within
noticeable.
the In be
/3+
field
case
the the
increase result of
of
either
7 was further of
far
annealing
the
small appeared to into larger rounded masses. angularcrystals Any conclusions, however, which might be drawn from such observations may to which be vitiated by the varyingextents /? can be possibly with and 7. Professor Carpenter is of the supersaturated with opinion that /3 is more readily supersaturated 7 than with a,* although the author has generally found the reverse confined
to
the
coalescence
to
be the
an
field
it is easy to obtain well within of pure /3, but an alloy practically consisting
case.
Thus
the
j8
justwithin
of 7
even
the
/3+
19
7 field
when
distinct
Nos, Photographs
cast alloys
seen
(Plate
with
XI.)and
(PlateXII.) show
of
under the
cisely pre-
similar conditions,and
5 5 "4 per cent,
amount
it will be
that
in
alloy
range) the
other
of
50'1 containing
per
of copper
to
(only1
per cent,
some
the pure
errors possible the alloysH
^ range).
due
to
In
order
eliminate
to
effects, undercooling specimens of contained and G, which 55'4 respectively per and of for cent, annealed 50"1 cent, eight per copper, were hours at a temperature between 480" C. and 490" C, i.e.just above the critical point, and then quenched. The structures and photographed examined Nos. 7 and 9,Plate X.). were (photos The specimenswere then annealed for fifteen hours at 425" C, and the structures and photographed(photos again examined that in alloy Nos. 8 and 1 0, Plate X.). It will be seen H the extra annealingbelow the critical point has resulted in a further of a, while the in alloy G growth of very small crystals in of 7 is practically the extra That amount unaltered. and above specimen H3 is due to the difference in solubility below the critical pointis demonstrated by photo No. 11 (Plate which after again annealing shows the structure the speciX.),
such
a
*
"The
Structural
Resolution
of the No.
pure
Copper-Zinc /3 Constituent
G
into
+7,'
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals,
98
Hudson:
at
a
The
two
Critical
Point
at
460"
C.
The
men
490"
has
C. for been
hours, and
quenching
in water.
extra
redissolved.
occurs
In
at
support of his explanationof the change which 460" C, Professor Carpenter was compelled to assume
that
and that exhibited abnormal alloys zinc-copper properties, ever, Adopting,howunique in its structural stability. pure /3 was the alternative explanationsupported in this paper, the all becomes behaviour of these alloys quitenormal, and, in fact, the author's experiments point to the fact that structural equilibrium The is reached with comparativeease. series of photographs of is (Nos. 13-18, Plate XL) show that the separation paratively apparentlycompleted after a few days,or possibly only a comof takes hours few annealing. The separation excess y Nos. 1 9-22, Plate XIL). It may be placewith equalease (photos of interest here to draw attention to the changes which occur in the shape, size, and distribution the of the or as 7 crystals At first these are small and angular, and appear be. case may remain in this condition until their separation to is almost is more and more completed. Then, as equilibrium completely and the rounding of the small crystals reached, the coalescence of their anglesbecome noticeable. all the when and Finally, has from j6, these constituents respectively crystallized 7 forms well illustrated rounded the massive so assume steadily It may here be sugby Professor Carpenter in his papers. gested that in this and similar cases pronounced segregation which and rounding of crystals have ing during annealseparated be taken indication that equilibriumhas been as an may reached. This tion by the absorpstage is probably also marked boundaries into the larger of of small crystals the at ones the original of /3 crystals, large areas leaving comparatively in photo No. 17 (Plate XI.). pure j8. This is very noticeable Exact measurements would, however, be requiredto determine the point at which is reached. definitely complete equilibrium the
a a a
General
1. The author the 7 at has
not
obtain
into
any
an
evidence
that
of
a
/^ of
and
down
eutectoid
in Zinc
2.
-Copper Alloys
99
take has observed to the author Every change which be satisfactorily the /3constituent can containing placein alloys the assumption that at 460" C, /3 undergoes a on explained,
Evidence
is
brought
C.
forward
that
there
is
stable
j8
phase
4.
below
460"
series in the equilibrium diagram of the zinc-copper in Fig. 2. /3 regionprobably has a form similar to that shown
The
5.
It
does
not
appear
from
the
any
APPENDIX.
On Effect S.
at
the
of
Tin
on
the
Zinc-Copper
"
Alloys.
In
Professor
L.
Hoyt's
paper
On
the
Copper
was
Rich
Kalchoids," * read
that with
the Ghent
meeting
of 1913, it
shown
and
at
a
of tin (4 per cent, large amounts comparatively and upwards), the ^ undergoes inversion into 7 but 500" of brasses in the C, neighbourhood temperature
a
with
small
percentages
the
of
tin that
were
not
dealt
with.
Professor
to
has Carpenter"j*
cause
stated
1 per
cent,
of tin is sufficient
into
structural Johnson
1 per
inversion
of that
\
cent,
considers
causes
tin to
cast
more as
a
the
of Cu^Sn separation
separate constituent.
and
structure
so
The
author
has
of the
brasses, and
may that
60
note
of
one
or
two
of
the
results
It
be in
stage.
has
found and
of
a-j-/3alloyswith
between, say,
per
cent,
critical
x.
point. When,
of
Journal
"
of the
Effect
Institute
of Metals,
on
No. the
2, 1913, vol.
Structure of
p. 235.
t
Zinc
1 he
of other
Metals
the
/3 Constituent
the
Copper-
No. Alloys,"/(^2^^"a^ o/M^ /wj/zVw/^ (/yl/e/rt/5, % Journal of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1912,
100
Hudson:
The
Critical
Point
at
460"
C.
however,
the
tm
approaches
appears
bhie
amount
about under
per
cent.,
third makes
stituent, con-
which
but
the
microscope,
appear
In in is
to
its
appearance,
its
does
not
alter other
to
any
a,
great
extent, the
even
after constituent
prolonged
are
annealing. apparently
constituent
words,
beloAv
/3, and
the
blue
equilibrium
more
critical
point.
as
This
similar
blue
to
conveniently
series,
12
regarded
as
being
the
the
of
the
tin-copper
No.
than
the
of 7
zinc-copper
structure
series.
Photo
of this
(Plate
about
X.)
3
illustrates
cent,
the
of The
of
after it
an
alloy
been
type
for
with
per
tin,
and
has
annealed
eight
and,
days although
at
450"
C.
three
constituents have
are
clearly
amounts
seen,
individual
the
crystals
as
grown, after
their
are
apparently
The
same
they
in
were
only
few
annealing.
of
ternary interest,
necessary
diagram
region
should
considerable of termed
tin
particularly
to
cause
determination
amount
change
to
from the
what
may bronze
be
the
typically
i.e.
brass
constitution
from the
typically
to
constitution,
inversion
the the
change
polymorphic
the
eutectoid
of
/3 constituent.
Coimmmications
on
H^idson
Paper
101
COMMUNICATIONS.
Professor
that
as
a
H.
C.
H.
Carpenter,
M.A., Ph.D.
Hudson
wrote (Vice-President),
result of his
Mr investigations
had
arrived
at
ent differ-
C. in copper-zinc of the critical point at 460"-470" interpretation in him what someCarpenter) his now (Professor alloysfrom that adopted by that subject. Mr. Hudson's tion interpretaon numerous publications himself in and Edwards Professor been considered had indeed by their first paper,*but it had been rejectedafter weighing the evidence. to the writer desired particularly the present paper Before discussing it had been written, and to of the tone in which his appreciation express difference of of how model it furnished a a say that in his opinion opinionon a scientific matter should be voiced. reached (pp. 98 From the "general conclusions" by Mr. Hudson to regard the critical pointat and 99) it would be seen that he preferred 460"-47U" C. as a polymorphic change from )8 to /3jrather than an The eutectoid inversion from ^ to a-f y. experimentsdescribed by him and the writer would now in support of this view proceed to examine clear a point of to make it was But at the outset discuss. necessary fundamental
Mr.
importance,viz. that
and
Hudson
himself
the
the
of
of
appeal.
the
The
difference between
them
had
no
must to
be examined be
in that he
in
the
light
its
have
accordance
with
doubt
but
should
Hudson's
first
The
experiments described
at
experimentscarried annealing
the inversion Hudson differ
of the
were
of repetition paper
the
on
in
470"
no
C.,t
and
the
apart
of
from
that
^\\\
observed
markedly from his, except in the in Mr. Hudson's was alloys crystals
writer's.
of
a
of the
excess
This
could
No.
be
seen
by comparing
between
9, Plate
X., in
alluded made
to, whereas
alloyswith
22,
any
excess
and
theory and the interpretation 460"-470" alloys C, the crystalsin Mr. Hudson's the writer's in than with less rapidity alloys. In
difference
"
considering how
of and
this
could would
be
accounted
for
two
possible cooling ;
used
for
castingthe
which alloys,
different the
to
rates
of
differences in the (2) possible the alloys. Correspondence with making between
were alloys
*
compositionof
regard
which
"
metals
1 had
No.
passed
the
Mr.
Hudson under
and
the
from writer,
it
that transpired
were
cast Journal
almost
identical conditions
viz. they
v.
poured
of the
No.
t Ibid.,
1, 1011, vol.
pp.
137-146.
102
Coinruunicatioiis
of
on
Htidson
Paper
This gave a rapid rate of ^-inch internal diameter. but thus reducing segregation the liquidus, to a minimum, from cooling either with extent of course, or alloysto some supersaturated yielding, of this In in non-eutectoid mixtures. the case spite be, might y, as attained nealing was more easily by anhowever, equilibrium supersaturation, the because molecules than in other in this condition, alloys any to travel. had the smallest distances Probably therefore the differences in the two series of alloyswere observed in the mobilityof the crystals
".
compositioncaused by the slightly The writer's in preparingthem. varying and zinc each of from made electrolytic electrolytic alloyswere copper Hudson's Mr. and doubt 99-98 cent, no alloys purity, approximately per
due
to
slightdifferences
quality of
the
in
their
metals
used
were
equally
that
remained
pure. the
Whatever
the
cause
of
the
difference,the
less
fact
on
crystals of
his
alloys
exhibited
mobility
annealing at temperatures just below the critical point than did clear that this of the writer's alloys. It was important to make obvious of theory, but it was not of fact and not was one
if any, bearing, in the nature
it had
a on
those
ence differwhat
nothing and y. /3into Hudson's Mr. experimentshaving given negativeresults as to the his next step was to find some eutectoid inversion, proof that positive 450" below could exist as a stable phase C," and with \i (or rather /i,) A and B under this object the further experimentsdescribed (pp.94 and 95) were undertaken.
the fact that Mr. of
a
Hudson
had
observed
of
breakdown
"
"
"
"
"
Experimeni
"
'"'"
A!'
"
This
was
conducted
and
so
as
to
containing pure copper at the bottom y at between." After of intermediate composition alloys in that the ft layer graduallyincreased found two days ]\Ir. Hudson in width from 0-05 inch to 0-075 width inch, with corresponding in the presence of nuclei that and y," and concluded in decrease even of these two the ft does break up into a mixture of both and not y phaseswhen annealed at temperatures below 460" C, but, on the other and of both increases in amount hand, the ftactually by the absorption there must to indicate that this result alone seems clearly y," and that have been It would of course below 460" C." be a stable ^S-phase pretation interwhatever since for /?, if Mr. Hudson had written ft^ correct more below critical the stable not was point. adopted ftwas in drawing the above conclusion It appearedto the writer that Mr. Hudson
"
. . .
the
top, with
"
"
omitted
to take
into consideration
fact
which
was
obvious
Nos. 1, 2, and 3,and which had photomicrographson Plate \'III., The most photomicrographs a important bearing on that conclusion. after thirty-two those of a material which even days'annealinghad were increased not reached equilibrium. It was quite true that the area of ft^ of the adjacent areas, viz. fti and that it grew in size, at the expense + y what would The at all. and ft., hut that not mas + a, question once arose, had been carried still further until equihave happened if the annealing librium the doubted be that could It growth of scarcely was complete. of the adjacent /3jwould have proceeded still further at the expense have would fields until finally disappeared altogether.In other they
104
Hudson
was
Comimmications
had sJionm
on
Httdsori
Paper
one
in No. 5, Plate IX., only in the clearest way How hetiveeii a and y. then could lie conclude, as
was
field
had
he
applied to
was
His probable in harmony with it. Exactly the same not argument if the his photomicrographsNos. 4 and 6 (Plate IX.), and
most
the
form
of
the
diagram ?
writer's attempt at
correct,
to him
harmonizingthe
to Nos.
results of the
3
"
A
as
"
and
"
B It
"
ments experiof
some
1, 2, and
(PlateVIII.)
well.
appeared
that Mr.
such
But
diagram
that
was
"
as
the existence Hudson, so far from establishing it its death blow. had reallygiven Fig. 2,
not
-and no doubt to Mr. Hudson interesting" harmonized with the paradoxical thing was entirely requirements of the diagram reproduced in Fig.1, p. 90, which had been and the writer in 1911.* That diagram proposed by Professor Edwards ivhat Mr. had found, viz. that between the a Hudson required"precAsely and should that So his /3 was viz. a + y. field exist, y fieldsonly one that
all.
The
his results
no
other
not
than
and other
in the
form it
of
what
the
Avriter has
that
called Mr.
a
"
parent ap-
f:i."In
had
words,
appeared
eutectoid had
to the writer
Hudson
and y at
460"
inversion
a
of
/?into
proofof it and
Moreover,
showed that writer could
he admitted and the
vindication
of the Mr.
furnished
appendix to
difference with
down
Hudson's
brief view
a
though it was
and that
"
the
between
to
of the
be narrowed
that
"
what
was
after all
small
issue,since
comparatively largeamounts
into
a
of tin
(4 per
necessary the
cent,
and
y," and
of
stated that
to
it would
cause
of interest to
from what
determine
may be
the termed
amount
tin
"
the
change
to
the
to the
bronze typically
the
eutectoid
"
inversion
of
the
/S constituent."
substitute
not
see
"
If for
word writer
"
constitution
agree of tin
Mi'. Hudson
the
or
would
structure
could
with
"
how
a
variation
any
or
metal
versa,
"
could
he
convert
polymorphic
glad if
to
eutectoid would
change
and
would
be
Mr.
Hudson
In
shov/ how
this
possible.
writer
had the
the
foregoingremarks
to him
the
confined
himself
under
what
appeared
If his
correct
a
the fundamental
aspects of
the
problem
Mr.
at
discussion. results
was
reasoningfrom
inversion
none
Hudson's
theory of
was
470"
had
received
been
on
the less
powerful because
it had
page
unconscious.
the
extent
take
not
remaining experiments (described on of with supersaturation "apparent" /3 in no way affected the main place, though interesting,
to which
97)
Dr.
C. H.
Desch
(Glasgow) wrote
he
at
that after
the
(thewriter)had
470".
He
No.
fessor of Pro-
hypothesis
by the
.of
eutectoid
*
transformation of the
histitute
had
convinced
p. 13S.
jQurnal
of Metals,
1, 1911, vol.
Communications
evidence, microscopical
the non-resolution
reason
"
on
Hudson
Paper
105
to
lamellar
Professor
this
spiteof the serious difficulty presentedby He had since some seen /^-constituent. pure For doubt of the evidence. some example, turning to the shown in Figs. 2 and structure 3, Plates IV. and V. of that second to the conclusion Carpenter's paper,*he had come
of the
"
iu
structure
was
not
due
to
the presence
of two
constituents, but
structure
to
the
developmentof
of
y6'-cleavages by etching. In the course of quenched /3-alloys copper and zinc,a similar
of examination
had
occasionally presented itself. It had proved very elusive, having been hitherto only by chance, and obtained it could not be reproduced at and a will, even by re-polishing re-etching specimen which had once it. He shown was now engaged with Mr. R. Hay in investigating of its production. Its character the conditions was usually clear on
examination
was so coarse
under
that
high
the
power,
and of
in
one
instance
the
structure
presence He
and cleavages,
the
a
absence
of
any
second of
under
same
tion magnificaas
doubts-
Mr.
of some of the other photomicrointerpretation graphs, be attached Professor to Carpenter's great weight must that an statement + y structure, for example,could be distinguished by tinguishable indisan -i-/3 structure, although the two were a practised eye from in the photograjjlis. The contrasts of colour produced on etching these duplex alloyswere highlyvariable with small variations in
to
Hudson
the
but
and conditions,
could
not
be
arrived
at
point,
would
which
appeared
be necessary
to
be
established
at
least
be
he
was
unable
to
perceive any
then
fallacy.The
to
fact,
find
if true, would
some
conclusive, and
that
it
other
He
of explanation add
Professor
sharp boundary
had been
between
ft and
by
its
repeatedlyobserved
him.
present,
periments ex-
into the copper, to be expected. His was as merged continuously conducted at were usually temperatures above 500" C, did therefore show the very not fact observed by interesting
and Mr.
Hudson.
Mr.
F.
Johnson,
as
with
Much
never
(Birmingham) wrote that he was in agreement polymorphictheory. had admired earlier work, he had Professor Carpenter's
of the
M.Sc.
completely convinced
existence
to
of C.
an
-fy
eutectoid,
of
Hudson's
failure
produce
460"
any
semblance
produced by
The
Professor
Carpenterregardingthe
metals had
resolution of
to
the WTiter
*
addition
of other of
appealed
method
No.
etching employed by
vii. p. 70.
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals,
1, 1912, voL
106
Professor the
Communications
on
Hzcdsons
as
Paper
of revealing being incapable the and which /^-phases delicate methods could Thus the /3-phase do. more might readilyhave been mistaken for the a-phase. In the discussion on Professor Carpenter's * had the wTiter the referred of to question etching, having in paper mind it could the great bearing which have the results on ; and after of the photomicrographs, he entertained examination doubt to some as of Professor the accuracy doubt which a was Carpenter's conclusions, characteristic
nuances
Carpenterhad appeared
to him
of colour
between
also entertained
by
the
Mr.
Hudson. of
Referring to
suggest
that
a
summary
results
on
p.
a
93,
areas
the would
writer
would
a
determination planimetric
the stated
of the the
be
useful
guide to
forms
was
indicate
was
"
point
to
at which
Coalescence
of
not
or
a
be
curious
writer.
It
with
seem
quite subsequent to
be connected
clear whether
the cessation
with
to
change shape w^as contemporaneous of deposition of a, although it would That coalescence. raised another point
that
to
was
"
regarding the chronology of events, and result of the tendency a action, evidently
take
assume
or
place
in
the
small
crystalsprior to,
in
did
the
method
one,
of and
producingan
proved
formation
unhomogeneous alloywas
successful in
extremely
must
had
inevitable
very of a
spiteof
oxide
what
on
have
surface
film of cuprous
the
the
stated the
that
thin
layer of
a
pure
ji actually
"
increases in amount
seem
to
the
thickness coalescence
and y." This did not absorption of both sole })Ossible of the increase in explanation of the belt of /3, the growth might be attributable to the as of small /5crystals the boundaries of belt. the along Possibly
by
writer to be
the
the
was
growth
one
was
due
to
both
causes
; at
any
rate
of
mechanism
the
to
the writer
be
as
follows
at
top
of the
was
thin
there
layerdissolving ;
top
was,
thus
and
impoverishment
the maintenance
at the
and
internal
towards
of
however, not
the
a
quite
author
below
not
certain that
had shown
could
be dissolved
under
conditions,as
at
the the
9 and 10, Plate X.) that (micrographs critical point prolonged annealingresulted in
temperature
the
and deposition
at
absorptionof
seem,
a.
It would
zone
of
/?grew
one
surface
at
the
result
of its enrichment
in y
view attributed
1
than
(Mr. Johnson) that tin to the extent of more stituent," separationof Cu^Sn as a separate conper cent,
cent,
Journal
of the
histitute
of Metals,
No.
1, 1911, vol.
p. 180.
Covinmnications
copper, and
on
Hudson
Paper
the
exact content
a
107
limit of
was
in the cast
a
unannealed
condition.
of any
What
compositionof
had
amount
more
not
yet
of
been
determine.
he
considerable hold
the
than been
had
of the tin-rich phase which 1 per cent, of tin without separation termed severally(1) Cu^Sn, (2) the S-phaseof the copper-tin the
ternary system
had
in
the
5-phase (2)that
that that
believed
phase
compound Cu^Sn.
work the influence of other metals on the on Carpenter's of the ^-phase, had drawn from him stability (^Ir.Johnson) a suggestion * that the y-phase which Professor Carpenter claimed to have in which tin resolved from pure ft might easilyhave been in the case
"
Professor
was
the added
to
metal
"
this very
constituent
which
Mr.
Hudson
a
had
now
shown
be
and
/3.
Mr.
evidence
F. C. in
A.
H.
reading
460" C.
Professor
favour
that after Lantsberry, ]\I.Sc.(Birmingham),wrote of it 1912, Carpenter'spapers appeared that the of the thermal change occurringin ft brasses at
to
the had
splitting up
had
of
the
was /3-phase
absolutely
spot
in the
^Ir. Hudson
seized upon
the weak
reopened the subjectfor discussion. split up at 460" C. it could onlyexist that temperature in a metastable below condition,and although its existence in that state could be ensured conceiva init Avas by undercooling, that any substance could be "synthesised outside its range of stable existence. three distinct methods, however, Mr. Hudson By able to obtain,below 460" C, a constituent which was had been neither and the conclusion that thus there a nor was compelled was a y,
of evidence, and
ftconstituent
of brass did
"
constituent
from dift'ering It
both could
the
and
only
C.
an
result from
460"
was
micro-field
excellent one,
Mr.
of confusion. possibility
touched the right weight should not be given to the and copper-zinc, copper-tin, copper-aluminium of An their respectiveequilibrium alloys. inspection diagrams would main of show that their lay in the fact that they were points similarity be much all very complicated. It would to to more justifiable appear
a
footnote
to
p. 96
Hudson
had
compare
equilibrium diagrams of copper with zinc and cadmium, related to each other, give very metals, althoughso closely difi"erent equilibrium diagrams with It was only right and copper. each should be that considered merits. on entirely its own system proper A subsequentcomparison of the completed diagrams was of the highest
*
the
Journal
of the
histiticte
108
Author
Reply:
Hudson
Papei"
very
often liable to
misleading.
Mr. W. E.
Thorneycroft,
had
B.8c.
(Binniugham),wrote
460" C.
that
it seemed the
the
to
him
in /?-phase
alloysat
some
temperatures below
of the
He
had
had
specimens prepared by the author, notably photographs No. 4 and No. 5 (PlateIX.). conditions, Although of coui'se, those photographsdid not exhibit equilibrium that did not alter the fact that the /iJ-phase could be formed from the 460" C, as shown and y-phases in photo No. 5, at temperatures below and that apparently therefore the /3-phase stable at those temperawas tures. fact that no in The evidenced No. 4 was was photo a-phase and he that further work that in direction remarkable, thought very would As the method for further a possibly interesting. prove very of the investigation the constitution of zinc-copper alloys containing would like that the of he method of distillation to ^-phase, suggest metals in vacuum might prove productive. He had found that the rate of volatilisation of those alloyschanged abruptly at a temperature of about 460" C, but as yet no quantitive results had been obtained.
those illustrated
of examining privilege
in
Mr.
Hudson,
sent
in in
wrote reply,
that
on
he
desired
to thank
those
these
gentlemen
it
who
had
communications
his i"aper.
From
appeared
that,acceptingthe author's
of Professor
that stated with
the
exception
clusions. con-
Carpenter, were
for
utmost
a
jjreparedto
agree
with
was
his
general
Professor called
the
communication Carpenter's
lengthyreply.
clearness,but
Professor it seemed
the
fore therewere
to
author
that
his
were
drawn
Carpenter and that conclusions appeal, diagram in its should be accordance with portant requirements. It was, however, imdid the equilibrium did not to decide what or require. diagram with reference to Fig. 2 on Professor Carpenter stated very em])hatically this equilibrium diagram required that between p. 91 of the paper that the viz. and y fields three fields should and f3^ + fS^, + y." coexist, (i^ it appeared to the author of the diffusion experiBut that in the case ments desciibed in the paper, that was justwhat the equilibriumdiagram did ?iof require. In such experiments it was not the fieldsof the diagram that were but the phases which to be considered, stable at the temperature were of the the to diagram. Actually the experiment according of layersformed number would at the temperature of the exi)eriment not
be the final court
of
"
Professor
that
be
more
than
the
number
not
of be
phases stable
at
that
temperature,
and
two-
phase
at
fields would
lower
boundaries
from
the
representedunless as the result of changes It might be stated generally that where the temperatures. of the fields of the diagram were vertical or steeply sloping of the the the stable normal, then experiment to temperature
be found in
phases would
Author
Reply :
Hudson
Paper
109
Professors should the be
That
it followed
Edwards between
the
and
layers, but, as
them.
shown That
in
well-defined
a
layerwas
formed
between
could
the
^j
case
and
^j+y
the
fields of the
The
photographherewith
in the
cent,
(Fig.1) showed
copper- tin series.
difi"usion
of
tin)was
be
was
immersed
in molten A
a a
tin and
was
pieceof kept at
then
cast
a
temperature
with
a
300"
C. for twelve
seen
no
section
prepared
examined.
It would that
was (cored)
in contact
layer of 8, and
there
layer of
S -|-
as
there should
be if Professor
Carpenter's
Fig. Bronze
1.
(90 per
at
cent,
copper,
10 per
cent,
tin)annealed
with
in contact ammonia.
with
tin for
12 hours
Magnified
view
to
a
were
correct.
photographNo.
diffusion
not
would paper,
Carpenter
showed that
a,
a
the result of
was
...
540"
C.
temperature it
+ + [3, /3, f3 y, y.
the
diagram
It would
and y rebe seen, however, that the layers were spectively, a, f3(or/3j) and that the two-phasefields of the diagram were not sented. repre-
remarks on Carpenter's "Experiment A," it in that that final equilibrium evident reached not was was, of course, three Plate VIII. showed, however, so experiment. The photographson in direction that it appeared which the reaction was proceeding obviously
With
regard to
Professor
to the
author
the
experiment. specimenas
merely tedious to proceed further with the of would depend on the composition equilibrium
and If that
were
whole.
within
the
(3-^ range
then
eventu-
110
Author
the
Reply
consist
Httdsons
Paper
otherwise
The
ally
excess
specimen
a
would
or
of
a
/3j only
distinct
there
would
be
of either
"
y,
"
probably as
that the
Professor
point
been
to
the
author upon
li^underwent
Carpenter.
touched
by
term
The
author's
which difficulty
use
Carpenter had in agreeing with the in the Appendix to the might paper
Carpenter
had
not
be
due
to
that
considered
what
possible constitution diagram at the ordinary temperature if the diagram Fig. 2, ternary system copper-zinc-tin, p. 91, were In such would be graduallydiminishingfields a diagram there accepted. of a-f/i^^, the from + y extending inwards ^^ and /^i copper-zinc side of the triangle. In alloys within these fields the /3 would undergo polymorphic to in w hile those eutectoid fields change /3^, an alloys beyond inversion be to author thus still felt justifiedin was expected. The the change from the polymorphic to the eutectoid inversion referringto
of the
"
would
be
the
of the
/3 constituent
would
"
on
varying
ask
the
amount
of tin
to
present
consider
in the
alloy.
The
author
also
of the in
Professor
Carpenter
series
not
an
the
ternary diagram
had
copper-autimony-tinseries.
copper-antimony
that
Professor
possible Carpenter
a
shown
that
the
and
one
the
/8 underwent
change,
to
there
was
eutectoid
inversion
copper-tin series. Surely, then, in that case he would that there be some must see boundary within the triangular of the copper-antimony- tin alloys at the diagram (of the constitution those in which ordinary temperature) between a alloys polymorphic and those alloysin which the eutectoid change in the /3 has occurred was
to
the
in the
be
found.
Professor referred
to
Carpenter,
a
in
dealing with
between the He
the
first
experiments of
of the bound
difference
mobility
cause as
ex})erimentsand
that he could
were
(theauthor) was
of those
that used
not
possible
as
difference, as
Professor
were
one
alloys
similar
made
naetals
and
as
the
other
pure conditions
of the
was,
by experiments
the
or
diff"erence observed
to
however,
merely
two
of
degree, and
Mr.
the author
Johnson
had
of events in the reply. The exact sequence but not to crystals was quite certain, author it the that little or appeared fairlyevident no rounding would take little or no i.e. when place until equilibrium was practically reached, from Also he saw more or capable of crystallizing ^^ no reason y was rounded should not of them why crystals coalesce,some growing at the of others. The author that the growth agreed with Mr. Johnson expense of /?^ in "Experiment A" included the of small absorption crystals. /5^ That and shown in the the were absorbed, decrease however, was by y of those two amounts phases.
pointsthat
and
rounding
coalescence
of
the
112
Johnson
Note
on
the
A^inealingof
Brass
in micrograph Fig.3 (PlateXIII.). Lantern areas dark-etching shown sKdes of micrographs 2 and 3 were by the author at the meeting at which his paper on the influence of tin and lead in then too late to allow of their incorporabrass was read, but it was tion It was in the paper. pointed out by the author that it was essential to anneal commercial 70/29/1 castingsat a temperature of about 700" C, in order that the eutectoid might be changed to the homogeneous /8 phase,which, in its turn, whilst in the paper would crystals, pass by diffusion into the of 70/29y'l the thoroughannealing before he advocated castings treatment. to mechanical being subjected He has, since the reading of that paper, had occasion to which cracked examine a badly 70/29/1 tube-casting very of the A portion which casting during the drawing process. had not passed through the die,owing to rupture having taken In photomicrocracks. with circumferential seamed was graph place, unetched surface Fig.4 (Plate XIV.) is shown the polished, crack being of a specimenfrom this portion, part of a transverse of the crack, intercrystalline visible. In the vicinity areas clearly in some of eutectoid were to be seen, placesbeing continuous their guilt with the crack (seeFig,5, Plate XIV.), thus revealing conclusive initiators of the disintegration was as ; their presence either had not been annealed at all, or had proofthat the castings which annealed. A similar been not sufficiently tube-casting scope, under the microexamined had been completelyannealed was in the is shown its structure and photomicrograph Fig. 6 (Plate XIV.). It will be seen that no intercrystalline the temperature having been sufficiently eutectoid is visible, high for its conversion to the /5phase and for the complete diffusion of No trouble was the latter into the a-crystals. experiencedin in spite of its coarsely-crystalline character. drawing the casting, The casting contained 70*61 per cent, copper and 1*03 per
a-
cent.
tin.
use
connected annealingoperations of wrought brass and other non-ferrous with the manufacture with little encouragement has met men. amongst practical alloys the prejudiceentertained be difficult to understand It may manufacturers againstthe use of the pyrometer, but by most The
of the
pyrometer
in
the
is that probability
even
the
best
of
instruments
would
fail
Plate
XIII
Fig.
1.
"
The
Tin-rich per
Eiitectoid
in
an
Annealed per
cent.
Zinc,
25'45
cent.
; Tin, 5T3
cent.
Fig.
2.
"
The
Eutectoid
in
an
Zinc, 29-25
Etched.
per cent.
Fig. heated
S.^The
to
Beta
Phase
in
700" C. and
quenched.
in
Fig. 2,
Etched.
Plate
XIV
Fig.
4.
"
Unannealed
70 29 1 Tube-Casting.
Failed
by.presence
Unetched.
of eutectoid.
Shows
as
Fig. 4.
^:.'-
'
:=
with cracks.
Liietched.
".^,.^1
L
Fig. 6."
J
Tube-Casting(70 29,1)showing absence of Magnified 100 diameters. Etched. successfully.
eutectoid.
Thoroughly
Was drawn
Annealed
Plate
XY
Fig.
7."
cent.
cent.
cent. ;
Tin, 078
per
cent.
Annealed lead
half-an-hour
800" C. and
slowly cooled.
Etched.
Shows
eutectoid and
(black).Magnified350diameters. particles
Fig.
8.
"
"Burnt"
;
Brass
Tube
cent.
cent.
Tin, 0*08
fissures.
per cent.; Zinc, 31 "25 per Shows 016 Iron, ; per cent.
Fig.
9." Same
as
Fig. 8.
Shows
coincidence
inteicrystalline
boundaries.
Magnified150
diameters.
114
Johnson :
Note
on
the
Annealing of Brass
revealed the polishingthe surface,a microscopicexamination of numerous fissures, presumably intercrystalline presence in Fig. 8 (Plate XV.). filled with metallic oxides, as shown character of the In an etched specimen the intercrystalline fissures is plainly apparent (see Fig. 9, Plate XV.). with formed that the scabs were It is assumed by contact inflame old-fashioned the flame m the annealingfurnace an and that intense local heatingoccurred, attended possibly type crystalline and by interfusion of the brass in the locality by incipient The as oxidation. analysis of the tube was
" "
follows
Per
Cent.
Copper
Zinc Tin Lead Iron
........
68"23
31-25 0-08 0-28 0-lG
they frequently lead to rupture of the tubes during subsequent drawing operations. If rupture does not take place,the defective and in the closed become temporarily concealed areas up be anything but must finished tube, and their presence, which aftbrd an explanation of the mysterious beneficial, possibly may in condenser often occurs tubes. Moisture which so pitting
Faults
of this
nature
are
very
serious,as
and
saline,or other
corrosive
when liquids,
the
condensers
are
lyingidle,would
crevices, whence
initiated.
As
minute
the
of this
corrosion,
the
views
The
would
be the been
author
to replies
ever
(1) Have
defects in
annealing of
other
than
closed
muflies author
If so, be
set
an
that oftered
by
the
to
a
(2) Would
tests
it be advisable
to
institute
in order
obtain
comparison between
manufacture had been in annealed
which
of the
had
been
annealed
during
those
?
furnaces
inflame of the
type and
closed
which
in muflies
type
Communications
on
Johnson
Paper
115
COMMUNICATIONS.
Mr.
0. Johnson's Johnson
F.
Hudson,
paper
M.Sc.
with
to
(Birmingham),
much interest.
wrote
that it
was
he
had
read
Mr. Mr. in
That
necessary, critical
as
found,
to
anneal
Admiralty
solution critical indicate
brass of
the
point
order He 600"
bring
also
about
complete
that
seemed
was
an
important
550"
correct
point.
and
noted
this
to
point
that
occurred it
to
was
between
more
C.
to
C,
the
consider
constituent the
y
as
corresponding copper-zinc
the
of
the
copper-tin
series,
rather
of
the
series.
Mr.
some
Johnson confusion
wrote,
had of the
in arisen
reply
in
to
Mr.
communication,
with He
that
to
the
author's
of it the
regard
the
actual
identity
in his
blue
(the
author)
had,
of
first the
paper,*
hard,
it
was
as
the the
compound
eutectoid
as
Cu^Sn,
of the
meaning,
copper-tin
course,
blue
of
to
series,
It
was
which
preferable
of the
designate
;
the followed
merely
lead
in
question
it
nomenclature
he
the
had
Hoyt's
Professor had
named
never
calling
y-constituent
had
view
of
ternary
system,
He
was,
Hoyt's
abandoned
designation
his if
as
passed
that the
unchallenged.
constituent with
out.
(the
whatever
author)
one
it, almost
not
entirely
Hudson
identical
now
the
5-constituent
of
the
copper-tin
*
series,
Journal
i\Ir.
pointed
ViVi,
of
the
Institute
of Metals,
No.
1.
vol.
vii.
p.
201.
116
Morcoin
Metal
Spraying
METAL
By R.
SPRAYING.*
K. MORCOM.
The
sprayingof
metals
from
the
molten
state
in order
to
produce a powder is an old idea, and the sprayingof a liquid to produce a coveringof paint, varnish, or enamel is also well The known. subjectof this paper is akin to them both, but has for its objectthe production of uniform metal deposits by of a sprayingprocess. means The exact theory of the process is complex,and at present be The not plished accomspraying may completely understood.
in various
how
purpose
apparatus
by melting the metal in a pot, forcingit through a fine nozzle under high pressure, and then with steam surface. to or a a gas spraying it on in many The apparatus developed for this purpose was ways and the use of it was and cumbersome, troublesome practically of and low confined metals to melting point. The alloys was spraying medium kept hot by various devices, and an made to keep the metal molten rightup to the attempt was
The
were
out
moment
of
application.^
was
The
fact,however,
and
observed
that
under
conditions
of
expansion of the gases such that the metal could not have been molten throughout the process, adherent These formed. sometimes experiments,and coatings were careful observations adhesion of bullets of the spreading and fired at an iron plate, suggested the next stage of development. driven Metallic poAvders at high velocity were against the of gaseous jets expanded from body to be coated by means
temperature
considerable
The pressure.
J
were
a
results
achieved
great improvement
on
the
older method.
*
Taken
as
read
at
t See
Metals,
+
British
Patent
September 10, 1914. Statutory Meeting, London, No. 5712, 1910, M. U. Schoop ; also Journal of
2, 1910, p. 307
Patent No.
;
the Institute
of
also No.
1, 1911, vol.
v.
p. 321.
See
Schoop,
British
21066,
1911.
Morcom
To
Metal
Spraying
117
produce the metallic powders the metal had, of course, of the known be subjected to one to pulverizmg processes, such distillation, as or grinding, spraying. The suggestion that the pulverization and deposition could be combined in then made one by the inventor Schoop ; and his apparatus was
researches resulted in the of perfecting the
apparatus covered
by
his The of
Morf in British Patent No. 2801, 1912. colleague ries steadyimprovement of this apparatus in the laborato-
Schoop and
and
resulted
in the
machine
(Figs. 1
which The
are
a
2), the
theory
it is
of
pistol
a
"
as
called,
feed mechanism.
to
The
metal, in the
The
wire, is fed
the
meltinsf
the
to
flame.
flame
be formed
in air
gases
and
are
to according
pressures
as
flame. highly deoxidizing The be of carbon dioxide, nitrogen,air, spraying jet can to produce a suflisteam, "c. ; it is fed at such a pressure as ciently high velocityfor successful coating. The various be carefully kept constant by accurate pressures must gauges and reducingvalves. The feedingof the wire is accomplished liy small pneua matic driven the medium either in series motor, by spraying with the main or parallel jet.
to
ensure
prevent blowingout
The
dimensions the
are
of the
feed
nozzles
mechanism and
different
so
feed
work
when have
To metal
nature
largework
mechanical obtain is
to
convenient
to
traverse
control. surface
on
the
best
must
adhesion, the
be for the
to
which
of
an
the
sprayed
give
has
a
clean thoroughly
key
deposit.
Shot
and
polished a Such surface. surfaces as fabrics, ware, wood, unglazed earthenand asbestos requireonly freedom from grease, as their surfaces give a natural key.
sharp
sand
been
found
best.
gives too
118
Morconi
Metal
Spraying
Morcom
The
coat
Metal fabrics
Spraying
as
119 substances
mention
of wood of
some an
and
suitable
an
to
by
may
means cause
apparatus in which
which surprise,
even
is
used
will be
statement
that
and celluloid,
can explosives,
by the safely
here
metal To upon
the
sprayed.
make
a
this
it will be well
to
enter
theory so far developedto explain to Fig.4 in the first instance. operation, referring
brief account
Fig.
2."
The
Spraying
Machine
or
"
Pistol."
melting jet is focused at A on the tip of the wire. cold from expansion, The sprayingjet, stronglydraws forward of its cone, and by in the centre the products of combustion of metal, either in the its draught drags off minute particles The central cone, or" molten therefore,consists state. plastic of metal cooled to solidity, molten, and some some particles, surrounded reducing by a protective some, perhaps, gaseous, ^.tmosphere.
The
120
Mo7^co7n
This is hurled
Metal
Spraying
with
on great velocity
cone
forward
to
the
objectto
be
outer
jet.
Fig.
.;."
The
Spraying
Air
Machine
coupled
up
for Hand
Working.
Compressed
Object
TO BE
cofiTEO.
Metal OXYHYDROCEN
be
"
Part/cleP
"
"
M/XTURE
Wire
^'f^^ ^^^rs
to
C
Here
sprayep
fA)
4. .^''-Jfi^FiG. Diagrammatic
Representation
of
Melting and
.SprayingJets;in Action.
With volume
and
left
there
can
is be
only
which
certain
filled with
flame,
be
this flame
limiting temperature
cannot
122
Morcoin
As
at
to
Metal
the
Spraying
standard
present constructed
06 cubic
pistoluses
about
0*55 air
pressure, so inch, which is a very suitable air consumption will be from The the
8
mass mass
foot per minute for every 1 lb. per square inch that with air supply at 80 lb. per square an for ordinaryspraying, the figure
45
to
50
cubic
to
feet per
of of
this will
bo
from
830
metal
sprayed by
case
this
920
of iron
to
about
grammes
in the
effective the
can
be
is readily shown coolingis, by the fact that held in the jet, to receive a coating of so as
metal, without
inconvenience.
shown
Samples are
and
of wood
and
fabrics coated
with
metal
quiteundamaged. is probably a complex one. action of deposition The The of solid metal minute driven with such force are particles cases, they fuse,but, owing to againstthe objectthat, in some relative size, their small are promptly chilled by the object If any of the particles molten to which are or they adhere. In addition, the suddenly chilled they will adhere. gaseous even or possibly, probably, in the state of particlesare Prince unstable equilibrium found in Rupert's Drops,"and minute like so act bombs, bursting on impact into many molecular almost dimensions, and penetrating the smallest cracks and fissures of the object. The in manipulation, as, by care requires some process to or nonvarying the conditions, it is possible spray porous metals, anything from a pure and, with some coatings, porous
"
metal
to
pure
oxide.
With
care,
however,
non-porous,
almost
oxide-free,adherent
metal In
on
coatingscan
solid.
be
produced,of
spray
or
any
almost
any
to
addition
metals, it is possibleto
fusible mixture
non-
of
process
But
new
its
uses
are
value
it may have far-reaching for ornafor protective ment, coatingsagainstweather or fire, for electrical resistance and
it is easy
that
of
many
other
purposes.
Morcom
Metal
Spraying
comes
123
Quite
in The
ditterent surface of
a
category pattern,
it is be
that
or
of
very
fine
casting.
is
most
polished
slightly produce
moulds
process is
minutely
very in
copied,
It
and may
possible
to
to
blocks
rapidly.
a
useful
line
the
pouring
metal.
very
The
fine
or
application
coarse
of
the
production
of
metallic
powders
being
investigated.
The where
costs
of than of
the
process
are
not
prohibitive, and,
the its
even
higher
alternative
this may
processes,
and it
great
range
and of
adaptability
muffles,
A
some
apparatus,
make
and
independence
is
pots,
of
of
"c.,
preferable.
rates
table idea
gas-pressure
costs.
feed
appended
use
to
on
give
a
Experience
soon
and
the
extended
cost
scale of but
should the
the work
reduce has is
of
operation.
carried
on
hitherto
been
in in
laboratories,
the the
more
apparatus
gradually
extended
becoming
used
progressive
of
in
factories, where
facilities, and
ensure
a
knowledge
specialized requirements,
technique
and results. the
will
rapid
improvement
The
research
than them and
on
on
lower others,
be
melting
and
point
metals
the
has
been
greater
with
the
can
economy
both
greatly
flames
Preheating
front of
of
the
gases
main
air, supplementary
electrical methods
jet, and
of
of
all
still
the
subject
That
uses can
experiment.
experimental
seen
the be
stage
the
this
has
been
passed samples
for
many work
from
apparatus
paper.
and
of
done,
which
accompany
[The specimens
Members'
Room
at
have Caxton
been
added
"
to
the
Institute's
^Museum
in
the
House.
Ed.]
124
Morconi
Metal
Spraying
Table
I.
"
Weight of
a
Square
Foot
of
Various inch.
Metals
coated
to
Thickness
o/OOOl
Table
II.
^"
Data
for Spraying
Various
Metals.
Blanks
in
Coal
Gas
column
are
indicate
not
that
experiments
with
these
metals
yet complete.
on
Annealing of Gold
125
THE
EFFECT ANNEALING
By
OF
HYDROGEN
OF
ON GOLD.*
Royal
THE
JOHN
PHELPS,
M.A.
(The
Mint).
impuritieson the temperature of annealingof gold has been investigated by Rose, and described in his paper, On the Annealing of Gold," read before this Institute in August 1913.f The remarkable effect of the small proportion of hydrogen absorbed by pure gold when melted in this gas was commented on by F. Johnson.Jwho suggestedthat this point should be further investigated. Rose Sir Thomas suggestedthat I should repeat and extend his experiments,and the results obtained in recorded are
"
The
influence
of
several
of
annealing have
been
determined
by
of the hard-rolled metal to constant perature tema heatingportions for thirty minutes, and determining the hardness by of the scleroscope, means using the magnifier hammer. This instrument givesvery definite results for the purposes of the present Avork ; the scale readingfor the hard gold being from the annealed 30 to metal 35, while gives readings of
"
"
to
7. hard-rolled metal
was
The
of
prepared by
millimetres
the
cold-rolling
a
or castings
culots,at
0"9
least 5
thick, to
ness thick-
of 0*8 The
to
millimetre.
gold used in these experiments consisted of two samples of fine gold prepared at the Mint for use in proof" assays. the No. 8 gold used Sample No. 1 was by Rose," and Avas preparedfrom cornets obtained in the assay of fine gold,and in vacuo. was melted, and allowed to solidify, refined Sample No. 2 was electrolytically prepared from in a gas injector melted fine,and was furnace, gold,999"75
" *
Taken
as
read
t Journal
+
of the Institute
Loc.
cit. , p.
September 10, Statutory Meeting, London, No. vol. 1913, Metals, 2, x. p. 150. of cit. 160. hoc. 169. " p.
at
,
1914.
126
on
Annealing of Gold
had been exposed while molten to reducing consequently hydrogen. gases containing Sample 1 has been found equal in fineness to the best fine at the Mint. gold examined fine,takingsample Sample 2 has been found to be 999'95 No.
1
as
and
1000-00
3
was
fine.
of No. 2 by heating 62 grammes in the oxyhydrogen flame on a morganite cupel, usingexcess of and throughout, coolingin oxygen : a considerable oxygen of scum amount appeared on the molten gold, and slowly cleared off and adhered absorbed to, or was by, the cupel. The button was quite bright at the finish, and showed marked shrinkageon cooling.
SamjjleNo.
obtained
"
"
This
metal
was
found
to
be
999*98
fine,and
No. of
1.
in
annealing
was properties
From
the latter
it would preparation,
appear
silver. No.
to
was
be
lOOO'OO
fine, and
1
lower
temperature.
of
Portions
gold
:
No.
and
No.
were
treated
in
the
manner following
The
metal
was
heated
on
"
morganite cupel
amount
"
in
an
hydrogen oxy-
flame,
consistent with the metal
A carbon in that The
was
above
the of
was
of
allowed the
cool in
so
current
portion of
boat gas. in
a
metal of
obtained
oxygen. remelted
to
current
and hydrogen,
allowed
solidify
rolled out, buttons flat and hammered were resulting and the annealing properties tested by heating for thirty minutes either in an oil-bath or in boilingliquids of the requiredboiling point.
The
results obtained
No.
1.
"
were
_/??ie.
on
Annealing of Gold
loitli
excess
127
Melted
in
oxyhydrogen flame
Hardness
of
oxygen.
Assay,
lOOO'OO.
beforeannealing,30.
ISTo. 1.
on
"
Melted rarhon
in
oxyhydrogen flame
in
with
excess
of oxygen,
and
remelted
boat
hydrogen.
Assay, 999'96.
Hardness
before
annealing,32.
The
results
on
sample
hardness
No. in
are
expressedas
curves
of
temperatures and
Fig. 1.
200"
TEMPERA T
250"
U
300
"
350'
Fig.
1.
No.
2.
"
Original condition.
Hardness
128
on
Annealing of
idtli
excess
Gold
Melted
in
oxyhydrogen flame
Hardness
of oxygen.
Assay,
1000-00.
beforeannealing,31.
No.
1."
Melted
on
in
flame oxylujdrogen
boat in
Hardness
with
excess
carbon
hydrogen.
and
remelted
beforeannealing,31.
The
results
on
sample
No.
are
shown
on
the
curves
in
Fig. 2.
^20
kj
10
100"
ZOO"
TEMPERATURE
250"
300"
350"
Fig.
2.
In but
the
case reverse
of
sample
order.
No,
3, similar
meltingswere
boat
so
made,
of
were
in the 20
grammes
and
a
"
were
melted grammes
"
on
carbon the
a
in
current
hydrogen,
remelted
on
10
of
metal
current
obtained
of oxygen.
morganite cupel in
130
Phelps
Effect
of
Hydrogen
on
Annealing
of
"
Gold
age the
the
on
solidification,
;
nor was
and
the
cuUts
"
were
piped
almost off
to
centre
any
sign
of
gas
in
being
each the
given
case a
by
molten
of
metal
cooling,
soon
but after
slight
first
evolution melted.
The of been
gas
was
metal
was
samples
"
of
gold
melted
in
hydrogen
there any
showed
no
signs
had
shrinkage
evolved
or
piping,"
the metal
nor
was
sign
heating
that
gas
from
either introduced
during by
per
or
cooling. gold
in
Although hydrogen
of is
the
impurity
from 0"02
melting
1000,
is the
pure
only
(by
about
to
0'04
temperature
from below
annealing
C.
to
thirty
300"
minutes'
C.
heating)
raised
150"
As
can
the
be
annealing
restored
it attributed the almost
properties
to
of
the
metal values
and
its
fineness
their
the
original
marked
of in
by
in
remelting properties
the
in
oxygen, be
appears
to
that
change
hydrogen
such
small
may
the
of
to
absorption
that
by
gold,
although
would The of
in be
presence difficult
of the
element
quantities
very
demonstrate marked
of
directly.
effect
of
a
explanation
on
the
small
proportion
be
hydrogen
its
low
properties
gold
may
perhaps
found
atomic
weight.
Conimwiications
on
Phelps Paper
131
COMMUNICATIONS.
ness (Birmingham),wrote to express his indebtedvindicated the having so thoroughly position Rose taken up by Sir Thomas in his paper of August 1913.* The influence wrought by so minute a extraordinary quantity of the annealingproperties of gold must be without hydrogen upon surely a parallel. There appeared no suggestionin the paper that any definite compound of gold and hydrogen might be responsible for the results ; the writer thought it highly probable that such a formed, compound was in which low of the atomic the would be thus case weight hydrogen further assisted, of its effectiveness, in altering the by the multiplication the o f metal. properties He congratulated the author vipon having so successfully amplified and Rose's discovery confirmed Sir Thomas of a phenomenon, the practical
to
Mr.
F.
Johnson,
author
M.Sc. for
the
consequences
of
which but
or
its
applicationwere
not
apparent
which
to
was
him
(Mr. Johnson),
the
theoretical
importance
of
unquestionable.
Certain
occur
which
in
(2) Was the influence of hydrogen on the annealing properties capable of beingapplied to any useful purpose % the influence of hydrogen persist after a large (3) Would indefinitely number of annealings in an oxidizing atmosphere? of decomposinghydro-carbons, (4) Was molten gold capable ing precipitatcarbon and rendering ? free be dissolved to hydrogen
Sir Thomas
Rose, D.Sc.
that his
own
(Member
of
wrote Council),
on
that
he
was
gratified
been
of
to find
observations
confirmed
by
to
the 20"
careful work
hydrogen was
one
lengthen the
to
one
hydrogen had Phelps. One of the effects critical range of annealing of pure gold
of Mr.
more
the effect of
of about obtained
and
of
than
150", as
in clearly The
was
seen
alike in
2 of
results paper,
by
Mr.
shown Phelps,
own
Figs.1 and
of
re-
also in
his
results. f
purifyingeffect
and would result in the abandonment melting gold in oxygen was striking, in the course of the meltingof pure gold in vacuo of its preparation, and the adoption of melting in an of air or oxygen, excess a simpler It the that to note No. 8 was used interesting gold process. by pure himself \ and by Mr. Phelps had also been used in by Dr. Rosenhain
his
experiments
a
on
"
The
of
which, however,
in apparently
*
he
had
gold
No.
in
vessel
reducingatmosphere.
of the
p. Institute
Journal
,
of Metals,
2, 1913, vol.
x.
pp.
150-66.
t Ibid.
157, Fig. 3.
X Loc. cit.
132
Author
Reply
Phelps
Paper
Mr.
Phelps,
described
in in
reply,
his paper
wrote
that
he
did
not
regard
He
the
properties
that,
when
of the
gold
as
exceptional.
pure
thought
came
corresponding
similar
Almost effects
properties
of small
of
other
metals well
be
two
to
be
investigated,
impurities
metal
might
discovered.
to
any
other
not
containing distinguished
its
only by
four from
parts
the
of
hydrogen
chemically
to
in pure pure
100,000 metal,
metal. In
could
and
be of
analysis
be
any
properties
might
wrongly
attributed
the
reply
That
to
Mr.
Johnson's
questions
No. 2 when
he described
would in
say
"
(1)
have
in the
the
as
gold
much
sample
the
a
paper gas in
appeared
injector
pure
to
absorbed
course
hydrogen
melted
as
in
furnace
of
its
original
preparation
of the effect
when
melted
on
hydrogen. annealing
method of of
(2) gold
That
the
out
knowledge
necessary
of
in
hydrogen
Sir Thomas
the
pointed
the That
precautions
by
means
Kose's
testing (3)
removed
purity
he
of
gold
of
its
annealing
the
properties.*
to
(the
author)
would in
expect
air
at
hydrogen
1000" redness
be
did
gradually
not
by
alteration
prolonged
in
heating
(say)
to
C,
but
in
find few
any
composition
by
heating
air
for
minutes.
(4) gold
C,
he It
;
That
most
he
had
not
investigated
were
the
action
or
of
hydrocarbons
decomposed
from
that of
on
molten
at
as
hydrocarbons
not
partly
to
entirely
1100"
would
was
expect
to
their
effect
be
different
hydrogen.
a
not
possible
been
repeat
the without
annealing
remelting
experiments
it.
on
specimen
that
had
once
annealed
Journal
of
the
Institute
of Metals,
1913,
No.
2,
vol.
x.
p.
161.
Philip:
Contributions
to the
History of Corrosion
133
CONTRIBUTIONS OF
TO
THE
HISTORY
CORROSION.*
PART
III. AND CORROSION.
COKE,
By ARNOLD
CONDENSER
TUBES,
B.Sc,
PHILIP,
Assoc.RS.M.
(Admiralty
xovEL,
and
in the
departurefrom
is made
the views
by
Messrs.
on
the
theory of
rosion, cor-
Jones
in the Second
Report
The
to
the Corrosion
Committee
Institute of
Metals.f
experimentsobtained by Dr. Bengough whilst mittee Comacting as an Honorary Investigatorto the Corrosion led them Mr. Jones, have to discard with his colleague,
results of
the
views
which, in
had
common
with
most
other
what
students Dr.
of
rosion, cor-
they
calls
"
previouslyheld
the metal
very
fundamental
J namely, upon
in condenser
the tube in particles
Bengough sion," study of corropart as of corrosion being caused possibility with electro-negative by contact
upon
regardsthe
presence
of
sea
water.
In the whole
of their
one
the
results
of
action of coke
of condenser
in the tube
water
upon
the
corrosion
this
as
if the is to be
proof that
understood
stance sub-
does demonstrated
not
promote corrosion
in the
slender
founded.
contact
necessarily
with
scattered
other
throughout
and
read
at
many
matters,
*
on
this
and
also because
it is felt
Taken
as
t Journal
of the
Institute
September 10, Statutory Meeting, London, of Metals, No. 2, 1913, vol. x. p. 13.
VII.
1914.
134 that
Philip:
in
some
ContribiUions
to the
History of
been
Corrosion
expressedwith
of
with fact
an
present paper
which
would
all those
contact
Second
Report
course
deal
in
desirable.
thus
This
assist in
of all the this subject as possible The of described by Messrs. Bengough and Jones. exigencies and the reader must space have, however, proved prohibitive Second be referred to the Report itself as published in the
arrivingat as experiments on
clear
of the Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1913, vol. x., on the followingpages: 41 to 44, 45, 49 and 50, 55 and 56, 68,
Journal
and
discussion
on
pages
perusalof
Report
the
author's
on
type of corrosion dealt with in the present paper is considered, be fairly follows : summarized as
Coke in firm
contact
it
with
Admiralty
stagnant
exerts
no or
condenser
water at
tube
metal
in either
ordinarytemperatures
the
amount
causes no
material
upon other
of
either
general
;
localized
on
dezincification
but,
the
the
of
speed
corrosion.
In
to
summing
discussion
up
on
views
on
the
the
Second
this
(p. 109):
in sympathy with a very largenumber of Personally, he had thought that carbon introduced at people, particles ordinarytemperature might set up corrosion,and he had all along thought that carbon particles might cause Until he had dezincification. the matter, investigated that carbon he was destructive were persuaded particles bound when he to tubes, but he was to modify his opinion had carried out the experiments described in the Report. He thought the experiments in question had served if they only gave negative results as even a good purpose ." of corrosion. And to the causes again on p. Ill: adhere Mr. Sumner rather seemed to stronglyto the had an injurious effect. Well, of opinionthat particles
"
.
.
"
Contributions : PJiilip
course,
to the of
History of
could
Corrosion
not
135
the
in
authors
one
the
Report
expect the
At
evidence
the
same
paper
would
convince
everybody.
formed a they thought that this matter part as regards the study of corrosion. very fundamental evidence to be able to add He hoped that they would Mr. Sumner's evidence until they managed to break down that point. It was rather difficult to know on scepticism deal with. what to particles They had dealt with all be the particles they could think of, and they would that glad to try experiments with any other particles
time,
Sumner
of
miofht suggest."
Messrs.
on
views
are
Bengough
many
and
Jones
as
set
forth
are
remarkable
grounds,amongst
which
to
the
views.
2.
They
are
contrary
very
of the
the
experience
of almost all
manufacturers
of condenser
tubes, and
to to
scientific investigators.
3.
4.
They They
are are
contrary contrary
in
common
the authors
other
selves, themon
most
authorities
condenser
tube
corrosion, now
they specifically support in Section III. of the Report, electro-positive namely, that all relatively p. 79 rf sf^-.,
metals, such
a as
aluminium, iron,steel,
over
and tubes
zinc, exert
with which
this
condenser
For
is identical
character
contact
with
5.
They
as
on
negative experiments,
"
Bengough pointed out on p. 109 : He thought the experiments in question had served a good purpose if they only gave negativeresults as to the cause of corrosion." To disprove a positivestatement by the result of experiments yieldingnegative results is and of considerable in matter a notoriously difficulty,
Dr.
13 6
Philip
any
Contributions
must
to the
History of
Corrosion
of negative
case
necessitate
very
largenumber
results.
6.
The
number
quantitative negativeexperiments which Bengough and Jones publishin the report of coke are alleged to show that the contact
tube metal in
sea
of
condenser
water
is not
cause
promotes
corrosion,as has
one.
to precisely
This
7.
Report, p. 43, on the second line of Table VII. been have This single quantitative result appears to is at any of extremely rate or wrongly interpreted, will be shown doubtful validity, later on, although as this may be due to clerical error a having possibly
Second
been
8. It is
most
is usually pitting
along
admit
of
condenser the
in
tubes.
The writer
p.
77, and
fact that
present
his
perience ex-
recorded recently
cent,
the
he
had
per examined
of the
condenser
the
tubes
in which
piercingof
taken
of
the
in
had
occurred,
of the
be
this
piercing had
This
place
bottom
can
tube.*
localization for if of
of
one
the
ting pitthe
admits
corroding effect
bodies such
a
contact
negative electrorelatively
the tubes
;
the
bottom does
not
but
if
contact
corrosion
more
take
place it
for.
becomes
good
deal
difficult to account
On
the
above
grounds
and
alone have
the
conclusions
as
at
which
Messrs.
contact water
Bengough
of coke
Jones
the
arrived
of
to
upon
to
corrosion
condenser
appear
than years
be
this is
to damaging criticism ; but very open the present writer's own experience over
as
diametrically opposed to these deductions In as they refer to Admiralty composition tubes. make the investigators the followingremark connection
p. 20
this
on
of their report:
"
Arnold
on
more
than
one
occasion
phasized em-
his view
*
Journal
of the
Institute
1, vol.
v.
p. 99.
Philip: Contributions
square with later foot of corroded
a
to the
Historyof Corrosion
days
can
139
to
surface form
the
some
in order
be
compared
are
those
on
obtained
by
present writer,which
thirteen
cases
given
been
in this paper.
In
it has
not
to possible account
curves.
recalculate
the fact
Messrs.
that
Bengough
have
to
and
Jones'
taken
on figures
of
these
been
from
their
This
remark
refers
all the
experiments,1, 2, 3,
26.
14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and
Out of the whole
there are twenty-sixexperiments These refer to corrosion are only three which by contact. Number numbered 15 15, 16, and 17. gives the results of the corrosion of a pieceof 70 : 30 brass by itself and without with sample any contact any other conducting body. This intended control or check test on to serve was as a ments experinumbers and 16 17, which consist of identical pieces of these of 70:30
brass, corroded
in
stagnant
clinker
sea
water
for and
the
same
with respectively
with and
coke
experiments have been made by the writer of this paper the action of pyritesand with brass clinker in contact upon its corrosion further criticism in sea as water, and no affecting In the need therefore now be made experiment No. 17. upon 15 and 16 dealingwith however, of experiments numbers case, action of coke and facts the contact graphite two remarkable be pointed out. corrosion loss on the pieceof must : The Firstly
tube corroded
in
contact
coke
numher
by
one
the
cent., is greater than the loss observed brass {with other sample of 70:30
under similar
which exception)
was
corroded
conditions, namely,
in
loater
composition at
the
atmospheric
no
results of
less
than
nine
experiments
21
; and
on
are
recorded, numbers
the
1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7,
this
test quantitative
their conclusion
to
single the action of coke that the investigators that no action takes place. The exception
yet it is upon
which is referred
to
result of
this statement,
above, is experiment
No.
15,
namely, the
contact
check of coke
to test-piece
on
the
experiment on
the
effect of the
corrosion.
140
Philip:
Secondly :
Contributions
in
to the
History of Corrosion
experiment 1 5 the authors show the corrosion brass in ordinary losses on the check pieceof 70:30 stagnant water at atmospheric temperature, without sea any aeration or other special treatment, to be 0*54 per cent, by weight in thirtydays,or 134*5 grainsper square foot per hundred days.
This any corrosion
loss is
more
than
double
the
:
loss in
thirtydays
in
on
other
similarly corroded
is
2}iece o/ 70
30
brass described
the
investigators report,and
corrosion
nearly 50
them in
per
any
cent,
greater than
the
loss observed
70:30
by
of
all the
twenty-six
on experiments
brass
which
they
have
described, even
they have accelerated the corrosion by aerating the water the water, using concentrated or sea water, circulating The next highestresults temperatures of either 40" or 50" C. Nos. 18, given in the three experiments, are, in fact,those
when
22, and
loss is
26.
In
0-39
each per
of these
corrosion
by weight in thirtydays. That is to vigorous corrosion which the authors have say, the most been able to obtain by means of bubbling air rapidlythrough it rapidly in experiment 1 8 ;* or sea water, as by circulating at atmospheric temperatures, as in experiment 22 ; or by heating it to 50" C. and aeratingit as in experiment 26, was two-thirds of the corrosion found less than by them to cause in the check which sample of 70:30 they found to occur only
cent,
brass
which
was
corroded beaker
in
at
stagnant
sea
water
of
normal for
open
atmospheric temperatures
concerning these experiments, that a it is considered, indicate the high probability very serious error, probablya clerical error, has occurred in making
statements
of fact
the
determination
of
the
corrosion
loss
on
the
case
check
test-
piecein experiment
that in any corrosion
a
15.
If this is not
the
it is evident be useless of
measurements
of this nature
as
must
arrivingat
of
conclusion
to
the
character
loss and time
a
the
real
mechanism
in
as
in
experiment
great
4
as
than
in the
two
same
quarter times
in
the
loss
No.
(namely, 0'24
with those
cent,
which by weight),
is nevertheless of corrosion
identical in every
respect
as
to
the
Philip:
The action
one
Conti'-ibiitwiis to the
and
History of
Corrosion
the
141
onlyquantitative experimentupon
upon Jones
the
contact
of
coke and
corrosion
of
brass
which
Messrs.
Bengough
the have based
of coke
have
pubhshed
and
in the Second
Report
to
Corrosion
Committee,
new
their upon
on
which
the
of brass be
one
water,
therefore
but
would
seem,
examination,
be
upon
which
little
reliance should
In the
placed.
the
sea
order
to
demonstrate
nature
of the
brass
acceleration caused
in
corrosive
of
action
contact
coke, the
out.
upon
been
carried
Admiralty composition prepared by cuttinga 10copper 70, tin 1, and zinc 29 were feet lengthof tube in half longitudinally ing by a plane containthe axis. annealed low These at a lengths of tube were
tube
of Test-pieces
condenser
of
red
heat, rolled
were
flat,and
then
to
cut
up
into
means
3 test-pieces
inches
were
cleaned the
same
by
of
a
emery, surface
and
area
filed
size,having
of analysis
of the
of
The
are
tube
given on
table following
The
results tube
of the
used
condenser
Bengough
Second
and
Jones,
referred
to
on
p.
67 also
of
the
Committee, are Report to the Corrosion for comparison. The test-pieces described above, were as prepared,
with
sea
given
stamped
were
submitted
:
"
to
the action of
under
142
Philip:
"
Cotitrib2itions
Six
to
the
History of Corrosion
Scries
G."
"
running sea
in contact Series
"
water
were test-pieces placed in glass tubes iD for sixty days at atmospheric temperature
with H."
"
coke. Six
were test-pieces placed in glass tubes in for sixtydays at atmospheric temperature
running
without
sea
water
contact
with
coke
or
any
other
substance
except the
of the
tubes. Six
were test-pieces placed in glasstubes in running sea water for sixtydays at atmospheric temperature in contact with pebblesof the same size as the piecesof coke in contact the used with in the tube pieces of condenser
"
K."
in experiments Series
"
series Six
"
G." condenser
in
M."
"
of test-pieces
sea
tube
a
were
pended sus-
in
running
water
for
sixtydays
vertical
tion posi-
by
The three
means
of cotton
glasstubes
series
"
in which
"
experiments
consisted
in the
G,"
H," and
are
K"
were as
"
made
of what
a
known
boilingtubes," namely,
tube. These
and each
an
largeform
about
tubes
are
1|
At
in diameter bottom of
7 inches
tube
a
long.
circular
hole
of about
half
means
inch of
a
meter diablowis
made skctch
1.
by
of
the
One
portion
in
corro-
of
pip^shown
j^
A in
of
theso
tubes
rack
Fig. 1.
.
tank, showing
for under
glass
^^^-^^^
at
jj
,
^^^
^^.^^^
containing
corrosion,
tCSt-picceS
-t^
samples
Scale
rested
bottoms
their
lowcr
cnds
the
upon
tubes
the
tained con-
about
J. full size,
of the
tubcs, and
sea
nothing but
In
the
water.
series
with
"
"
the lower
round coke
of coke pieces
of about
the
surrounded
points. The
material
and
a
about to test-pieces up coke was prepared by breaking up retainingonly that portion which of of
the
their the
middle
ordinary
pass
pass coke
water.
not
would
through through
was
sieve
sieve
J-inchmesh, but
|-inch
the mesh.
which
use
would
Before
the
then
sieved in in
sea
well washed In
series
"
in Portsmouth K
"
tap
water
and
were test-pieces
"
packed
of
the
glass
tubes
as precisely
in series
G," but
instead
using
broken
Philip: ContribzUions
to the
Historyof Corrosmt
143
1^
?!
"2
""
3
II II II
O
O.
DO.
"
-2 S
c^
^
II II II
-s
144
Philip:
the
same
Contributions
to the
History of
with
Corrosion
were
coke
Avere test-pieces
surrounded
coke
of the the
manner.
size
as
the
to
test-pieces up
the
were
their
All
"
"
the
same
"
G,"
"
H,"
"
K," and
and
3.
corrosion and
fresh
tank. 11*45
at
Figs.2
cubic
rate
This
sea
tank
made
was
of teak
contained
sea
feet of
water, and
cubic
fed with
water
the
was
of about
8'9
feet per
hour,
so
that
the
water
completely
3. Tank
at Portsmouth
Corrosion in
Dockyard.
full size.
is lettering
Fig. 2.
Scale
about
^V
hours. The twenty-four flowed into the tank in equal streams water through ten sea pipesarranged at equal intervals along the top of one side of Each the tank. jet of water fell through the air for a distance
changed
about
eighteentimes
in the
of
about
inch.
The
water
left the
at
tank
in
eleven
equal
streams
equal
and
intervals
the the
were
side opposite
tank
at
the
The
along of positions
tank
ment arrange-
water to
one
By
sea
well-distributed
the
water
current
of
aerated
passed
spaces
streams
through
stagnant
tank
without
the
being formed.
of
146
Philip:
Contributions
to the
History of
Corrosion
comparison it may be noted that the sea water used by Messrs. Bengough and the results Jones, as calculated from of the Second of analysisgiven on 68 Report to the page
For Corrosion
Committee,
and
contained
a
1942-9
parts of chlorine
at
per
100,000,
This
sea
possessed specific gravity at water, obtained Formby at a point well outside of the river Mersey,was therefore about 5 per cent,
that
17*6" C. of 1*0225.
than
test
used
at
-piecesin
the the
area
weighed
At
sea
their surfaces
removed
measured.
the
completionof
at
were once
tests
they were
from
the
water,
series
rinsed
under
five of the
a
then
scrubbed vigorously
removes a
with very
hard
This
treatment
thin
and
tightly adhering
then
layer
The
are
of
cuprous
oxide.
The
were test-pieces
finally
tests
dried and
weighed.
results obtained
in these of four the
numerical
series of
mean
given on
on
Table
II.,and
summary
results is
shown
Table
III.
results of
quantitative sixtyand with Jones Bengough by day corrosion tests condenser tube, which corded they have reAdmiralty composition in the Second Report. These results are necessarily taken from the curves given in the Report, and in each case the number of the figure and the corresponding page in the son Report are quoted. These results are of interest for comparicalculated percentage sixty-day with the similarly sion corroTable
made
IV.
Messrs.
losses
given
in
column
of
Table
II. in
are
this
paper.
They
than vary
are, on
the whole,
obtained
0 27
similar,but closely
in the
cent, tests to
slightly higher
H, which
in each per
cent.
the from
results about
made
in series
per that
about
0"34
were
although six
"
tests
"
made
G,"
H,"
"
K," and
account
II. and III. This is on series appear in the Tables of of the fact that, as stated above, in each series one
not
the
was test-pieces a
cleaned
water
corrosion,but
dried.
four The
was
merely
four
test"
rinsed in
stream
of
tap
been
then of the
piecesthus treated,one
"
from
series
"
G,"
H,"
K," and
"
M," have
Philip:
Table II.
"
Contributions
Tests
to the
in
Historyof Corrosion
147
at Atmospheric imnning Sea Water Test-Pieces Admiralty Condenser Temperatures. Composition of Duration 29 Tube., Copper 70, Tin 1, Zinc of Corrosion, 60 Area 6-32 Test-Pieces, Days. Sinface of Square Inches.
"
"
Corrosion
148
Philip:
are an
Contj'ibiitions
to
the
Historyof Corrosion
this paper
is in order
to
and
exhibited ocular
afford
the
and
in
the
II. and
Tubes
Summary of Means of Results of Corrosion Tests Temperatures in i-unning Sea Water on 70 : 1 : 29 in Series "G," "A"',"ff,"and ''Al," made as given on
pheric at AtmosCondenser
Table II.
in series H and G shown are test-pieces in the two photographs (PlatesXVI. and XVIL). The scale of the test-pieces and also the sharpness of their focussingis in each photograph. indicated by the postage-stamps shown Plate XVI. is a photograph of the six test-pieces used in series H the six used in series G," photographed together ; and after corrosion for sixtydays,and after they had merely been rinsed in a stream of tap water and dried on blottingpaper. The lower six test-pieces in the line marked B are test-pieces
" "
The
corroded
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
from
"
G," which
have
been
corroded
in contact
with
coke, and
to
heavy
scale of corrosion
in
a
productsis seen
incrustation.
the of six
adhering
The
the
metal underlying
thick A
are
upper coke
line
series any
of
"
marked test-pieces
H," which
material
were
corroded
out
contact
other
except the
glasswalls
of
tube.
All
Philip:
these
twelve
Contributions
were test-pieces
to the
Historyof
Corrosion
149
photographed immediatelyafter
from tank the corrosion after a sixty they were Both the H G and series of test-pieces days' corrosion. the same not were conditions only corroded under precisely of support, but, except as limited by their to time and method as method also under of support, they were the same precisely of flow and aeration of sea water conditions as to velocity and also temperature, for they were all put into the corrosion tank the same all removed the same on on day and were day. Plate XVII. shows a photograph of five of each of the same H and G in Plate XVI., series of test-pieces shown are as but after having been scrubbed with a hard nail brush in water.
withdrawn
" "
" "
The
surfaces here
shown
are
surfaces,or
of
are,
at
any
surfaces
coated
The
thin and
absence
adherent tightly
of pitting
the
tests
(in the
line marked
A), corroded
; whilst
of contact
with
coke
for
occurred of
test
in the
same
time
in the
in contact
reason
that
and
"
(in the line marked with coke, is also clearly shown. photographs of only five samples of
are
"
B),
both
one
"
"
shown
not
in Plate XVII.
is because
of
tained re-
of these series
was
cleaned
was
for direct
from
"
the
"
corrosion
"
All the
G,"
H,"
K," and
"),after corrosion
and
bottles for preservedin stoppered A careful inspection of the photographs in Plates XVI. and XVII. and of the actual samples themselves which are now with a consideration of the numerical exhibited,together results
also been of corrosion
losses
given on
tube
cause
Table
II.,must,
of coke
sea
it is
considered,
giveconvincingproof that
condenser composition
the contact
in
with
Admiralty
at
running
of
water
ordinary
temperatures may
of corrosive
be the
action.
The Table
numerical
the
mean
corrosion
corrosion
results
with
as
coke,
the
mean
as
shown
by
these
great
corrosion
tubes
velocity
"
condenser
in series
K,'
150
Philip Contributions
:
to the
History of Corrosion
which
"
similar rence tubes, the only diffeprecisely being that, instead of the coke fragments used in Series size as the piecesof coke were G," small pebblesof the same the ends of the test-pieces. lower used for packing round that four series of experiments,in fact,demonstrate These
were
packed
in
when
the
condenser
in various
tube ways,
material its
mean
is corroded
corrosion
out
of contact
with
from
water
coke
1 to
can
varies velocity
which the
sea
with
in
contact
corroded rises
to
nearly 25.
But
further have
than
this,many
made
qualitative experiments
fragments of coke tied on with tube to cotton Admiralty composition condenser test-pieces, in ordinary sea both which have then been immersed water stagnant and running,and both at atmospheric temperatures
also been
with
and
temperatures up to 50" C, and in every corrosion has been caused, whilst what appears
at
case
accelerated be dezincitests
to
fication has
out
as
been
water
observable
at
within
two
days
in
carried
with
sea
might
With
be
be
the
regard to
noted
that
appearance
this
occurs
of dezincification
in
areas
it
must
when
thin
a or
layers it
thin
of
a
be
doubted
whether
the
difference
cuprous
can
between
may layer of
a
layerof
oxide,
be
layerof
discriminated. clearly As far as the present writer is able to decide, a thin layer of is always formed within forty-eight hours when coke copper is in contact with Admiralty condenser tube in sea at water ordinarytemperatures. Probably a real decision as to the difference between a thin layer of metallic copper, or a mixture of copper and cuprous oxide, and a thin layerof cuprous oxide, can only be definitely of test. reflection methods fixed by optical However, as to
substances,
whether
the
dezincification
case,
takes
not
place
or
not
is
side issue
main
contact
sea
in
present
with
and
does
be
which
coke
cannot
affect the
clusion, con-
of
Admiralty
corrosion
condenser
at
material
in and
water
accelerates
all
temperatures,
not
only
Philip:
Co7itributio?is (o the
Histoiy of
Co7'rosion
151
V,
-"
a.
"^
-*o
'"
1^
i
O
C
CD
^
I
3
^
"i~
S a, t:'"f^
"^
S
a, ^
"^
152
Philip: Contributions
it,but
causes
to the it far
History of
more
Corrosion
than any
accelerates of
out
accelerates of
markedly
have
the
other
acceleration
to
which
been
pointed
coke
on
in the This
Second
Report
as
the
Corrosion
Committee.
of
conclusion
is
to
the
effect accelerating
corrosion
of
nothing new ; it has been within the knowledge with the all engineers dealingwith corrosion,and especially
of condenser attained the
corrosion
many
years,
and
in fact
long
But
ago
of
an
ancient
and
respected
truism. what
can
by
are
Messrs.
the
the
same,
results obtained explain the quite contradictory Bengough and Jones ? The temperatures and of the condenser compositionof the water
is
far as analysis the same, as practically for the the reason In the present writer's opinion, show. can discrepancymust be soughtin the fact that the result of only
tube
metal
been
used
upon
which
to
base may
authors'
conclusions. invalidated
the
This
be possibly
by
some
itself be
may be
correct, and
of interest
as
of singularity
some
it may negativeresult
or
pointing to
into action
unrecorded
one
but
portant im-
factor
coming
in this
instance.
If this
importantmatter
reason
for may
But investigation. be
there
for the
unusual
observation made by single quantitative Messrs. Bengough and Jones, it is negative in its character, well-confirmed in any way upset a single and it cannot positive with of coke that the contact denser demonstration Admiralty contube In metal in the
sea
water
does
accelerate
corrosion.
portance im-
conclusion of the
author
would
"
: points following
1.
The coke
acceleration
is
a
of
corrosion
and
by
contact
with
very
real
important
decide
in
of trouble
in
condenser
2.
tubes.
Experiments
should field for of attack
made
be made
to
corrosion
no probably
concerning
There is
in which investigation
cautious
cal statisti-
method
3.
is
more
desirable.
from is
a
The
observations
obtained corrosion
the
apparatus in which
of
trouble
are
in
Plate
XVII
"
!c
Si
Si
Philip
Contributions
to
the
History
of
Corrosion
153
general
considered.
of
much Nor
importance,
should
and be
should
be
most
carefully
as
they being
hastily
to
discarded
incorrect
except
after
at
least
subjected
It
reasonably
of
detailed
experimental
to
examination.
the of
is, in
assistance
fact,
much
importance
in
enlist
interest corrosion
and
of
engineers
the
elucidation
problems.
The
to
author Mr.
has
pleasure
for in
in
recording
out
his
ness indebted-
Wycliffe
work
carrying
this paper.
the
quantitative
experimental
Admiralty
Chemists'
Department,
Portsmouth.
H.M.
Dockyard,
154
Comvtunications
on
Philip's Paper
COMMUNICATIONS.
and Mr. R. M. Jones Dr. G. D. Bengough Mr. Philip's might be divided into two paper consisted
and
some
wrote (Liverpool)
that
parts. The
of
some
ten
pages,
was
devoted
to
criticism of certain
views
twelve
by
some
them.
new
The
the
deductions.
the dealingwith the first part they would begin by discussing mentioned which Mr. considered on generalgrounds, Philip p. 135, upon that their views. might be directed against very damaging criticism in be them No. 1 be held must to order, Taking quiteinadmissible, since the fact that the writers had been obligedto change their views the result of certain experimental work could not possibly be regarded as evidence that their original views were correct. as
"
"
remark that to invoke a regard to No. 2, they would mere the results of "general belief" to decide upon the differences between two sets of experiments was sound unless indeed the belief was not based on work. definite experimental So far as they had been able to ascertain by enquiry this general belief was based the merely upon admitted of and Mr. more. position plausibility Philip's nothing upon As instance of the fallibility of "general belief" they would an quote the view widely held by engineers that the coppery which occurred areas in badly dezincified tubes were due to bad mixing of the copper and zinc in the manufacture of the tubes. familiar with the Anyone who was details of tube manufacture admissib that such a view was was aware quite init held and difficult to was widely by engineers extremely yet eradicate. of users and manufacturers they Regarding the experience had yet to meet and who could definite one point to satisfactory mental experievidence in support of his so-called "experience," and they had
"
With
"
"
made The
the
2
subject.
and
the
whole
to
of
and
might
that
be
taken
together.
scientific with the
In
brief
they
"
amounted
as
the
statement
"almost
all
investigators
fact
well
as
that
iron
and
other
protection, negativedthe
set
that
carbon
did
not
up The
obvious.
carbon
on
The
brass
ordinarily accepted
did the
not
theory of
account
take and
over
electrical contact
to
carbon
contact
any the
a
brass. limited
and
This
area,
due resistance,
loose the
and
variable
of the
beginning high even the of layers of loosely to interposition rapidly owing of and the the basic oxide formed brass. salts, packed on layer bad of electricity, Oxides conductors and the total were notoriously thus resistance interposedinto the circuit might very probably be
would rise sufficient to
would
be
action, if any,
stop
any
current
from
flowing
under
the
action circuit.
of
the Thus
electro-motive
force set
up
by
the carbon-seawater-brass
Communications
on
Philifs Paper
155
electrolytic theory (which they freelyaccepted,as also did scientific who they had questionedmany investigators supported it, of whom wise otherindication to the possibility or as conveyed no leadingauthorities)
of the action had been of carbon determined neither
on
"
brass
a
corrosion
of
till these
contact
tances resis-
matter
nor
very
great experimental
authors' views. difficulty. Theory supported which must be left to direct It was silent on the pointat issue, absolutely experiment. In No. 4 Mr. Philip stated that the fact that the writers believed in electro-chemical protection by iron,"c., was contrary to, or incompatible
disputedthe
with, their
not was,
so.
of carbon.
This
was care
When
must
zinc
and
was
used the
for
and
be, taken
metals
to secure
good
brass.
surfaces known
much and
of these
by
well
was
layersof oxide,or
to
at once in other ways, protection ceased, as was of protection.Obviously it used this method
a
easier to
screws
secure a
good
metal-to-metal
contact
contact
by
means
action of the
carbon-to-metal
latter
case
by
mere
touch
also oxide
areas
layerswere
and
and easily
quickly formed
the former
limited
case
contact
the carbon
brass ; in the
they
between
would the
be
spread
any
slowlyand
graduallyover
the action
areas large
Thus
possible
would be
case
brass
it would
continue than
in
long
in the periods
Further when
carbonate
played
was
important part
even no
effective also
current
would
high
attack
of
carbon
The strength No. 5 very littleneed be said. regard to objection of the of a negative to the strength must case always be proportional could there discover far writers the As as case. positive corresponding of their at the time definite experimental positive extant was no case With paper, of small amount comparatively been evidence. Had the evidence now by Mr. Philip negative presented then available, additional experiments would have been carried out. No. 6 (to list was in the whole The only really importantobjection in detail full which No. 7 was discussed be This would an appendix). hence
they were
content
with
remarkable
a case.
example
The
of the
use
of
stantial purelycircum-
to
support
point out
in the this
or
that
sion corrocase
usuallyoccurred
no
committee's there
was
tubes
evidence
coke
carbon
particles lying on the bottom of the tubes. On the other hand the which consisted of ferric oxide,calcium carbonate, "c., and copper scale, As far as and zinc basic salts, of the tubes. thickest on the bottom was
any direct evidence
1
went
the increased
Institute
attack
No.
on
the bottom
x.
of
the tube
Journal
of the
of Metals,
2, 1913, vol.
p. 77.
156
ContinMnications
be attributed
to
on
Philif s Paper
any
secondary reactions by
"
of these
the
and
exceptionof
137 had
now
No.
6, all the
discussed.
been
to
working out with great industry and detail. On this account it was criticism, ing deservof a more elaborate replythan the matters discussed. already In the last paragraph of 139 statement made Mr. to a Philip p. he evidently which much attached it since was importance largelyin
italics. This
statement
was
"
138,
139
mainly
damaging criticisms given on Mr. Philip next devoted pp. 137, No. 6, which his was principal
"
corrosion loss on the j^iece : The Firstly of in numher for thirtydays experiment 16, namely, 0'25 per cent., is greater than the loss observed by the other sample of 70 : 30 brass {with one on investigators any exception) which under similar corroded loas conditions,namely, in stagnant sea water of normal composition at atmospheric temperatures for thirty days ; and the results of no less than nine such experiments are recorded, numbers and it and 21 is the 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 19, 20, yet ; upon result of this singlequantitativetest on the action of coke that the base their conclusion that no action takes place." investigators In the first place this statement incorrect as regardedfour of the was nine experimentsquoted, namely, Nos. 21. These periments ex1, 2, 5, and
:
tube
corroded
in
contact
with
coke
were
7iot
conducted
under
similar
with all
conditions tube
to
the
coke
experiments,
out
since
of
they
were
made
with
were
the the
and horizontally,
smaller
losses
than
There
horizontal
p.
Eeport.
Nos.
purposes, recorded
experiments
4, 6, 7, 19, and
as
were experiments
follows
The
losses
of
Cent.
0-24 0-21
4
6
7
19 20 i.e.
an
The
It
loss of
was
weight in
clear from
cent. not
have
A
had
any
important influence
of per cent, of weight about 5 0"02
the
of its tube.
difference
represented in
"
gained iu
any
even
the
an
process
milligrams of cleaningthe
an
case,
increased
too
weight of
to
if real, was
It
be
of
experiment a difierence in might easily be lost or tubes previousto weighing. In 0"02 per cent, during thirty days, importance in the practical any
that
problem.
might
remarked
that, in
the
writers'
"
the opinion,
loss of results in practiceadopted by Mr. Philip of stating equivalent in 100 calculated four foot to grains weight days," per square per since it clearlyamounted to an significant was figures, objectionable, of apparent and large, quite unreal,magnification accuracy, and though
hampered
correct
comparison.
158
Communications
It
on
Philip's Paper
out
might be pointed
carbon
water.
shown
of publication to particles supposed dezincification could be produced in sea clearlyin the 2nd Report that dezincification and
that before
the
other
was
could
be
"
without
the
intervention
of
any
particles
great significance. the qualitative tests regarding the effect Philip ignoredaltogether dezincification publishedin the 2nd Report. In this conof carbon on nection it must again be emphasized that after dezincification had once the only tests admissible. These set in, qualitative tests tests were follows : as might be summarized
Mr.
"
whatever
pointof very
1. At
the
ordinary temperature
with 70
:
in
and made
stagnant
to
sea
water.
Coke
and
used graphite
30
Admiraltytubes.
Time, 30 days.
increased
measurements
ascertain whether
dezincification observable.
Number
2. At the
tied
of particles.Result negative. place in neighbourhood No sign of "copper-ring" tion formawhich would be expectedif electrolytic action took place. of separate experiments,4 ; p. 42, 2nd Report. Pieces of coke ordinary temperature in running sea water. 70 70 29 and to 6-inch of : 30, : : 1, lead-brass, on lengths
Muntz
metal.
30
Water
circulated
inside
the
half-section
tubes.
Time,
Number
3. At
a
days.
Results
negative.
of separate experiments, 4 ; pp. 45 and 46, 2nd Report. of 40" Fine graphite C. Stagnant sea water. temperature 70 In
:
used. Results
:
30
and of
70
70
:
29
1 tubes.
Time,
which
28
days.
showed
on no
case
30
to
and graphite,
occurred
check
beaker.
of
Admiralty tubes,
case
or
no
dezincification. in
neither beneath
could around
any
Two 4.
experiments ;
50"
6
p.
55,
sea
Report.
Coal
and and
At
C.
Aerated
water.
graphiteused.
Results:
not
weeks.
Tubes,
as
70:30
case
Admiralty.
tube, but
near
Time, 70:30,
in
of check
of coal. position
Admiralty tube, no
observable
2nd
increased
total corrosion
pp.
coal.
experiments ;
62, 63,
Report.
twelve
in the 2nd
described
supported by
i.e. thirteen in
or
measurements,
one
and
the
in all, neighbourhood
of whom
of ivhich
under
the
be observed.
All both
to
experimentswere
both writers,
was
observation
of
expected diflferentresults.
to
It seemed
them
so
that it
at
least
as was
that extremelyi^n^^robable
been
in
deceived entirely
case.
overlook fair to
the
action
It
only
assume,
the conditions
of these
experiments.
Conwiunications
Mr.
on
s Paper Philip'
159
in his
Arnold
Philip had
suggested
in
number
of
passages
of by the settling writingsthat dezincification took place in practice bottom of the of tubes when the condenser was along particles coke, etc.,
out
of
work,
i.e. when
it contained above
stagnant
these
tubes
were
sea
water.
In
the
first set
of
experimentsdescribed
actual
conditions used
had
been
accurately
with coke
observed,since
and
condenser
in contact The
graphite.
these
observed
adduced, in
and
every
case
by Mr. Philip approximately. only evidence he of his insistence on quantitative work, was purelyqualitative, spite He contained in paragraph 2 on stated: "In 150. was p.
quantitativeexperiment
conditions,even
corrosion has been observable the
to he caused,and ivhat appears in carried two tests even days, ordinarytemperatures, but the action, as
No
described
accelerated
within
with
be
sea
water
at
might
hours
expected, is accelerated
Mr.
a
According to
at
use
few
temperature
of the
as
of 50".
"
The
statement
was
of
course
weakened
"
by
the
was
expression, what
it
appears
to
be
dezincification
; but
was
if it
to be taken
stood,the
writers
own
could
only say
50" C.
was
that The
seven
it
entirely contrary
time in which either with
or
to the evidence
of their
observations.
at
shortest
days,
presence
The
months, either with or without coke. seven ordinary temperature was There was here clearly direct conflict of evidence, but Mr. a Philip's than the writers', and had not apparently evidence was no more quantitative been supported by micrometer The tests regardinggeneralcorrosion. of red cuprous oxide writers suggested that Mr. Philip had mistaken areas
for copper It
areas,
as especially
he
admitted
that
he
had
tinguishin in disdifficulty
between should
passage
the two
in the earlier
stages.
term
areas
perhaps be
referred
and
remarked
to
tliat the
dezincification
of
in the
above
the action
by
which
metallic copper
not to
were penetratedprogressively through the tube, and of zinc which the purelyinitial and removal resulted superficial
formed
in the the
formation
surface
of
more
or
less continuous
film
of cuprous
oxide
over
of the
tube. statement: Philipmade the following placeor not is a side issue in the present main
"
On
case,
afi"ect the
the
important
contact
cannot
be
tube
not
of coke
Admiralty condenser
all temperatures, and
any of in the
water
only accelerates
other
causes
but it,
the
In
of
acceleration
Second
the Corrosion
Committee."
pointout
of the
reasons
why
if coke
might but merely accelerated generalcorrosion, produce dezincification, then its action was side and its bearing the practical a issue, merely upon of corrosion was of secondary importance problem only, since over 90 per
of
to
conclusion
doubted, and
also to remark
that
cent, not
the
premature failures
of
tubes
were
due
to
dezincification and
generalthinning.
160
Coinmunications
the the
on
Philip's Paper
was
Moreover
quotationcited
above
in marked
contrast
to
previous
writingsof
apart from
no
electro-chemical such
of
author, in which he had always emphasized the purely action of coke, i.e. its purely dezincifying action. Indeed,
action, it
marked
was
difficult to It
was
understand
was
why
coke
should
with certain
to
accelerate directly
mention results
general corrosion.
dezincification
with
to
recorded
the
obtained the
coke. exerted
But of
granting for
was
moment
be
by coke,
was
it not
"
reasonable in
independent type
"
dezincification
not
presence
particles whose
constitute
the
a
existence much
clearlyestablished
source
greater
described
found those
On
of description
were
the
at
a
material
low
same
given.
Pieces
condenser
of was,
tube
annealed
and
red
emery,
filed to the
save
to apparently,
sequent sub-
was important as phenomena was surface condition, had been shown had of that been made number by a recently experiments and elsewhere. of the surface of Mr. Philip's The nature at Liverpool of condenser-tube material, specimenscould not be regardedas typical influenced the neither was their shape, both these factors probably though
however, effect,
corrosion
unfortunate.
An
factor in connection
with
adhesion
or
removal The
set
up
secondary
In for
reactions
in
mechanical
also different.
than
the writers'
opinion condenser-tube
no
material
to previous to remove
should, except
For
treatment
and
grease.
reasons
could be regarded as applying experiments Philip's tubes under conditions of practice, to condenser or quantitatively directly of did invalidate Mr. not general conclusion Philip's though, course, they consider that coke accelerated An
and All
to
the corrosion
be found
sea
of brass.
the
interesting point of
Mr.
was Philip's
difi'erence between
in the nature used
writers'
to
experiments samples.
been found alkaline.
sea
the
be
samples of quiteneutral.
natural Mr.
water
by
One
to
been
natural
to
water,
it
had
been
make
active in
more sea distinctly If Mr. Philip producing dezincification than neutral sea water. for his qualitative well as for his quantitative used alkaline sea water as of some of the difi'erences an here, tests,there was ixjssihltj^ explanation
such
water
be
sets
of results from
dezincification. regarding
the
gathered
no
wording
the
of
the
photographs
be considered
that
dezincificationhad
of alkalinity
specimens.
the
If that
cause
the water
could not
writers'
and the Philip's be considered Mr. as results must having Philip's and practical problem,though interesting important of the between divergence Mr.
Communications
iu and themselves, and from
a
on
Papei^ Philip's
161
theoretical
accepted,then it in tubes,in remained graphite very rarelyentered tubes, or at any rate for times sufficiently thinningof long to set up dangerous general practice be soughtelsewhere. of dezincitication must and the causes the tubes,
view
be
Turningto
were
the
exhibited photographs
in Plate
row
extremelyuniform
case
the
with
untreated
specimen packing of the coke but from the from alloy, falling products away Plate XVII. in The photos were enabled them to stick on to the tube. uniform in in A were row extremely more interesting. Again,specimens the heat treatment and that might perhaps be due to adopted. appearance, furrows and curious in distinct B showed longitudinal row pits Specimens The writers assumed the in of other which did not ap})ear specimens. any that that appearance to something real in the actual specimens, corresponded due be to that it it some graphic purelyphotomight though was possible it was curious that Mr. Philip effect. If those furrows real, were about marked did not refer to them.* They appearedto be most strongly of four out of the five specimens. The definite pits, the middle portions
around
might perhaps be
on
the other
hand, seemed
to
be most
stronglymarked
near
end of each
to some
specimen, thoughthey occurred over the whole Mr. Philip stated that only the lower half of the specimens were packed in coke,and it was difficultto see how the pitson the could have been produced by the coke unless, top parts of the specimens of course, certain pieces floated up and touched the specimens higherup. that such loose to the writers improbable In these circumstances it seemed
extent.
could
seem
have
allowed
some
any
electro-chemical
or
it would been it
that
But
direct chemical
mechanical
have
at work.
was
Mr.
Philipwashed
and
mechanical
action
direct chemical difficultto suggest any probable in view seemed more especially likely,
reference had already been made, and for striated ap^Dearance to which electro-chemical lines. They would which it was difficult to account on in the his coke was like to ask Mr. Philip whether packed so tightly tubes that
with
no
movement
could erosion
was
take
not
of water, and
whether
place under the action of the flow an important factor in his experiments
They
their admit
sea
were
rough prepared to
coke 1
admit
that
they were
results of Mr.
own
electro-chemical of Mr.
action
condenser
so
tubes in
different
water.
conditions
those of their own, that it was as yet impossibleto say which of those conditions had affected the result. They need hardly add that a
from
further
*
be made.
with
a
be
reallycovered
large number
L
of fine grooves
runningalong
the
specimensin
162
Mr. Second
Author
Bengongliand
and
Mr.
Jones, in
to
the the
the
Corrosion
of
in contradiction
the
maintained others,
in
contact
or
in
demonstratingthat
either
coke
with
Admiralty compositioncondenser
water at
running
stagnant
upon
the amount
material
influence
hand, in
speed of
corrosion.
now
The
under
in replyto discussion,
were
Bengough
one
and
Mr.
which objects
another, i.e.
to demonstrate firstly,
that the
prove
a
experiments upon
Messrs.
Bengough
not
relied to
the conclusion
to above
could
be
regarded as
secondly,to
had
and made
forming
show
that
all the
were
satisfactory proof of what they claimed ; and direct experiments which he (Mr. Philip)
described
on
(some of
which
Tables
and
II. and
Mr.
III.,pp.
views.
1 47
148) also
Bengough
above
Jones'
With made
to the
regard
Corrosion
"
the
first of
the
in
stated
Dr. objects.
on
the
statement following
the
Discussion
the
Second
Bengough RejDort
the
an
Committee
50
to
"
On
p.
and
conclusions
derived
from
the
ordinary temperature,and
'
they
stated
Particles
such
as
carbon
or
no
in the form
efi"ect on the
little
slighteflfectbecause
the
they
the
afi^orded
loss
was
kind
of mechanical than
to protection
tubes, and
were
so
probablyless
by
be
if
not
there."
now
detailed
written
communication
were
made
to
Dr.
Bengough
Jones,
the
these
understood
still convinced
warranted
which
they
then
both
arrived.
could Philip)
had
not
now
with
this
to parties
some
cussion dis-
considerable
to
length,he
to leave
felt that
confusingcourse question.
these
juxtaposedstatements
of readers
next to
comment
consideration
He
interested in this
second object of his paper, would, therefore,turn of coke with that the contact namely, the experimental demonstration in real and metal water tube a sea was Admiralty condenser very important cause of corrosion trouble. As far as he could understand, that conclusion now appeared to be acceptedby Dr. Bengough and Mr. Jones, criticisms of importance. The firstof these referred but they made two alkaline to used ; that used water to the sea by the present writer was in character used that selves to difi'erent and therefore by themwas litmus, which water at Liverpool, sea they stated was quite neutral.
the
2, 1913.
vol.
x.
p. 94,
Author
All the i.e. if
one
163
the present
samplesof
ever
sea
water
which
were
writer recollected
a
to have
alkaline,
half and
half
piece of purple neutral litmus paper was was placedin, say, 50 cubic centimetres
5 minutes
as
in
sea
of
the the
water, it
paper
became
compared
with
remaining unused
litmus
half
pieceof
sea
water
minutes
of alkalinity
was
the
sea
water
used
at
Portsmouth,
as
tested
method,
as
consisted
far
town distinctly greater than that of the Portsmouth of this class of a hard deep well chalk water, and waters alkaline an as he knew, always reported upon as possessing
by this supply
reaction. which
to the
The
of alkalinity litmus
paper
the
sea
water
tested
was
as
to the
neutral
turned
a
blue,
in fact
to litmus alkalinity
of
(NaHO)
water to
alkaline that
show
event at
there
that all sea definitely had been to litmus,but the present writer's experience in this the of was some case, and being probability
it
was
not
to
assert
any
water
it would
be
of much
interest
to ascertain
was
as
to whether
the
sea
used by Liverpool
Dr.
Bengough
the method
sea
reallyquite neutral
above.
to
tested by carefully
described
used
statement
water
was
in the corrosion
to
ments experiacidity
by
present writer
alkaline
any
litmus
was
recorded
objectof clearlyrulingout
that susj^icion
free
with an present, rather than with the idea that sea water unusual. to litmus could be in any regardedas alkalinity way ing containsurrounded that in It was sea areas by igneousrocks, possible of lime, the alkalinity of only small amounts than in surrounded less those was seas markedly the
water
was
absent,
or
with
matter
were
land of
so
a
of largely
limestone
or
chalk
formations.
It
was
of interest from
several
pointsof view
Dr.
was
that if this
be very
it should
clearly demonstrated,and
on as
glad to
and
carry
this
far
as
point in
second
Bengough
concerned.
Mr.
Jones,
at least
the water
The
criticism which
made
upon
the
not
samples
samples
a denser, con-
Admiralty condenser
tube
as
tube
in these tests
were
of the
received actually
the manufacturers
for
use
in
but
were
treated specially
by
was
cleaning
to
in order
obtain
largenumber
and
of
samples for
state
corrosion whose
could
be
be
readily
measured,
examined
the
of
surfaces
could which
conveniently
corrosion
both
before
and
and
after
of
could be Dr.
cleaned. conveniently
Mr.
on
Bengough
was
method
it
preparing
the surfaces
Other treatment
undoubtedly
facts
set
aside
known
to
rendered
further
he had
have
so
fundamental
result
164
Atithors
to
Reply
the
Philifs Paper
which and he had based
on
as
upset in
of time and
any
way
conclusions
on
the the
for
; experimentspublished
and
this
account,
also because
the tube
as
of
shortness
available, no
further
paper. tube in
further
without
treatment,
omission
of
factured, manu-
time
in his publication
This
good, and
use
"
two
series of results
cut contact stones
corrosion coke
made
from directly
the
tube
as
for supplied
kept
with
whilst
Table
kept
V.
"
in contact
with
Tests
"Z (Series
running Sea Water on 3-inrh long ivliole from Tubes as delivered for use ; at pieces of Atmospheric Temperatures. Composition of Test-Pieces Admiralty Condenser 29. sion, Zinc Tin Duration 1, Tube, Coppjer 70, of CorroArea 10-65 Square Inches. 48 Days. of Test-pieces,
Corrosion
in
Condenser
Tube
cut
"
166
Author
iu following Dr. Bengough difficulty present writer had found some and Ml'. Jones' argument at some and as one points in their criticism, from the top of example of this he might cite the followingstatement The
p. 161
:"
"
If Mr.
results Philip's
coke in
and
view
supposed that
rate
and
graphite very
be
be
any
set
up
for times sufficiently tubes,in practice long to of the the of and causes tubes, dangerousgeneral thinning
remained
de-
zincification must In
an
endeavour had
to
of this
statement, the
of coke corrosion with
and
rearranged it
were
follows
correct
"
view Philip's
tube
that
the
contact
material
in
sea
water
caused
marked
be supposed that coke and heavy pitting,then it must graphite did for entered at rate not remain there tubes, or any very rarely times sufficiently because it was long to set up dangerous corrosion, in that known corrosion this condenser tubes was dangerous already not caused by coke, but by something else. the statement Arranged in this manner certainly appeared ludicrous, but with the most serious intention to analyze the meaning of this the present writer had only been able to arrive at the idea jjaragraph, he considered which was more clearly brought out in his attempted
re-wording. Might
between action of coke
in their
to
there Dr.
sea
want
of
respondence cor-
and
water
condenser
in the
tubes mind ?
as
minds, and
Dr.
the
concept
some
writer's
be
above caused
In
thought by paragraph
its author their
Bengough
feel
and
]\Ir.Jones
Who
and
to
other
his paper
dimly
that
must
exist.
the
Mr. on criticism, p. 161, Dr. Bengough and t hat other the possibility pitting markings on
condenser tube
suggested
the
samples of
row
,
corroded
were
shown
in the
photographsin
action due
Plate XVII.
to
B,
by some floating up embedded In piecesof coke in which they were during the test. be considered without must the writer's opinion this suggestion as being coke the not foundation in was fact, intentionally for, although any it shaken and into did not float down was tightlypacked, only position, in the current of sea water move flowingthrough the tubes up or visibly
caused
mechanical
erosive
the
of the
during the
The
was
test.
action
observed
was
no
considered doubt
some
to
in
sense
action.
of only Tr^th
of corrosion
occurred
on
similar
in
samples
sea
of condenser the
tube
the
were
a
same
conditions
of test
water, when
coke form
replaced by
to
way
attributable
to
mechanical
Dr.
and
furrows
which
Bengough
Authors
Reply:
Philifs
Paper
167
Mr.
Jones
had
referi'ed
shown
as
being
in
row
noticeable
B
on
on
the
photographs
and
of
the had G
corrosion also
had
samples
Plate
XVII.,
which
they
"
subsequently escaped
Since his
observed notice.
Dr. had
on
the
actual
samples
themselves
(Series
"),
reading
he
Bengough
unfortunately
to
and
not
Mr. been
remarks
to
on
this
the
grooved
appearance,
samples
to
themselves,
Institute of
used
owing
Metals
the for
fact
that
they
been all
and
the
inspection,
series
"
together
G,"
"
other
corrosion described
samples
in his As able
in
the
four
K,"
H,"
M,"
as
paper. far
to
as
the
photographs
the
were
concerned,
referred
however,
even
he
had assisted
not
been
perceive
of
markings
TS
to
to,
when
means
by ordinary
that
from The
diameters
by
of
so
an
prints
to
of
the examine
photographs
them
were
clear under
it
be
possible
satisfactorily
this
magnification.
In
conclusion,
corrosion
of
he
desired
tests
to
accentuate
the in Tables
were
fact
that and
in
sea
out
of
all
the
forty-eight
all
with
II.
V.
water
in
his
in
paper
contact
the
samples coke,
all but
condenser in
kept
eighteen
the
w^ere
all,
were
deeply
thirty
with
same
pitted
in
within which
forty-eight
were
days,
in
sea
whilst
remaining
not
samples,
in
contact
all,
were
kept
free from
water,
appearance the
coke,
and
quite
this
any
of
pitting
coke,
conditions
of
in all
the
these
period, forty-eight
although,
were
except
under
sea
for
contact
samples
rate
corroded
flow of
precisely
and the
as
to
temperature,
used.
of
water,
the
sea
water
168
Smith:
The.
Surface
Tension
of Molten
Metals
THE
SURFACE
TENSION METALS*
OF
MOLTEN
By
SYDNEY
W.
SMITH,
B.Sc,
A.R.S.M.
Measurements
were
of
so
the
as
surface
1868
tensions
of
molten
metals
by Qaincke, whose sustained in scientific work is happilymade evident by a recent activity contribution to the Proceedingsof this Institute, j* Whatever lurgical developments may subsequentlyarise in this branch of metalwork, the
to
'
made
long ago
name
of
to
Quincke will be
follow his lead.
"
an
honoured
one
all who In
an
may
attempt
"
Surface it
was
Forces
in Fluids,"% the
one a
impossiblebefore
realize that the
Qaincke
alone
that anyone
we can
should
quantity
surface
measure
experimentallyis
tension."
which have been found to exist important relationships the surface between tensions of ordinaryliquidsand certain other of their properties it highly probable that deterrender minations of the values of this physicalconstant for molten and metals alloysmay afford another approach to the study
of their constitution. The
The
stimulus
of
which
of Ramsay and the work liquidsand of Shields " in 1893, who said that "it affords the only means of information regardingthe complexity of liquidmolecules," has led to so much with liquids important work in connection that a study of the surface tension of molten metals generally and alloys which may to offer a field for investigation appears and useful results. be expected to give interesting With the notable exceptions of the classical work of Quincke
and
*
tension
given to solutions by
was
the
study of
the
surface
of certain
Taken
as
other
German
workers
in
more
recent
years,
read at Statutory Meeting, London, September 10, 1914. of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1914, vol. xi. p. 114. + No. 2, 1884, p. 334. PhilosophicalMagazme, Transactions Ti'ansactions 1893, A. p. 647, and " Philosophical of 1893, p. 1089. Society,
t Journal
the
Chemical
Smith:
very
The
Surface
seems
Tension
have
of Molten
been
to
Metals
169
to
given to
from
this determination.
in the
of this
those
referred
later
section
only metal which has point of view of surface tension that it is the only metal probably,
temperatures.
The
paper. received
Apart
serious
attention
the
is mercury,
for the
reason,
which
is
liquid
at
ordinary
the existence of a simplest method of demonstrating surface tension in a liquid is,of course, the familiar capillary rise or fall of a liquid in a tube of narrow bore placedvertically in it the liquid risingabove the generallevel if it rods the walls of the tube, or being depressed below the general level
" "
"
if it does
not
vjd
the tube.
"
Since
the
earliest observations
to
of
phenomena capillary
da
of
attributed known
by Poggendorf
that
a
Vinci
mercury
"
it has is is
been
the
level of the of
narrow
the have
tube
been
tube
bore and
it.
Much
time
devoted
of this of other
by various Avorkers to the careful the to its calculation from or depression, capillary phenomena.
to
ment measure-
tion observa-
The the
work
be
described
in this paper
has
resulted
observation of
that
occur correspondingdepressions
surfaces
are
molten
metals
suitable
These
or
tubes
of
fine
to
same
a
temperature
to
of
the
diameter.
are
The
in depressions be
tubes
different diameters
found
to inversely proportional
law
formulated
for
ordinary liquids by
to
are
Dr.
James
in 1718. work in
showing
that
the
analogous strictly
those
of the
The
surface
ordinary liquidswhich do not wet the surfaces bodies with which they are in contact. various aspects of the problem of determining the the case of molten tension, so far as they bear on
under the
of
followingsections
and
PhilosophicalTransactions
1719.
170
Smith:
The
Surface
Tension
of Molten
the
Metals
and
I. Fundamental of
conceptionsof liquids.
of
a
cohesion
larity capil-
II. Surface
III.
tension.
Brief review
of Adoption
previouswork.
method. the
IV.
V.
required. manipulations
work
VI. VII.
obtained.
Brief
VIII.
bearing of the possible on metallurgical practice. Bibliographyof work bearing on the subject.
discussion
of the Conceptions Capillarity
of of the
Fundamental
Cohesion
and
Liquids.
It may
be ideas
underlyingthe conceptionof the cohesive forces cules molein liquids which or are regarded as holding the particles together. In relation to these forces the fact of surface of from which all the phenomena tension is a secondary one action may borne be deduced, but it must be clearly capillary the in mind that the prime causes of these phenomena are cohesive forces within the liquids, of which surface tension is
a
manifestation.
A
discussion time
to
of
the
to
theories
which
have of
been
from
time
phenomena
scope
more
of
of the
present paper.
of Bibliography
of the
is
dealing with
those who work of
these
matters
observations
capillarity appear
He
to
was
have Dr.
made
by
Francis
Hawksbee.*
followed
by
Jurin.t who
formulated
the law
which
reference
or
has
a
rise already been made, viz. that the capillary the to liquidin a tube is inverselyproportional
the tube. The idea in
fall of
diameter
of
of
surface
tension
was
introduced the
by
first
Von
Segner +
*
1751, while
1719.
Leslie,in
1802, gave
and
PhilosophicalTransactions
,
1712.
t Ibid.
1718 and
X Commentary
Societe
Regierungs Gottingen,1751,
vol. i. p. 301.
Smith:
correct
The
Tension StLrface
of Molten
Metals
171
rise. almost Then followed explanationof capillary the enunciation simultaneously by Young and by Laplace of in many theories of capillarity tion, respects identical in concepbut diifering in which widely in the manner they were
*
presented.
In 1804
Thomas
YouKg
founded
the
theory of capillary
phenomena on a consideration of the fact of surface tension. of a that the particles were Briefly, Young's suppositions liquidact on one another with two different kinds of forces. the particles of a liquid molecules or were Firstly, regardedas being mutually attracted to each other by forces of cohesion of very small range. These forces were supposed by Young to be constant throughout the exceedingly small distances to In liquids, of course, distinct which their influence extends. as of moving from still retain their power solids,the particles in all directions. freely Secondly, in order that a statical consideration might be of liquids these forces in the case were possible, regarded as In gases, where these being balanced by repulsiveforces. forces appeared to act uncontrolled repulsive by any cohesive the pressure in forces, they were regarded as representing with Boyle's Law. accordance Modern of course, conceptions, for pressure account by the impact of moving molecules.
Amagat's researches,however,
it is necessary
account to
assume
have
shown
that
even
the from
der
existence
in
Law Boyle's
increasing pressure.
known States
"
Waals
has
the the
term
in and
well-
work that
on
the
Continuity of
forces and the
Liquid
Gaseous
to
these
are
cohesive
deviations
in his
which
represented by
equation
RT. (^+5)(.-6)
=
in
with regard to the forces of Finally, the former were Young's hypothesis,
cohesion
and
repulsion
greater range
as
than
the
regardedas having a latter,although the latter were garded rein the distance
by
which
*
Cohesion
of
Fluids," PhilosophicalTra?isactions
1805, p. 65.
172
Smith:
these
The
Surface
Tension
of MoHen
Metats
advanced by Young the hypotheses were if it were as a tendency of a Uquid surface to behave membrane stretched uniformly in all directions,has been the attributed these cohesive forces between to particles the that small same distances, is, to extremely acting over of liquids and solids is due. forces to which the cohesion deduced classical work on the theory of capillarity, Laplace's that of from the fact of surface tension, differs only from Young in fundamental conceptionby the substitution of the arise from forces which idea of a for the repulsive pressure Since
" "
cohesion.
This
'
constant
pressure,
to
which
the
name a
has
been
given by
Lord
is Rayleigh,*
liquidor solid,that is to say, in liquids the force which be applied must to cause separation fracture in solids, or words, their tensile strength. or, in other for the special Reference is made intrinsic pressure to this far has not of pointingout that it is a force which reason so been definitely related to capillary phenomena, and so cannot be determined from the observation of those phenomena, j" The has been intrinsic pressure which (or tensile strength), determined for a number of liquids by Berthelot,Worthington, and others, must relation to surface tension have some clearly
cohesive
force of the
substance,
"
"
"
"
the
same
cohesive
the molecules.
known,
in
moreover,
a
high
accompanied by
as
a
high
unit
surface
involved
within
factor of
formula Laplace's
form
is
sphere expressedby
liquidof
the
P
radius which
in its
simplest
relation
=
where
is
term
of capillarity, liquid and H a K being much greater than H. confusion This should be clearly some understood, because of be caused constant by a subsequent reference to a may have writers to which German given the name capillarity"
" *
"
pressure
of the
The
Theory
of Surface
t Walden
Surface
has, however,
at the
Tension
liquids in
which
Intrinsic
Pressure^
174
Smith:
The
Metals
Tension.
will
as
now
be
given to
measurable in
the
case particular
of
hesive coare
being
are
the
evidence
of the
which
to
put forward
The
involved
the
consequence
from
the
cohesive
forces
tween be-
considered
so near
extend
on
beyond
all sides.
the
The
surface,
result
by
forces
undue
towards
we
the
layer
behave
under
as a
consideration, or,
whole
every
as
may
were a
surface,
to
though
forces of
it
membrane
stretched uninfluenced
it and
uniformly in by gravityor
This
is
direction.
the
If the
liquidwere
between
by
adhesion
the
the
walls,it containing
It is then forces between Clerk tension
drawn
:
would
assume
sion. ten-
to
be
cohesive
the
or particles
liquid.
Maxwell
"
The the
on
definition of surface given the following tension line of a liquid surface across any surface is normal to the line (along the surface), has for all directions
and
is the
same
is measured
element of an by the force across length of that element." of The following simple exposition by him. Suppose the surface film to be
n
line divided
by
the
this definition
was
given
removed
on
a
stretched
r.
like
to
soap
film
and If the
q\
\Q direction
then
the
resistance ofl'ered
side B C is
I
Fig. 2.
by the film
the
the
extension
force
condition because
be twice
the surface
tension,
is
sides.
This
consideration
Sfjzitk :
set clearly
The
in
Metals
175
forth
admirable
and
series of
articles
recently
unit
"
contributed
The work
by
Willows in
Hatschek.*
this
done
moving
the
measure
side
of the
B
"
along
of
course, movement
surface
thus
producesa change
of surface
of energy of a unit of
in the
surface.
to
It is usual
express
factor
the force
tension
in C.G.S.
is omitted
(the acceleration
due
to
centimetres
in milligrammes-weight frequently
the
consideration
of fine
"
of
surface
as
tension
are
in
bore, or
they
tubes
called
this
connection,
This used
the
in
many
times
the
diameter
When
of
"
capillus."
a
such
over
tube the
is
the liquid,
length
which
surface of
an
tension
is made
apparent is
the clearly
It has
circumference
alreadybeen shown that under these conditions one of two thingswill happen according to whether the tube is wetted it is not. In the former by the liquidor whether rise of liquidtakes place within the tube ; while in a case The the latter case be conto a cases sidered depressionoccurs.
" "
metals
are
of the surface vertical component liquidand the walls of the tube, at the the
acts tube, clearly
between
the
level of
liquidwithin
the internal
to along a lengthequivalent
circumference
course,
of the
section
of the
tube.
This
leno^th is, of
^-kv.
It has surface
been
said
which
that
acts
it is the
tension
when
it is considered the
that
such
as
we
are
"
dealing
wet
"
with, where
walls of the
*
liquid (molten metal) does not it at an angle. This meet tube, it may
Chemical
the
angle is
August
1914.
176
Smith:
the
"
The
Surface
of
Tension
of Molten
the
Metals
called
angle
as
contact," or
HandAoiTikel).
It is defined
the
and
angle
the
between
normal the
to
the free
surface where
we
tangent
liquid surface,
case
it meets
to
the
solid walls.
Thus, in the
have
The
consider, it is clearly greater than 90". vertical component, then, of the surface
at
tension
the
point of
contact
between
cos
liquidand
(where
the
0 is
solid is : T
Fig. 3.
the
angle of contact).
0, is balanced
by
weight
which
prevented from
surface volume
of of
filling by
this space
would
liquid,
the The
tension,holdingf it back.
is
given by
li x Trr"^ (where h is
depressed surface and r is the radius of the would fill tube). The weight (in dynes) of the liquidwhich this space is h x tt?-^ x px g (where p is the densityof the liquidand g the acceleration due to gravity). Since these balance and are both expressed two quantities in the same units of force we (dynes), equate them may
the
depth
the
thus
"
T From which
COS
2ir)=
/i X
vr-
pxg
^
2XCOS0
, '
which surface
is the
well-known
formula
giving the
value
of
the
effect in height or depth of capillary of density tube of radius r and in a liquid a p. which These, then, are the measurements are required to material the surface tension the furnish for calculating at some one particular temperature The of in a tube. (a) depression depth
"
tension from
the
densityof the liquid. between the liquid and solid. (d) The angle of contact with The concerned the measurement present paper is chiefly of varying diameters. tubes of (a) in carbon The of (b) is a simple physical determination. measurement of (c) is not dealt with in the present The measurement
radius of the
tube.
Smith:
The
StirfaceTension
m
of Molten
Metals
177
that
values
metals
shall be
to generally
on
the
which
has
been
by
this
to
determination, it is proposed
the
most
attach
greatest reliance
recently published
figures, namely, those of MM. Pascal and Jouniaux.t With regard to id)the angleof contact, a further discussion the experimental will be given in the section dealing with
work The
questionof
serves
surface tension
some
a
at
varying temperatures
will
also be discussed
and
as
Mercury
for
water
are
useful
the determinations
"
and
other
wet
the tubes
to
in which
they
which
examined
tubes mercury
are
about
be
described
in
cepted ac-
the
for
not
"wetted."
those
The
relative values
for mercury in
serve
and
obtained
carbon
the
to
course
of these how
tubes, will
may
show
obtained
be said
to
fall in
line with
have
well-known
care
liquidswhich
workers
been
determined
of variety
great
by
numerous
and
by
distinct methods.
Constant
may be
of
Capillarity. in
confusion
on
caused
reading
surface of
international
the
which In
to subjectsrelating
tension
term
"
by the
is
uses
have
been
made
the
capillary
which
all German
literature the
of
constant
height of rise or depression, For this product r x h, Quincke and the radius of the tube. It is a quantityincohesion." volving specific proposed the name and being in two linear quantities, the product of two been dimensions be equated to a "square." It has may customary to denote it by c^. of this quantityis that if divided Obviouslythe significance adopted
is the
product
"
the
Journal
Pascal
ofthe
and
Institute A.
f P.
of Metals, No. 1, 1914, vol. xi. p. IIG. Jouniaux, Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii. pp.
414-416.
178
Smith:
The
StirfaceTension
of Molten
Metals
by unity we are left with tlie heightof elevation or depth of depressionin a tube of unit radius given by the particular liquidunder consideration. is really In constant French literature,the capillary metre in milligrammes per millithe surface tension,a, but expressed that tension as is, the surface already defined in C.G.S. units, but with the weights and lengths expressed in and g omitted. milligrammes and millimetres the three values are given, In Landolt's tables of constants
"
"
"
that
is,
a^
(rxh),
"
?^* and
--^
cm.
mm.
it is
a
results both
for
in -^"^^
is felt in
hesitation, however,
"
cohesion specific
r
is
h).
this may
"
Although
"
constant," it is thought
cohesion of a liquid, since cohesion as expressed specific of consideration theory involves the concurrent by Laplace's is not determinable which intrinsic pressure tensile strength, or from capillary phenomena.
" "
reference
to
this
matter
is made
in
later
stage of
(see p. 181).
Shoet So
far
as
of
Previous been
measure
Work.
to
the
has
to
able
the
determine,
no
attempts have
of molten
sions deprescapillary
case
in tubes in
except in the
Poynting
of
as
"
and
their standard
work
This
may
merely
been
mean
The
most
serious
*
"
pronouncement
of Matter," Properties
which
p. 141,
has
found
Smith:
The
Surface
Tension
of
Molten
Metals
179
of capillary finite dedepressionsaftbrding against the possibility information is made worker German by the eminent admirable work whose the Constants on Capillary Siedentopf, * the author Metals of Molten tance regardsas being of impormethods second he only to that of Quincke, whose
"
"
His
work
will be
discussed
at
later
stage.
a
the
moment,
the
author
is concerned
with
passage ist
Steighohenmessung
geschmolzenen Metallen nicht anwendbar, da eine starke einer an gleitendeReibung der Einstellungeiner Fliissigkeit Wand nicht benetzten entgegenwirkt." The usual method of measuring the capillary rise is not molten to applicable metals, because the strong sliding (or rubbing) friction opposes the discontinuance surface which at is a (or break of fluidity)
bei
"
not
wetted." in the
The
course
the author
has
obtained
to
insufficient
which
would
from observations originated which undoubtedly shows irregularities mercury, from cordant discourage expecting (conanyone
it
that
other metals.
made in
previous sections to British literature on the general of which subjectof capillarity, of classical writings of acknowledged we are happilypossessed ferences authority. Attention is directed to the Bibliographyfor reof Young, Guthrie, Rayleigh,Worthingto the work
ton, and The
and
already been
others.
work of Professor of
.
is experimental, with
mathematical
to
those
cerned con-
of reality of the
the
increase of interest.
densityat
the surfaces of
greatest
tensile of of
to
of the experimentalwork on the measurement strength or cohesive force of liquids, followingthat thelot,is of great importance,since it is a measure intrinsic pressure of liquids, which, although due
"
"
His
Berthe the
Physik, No. 61, 1897, p. 235. X PhilosophicalMagazirie, No. 18, 1884, pp. 334, 339.
Annalen der
f Ibid., p. 23G.
180
Smith:
cohesive
The
Surface
Tension
of Molten
Metals
and
same
control
phenomena capillary
connected with them
sm-face any Of
tension, has
French writers
far,been
by
of
direct
expression.
references
will be
found
to
the
work
and
others.
we
come
to
consider
out
the
on
actual
molten
mental experimetals,
German careful
which
has
been
carried
instance particular
of
we capillarity,
find
that much
workers work
have
established
themselves
behind
observations. has
in
with
observations
mercury,
of this
and metal
the is
literature
dealingwith
be
the
constants capillary
considerable.
It should
recorded there
the
that
are now
the
by
was
happilysixtyor
of
more)
with
publishedso
The
next
was
and quicksilver,*
need
of
his
papers
with
which
we
concern
selves our-
The Solid of
title he Bodies."
of
f
to
reviewed
the
classical considerations
Young,
He of
Laplace,Poisson, Gauss,
in
an
and
others, which
paper
have
been
referred
earlier
section
of this
(see pp.
surface wires. those
5-8).
tension He of
same
sought to
solid that the
obtain
information
regardingthe
metals
showed
Karmarch,
of
Calvert, and
made
for the
hardness
"
of the surface
statement
that order
as
the
tensions
This
solid metals
does
the
come
same
-within
the
of the
the
interest the
is
again
aroused
to
a
towards
end of
the
author
returned metals.
consideration
the
"
constants capillary
of molten
In
the
case
of
noble
metals
as
s
he
made
determinations
melted
5, 1858, pp.
134, 18G8,
which
*
fell
they were
Annalen,
No.
from
the end
Annalen
of
der
wire.
Chemie, No.
He
55,
Poggendorf
1-48, and
and
Thompson).
182 In
Smith
1894
The
Tension Stirface
re-entered the
of Molten
a
Metals
Quincke
rise
to to
field with
long paper*
this is
which
gave attributable
Other
criticism from
interest this which
the of
papers
period are
graphy. Biblio-
In
1897
paper
was
published by
H.
Siedentopfon
is of the
"The very
Constants Capillary
of Molten
Metals,"f which
importance to metallurgists. those of Quincke, namely, His methods were essentially and of the curvatures the measurements heights of molten His bilities drops restingon a plane surface. opinion of the possiof obtainingcapillary in tubes has already depressions is without referred 's work been to (p. 179). Siedentopf doubt valuable contribution to the subject. Immense most a of experimental results which industry is shown by the mass
he
records.
Not
of the values for a number only did he determine his work the study of a to ordinary metals, but extended With complete series of alloys those of tin and bismuth. that in this the important statement regard to these he made tension is a linear at series, rate, the surface particular any of the components function of the alloy.
"
The
author's
in
1909,
when
measurements
of
same
depressionswere
conclusions with with
the
regard to
alloysof
Time
has
lead
not
with
tin,with
bismuth, and
the
antimony.
yet permitted of
of these determinations condition in the molten repetition by the improved methods. The obtained constants capillary figures by Siedentopffor the
"
"
have
been
included
in
tables
which
are
are
given
latter
in
(p. 201),where
obtained
comparisons
workers. the
made
between
by
different
In of
the
part
to
paper
he
discussed
relation
surface
tension
of metals, and made some importantreferences properties of Ramsay and Shields which will be referred to to the work the the author discusses again in the last section, when of his own results. interpretation
'*"
Annalen
der
Physik, 1894,
vol. Ixi. p. 235.
vol. Hi. p. 1.
t /did., 1897,
Smith:
The
Su7^face Tension
the
of Molten
Metals
183
after Shortly
to
of publication
*
criticisms
and
reviewed
this paper, Quincke replied and his own work back to 1868 metals
gave in groups
re-stated his
as
these
5.
as
multiples of
came were
8*5
with
as
the
numbers
1, 2, 3, 4
Other
and
This
to
be
known
Quincke's Rule.
scheme
to
determinations
made
by Quincke
He makes
metals, copper
an
"
and
iron.
what
will be the
"
shown
be
important statement,
{a") of
as
namely,
In of the
"
that
copper,
iron,
nickel and
cobalt,are
same
the
great
and
Surface of
Tension
the
of
Chilled
Gold," J by the
measurements
curvatures
and
heightsof drops.
given in
18G9
He
criticized
to
and
on
1877,
the
differences
turned
question of
of
purity of
the
gold
paper mination deter-
employed.
Gradenwitz
on
(a student
contributed Heydweiller)
similar
lines in
an
1899.||
In
1900 of
in the new entirely departurewas made of molten the capillary metals. constants shown in 1871
Kelvin determine
of This
was
had
that
it would
be
to possible
surface
tensions
of
liquids by measuring
surfaces.
the
lengths wave-
by
now
Lord
Smith, and
this
others.
Leo
Gritnmach
method
were
metals.11
addition
several
to
metals,
"
tin
and
"
of the so-called
"
fusible
made
metals
Lipowitzalloys
his results In 190G
generalcomparison between and those of Quincke and Siedentopf. Th. Lohnstein** reviewed the theory of drops
he
a
*
and
Atinalen
,
de?-
Physik, 1897,
t Ibid. X Wied
Annalen,
der
"
Annalen
Physik, 1898,
IIIbid., 1899, vol. Ixvii. p. 467 H Ibid., No. 308, 1900, pp. 660-671.
**
xx.
p. 606.
184
Smith:
The
Surface
Tension
the
of Molten
work
of
Metals
summarized
Quincke
and
Siedentopf.
Adoption
It may be of interest
to
of
Method.
brief
account
give a
of
some
early
as a
led the author to adopt the experimentswhich finally of fine in tubes of the capillary depressions of the surface of approaching a determination means molten
metals.
ment measure-
bore
tension
of
Previouslyto 1904,
time of the
of
were
made
from
of
time
to
different
which
assume
the
on
surfaces
cupelled
Such
are
buttons
gold
are
and
solidification.
of
differences
familiar
to
all assayers
surface
bullion, and
obviously due
had
been
changes in
to
tension.
directed
in 1893 of Gold.*
these
in He
appearances
with
Sir)Thomas
of cohesion
Rose
connection
his studies
of
the Volatilization
mentioned
loss
of buttons
containingtellurium
the consequent
of their surfaces. flattening Subsequently the author pursued this instance of diminished losses which cohesion t in an attempt to explainthe abnormal had been reportedby various assayers in the assay of gold and
It
was
shown in
that under
extreme
conditions
tension
was
loweringthe
oxide of lead
surface
or
in
the presence
such that
no
film of fused
of tellurium
molten
lead
longer retained
itself
absence
over
spread
In
a
the
and tellurium alloy of gold (or silver) the cupel, but its spheroidal form on completely absorbed. cupel and was
the
cupel, of
course,
behaves
as
non-porous
lead
carrying small
of quantities
preciousmetals. of Quincke then made to follow up the work Attempts were silver of gold and and others by measuring the curvatures of impurities had been buttons small which to quantities It was added. measure hoped, at one time, to arrive at some of buttons and of the surface tension by producing a number
*
Journal
"
of the
Behaviour
Chemical of
+ and
The
Metal
lufgy, 1908,
Smith:
The
Surface
Tension
of Molten
Metals
185
which of them the largest approximatedto a perfect selecting sphere and then measuring its diameter and taking its weight. in 1909, and attempts abandoned These experiments were tubes. in narrow made to obtain were capillary depressions various metals first used, and of fireclay Tubes were were flicting Conallowed with the tubes dipping into them. to solidify
results of
were
obtained
which, in pots of cooling, caused unequal contractions However, it soon precisepositions occupied by the tubes. obtainable became evident that real capillary were depressions which could be measured by a gauge after solidification. Some results were of the conflicting attributed,rightlyor of the fireclay to the character tubes, so that attempts wrongly, made with carbons from which cored next were electric-light More the soft cores removed out. sistent conwere by boring them
"
" "
owing to the irregularities small dimensions, comparatively in the and pipings to occur
"
were
at
once
obtained, and
millimetre
to
supply of
carbon
approximately 1
were
results
then The of
found
reason
be
the molten
that in the
metal.
for this is
believed
to
be
method metal
the
"piping" or
may In
adopted resulted
so first, a
that
no
procedurewhich
of
have
some
on application
scale. larger
were
this way
many
determinations
made
the
metals
aluminium,
bismuth,
The
silver,and
mony, antilast-named
the
gold,and
and
also of
lead
with
tin, and
and
it
aluminium.
was
thought likelythat
of this
by
certain
members
series would
show
anomalous
results.
So far, measurements
had
cases
been
made
with
tubes
of constant of other
measure
diameter, and
diameters
the
were
in all
now
after solidification.
Tubes
to
used, and
attempts
was
were
made
while the metal depressions done by lowering a thin carbon until it floated vertically, with
on
still
filament
liquid.
down
This
was
the
tube
its lower
end
impmging
the
surface
of
the the
The
position of
186
Smith
was
The
Surface
Tensioiz
of Molten
Metals
fixed
filament scale.
when
determined
acted
In
the same filament operation was lowered through a similar tube, which, however, merely a as guide-tube to the surface, but did not reach it.
the
The
against a
the
height of
the
the
surfaces
of the
was were
without
furnished
At
depth
tube.
this
stage the
work
renewed
attempts
effect these
measurements
conveniently.
insulated metallic
an
has been
the
an accomplishedby lowering
wire down
with of in
a a
tube
end upper
makes
end
electrical
to the movements
tact con-
the molten
"
metal.
The
"
is fixed of
end
micrometer
depth-gauge
which
to
admits
thousandths
of
an
inch.
Apparatus
Employed
and
the
Manipulations
Required.
{8ee p. 11
It may be
for illustration.)
give first a list of the pieces of the measurements apparatus which are necessary adjunctsin effecting and afterwards detailed descriptions. to give more
to
convenient
1.
suitable
furnace
in
which
to
melt
the
metal
under
examination.
2.
Carbon
tubes
of
varying diameter
a
in which
to
obtain
the
depressionsand
them
3.
suitable
arrangement
to
for
holding
of
an
in
vertical
"
micrometer
in such
or a
the racked
arm
right up-
way
that
it
can
be
in
vertical
horizontal
plane.
the
4. A
source
of current,
circuit of which
of of the wire of
be
pleted com-
by
"
the
contact
"depthand
a
gauge
suitable
5.
with
the
surface
the
molten
thin
galvanometer to indicate this contact. wire of high melting point which can
insulated
to resist the
be
ciently suffi-
passage
of
small
current
when
in contact
with
the
walls
of the
carbon
tubes
at
high temperatures.
6.
pyrometer
metal
at
to
show
the
temperature
of
the
molten
any
moment.
Smith:
The
Stw
face
1.
Tension
of Molten
Metals
187
The
Furnace.
The
furnace
which
was
small
wire
electrical resistance
arranged in
coils.
a
It
2 0
is water-
No.
Morgan
pot, of which
the
diameter
the
height 2\
"
inches.
of metal to rings to guard against any access resistance which the spiral might be caused by splashing or during the experiments. With this furnace steady "spitting"
asbestone
temperatures
current
can
be
attained
up
to
about and
1200"
C.
The
at
a
is controlled
by
resistance
switch-board
convenient The
by
two
of pieces
"
asbestone suitable
"
board, which
described within
the
along
centre
line, and
have
will be
ther fur-
furnace of
a
admission
on
followingparagraphs. The atmosphere is maintained "reducing" either by of coal gas or steady stream by floating
of the
metal. Each has
charcoal
in
the
surface
advantages
cases. particular
2.
The
Carhon
Tubes.
carbon, and were ordinaryelectric light specially for these experiments. The diameters found to be are that it has not within the limits required, constant so
are
of
found It is
necessary
to
measure
the
measure
diameters
a
of
each
one
used.
This and
quite sufficient
done
both
to
proportionof
with
them.
has been
clean
mercury
of
the calculating
diameter
the
lengthsand
with
a
weights
Zeiss
by direct
over
a
measurement
ocular
70 -millimetre In
so
gives
one
readings
of tubes
to
y^sth
also
millimetre. broken
be up,
the
number
were
that
the variation
from
part
to
another
might
in the furnace these During use burning,because the hot portionsare or reducing gases. In order to test the
eflect of
burning,
188
Smith:
a
The
Metah
in
however,
20
number
reduced
weight by
diameters
and middle
end
change
has
been tubes
observed.
Carbon
have
been
used
described made
in this with
paper.
Some
in most
of the
purposes
it is
of
them.
some
It
was
hoped
that
to possible
include
been
used,
so
far,for holding
into
one.
the
tubes
vertical
positionand
in
some
lowering them
a
the The
molten
two
one or
"
metal
tubes
"
has which
the
"
been
are
respects
and side
an
crude
of them
"
dipping
are a
tube
the
other
the
"
surface asbestos
"
guide packing,at
iron
retort retort
tube about
"
clamped
by
side
with
an
quarter of
inch
apart, in
ordinary
down
an
clip.
This
clip is free to
iron
be
stand, which
and
It would
that the movement which raises and preferable clip holding the tubes should be effected by a rack The point of this is that the "dipping" tube lowered steadily and without jerksinto the molten
lowers and
the
pinion.
be If in
should metal.
this is
any
case
not
done
the
occurs
rather
to
column
or
thread
shootingup
leaves
occurs
a
the
solid
and it breaks cold part of the tube, where little experience this seldom a plug. With
if the
tube
the
entry effected
In the
at
case
or
has
beforehand
and
of metals
below the
which
are
oxidizable
at
and
form
fusible
oxides
temperature temperatures
measurements
which
raise the
well
attempting any
and
enters
that
oxide
shall be reduced
thus
"
cleaned."
course,
any Otherwet
"
Avise the
the the
more
surface which
allow the
tube
will,of
is
"
tube, and
measurements.
column
slipup
be
the tube
one
and
falsify
later
This
behaviour
will
which
calls for
complete discussion,and
paper
dealt with
in the
sections of the
(see p. 194).
190
Smith
The
Surface
Tension
it
of Molten
then
be
Metals
to
either
of these
notches, and
can
clamped
at
can
the
micrometer When
in that
clamped, the
course,
the
top.
be moved
is,of
half
an
beyond
notch
into subtract
on
that
merely
screw,
necessary
to
bring
another
or
again clamp it, and add ^^l^ths from the reading. The
is divided the into
half
inch
or
half-inch
the micrometer of
an
twenty
parts,
i.e. fortieths
inch, and
one
micrometer-head revolution
is divided
of the of
one
complete
of the be will
latter
into
rod it
gauge
by
a
one
the
former division
From
this
obvious
that
the
micrometer-head
^"^
correspondsto
To the
"
vertical
movement to
of
be
loViF^^^^
to
inch. end
of
enable
suitable
wire
attached
been
the lower
on
rod,
"
small
"chuck"
has
fitted
the
to
it.
This
chuck
The
"
will
size of wire
"
within
limits
itself is held
in securely
out
end
a can
of
which
the
reaches
of
from
centre
the
furnace.
be
can
moved be
in
It
over
racked
entrance
planes at right angles to each other. horizontallyto bring the depth gauge exactly
three
to
the
the
it
can
be
racked
to lower vertically
the wire
a
the
tube
and
also to
bring the
are
down
to
datum
which
the
the lower
measurements
It is convenient rack is
as
adopt
The rod
extremity of
the end
to
the
the
datum.
adjustmentwhich
through
lower
is then
to
necessary notch
nearest
which
to
merely to happens
surface
slide the
to
gauge
of it
the wire
bring
the
the
the
to
of the
molten
metal,
clamp
there,
until the movement spin the micrometer- head down the surface. of the galvanometer shows that it touches The then be instantly racked whole gauge can up to bring the from wire away the surface again and the reading of the micrometer taken the base the support to which at leisure. Finally, be rotated to of the rack itself is fixed can as so horizontally swing the whole of the measuring gear out of the way when and then the
operationis
over
and
it is necessary
to
open
up
the
furnace.
Smith
The
Metals
191
4.
The
Source
of Current.
the
source
It
the
was
found
detection
of current of the
for
the wire
measuring
metal should have a low gauge and the surface of the molten force. The reason for this lies in the difficulty electromotive of
a insulating
wire
from
are
the
at
are
interior of the
carbon
tubes
"
the lower
parts of which
high temperatures.
excellent
wire with
Kelatively
some
tubes
conductors, and
the tube
was
not
to
insulated sufficiently
before its
end
reached
a
which adjustment
would
permit
of
descending a tube 6 inches or so in length which is without largerdiameter than itself, only of slightly touching is clearly the walls at all, of improvised beyond the possibilities
apparatus.
The Pt. and
current
wire
Pt. Rh.
5
.
The
Selection
of a
Wire.
The
insulation
was
steel wire
of the
wire
difficulties. its
being higherthan
examine. it was
Various
melting point that of any of the metals it was proposed to made but to insulate it suitably, attempts were that by thoroughlyoxidizing it a sufficiently
was
obtained, while
be
core
of unaltered
readily exposed at its end by nipping it off with pliers. Such a wire causes little trouble at comparativelylow temperatures, but
the lower ends of
metal
remained
which
could
lower
very when of
the
tubes
are
surrounded
by metals
high melting point there is a considerable leakage. It ciently fortunately happens, however, that these metals give suffiwith the wider tubes, which, of course, deep depressions the minimizes difficulties arising from tion. incomplete insulaAn important advantage of iron wire is that it has a
very small
thermo-electric This
effect
of
its
own a
with
the
hot
carbon
tubes.
effect is
at appreciable
dull red
heat,
192 but
Smith
is
The
Surface
Tension
at
of Molten
Metals
and
higher temperatures
were
High
to
resistance
wires
of nickel-chrome
tried,but
carbon which
the
thermo-electric
be
so
effect between
that the the
"
them
and
and break
hot
"
appears
occurs as
great
make
tube
is
so
frequentand
troublesome
the interpret
movements
of the
meter galvano-
correctly.
6.
The
Pyrometer.
Pt. Rh.
the
as
merely an ordinarythermocouple of Pt. and the temperature of the metal by steadily indicating
is
of
one
a
This
of
contact
exactly the
of
same
pattern
used
to
the
with depth-gauge
metal.
when
the
contribution
that
to
merely
intended
in experience
earlier attempts
measure some
should
the
be
of a knowledge of the constants possiblebearingwhich the general study have on and surface tension may capillarity and alloys. of metals which To this it was might proposed to add a bibliography work future be of guidance to any who might contemplate
in this direction.
of have other material
The
results
for this
of
work the
obtained
character
in
the of
paper,
paration prewhich
already been
results which
entertained.
of
the
work
has
been
of the available time has been widened and most considerably of general method taken in attempting to establish a up application.This has left but little time in which to pursue
more
closely the
metals and the
measurements
actual
measurements
in
the
cases
of
ticular par-
alloys. Had
of the
been
confined
it would of mercury depressions have abandoned been most long ago, because of the certainly others most undoubted difficulties which probably have also
to
Smith:
The
Surface Tension
this metal.
of Molten
Metals
these
193
of which irresrularities,
found, have
It is not in
couraged further
that the
attempts with
observations
other
metals.
metals
of other
this way
difficulties and
that these
a
anomalies, but
difficultiesare
with
been
in
from anticipated
narrow
knowledge
lost in
of the behaviour
tubes. time
was
Much
making
now
the methods
adopted, by the unfortunate to work, and by the failure to choice of lead alloys upon which the absolute of the metal being realize at the outset necessity it to a sufficiently cleaned by raising high temperature to reduce all fusible oxide before any measurements are attempted. fact that is of The the few ordinarynietals which lead one it in that respect the very fusible oxide makes forms a readily which could have the possibilities of the method worst one on With been tested. however, lead and its alloys experience, difficulties. appear to present no special This explanationmust be oftered in excuse for the comparative It incompletenessof the results recorded below. to have satisfactory delayedpublication might have been more
" "
which
have
been
until
on
later stage, but it was felt that it was the whole, that such results as have been
a
more
desirable,
should
obtained
shown
to
on
page
to at
176
that
a
the value
measurements
in required
be
able
calculate
tension of
the
molten
metal
observations
of the
: following
(") The
itself depression
7t.
=
(") The internal radius of the tube r, of the metal at the temperature of the (c) The fluid density
experiment
=
|0.
id) The
to
cosine of the
the
angle of
contact
between and
the normal
to
free surface
at
cos
of the metal
the
the
surface tube
=
the 0
.
.
point where
.
it meets
of
(c) The
value
to
gravity =//.
N
194 The
Smith:
formula
The
which
Surface
has been
Tension
of Molten
to
Metals
express this
relation is :
/i X T
=
/) X gf
In
recording the
results of the
the
1.
the
same
way
which
has
been within
2.
indicated, are
the
constant
error same
the
temperature,
limits of
the
of the
That, subject to
varies
at
r
as inversely
the
radius
the
tube
and
sequently, con-
any
A
particular temperature,
is
a
the
product
called
multipliedby
"
constant
which
will be
the
3.
That
"
different
metals
are
differences
of in
far
4.
That
the variations
the
same
which
at
occur
by
metal
in
different
small
comparison with
of the
itself. depression the 5. That angle of contact,"as defined,approaches 180". has been given to the following corrections in Consideration
"
order
to
allow
for
"
{a) The
the
change
carbon
of
owing
to
the
expansion of
(") The
expansionof
errors
the lower
end
ic) Possible
caused takes
by the
racking which
placeduring a
Fluid
Density.
metals shown is
Although distinctive
is furnished that
a
by their knowledge of
to
the
densities
to be
of
the
molten
metals
necessary The
enable
values
given for
one
questionof
fluid
densityis
to
which
Roberts-Austen
Smith:
gave
a
The
Metals
195
considerable
with Sir
near
of
attention
in
1881,*
in
junction con-
Thomas
certain
metals in books
their tables.
for still
quoted
were
of
extended
in "j" 1887.
determinations
Pascal
are
made
work
of
MM.
and
the The
JouniauxJ
first
has
furnished
with
figureswhich
a a
a
of
importance in connection with the had author work, " with planned some
values
present work.
view number
to
obtaining
of which minations deterwas
for this
and
had
made
bismuth
by
method MM.
it
analogous
Jouniaux. continue
that
recently adopted by
work, however,
at
to
Pascal
and
to
Their
those
makes
determinations
present.
to
author, in
offer
them
achievement
with
had
some
experience.
The
AnrjU of Contact.
has
This
amount
is of
questionwhich
work
contact
given rise
the
to
considerable
from the
perplexity.Theory
and
observation
have
earliest recorded
a
agreed upon
finite
not
cases
"
angle of
wet."
that
do of
It is,in
for assuming necessity and solids which between they liquids small number fact,only in a relatively
"
solids are regardedas which wet even liquids small angles of contact, or in other words, having negligibly where the last element of the hquid surface is parallel to the containing wall.|| Elaborate taken have been by various workers precautions in the measurement need consider of the only case which we
"
"
that The
*
of mercury.
angle in
Austen p. 360. and and
this
case
is,of
course,
an
obtuse
angle which
p.
Roberts-
295, and
Annalen
,
May 1882,
t Vicenti X Pascal " Journal
11Some
Omodei,
Lincei
Rend.,
1888,
And
Beibldtter
IVeid
of the Institute
of Metals
No.
,
experiments by Professor Huntington are of interest in this connection, of Sulphides by Flotation," Faraday Society,December 12, 1905.
centration Con-
196
Smith
The
StirfaceTension
as
of Molten
to
Metals
given variously
of the for the
from which
128"
140", according to
No
nature
solid with
it is in contact.
values
the
available
medium With
of the
molten
of mercury angle of contact used in these experiments carbon. no experimentalevidence to offer of even in existence of this finite angle of contact
"
with
the
the ofter
reality
case
of
metals
with
proposes
to
figures
for the
the
surface
tensions
present,
defined as assumption is made that the angle of contact This implies that the last 176 on approaches 180". page with the of the liquidsurface is practically element parallel which it follows that cos Q approaches walls of the tube, from this assumption that negative. From unity and is,of coarse, of the liquidis tangential the surface at the point of contact the author the walls of the tube, an to assumption which realizes is againstall acceptedbeliefs based on theory or fully be regarded must observation, it follows that the meniscus as hemispherical. Support is given to the adoption of this have effects which contact course by the fact that many the result of adhesion. been observed are clearly the observed becomes then The depth of the depression for plus an allowance depressionto the top of the meniscus which is usually the volume represented by the meniscus
" "
taken
as
t;.
although in the
been assumed
contact
actual
to
measurements
this small
the
allowance
of the The becomes wire
has
be
balanced
by
before
equation to
the the
the surface
one
these
familiar rise
used
that calculating
quantity from
tubes
:
of
which ordinaryliquids
wet
"
the
r^_h.r.p.g
2
be subsequently furnished, it angles of contact values for T by their will be merely necessary to divide these 0-7 and unity. cosines,which will probably be between the author Before perhaps finally leavingthis question, may the method he has sought to establish indicate a by which The method values of these anglesif they exist. adopted by
Should
finite
198
Smith:
The
Surface
obtained
Tension
of
the
a
Molten
Metals
Finally,
mercury
are
the
on
values the
for of the
surface
tension
of
itself,
such
assumption
with
contact
angle
of in the many
at
of
180",
values
cases
in
close
various
a
agreement
workers
majority
which
obtained do it
not
by
involve
by
methods,
of how
a
consideration
see, at
contact-angle
one can
all, that
as
is
difficult
than
to
present,
author's
regard
the
it
being
tension
0"949
other of
180".
at
The
figures
different
for
surface
of
are
mercury
15"
0'633
C.
by
two
tubes
radii 45'56
millimetre
and
millimetre
the
respectively comparison
with
and
45*64,
expressed
in
for
sake
per
of
the
following
figures,
milligrammes
millimetre.
The
following
in
tables
give
with the
the
results
of
the
author's
on
ments experi194.
accordance
scheme
indicated
page
Smith:
The
Metals
199
Table
Constancy of Depression.
Table
II.
"
Constancyof the
Product
rxh
or
'"'"
Capillary Constant."
200
Smith:
Table
III.
"
The
The
SurfaceTensiojt of Molten
"
Metals
Table
IV.
"
Calculated
Values
in
Dynes
per
Centimetre.
sions Tenferent of DifRadii Surface Tension
Density
over
Capilla.ry
Constant,
Tubes
given by
Range
of
of Metal
(Mean
Values) Dynes per
cm.
Temperature.
Temperature
Range.
(mm.").
(Dynes per
Centimetre).
'
Antimony
Bismuth Lead
.
I I
I
6-45
(P. "J.)*
(the author)
10-51
274
"
274
331
361 431
418
,
(
1
346 424-5
(P. "J.)
13 55
f
)
f 6'
I
Mercury
Tin
614-
750" -910"
.
6-66
(P. "J.)
447-5
480
2-35 -j (P. "J.) 5-81 630 580" I (P. "J.) 9-453 980" 1120"! (R. A. " W.)t 18-38 1120" I (calculated) 700-820"
-
520
707-5
858 1018
'
Copper
1150"
-i
8-32
(P. "J.)
1203
1178
Pascal
and
Jouniaux.
t Roberts-Austen
and
Wrightson.
Smith:
Table
The
V.
Surface
Tension
of Molten
Molten a^.
Metals
201
"
for
xh
=
Metals
{given
Table
in
VI.
"
Comparison of
IV.
the
Values
for
Table
loith those
obtained
the
Landolt).
202
Smith
The
Surface
of
Tension
of Molten
Conclusions.
Metals
Discussion
At
Results
and
the time
was
when
these
at
a
experiments were
method differ
begun,the object
the their
in view
to
arrive
metals be
by
which
surface
sions ten-
of molten
which
widelyin
under
generalproperties
conditions.
then be
might
It
was
readily compared
that would
some
similar
hoped
which the
might generalization
relations and
to
revealed
between
enable
be other
established
properties,
line with
and that
The
so
bring
which
metals
to
into
fact that
so
the
surface
depends
which
of
intimatelyon
up, solids
cohesion
of
of
it is made
the
exist between
of tenacity Roberts-
the
relation cohesion
mainly concerned with varying aspects of the generalmetallurgical phenomenon of small of the influence which quantities impurities relatively in which of the metals the physicalproperties have on they in 1888 in made He hidden. a are striking generalization of Metals considered Mechanical the his paper on Properties
Austen's
"
in Relation
to
the
Periodic
Law."
By
pure
the
the
admixture
was
of small
to
of impuritieswith quantities
an
gold he
able
show
on
undoubted
relation
between
effects of these
their atomic
"
elements
the mechanical
In
of properties
gold and
he said
"
volumes.
An
as
or
examination
so
far
they
have
yet been
which
in my that carried,shows
occupies a positionat the base of the diminishes either of the loops of Lothar Meyer's curve of gold. On the other hand, the fact is clearly brought tenacity all occupy the gold fragile which do render that metals out This would to show in Meyer's curve. appear high positions
metal
metalloid
that
*
there
is
some
relation
between
the
influence
vol. clxxix.
exerted
pp.
by
PhilosophicalTransactions
339-349.
Smith
the their
The
Surface
Tension
either
of
Molten
atomic
Metals
203
metallic atomic
work of
impurities, and
volumes."
of Roberts-
their
weights
received
or
This
amount
Austen
has
years
perhaps
which it
not
the there
attention that
at
in recent the
merits, but
it aroused of
is
no
doubt
time
it
was
and
widespread
Committee
in of
interest.
of the first
The
published appointment
afford
Research
was
Institution
to
of Mechanical
made
the
place
his
Roberts-Austen
on were
opportunity
to
extending
Law. iron and
the
Periodic of
These
experiments experiments
other of
alloysin relation
continued
more
into
the
realm
steel, where
and
pressing
results
matters
diverted
are
the
to
original trend
all.
has
the
work, with
which
So
familiar
far, very
the
been
possible in
in metals
the
direction paper,
the
of
by investigating,
on
methods
of
described
molten
this
effects the
surface of
small
tensions
produced by
Sufficient
additions has
quantities of
obtained,
other
metals.
of
evidence
been
however,
the Such
reality
above
and
measurability of
as
the the
changes
results
on
so
produced.
pure metals
conclusions
may
appear
from
given
be
experiments
which
have
been
described
in
the
from the standpoint of the Periodic present paper are examined Law they reveal, in the first place,the interestingfact that, in accordance tensions with other metals
properties of
are
the
of molten
show this
'periodic
functions of
metals
in their
loeights.
To
so
fundamental
have
relation, the
been tabulated
"
which
"
have
"
far been
examined
periods
of each
same
the according to the periodic classification period having atomic weights which Their atomic volumes order of magnitude.
"
"
members
are are
of also
the
given
on.
in
these
tables, and
once
reference
be
seen
will that
be in
made each of
to
"
these
later
"
It will at tension
period
lowest
the
surface
decreases the
having
atomic
weight
204
Smith:
The
Surface
Periods
Tension
of Molten
Metals
Metals
(jroupedin their
are
in each
of tcMch
First
the Atomic
Weights
of the
same
order
of macinitude.
Long
Period.
Second
Short
Period.
Second
Long
Period
"
Odd
Series.
"The
Behaviour
of and
Tellurium
in
Assaying."
p. 463.
The
author.
Proceedings of
the
Institution
of Mini?ig
Metallurgy, 1908,
206
Smith
The
Tension Stirface
of Molten
Metals
It would
metals
vary
tensions of molten therefore,that the surface as some function of their atomic volumes. inversely
appear,
of clearlybear a relation to the work employed surface tension as a Ramsay and Shields,* who of determiningmolecular complexity by the application means tion molecular surface for of Eotvos' formula energy." A relaforeshadowed of this work to n:ietals was by Siedentopfin be developed, This consideration cannot however, until 1897. These
conckisions
"
"Bi.
^"^
"3b.
"P6
"Sn.
%
I
'///
Hg{^..
XSn.
Hgy-
v^
ja^
"^9
"Zn
_" /la
Vfu
"C(J
"OOO'f "0000
50
100
/so
200
/]TO/vtJC WE/GHT3
(AT Xr
VOL)" THUS
THUS
"
Fig.
4.
further
determinations
occur
have
been tensions
an
made with
of the
small variations
which
In
in the
surface
conclusion, however,
indication
have
on
look
at
the
table
or
the
curve
for the
"
fourth
has
long
O
of period,"
which
we see
gold
Roberts-
is the
lowest
member
which shown
been
examined,
in 1803,
by
a
Hatchett
and the
by
exert
disturbing
the
effect
most
on
cohesion
to
of
gold,its fellows
hut much
in this
have
period are
atomic
active,that is
weights
very
nearly that of
its oion,
largeratomic
647;
and
volumes, and
lower consequently
*
surface
Roberts- Austen's
p.
generalof
the Chemical
Transactions
Smith:
ization volume
to
The
Tension Stirface
course,
of Molten
elements
these those
Metals
207
holds, of
in other
for
other
seems
have
higher
require
lead,
the the
than
a
and
bismuth,
This
in order
exercize
be
consideration
"
may
other
periods
"
where
of
common
mercury, effect.
high
atomic
those of lower
{e.g., copper
to
conclusions if of
"
that the
bottom of the at the positions and silver) will readily suggest parallel in drawn of gold. Finally, the case
occupy
we
effect of the
occupy
admixture
the
with
each
other,
the
which
curves
lowest
of is
atomic
(that is,those
their
cases
tension) we
on
know
that
cohesion it is
strengthened.
explanation to give them on volumes, both occupying
the
which
the low
basis
of considerations
atomic volume curves. respective lend These instances, taken from experience, metallurgical some expressedat the beginning support to the hope which was afford anof this paper, that a study of surface tension other may approach to the study of the constitution of alloys.
on positions
their
Since
relation attention the
"
the of
conclusions
tension
to to
were
written
regardinsf
the
*
the
the the
periodiclaw,
work
author's
on
has
directed
of
of F. Schmidt
Surface
Tension
AmalG^ams."
discussingthe effect on the surface tension of mercury produced by the addition of other metals, he states that this of the atomic is found be a periodic function to weight. With regard to these dilute amalgams, therefore,he appears reached conclusion to have a analogous with that which the author has given on p. 203 with regardto pure metals generally.
In
*
Annaleti
der
Physik,ViVl\yi.\\o\. xxxix.
p.
1108; Journal
No.
KoYAL
Mint, London,
E.
208
Smith:
The
Tension Sttrface
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
of Molten
Metals
Standard
Young. "On
Worli
on
Transactions of the Fluids," Philosophical Lectures Natural Philosophy (1807), on 1805, p. 65 ; Royal Society, Collected 1816 658 No. TI., JForks, 1816, Encyclopcedia Britcmnica, ; ; p. the Cohesion
" "
vol. i. p. 459.
1831, p. Capillaire,
v.
110.
Fig. Fluid
Maxwell. and revised
Werle, 1839,
in 1910 de
vol.
p. 69.
9th
Edition,
Berthelot,
Annates
"
(1850),vol.
p. 232.
Guthrie.
Certain
Molecular
p. 321. Thomson
"
Roijal
Rayleigh. 1883
Magazine, Philosophical Laplace's Theory of Capillarity,'' [2],p. 309; "On the Theory of Surface Forces," Philosophical
On
Magazine,1890
WoRTHiNGTON
[2], pp.
"
285
and
45G. of
On Laplace'sTheory (A. M.). the 1883 [2],p. 339; "On Magazine, Magazine, 1884 [2], Philosophical p. 334.
"On
Surface
Magie.
the
1888
Contact
Angle
"
of
Liquids
and
Magazine,
PoYNTiNG
AND
[2],p. 162
; also
JFied. Annalen,
[25], p.
429.
THOMSON.
of Matter," Properties
pp.
135-181.
EoTVOS. Ramsay
Wied.
and
Annalen, 1886,
"The
and
452. of "The
Shields.
Complexity
p.
Liquids,"
actions Trans-
of
Molecular
the
Chemical
Society, 1893,
1089;
Variation
of
of the
Whittaker.
1908 Willows
"
tions TransacSurface-Energy with Temperature," Philosophical 1893 Royal Society, [A],p. 647.
The
Theory
21.
of
Capillarity," Proceedings of
the
Royal Society,
[A],81, p.
and
Hatschek.
on
"
Surface
Tension
and The
Surface Chemical
their Influence
pp.
Chemical
Phenomena,"
233.
Quincke.
1858
"
The
Capillary Constant
1-48
; and
[105], pp.
Annalen of
The
Capillary
Constants and
Annalen, Quicksilver,"Poggendorffs der Chemie, 1859, 55, pp. 227-241 ; Solid Bodies," Poggendorff's Annalen,
of
"
Philosophical Magazine, 1868 [36], p. 267. of (A translation Thompson) ; The CapillaryConstants by Silvanus 1869 261 sophical Philoand Molten A nnalen, Metals, Poggendorff's [135],p. ; (A translation Magazine, 1869 [38], by Prof. Jack) ; p. 78. of Molten Chemical The Capillary Constants Compounds," Poggen1868
[134],p. 356;
"
Smith:
The
Surface
Tension
of
Molten
Metals
209
dorff's
Common
Amialen,
Surface
1870
of
[138],
two
p.
141
"The
Capillary
Phenomena
at
the
Fluids,"
Porjgend'rff's
IBll
Annalen,
pp.
1871
[139],
"The
p.
1;
and
Philosophical
Constants
of
Maga::ine,
Water and
[41], Mercury,"
of the
245-454;
der
Capillary
1894
of
Annalen
Measurements
Physik,
of the 1897
[52],
p.
1;
"Recent
of
Criticism Molten
Capillary
Metals,"
Annalen
der
Physik,
[61],
SiEDENTOPF. der
p.
Capillary [61],
p. 235.
Constants
of
Molten
Metals,"
Annalen
Physik,
"
1897
Heydweiller.
The
Specific
der
Cohesion 1897
from
and
Surface
Tension
of the
Chilled
Gold,"
of
Annalen
Physik,
[62],
the
p.
694;
of
"On
Calculation Annalen
the
Capillary
1898
Constant
Heights
Globules,"
der
Physik,
"
[65],
the
p.
311.
Gradenwitz.
On
of
Capillary [67],
of p. 467.
Constant
of
Solidified
Globules,"
"
Physik,
Surface
Gruxmach.
Determination
Metals
of
the
Fluid
Bodies
of
and
Molten
by
the Annalen
Measurement der
the
1900
Wave-lengths [308],
p. 660.
their
Capillary
Herzfeld. Annalen
"
Ripples,"
The
Physik,
of
Specific Physik,
Cohesion 1897
Copper,
450.
Iron,
Nickel,
and
Cobalt,"
der "The
[62],
p. of
LoHNSTElx.
Determination 1894
Capillary Tlieory
of
Constants," Drops,"
Annalen
Annalen der
der
Physik,
1906
[53],
p.
p. 606.
1062
"
The
Phxjsik,
Stockle.
"The
[20],
Surface
Tension
of
Mercury,"
Annalen
der
Physik,
1898
[66],
Schmidt.
p.
"The
499.
Surface
1108.
Tension
of
Amalgams,"
Annalen
der
Physik,
1912
[iv], 39,
Landolt's
Tables,
1912
Edition,
p.
114
{Physikalisrh-Chemische
TuheUen).
210
Communications
07i
Smith's
Paper
COMMUNICATIONS.
Dr. Smith be C. H. Desch
to
one
seemed
to
described by Mr. (Glasgow)wrote that tlie method but attention might be well designed for its purpose,
of error, namely, the influence of gases probable source The in forming surface layersof oxides or of other compounds. metals it certain that a nd used were was oxidizable, ordinaryprecautionssuch with the apparatus with the surface or charcoal, as an filling covering the insufficient to prevent inert gas, Avere absorptionof oxygen by the called metal.
The
use
of
high vacuum
would
no
doubt
introduce
very
*
serious
consisted
in the
use
of
employed by R. Arpi when metals, might perhapsbe practicable. highlyreducing atmosphere, obtained by
device
of methyl alcohol. There was also vapour to believe that gases other than oxygen were reason capable of exerting of molten metals. influence the surface on an properties Perhaps Mr.
charging hydrogen
with
the
Smith
would
find
it
to possible
estimate
the
amount
was now being made Very satisfactory progress of liquidmetals and alloys, such as the properties and surface electrical conductivity, expansibility,
in
their
density, viscosity,
tension.
Sir
very
Thomas useful
to
Rose,
have
was an
D.Sc.
the
(Member
and
of
Council),wrote
observations
deserved
on
that
it
was
results of those
he
record.
Mr.
Smith's
method
original one,
line. His conclusions that the amount problems along a new metal of depression of a molten in a capillary tube at different temperatures the and also that constant li at r x was capillary nearly constant, different temperatures was and nearly constant, were striking, appeared had It clear metal also that each to be fully a justified. was specific and presumably a specific surface tension at a given temperadepression, ture. It seemed however, to regard the calculated values of necessary, the surface tensions given in Tables IV. and VI. as only approximations,
those
liable to revision.
another results with
Mr.
Smith's
own
results
differed
from appreciably
one
different sizes of the tubes, and differed .still from the more of others. Part of that divergence due doubtless ence to a differwas
must
be
factor
well known
necessary
to be
reduced
by
and impurities,
therefore
as
to bear
in mind metals
examined.
used
were
Some
details
to the
purityof
the
would
be useful
the It
reference.
Probably
than the
gold
values for
much
metals, and
remarkable lower than
gold of
Mr. other
Smith's
tension
were
those
were
given by
observers and
higher
of
for
silver
suggestion "Sto^
*
as
to
the
connection
surface
vol.
tension
v.
with
the
International
Jouriial of MetnUogyaphy,\%\\,
p. 142.
Communications
law periodic for In
was
on
Smith's
not
Paper
disregarded.The
211
and interesting,
could
be
sideration con-
of the matter
would
be aided
by
further
o1:)servations to determine,
example, how
devotion
at
far oxidation
to
affected
surface tension.
conclusion,he desired
Smith's
to
bear
of Mr.
that
by
his officialduties
the
as
Royal Mint,
would Dr.
regardthe
G.
A.
paper
only an
Shakespear
was
of much
and interest,
seemed
to be one
to
"surface
to
remembered
had
to
not
equal
area
surface surface
because tension,
was
heat
suppliedwhen
In
the
case
of
increased 0"
at
constant
temperature.
tension
area was
the 76
of
water,
surface
increase of the
surface
the
energy
dynes per about 41 ergs, so that to be supplied was heat-energy became 76 + 41 ergs. Something similar probably
surfaces.
about
for
C,
the unit
each
appliedto
In
molten
metal
the
"drop"
method
that and
and
he 181),
assumed
the
drop
was
the circumference
that
of the
equal to drop.
must
the
product of
the
consideration
be
given to
The
the
drop
due
to
the
me
surface
tension which
itself.
T mg
=
"
formula
then
became
27rrT
+ TrrT from
stillcloser
consideration when To
shown was approximation by Rayleighto follow from the of the problem as dynamical rather than merely statical, became
to
nig
=
^.o
.
(SeeRayleigh's papers.)
it would
at the same
of the author's results, probable accuracy had been been useful if more given for the actual figures of the depression of the same liquid independent readings
judge of
the
temperature.
the
"
questionof
this
angle of
in
a
contact
"
was
one
which regarding
at
it
difficult to
If the
all like
might vary
of the
tube, but
as objectionable
mercury,
not
better than
in glass
in discrepancyshown the author's results and those of Quincke that used have possibly Quincke may correction Rayleigh's
.
VI.
case
(page201) between
of
in the
the
gold suggested
without author had
"drop"
that
method
the
The
in discrepancies
a
the table
chosen
very
suitable, subjectfor
accurate
gation. investi-
worth
deal
continuingthe
be got out
of
observations,
them, perhaps
as
it seemed
great
might
in especially
the
case
of iron and
steel.
212
Communications
R.
on
Smithes
Cass
Paper
wrote Institute)
on
Dr.
S. Willows,
disarmed
a
M.A.
criticism
(Sir John
with
that
"
the
author
contact
had
"
the
angleof
If
he
by merely assumed
At
was
confession
of doubt
a
surface hemispherical
have
then
"
contact tangential
should, one
wetting."
Would
the
a
same
time, it
difficult
occurred, there
it not
was
be
the practically It
to be
depression. more likely assumption that the angle of contact for all molten same metals,though not necessarily
a
180"?
was
hoped
that
the author
would
points
by further experiments.
Mr.
to the
Smith
first
point raised by
Dr.
Desch
"
as
other
too
of oxides influence of gases in formingsurface layers probable of which that that eff'ect was evidence was one compounds
"
or
of
only
abundant
stages
than
array
of discordant
were
for the
values
invariablyless
been
experiments. discouraging was depressions encountered, and these the condithose finally obtained when tions
were
of
the
had
The
improved.
were
values which
then
found
the
highestvalues,and
In
were,
were
in fact,constant
the that figures
under
repeated determination.
put
forward.
all cases,
these
had
been
insuflBcient were objectionthat the ordinaryprecautions to prevent partial oxidation, might be a real one, but the counsel of which he atmosphere of hydrogen perfection suggested, of using an from the ordinary charged with methyl alcohol, differed so completely Dr. conditions
under
a
Desch's
which
course,
metals
if
were
melted
without it
was
would, possible,
of
was
was
the
refined
"
discrimination
"
academic
so
specular brilliantly
that
to
surface which
the
measurements
was
the
care
this
condition from
thought
With
have
been
sufficient to
prevent
any
serious
errors
the
effects of oxidation.
regard to
the
belief that
on
of
was
exertingan
submitted
was
influence that
the
capable metals,it
one
the
the
gas
which
As
known definitely
to
the
of
would
appear
the
as
problem
to
make
The
matter
was,
however,
of
such
to
obvious
deal with
portance imit.
attempt
in Tables
would
be certainly
made
The
drawn
the surface
tensions
be
VI.,
to which
attention
author
had
been
was
by Sir Thomas
should
Rose,
which There
the
was no
himself
to
anxious in the
understood. clearly
pretence
finality
figures.Even
if accuracy
could
be claimed
214
and Thorneycroft
Turner
Behaviour
of
BEHAVIOUR WHEN
By W. E.
OF HEATED
thorneycroft,
Bowen
IN
COPPER IN
B.Sc,
Scholar
of and and
ZINC A
THOMAS
Professor
ALLOYS
VACUUM.*
TURNER,
of
M.Sc. Metallurgy
(Respectively
Research
THE
University
Birmingham).
Considerable the
attention of metals
has
been
devoted
in
recent
years
a
to
behaviour
and
a
when alloys
of separation
heated
in metal
vacuum,
or
the
at
a
objectbeing to
lower
obtain
the
to
metals
temperature
Reference
to
than
usual, and
prevent loss by
that
oxidation.
patent literature
indicates
such
extent been proposed, and to some processes have The in various countries, and for different purposes.
adopted,
ing follow-
examples
(a)
form
vacuum.
are
worthy
of note W.
1898.
D.R.
104,990.
for
Forence
suggested a special
from
of
retort elliptical
separatingzinc
2782.
from its J.
ores
silver in
(6)
1901.
English
extraction
Patent
C.
Butterfield reduced
patentedthe
pressure.
of zinc
under
(c) 1905.
a
method
in
a
for
19,781.
W.
S.
Simpson
a
claimed
state
in by agitation
Patent
molten
while
vacuum.
(fO
1910.
959,785.
R.
J. McNitt
described of another
a vacuum.
the
(e)
1911.
United
States
Patent of
996,474.
metals
from
C.
G.
Fink
ores
proposed the
arsenic and
fractional
in
a
distillation
their
by distillation (/)
1911.
vacuum,
specialreference
Patent
being made
W.
to
antimony.
United
States
998,665.
C. Arsem
patented the
refiningof metals, and more of silver from gold by heating separation 1300" in a nearly perfect of about vacuum.
*
the particularly
to
a
temperature
Taken
as
read
at
September
10, 1914.
when
Heated
evidence
a
in
at
Vacuum
215
available has
present that
measure
any
processes
success,
obtained
considerable
of commercial
with
vacuum,
that to anticipate good reason of producing and improved methods maintaining a and with better lurgical a system of applying heat, metalimportance may ultimately processes of far-reaching the theoretical
there is
be
obtained.
A
contribution
to
were
to
aspect of the
of
was subject
submitted
references
the
Institute
by
one
us,* and
in
this
on
papei*
the
given
to
certain
earlier
experiments
tests conducted scale a on subject. Some practical the importance of a more careful study of the effect
indicated
tions of variafurther
of
temperature
were
and
pressure
in such
work, and
published. The first of these fied by Groves and Turner f indicated that alloyscould be classiinto five groups, accordingto their behaviour heated when in a vacuum ing to temperatures not greatlyexceeding the meltpoint of the alloys. The classification is as follows : metals 1. The non-volatile and the alloy is unaltered are
papers
in
2.
shortlyafterwards
weight.
volatile metal
or
The
3.
4.
5.
completely removed, a quantitative separation resulting. of volatile metal and a chemical is removed Any excess compound remains. is removed, but the residue of volatile metal Any excess is not a chemical compound. The metals composing the alloysvolatilize together, their relative proportions in part, dependent upon the being, temperature employed.
are
metals
second the
been in
made
a vacuum.
a
dealt
J
unit
rate
of volatilization
a
determined
a
by heating
The
at weight,
known
temperature, for
different
certain other pressures of air and that after a certain arrived at were
*
conclusions has
of
temperature
in Vacuo
"
T.
Turner,
"
The
Behaviour
of Certain
Alloys when
Journal
the histitiite
of Metals, No. 1, 1912, vol. vii. p. 105. t Transactions of the Chemical Society 1912, vol.
,
ci. p. 585.
Nair
and No.
Turner,
cii. p. 1534.
Abstracted
Journal
of
the Institute
of Metals,
216 been
Thorneycroftand
reached
the
or
Turner
Behaviour
is
of
once
rate
of volatilization
nature
independent of
that it varies other
the
initial pressure,
the
the
of the
gas, but
In
increase
curves
of
are
temperature.
if the
words, all
the be
volatilization
straight lines
initial any
throughout
rate
sented reprewe
by
have
and
the
a
rate
at
higher temperature
which
the
by R^
case
R^
to
R + at, 1.
very
down
a
nearly
about but Below
On
in this
is
ordinary pressure
millimetre
5 0 millimetres
each
has
small
equal effect
50
loweringthe
the the
volatilization
millimetres
is
effect of
removing
removed
millimetre
greater,and
1
last millimetre
about the
seventy
pressure
The ascertain the
tunes
the
effect of
50 the
millimetre
is about
millimetres.
object
the
of
present
on
series the
of
rate
experiments
of the
was
to
effect of copper
This
two
volatilization
of
copper-zinc alloys.
exists between
would metals
indicate
under
which
the
varying
that
There
is the which
to
further have
consideration been
all
librium equiunder
diagrams
had relation
hitherto of
the
publishedhave
metals the with
only
the
behaviour
is
atmospheric
of variations
pressure.
It
constitution
study
the
thrown
upon
Materials
Used.
For
the
Mond
to
zinc
contain of
alloys electrolytic copper These were were employed. analyzed and of foreign metals. The traces only minute
of preparation the the
and
found
position com-
copper,
the
taken zinc
by difference, was
99*988
99"944
cent.
per
The
yielded per alloyswere prepared by melting in a clay crucible and pouring into a cast-iron mould. Six alloys were prepared,and the proportion of copper by the present carefully determined The iodide method. follows, as composition of the alloyswas the zinc being obtained by difference :
cent,
copper,
while
Heated
in
Vacuum
217
Method.
apparatus used
was
similar
of
a
Turner.*
It consisted
that
The
pump
was
made
in the
and laboratory,
shortened Toepler principle ; a of was employed, and all the apparatus was pressure gauge mined deterglass with sealing-waxjoints. The temperature was of a platinum platinum-rhodium thermocouple by means
inserted between
the
the
tube
of
the
furnace
and
the
It was not couple porcelaintube. possibleto place the thermotube inside the porcelain actually owing to the action of zinc vapour the platinum. The ings upon temperature readat
the
maximum
pointwere
was
accurate
to
about
5" C.
The
and
alloyto placed in
was
be examined
a
in the form
of thin
porcelainboat.
and In
In
of
each
gramme
the
some
time
heating was
namely,
was
30
ascertained
rate to
was
the size of
the
of
volatilization, owing
from
the
zinc Care
as
diffuse
inside
to
therefore
taken
have
the same thickness. possible left in the porcelain boat after for copper by analysis by the iodide
turningsof as nearly of the residue The composition the experiment was determined
method.
all the
Experimental The
as
experimentalvalues
:
from
follows
Journal
of the
Chemical
Society 1913,
,
218
Turner:
Behaviour
of
"
Table
I.
"
Alloy A.
Copper 75-12.
Constittdion
of Alloy
Alpha.
the percentage of zinc is that obtained the total zinc in the loss by volatilization from in subtracting In the
above table
the
this calculating
value
as
percentage
of the residue
Table
II.
"
Copper
5\-2)?i.
Constitution
of Alloy
"
Beta.
The in Table
percentage of
I.
zinc
in the
above
table
was
calculated
as
Heated
in
Vacuum
Beta + Gamma.
219
43-80. Coi^p^r
Constitution of Alloy
"
The
table
was
calculated
as
in Tables
Tablk
II.
34-20. Cop23er
"
Constitution
of Alloy
"
Gamma.
The
were
values
for zinc
marked
in the above
table
by
an
asterisk
determined
In the
by the method
was
adopted in
some
Tables
I.,II.,and volatiHzed,
values
III.
as remainingexperiments,
this check
method
not
available,and
the
220
Thorneycroftand
was
Turner
Behaviour
of
tbe zinc
obtained
and by analysis
by
Copper 20"10.
Constitution
of Alloy
"
Gamma
Epsilon.
As in Table
an
are
marked the
with
asterisk
were
and by calculation,
remaining
Eta.
by figures
Table
difference.
"
VI.
Copper \Q'2b.
Constitution of Alloy
"
Epsilon+
Thorneycroftand
Turner
Behaviour
terminate
of
with
curves volatilization-temperature
the
Consequently alloys within this be quantitatively of composition separatedinto their can range shown was as by constituent metals by heating in a vacuum, alloys. and Turner, who Groves experimentedwith copper-rich
vertical
lines
a,
h, and
c.
remaining alloysD, E, F, it will be observed of the that each beyond its corresponding curves passes vertical lines d, e, or /, thus showing that the total volatilizaWith
the three
1000
900
800
I I
30
fO
50
60
70
Percentage
Fig. 1.
VoL/iT/uz/iT/ON.
tion
was
greater than
In other
the
amount
some
of zinc
originally present
volatilized.
in
the
alloy.
words,
for alloy observation curve interesting F, containing8 9" 75 per cent, of zinc, lies below that of pure zinc for the greater part of its length. Alloys which consist of zinc may thus have than a chiefly greater vapour pressure of This increase of volatility, due the presence to pure zinc. metal, resembles the effect on the loweringof melting a second point so often observed on alloying. to Fig.2, a solid model was Referringnow prepared to more and a plan of fullyrepresent the results of these experiments, Another
this model
is here
shown.
The
horizontal
axes
of this model
Heated
in
VacMum
223
percentage compositionof the residue in the lain porceand of volatiHzation respectively.The percentage
in the
as
axis
model dotted
indicates
contour
the
plan
isotherms adjacent
being
50" C.
The
tinuous con-
composition of residue plotted againstpercentage volatilization for the respective alloys. The for alloys in character, and curves A, B, and C are uniform
Cum. Copper- Zinc Series- Vo/al///zdl/on: Co/npos/tm: Te/nprnfure
Fig.
show
100
90
80
70
60
SO
JO
20
10
Per
Cent
Fig. 2.
Copper.
show
no
zinc-rich
The remaining three curves, for the irregularities. different type, alloysD, E, and F, are of a totally
a
except for
each
cross curve.
short At the
at
distance
at
the
lower
or
zinc-rich
curves
end
of
upper
about
5
ends
of E
and
meet
F the
actually
G50".
each
other
50", and
again at
about
This
of the apparently indicates that the residue from one alloyswas in a condition of metastable equilibrium. At the each point of intersection, the residue from alloy has the chemical same weight and the same composition, yet they behave The in further on differently heating. irregularities the shape of the curves for alloys D, E, and F are due to the
fact that
some
copper
volatilizes with
the zinc.
224
An
croftaiid TJiorney
examination
of the
Tztrner
Behaviotir
of
a
isotherms
shows
that there is
great
The chief interest lies in the direction. in general similarity the composition-volatilization curve valleyalong which runs for alloyF (10"25 per cent, copper). the research on Structural In an interesting Changes of that Mr. D. Ewen, M.Sc.,* has shown Iron during Annealing," of crystals there is a selective volatilization at the boundaries
"
when
metallic polished
surface is heated
in
vacuum.
This
near
is
regarded as supporting the view that the is in the amorphous state. boundaries crystal
well in connection results observed
of
as
metal
It may,
the
perhaps,
how that far
be the
with may
such be
a
researches affected
metal
to
consider
fact
by the
the
presence pressure,
an
impurity in
in the
may
increase
its vapour
observed
alloys. copper-zinc
Conclusions.
The appear
results experimental
to
described
in
the
precedingpages
conclusions: the following justify solid which of the al'plia consist entirely 1. Zinc-copper alloys tion solution have, with increasing temperature, a rate of volatilizawhich is a straight be representedby a curve which can line throughout the greater part of its length. With alloys
which
are
curves
show
considerable
tions devia-
from 2. The
temperature of initialvolatilization
interval between initial and consist
temperature
is
greater, with
alloyswhich
phase than with pure zinc. be divided into two series may 3. Alloys of the copper-zinc tatively they can or cannot be quantiaccordingas to whether groups heated in into their constituent metals when separated than 40 per cent, copper a vacuum. Alloys containingmore which contain less than while with alloys be so separated, can
40
per
4.
cent,
of copper,
zinc.
a containing high percentage Copper-zincalloys
zinc
are
somewhat
more
*
volatile than
pure
zinc.
,
It is not
unlikely
vol, vi.
Copper-zinc
Alloys
ivhcri
Heated
in
Vacuum
225
that
there
is
one
alloy
which
will in in
be
found
words
to
have
to
the
lowest
temperature
vapour
5.
of
volatilization,
than any
to
or
other the
have
higher
pressure
other
series.
zinc from
The
is
heat
required
in
separate
of
alloys
to
rich
in
copper the
6.
considerably
zinc.
exact
excess
that
necessary
volatilize
liberated The
manner
in
not
which
been
copper ascertained.
volatilizes
from
the
zinc-rich
alloys
has
yet
226
Communications
and Thoi^neyci'oft
Turners
Paper
COMMUNICATIONS.
that the author's (Birmingham), wrote in of this field. The the investigations importance present proved paper and valuable research had results,and he produced very interesting be extended and offered the work would opportunity hoped that when
Mr.
O.
F.
Hudson,
M.Sc.
experimental o f the results interpretation work, part the material in the experiments described, from which Thus obtained. volatilization was taking place was undergoing continuous alteration in there also alterations in constitution and in most were cases composition, He in bulk. and thought, therefore,that the figuresgiven for percentage
elaborated.
of He
appreciatedthe
and
in the
the
in particularly
volatilization should
rate
cases
be taken
as
due
to
certain
mean
clusions con-
not, however,
able
to
affect from
the
important
authors
draw
the
results of their
experiments.
Mr. F.
Johnson,
M.Sc.
to
suggest
from
that
the
rate
the
highertemperatures
separate zinc
to
ing employcopper-rich
conclusion.
ai;d not
some
be and
aflbrded
that conclusion (He interpreted quantityof heat.) bilities variafor experimental possibility
shape
authors
size of the
samples taken.
must size,
It seemed
clear that
of volatilization,
the
seemed
to
have
made
effort to have
provided
uniform
As
be
some
in procuringturningsof difficulty
width
would
suggest that
be used.
If all the
could
dimensions The
ness thin rolled strips of uniform thickmalleable, of uniform cut out prepared,and suitable pieces
a
by
means
of
standard
punch.
solid
writer
a
which
also
model, of
(Member
that
of paper
Council),wrote
made
to
that
the which
large
the the
it
valuable specially
great weight
had himself
the
conclusions
experimentson many of zinc from in vacuo, however not volatilization, separation by copper had but in a reducing atmosphere. His been out work to a object
made method copper
was
authors
of
was
never
His analysiswhich he had described.* with zinc volatilized and that always removed by volatilization. Allowances
conclusions
the
were
whole
to
of be
the made
had
both
these
*
convenient
temperature
was
1300"
Journal
Authors
to not
vacuo.
Reply
He
had
Turners
similar
at
Paper
results
to
227
1400".
to be
some
whether
were
expected
at
lower
An
examination
them
of the did
not
temperature,
600"
800"
in
and
of the
previous
some
papers
quoted by
would
doubts. that
in of
He the
that
like further
information
to the
evidence
copper It
experimentsin Tables
in all other
for
cases
VI.
some
and volatilized,
was
copper
volatilize.
clear that
largeamount
where,
cent,
of copper
had 660"
experimentsin Table
500"
2'44
VI.,
per
was
example,at
per
cent,
and
99-81
originally present
of the zinc seemed
to
of the
volatilized. that
than
copper Both
show
the metals of separating was a less effective method heatingin vacuo in a heating reducing atmosphere, although experimentsat lower that tentative conclusion. temperatures for a longer time might reverse
a
In
the
vacuum
the
in
no
case
been
reduced
of
a
below
1 per
cent,
of per
residue
except
accompaniment
was
90
by
volatilization.
that
there
not
sufficient evidence
clusion conjustify
a
as
No.
3 in the
and
attempt
to
form
conclusion should
be and
care by volatilization,
taken
cases
which
ebullition
took of
place
zinc
those in which
cause
it did
not.
He if that
considered metal
were were
that
ebullition
must
not,
experiments
required, carried
for
ments longertime at temperatures below that of ebullition. In such experizinc should and be determined that both copper he submitted by
in analysis the residues
in order to
remove
another
source
of doubt.
Mr.
that
Thoeneycroft
wrote, in reply to
internal diffusion
was
Mr.
not
Johnson,
that
he
thought
for the
the
rate
of
sufficient to account
in copper-rich zinc from of separating alloys, though it difficulty copper The the of rate volatilization. great undoubtedly had an influence on in A for for of the instance, taining con1), curve (shown Fig. regularity alloy
75'10
other influence
per
at
cent,
work.
copper, Were
curve
seemed
the
rate not
to
show
that
there
was
some
of internal
appear
as more
diffusion
a
the
only
should
curve,
concave
downwards,
diffusion would
rate
showing a
increase.
of the
volatilization at
rate
temperature
the
of
internal
that
There
bility, possia
of
manner
course,
of
internal
the
an
diffusion
content
as
varied
the
ensure
in such
with
was
the
temperature
at rate
that such
zinc
amount
of
to
surface
a
layer
of
of
metal
maintained
the of
uniform
increase
in of
volatilization.
was
Apart
from
this,the
very
was
influence in
some
the
rate
internal
diffusion
demonstrated
to be
care
great
experiments,and preliminary
the of preparation o f the same possible
the
bestowed
on
thickness, and
obviate
this
228
the
AtUhors
effect
Tuinier
Paper
of the
Yet
of internal be
more
each the
alloy.
curve
it would
was
for
alloyA
for approximatelythe same from seen Fig. 1 that the general slopeof that for zinc than from widely divergent
diffusion
that of any
It
was
of the other
but
alloys.
to
intended originally
photograph the
had been
solid model
shown
was
in
plan
that
in
Fig. 2,
the
after the
scale
model
prepared it
critical would
found
with
horizontal
adopted the
a more
actual
points and
have
photograph
been
considered
instructive
to show
the
results in
diagrammaticform
In
in
Fig. 2.
Rose,
he
replyto Sir
did in
copper shown
to
show
thought that there was no doubt that alloys D, E, and F (the results of which were there was evidence Tables IV., V., and VI.),and no absolutely in and volatilized that C, though such alloys A, B, copper
Thomas
volatilize in
had
been
looked
for. in
It
must
be
remembered with
that
in
was
none
alloy under
coarseness
connection molten in
amount
this research
In
a
the
case
in the found
the
condition. form
of of
each
unvolatilized of which
the
powder
copper
the
varied
with
had had
taken
been
volatilize
(by
direct
been
estimation
found
of
copper
atilized unvol-
firmlycemented
the sides
portions. A sample of that residue and collected, and, after the partial was separation by mechanical means, with cold dilute hydrochloric acid, of zinc which had been by treatment of condensation, the residue the mechanically entangled during process
tube porcelain
was
in the cooler
found
to
to
contain
that
31-3
per
cent,
copper. the
No
importance could be
that copper
not
was
attached obtained
the of
a
fact
in the sublimed
volatiHzed
alloydid
was
resemble
had clearly
the
such
per
volatilized residue
cent,
found
containingmore
case
copper
were
could
fused, the
question of
with residue
was
ebullition the
arise.
a
It
might
the
be
added
that, in
of
so
connection
suggestionthat
made, small, often
was was
should
very
be
in many
not
total
amount
this that
residue
the
gramme,
mental experi-
be very
in
great.
copper
a
He
vacuo
certain
reducing though for copper-rich atmosphere, alloyshe thought the method quite if the a used. applicable, temperature approaching melting point were He also ventured to suggest that even heating for a longer time at a
lower
copper-zincalloys than
method
temperature
Avould he had
not
prove
much
on
more
effective. 420"
In
some
experimentswhich
cent,
conducted gramme
per
tern-
by heating 1 copper)
for
varyingtimes
C.
(a
230
NOTES.*
THE
EXTRACTION
AT
OF
LAKE
NATIVE SUPERIOR,
M.A.,
Ph.D.
COPPER
U.S.A. (Vice-President).
CALUMET,
H. C. H.
By
Professor
CARPENTER,
visited by tlie writer during liis works iuteresting and Hecla the plant of the Calumet recent tour was Mills,Smelter, and Whereas the great Linden Lake at on Superior. Electrolytic refinery
One of the
most
bulk
of the copper
manufactured
oxidized
ores,
or
in the
United
of
States is obtained
either mined
from
sulphideor
and It
mixtures
these, the
in the their
at Calumet
the
unique character of copper in the methods extraction,and their interest is heightened by of great malleability and the further fact that just those very properties of high heat and electrical conductivity which constitute to ductility, in its the finished value of metal form, so great an extent the practical
metal. is this fact which
gives
these works
are
veritable
drawback
in its extraction
from
the
matrix
in which
it
occurs.
The
at
Calumet
is about
800 the
feet above
ore
the
lake
level,and
five miles
from
Linden,
to two
whither
a
is
conveyed by
from the 4000 copper
long
to
occurs
trains.
Mining
the
is
ore
now
carried
vertical both
depth
of
5000
as
feet, and
native
is of
kinds, in
"
of which
metals.
Conglomerate,"in which the mostly in a fine state of tolerably evenly copper is This ore division in the rock material, the latter being very hard. in sandstone and indeed resembles a ferruginous quite red, appearance. in the congloEven It contains from TS metal. cent, of to U4 merate, per the of is size the however, particles very variable, and copper be anything from fine grit may up to nuggets of several pounds weight. is the There the as Amygdaloid," in which (2) ore, known poorer (1) There
is
is the
richer
ore
called
distributed
and
"
the
copper
ore
is is of
is found
This
*
bluish
have of
colour, and
been the who received Institute may
contains
as a
The
following Notes
to
result of
intimation do
contained
read
as
in
Members invite
on
August
in
a
Council short
Members,
on
be for
position to
in the
to
submit
and
information
of
of, and
Notes will be
as on
"
discussion
Journal
by, their
Notes
subjects within
such Committee."
Secretary copies
the Publication
send to the scope of the Institute's work, and their inclusion in the Journal, if with view to a receive further
approved by
the
Publication Committee
glad
Ed.
to
Notes,
if
present
Notes,
issues
as
well
further
Notes,
which,
in
subsequent
o[ the Journal.
Extraction
cent,
of Native
copper
tons.
masses
Copper
231
of
metal.
Some
of
the
are
very
and large,
of copper of less frequent are large at the the occurrence present depths of mining than in the ore nearer still they are occasionally after so surface, met with, but that even now, of mining there is no satisfactory method experimenting, be left in have to situ. they The Conglomerate and Amygdaloid are treated in separate mills for the removal of the metal far as possible from the ore as body. The many
that
several
given to understand
them,
years and
of
Specimen
of Native
problem
ores,
or
is
entirelydifferent from
of
the in
milling of sulphideor
the
oxidized
in
mixtures
these,
because
Calumet
ore
it consists
metal from a extractingmechanically a very soft and plastic very hard the in both mills is to crush oi'e body. Brieflystated, adopted principle and then transfer the mass it by gravityto a singlestamp coarsely, it meets of water under sufficient pressure stream a mill, where to keep the rock and lighter the metal particles while heavier suspended, lumps of the mortar. accumulate at the bottom Every three hours the latter
is
of
opened
chilled
than
and
cast
the
accumulations last
removed.
The
stamp shoes
so
are
a
made
iron, and
obtained
only
any
four
days.
of
Even steel
this is has
better
restdt
that
with
form
that
been
tried,
232
Extraction
testifies to the hardness
of separation the
of Native
of the
from
or ore
Copper"
A
and
body.
the
complete description
does
not
come
of the
the
copper
matrix
within
the
scope
either of this
note,
of
it must
suffice
say
that
are
the
richness
of the
copper
may
be
which pieces
nearly pure
The
75 per
cent.
total extraction
is stated to be
Hitherto million
copper
tons
the
80
run
some
40
lie
there, making
vivid mill The
wonderfullypicturesque
have
burnished
beach
blue of the
brilliant green
however, recently metallurgists, leaching scheme for these tailings.Accordingly and is to beginoperations a powerful suction dredge has been installed, that extraction, it is anticipated shortly. Having regard to the original
of the
pine
a
worked
out
successful
bring the total extraction up to 96 per cent. and The draining,are shovelled into cars products,after classifying the of the Some to transferred and melting furnaces, a mile distant. is of a remarkable only needs degree of purity,and literally copper oxidation followed to with a slight by poling," bring it up to melting, pitch. The less pure varieties have to be melted with a little flux,and
the
scheme leaching
will
"
"
the
slag from
this is smelted
in the
one
blast-furnace
that
the
ment establish-
refined it is cast If the copper is to be electrolytically possesses. into anodes in the Walker machine, otherwise it is cast direct into wire-
bar form. The refined is of two kinds : only copper that is electrolytically sufficient silver to containing pay for the cost of extraction. That properties. having enough arsenic to interfere with its conductivity the steamer to Until quiterecentlythe copper was shipped by
"
1. That 2.
of the writer's visit the new at Buffalo ; but at the time refinery refinery the and usual is the in at Linden treating was just being started, copper the parallel or multiple system. way, i.e. on of native Lake A photomicrogi'aph Superior copper is appended with of Mr. Bardwell, of the the writer owes to the kindness this note, which Boston and
at
Montana Great
Reduction
Works
Company
and
Falls, Montana.
is that way. of the and
the structure
of the
The very
native
been
two
treated artificially
reasons:
in any
structure
is remarkable the
for
(1) on
of the Mr.
account
large size
well-marked Bardwell
informed he
The
an
if this that
specimen had
it had
artificially prepared
to about
would
concluded
of
been
1000"
C.
breaking stress
extension
of 0-6
per 100
square
inch, with
electrical conductivity, as of
per per
cent,
this copper 26"5 was 5 feet. Its per cent, on standard annealed copper
a
of resistivity
0'15328
ohms
per
metre-gramme,
after
follows 500"
of
in
the
hard-drawn
per
cent.
cent.;
annealing at
its
C,
101 '5
figureindicates
high degree
chemical
purity.
The
Extraction
of
Native
Copper
supplied
the
233
have
been
furnished chemical
by
Mr.
Bardwell,
:
"
who
has
also
ing follow-
partial
analysis
Arsenic
. . . .
0'0019
.
.
per
cent.
Antimony
Silver
0-0022 5 '5
ounces
per
ton.
The visited
Boston
and
Montana
works his of
and
recent
at
Great
tour
Falls in which
are
the
only
ones
by
is
the
writer
during
a
microscopic
in
in
"
lography metaluse.
definitely
of taken
part
rod
the wire
with
works
is
"
equipment
examined
regular
way, and
Each
batch
finished and
this
photograph
increasing
in the
compared
of and
standards
test
containing
to
regularly
the
to
percentages
finished bar
oxide.
The
and
is
used it is the
of
oxide
wire,
it
that
although
seldom
occurrence
from
time
to
trolled con-
by
It
chemical be
analysis,
understood
to
that
results native
of
agree. is
should confined
are
by
no
means
the
in
neighbourhood
fact that
Superior.
of the
These
unique
in
by
the
practically
are,
metal
copper oxide
;
occurs
form.
copper
There
occurs
however,
deposits
and of
where writer
crystallized
fortune
various
to
see
a
the
the
good
from
great
e.g.
variety large
of
forms
crystallized
isometric
obtained
of
place.s,
tree
welltions, forma-
developed
and
crystals
cubical
form,
forms.
at
pine
One
Lake
skeleton the
most
irregularly
is
shaped
in
arborescent
museum
of
striking
and
is that
specimens
of
contained
copper
the
Salt
City,
of
Utah,
some
salmon-coloured
encased
in
quartz
sheath
thickness.
234
High Temperature
Tensile
Tests
of Copper
THE
OF
ALLOYS,
IRON
STEEL.*
(No. II.)
By Professor A. K.
HUNTINGTON,
A.R.S.M.
of
(Past-President),
(University
In
on
"
London).
paper
on
The of
Effects of
Tensile
Tests
Copper
and
t Alloys,"
and for
curves
were
others, for
those
electrolytic copper
2
curves
arsenical copper
other coppers
and publishedby the author for electrolytic previously copper for comparison. arsenical copper (0'234per cent, arsenic) the curves which In Tables I. to IV. the data from were plottedare down 1 inch diameter turned all bars to 0-5 inch were given. The test 2 inches. J the tested length,which on Avas
Table
I.
"
Annealed
600" C.
Professor
but
owing
to
there
fuller than
at
such
Notes
are
intended it
to
be,
the than
the
last than
Meeting
usual,
of the
hence
Institute,
was
Jourtial,
desirable
was
of publishing this Note in a somewhat intended. Ed. originally t Journal of tlie Institute of Metals, No. 2, 1912, vol. viii. pp. 126-144.
"
smaller
thought
fuller form
% The tests, except those marked " made by Mr. R. A. Woollven recently on the same made who assistant in the rod, were was an by Mr. R. A. P. Davison, A.R.S.M., copper author's laboratory for eighteen years, having previously been with Mr. Riley,recently in his work. He deceased, for eleven was exceptionallycareful and methodical years. The data for the Le Chatelier curve (Fig. 2) are taken from Dr. Bengough's paper in the
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals,
No.
123-174.
^ NOUWONOig
236
than
Arsenical
in
Annealed
Laboratory
600" C.
Table
Ul."Cojyper
Not re-annealed in
{tested 10.4.99).
Laboratory.
Table
Annealed
IY."
in
600" C.
238
than
soft commercial
fact that
coppers
sucldeu
reduction
at
in
in elongation
are
when
the that in
a
temperature
reverse curve
which
commences
they
tested about
to
C, and
increase
to
at
400"
C.
is that
seen
on
above
400" This
C, is
different
nature
to
produced below
of
250"
to
C.
is shown No.
1
by
and of
the
necking
C. This
in
specimens of
250"
seen
copper very
area
(Fig.3).
curves
Considerable 350"
to
necking occurs
450" is the the also show
way than
below
best
to
300"
C,
little above
in the
reduction
of arsenic The
even
in
more
arsenic in Nos.
2 and
up
whilst
the
necking remains
good
until
higher temperature
for
some
reached. At from
and
seen
highertemperatures cracks are liable to occur the principal fracture,in fact at any point on to the fracture if a section be cut perpendicular that the metal has examination on microscopic
the whereas the lower
distance
the tested
or
portion,
it will be
cracks
at temperatures the fracture has crystalboundaries, themselves, which are also distorted. taken place through the crystals Plate XVIII., shows cracks 4 millimetres The photomicrograph Fig. 7, bar No. 1, originally from the fracture of the electrolytic distance copper in re-annealed hours at 600" C. in laboratory 1906, recently annealed two
for two
hours
at
750"
C. and
tested
at
350"
C.
The
usual
was difficulty
in etching up experienced
matter
the structure
tested In
of the
highly strained
or
copper,
no
whether
at
it had
or
been C.
unannealed
cases
after
annealingfor two
see
hours
600"
750"
all three
are
it is not
difficult to
with
the fractures
but intercrystal,
it is difficult to
get
for a photomicrograph. It can, development of structure satisfactory in well however, be seen photomicrographFig. 7, Plate XVIII. quite boundaries.* that the cracks follow the crystal The
author
elastic limit
would slight, its resistance. This it does, according to increases automatically lia^""u the crystalline metal from material at Beilby,by generatingamorphous the slip planes,and, in the opinionof the author, also at the boundaries thus formed of the crystalgrains. The amorphous matter by work on be made metal to recr3'stallize by heating to a certain temperature a can for a certain time ; the temperature required being lower the longer the when series of hot tests is made, In the author's opinion, time allowed. a becomes difficult for the change the temperature is raised it increasingly as the crystalline state to take from to the amorphous spondingly place,and correthat easier for the reverse to happen, so at a certain temperature for a given rate of loading the crystalline metal at the slip planes is no longer able to assume boundaries the amorphous state ; and crystal
*
views : When the held the following years many is reached increase in the load, however of a metal any it not that the metal pari fracture, were cause inevitably
has for
With
increased
but
there of about
was
less trouble
in
290"
were
always
difficult to obtain.
photomicrographs
in Plates
accompanying
this Note.
Atmosphericon
W^^:ZW".
Tensile
"m'LM
Tests
of Copper
239
.k^'-tWAiiiKMaa
iiiai
/5
l^tS
ZOi-
232
28a
*'C.
Ill III
S/"
J43 57/
f27
^82
S/O^C.
Fig.
3.
"
No.
Copper,
13'3
0(1.
out
(2(iO was
not
found
in time
to
include
in Plate.
It shows
drawing
intermediate
between
204" and
232" C. )
Temper/^
Fig. See also 4.
ture
6 and
7.
240
in
than
take up
common
is
no
longer able
load. strain
to
work,
to
and
thus A
metal
subjectedto
attacked
mechanical harmful
human
body
by
bacilli.
human
compared
defends
the
producingamorphous material,the
If the bacilli are
to
itself
rapidlyincrease, the
and
body
the
cannot
the
antitoxin
to
fast
an ceases. enough, stiffen itself up at a high temperature it cannot adequate stress when in condition and it gives the amorphous sufficiently by assuming part If,however, the load separatingat their boundaries. way, the crystals the the metal may below is applied at critical, temperatures very rapidly break owing to work having been put on it causing through the crystals it. the heat can counteract the formation of amorphous metal faster than
life
So
with
metal, if it is subjected
Thus
it will be
seen
that
even
inanimate
nature
can
put
up
for fight
curves
are
determined
There and
are
by
load.
treatment
chemical
these
bearingon experiments
the results in time for inclusion in this note. arrange leaves open the question The foregoing to why the cracks pass round as and at high temperatures when the boundaries not through the crystals the
amorphous
metal
ceases
to form.
If it is assumed
that
in worked
metal
not
that
at
the
boundaries
At low
grains.
very
crystalgrainsconsist
lamellae. between
the
greater than
temperatures, when
consist of
amorphous
be
metal
can
they
would
stout relatively
fine made amorphous up of alternate In these circumstances and layers of crystalline amorphous metal. take placethrough the crystal fracture would tures, grains.At highertemperathe ceased to exist, weaker when the amorphous metal became or and less would be the conditions reversed ; systematicallyarranged would take place and fracture would boundaries be the weaker stouter
grainswould
through them.
If the effect of work there
on
no a
metal
can
be
removed appear
by heat, as
to follow
ing, in annealthat
were
of which
is
doubt,
unable
then
it would
the unworked
load able
metal
placedunder
be
similar conditions
to take
of
temperature
it would
at the
and
it would applied
to
up
work,
i.e.that
state
not
be
pass
from
the
to the crystalline
amorphous
examination that
to be
junctions
of the
lamellae and
An
of the
case.
the
graphs photomicro-
It is
above atmospheric knowledge that at temperatures not greatly draw fracture takes placethrough them. out and crystal grains in the series of been considered necessary to include this region
Plate
XVI II
Fig.
5.
"
Copper
(1-2 per
cent.
Arsenic).
(1-2per
cent.
Arsenic).
Rolled Rod, 10.4.".t9). Jan. 1906. with dilute HCl-FeCla. Etched Vertical Illumination. Magnified320 diameters. Outlines of crystals well marked. Globules of Cu.iO (red by transmitted, blue flected by rewithin crystals. light)
(No. 3
(No. 3
Etched
Rolled
Bar, 10.4.99, annealed 10 hours at 700= C). Jan. 1906. with Ammonia. Vertical Illumination.
Reduced
Magnified320 diameters. as (red large spherical CujO segregated globules bv transmitted, blue bv reflected light). 15 per cent, in reproduction. approximately
"
annealed, Originally
Tested
at
350" C.
Etched
Shows
2 hours cracks
at
600^ C.
reannealed, 2 hours
bar
at
750''C.
across
followingboundaries
Ammonia. size.
Plate
XIX
_i^ "i^f?^Fi
Y y^f^^rir*^
*--?t5z
-
-i-
;^",.
,1
"
"L^i2J
iirF?'.; ;5/.'4{"
Fig.
8." Annealed
two
hours
at
600 125
C.
Tested
at
232'
C.
(450 F.).
Magnified
diameters.
Fig.
9."
Annealed
two
hours
at
600" C.
125
Tested
at
260
C.
(500"F.
Magnified
diameters.
Pi. ATP
XXI
Fig.
12."
Annealed
two
hours
at
(JiW C.
Tested
at
399
C.((7r)0'F.).
Fig.
13."
Annealed
two
hours
at
600" C.
200
Tested
at
538" C. (1000"F.
Magnified
diameters.
Atmosphericon
draw although the crystals
out
a
Tensile
At
Tests
somewhat and
some
of Coppei'fracture
241
deal
placethrough them,
it will
be
seen
that
relation to the strains part at the boundaries In the photomicrographs (Plate XXI.) a further
at crystals
highertemperatures, takes generally crystals badly placed in XIX. and XX.). Plates (see
change is observed.
are
hold also
they part at the boundaries to collapse units throughout, justas if the crystal the appliedstress. together against
same
the
time that
seen no
could
longer
The
which
have These
been
shown
occur
alloys of
copper, for
curves,
which
out
curves
are
author's
paper.
got
practical purposes,
Benedick's
IV., and
many years ago for purely with the theoretical curves in coppers
60/40
copper
zinc with
IV.
or
point the
about
curve
existence
of
/? at
470"
C,
for
the
change
he
in
pointin
The
Bengough
and
Hudson's
70/30 brass, f
curves
considers
which
paper
Carpenterand
Edward's
of Mechanical author's
of the Institution Eighth Report of the Alloys Research Committee and in with other curves 1908, Engineers, subsequently
1912 it quite clear that the same critical papers, make all exist in and in these that due the main they are points alloys, copper itself. In the 60/40 copper-zinc to the copper alloythe zinc doubtless
playsan
750"
importantpart.
that copper C. ; zinc at 1 1 0" and 300" C. ; and aluminium In at 300" and 530". for 60/40 copper-zincalloyin 1912 the author's curve paper " there is a fall in elongation 260" C, a fresh curve remarkable about commencing
Le Verrier
has
shown
about
accounts
curves
300" C.
for in the
a.
or
sooner.
If the upper
Carpenterbeingable to obtain
case
arrest
in his
of
zinc much
It is to be remarked
more
ftthough it did not show up copper-zinc that the allotropic changes are
the series of tensile tests the
do than
evident
in
they
heatingand
In
coolingcurves.
1912 paper
over curves
the author's
not
quitereach
the
pointsat
case
which
the little
they
turn finally
downwards,
except
in possibly
the
of
The others are evidently alloyat about 480" C. only a copper-tin and from Hudson's work, which higher and, judging Bengough shows 70/30 copper-zinc at about 470". a, are and The author considers that the curves in this photomicrographs and recrystallization that the annealing of metals Note make it probable
and
their behaviour
under
stress
at various
stress
was
with applied
See Appendix B, and Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,No. II. 1912, p. 244. t See Appendix C, and Jour7ial of the Institute of Metals, No. 1, 1911, p. 142. X See last paragraph of Appendix B. See
Appendix
to
this Note.
242
than
by slipcan probably occur, elongation of the crystal place there is a complete collapse
comes
a
of
crystalscan place by rupture at elongateby in which is there the a the crystal boundaries. region Finally crystals the takes fracture and place through crystal only. grains by slip elongate until such time the discussion in matter sake as For brevity's may have been dealt with by the Nomenclature Committee, the author will pointswith which he is concerned speak of the upper and lower allotropic
down range
in which takes
the
slipto
extent, but
fracture
AKHas
j
and
AKHg.
"
Humfrey, in their
paper
on
The
DeformaTenacity,
70
60
SO
30
20
10
-300-200-100
0-1- loo
eoo
300
foo
500
600
700
800
900
/ooo
//oo
/eoo
Temperature
Fig. 5.
"
"^
tion, and
Iron
and
Fracture
of Soft
Steel at
High Temperatures
read
before
the
curves
for mild steel at high temperaSteel Institute, gave tures a curve the lines of the heatingand cooling that it followed and showed that in the neighbourhoodof in the /3region. They also showed iron fractured
out
900"
C. the
round
the
and
a
fracture
took
"
C. the
Injury to Steel after before Manufacture Engineers and Shipbuilders in 1913, gave in Scotland a diagram (see Fig. 5),*in which he pieced 200" and 18" C. by the breaking-bond curve obtained between together Rosenhain's 14" and 427" C, and Hadfield, that of the author between
Desch,
in paper
entitled
the
Some
of
"
read
Institute
of
"
curve
between
*
656"
and
1080"
Iron
C.
Institute, No.
I. 1913, p. 23S.
the Jjournalof
atid Steel
Atmospheric on
The
Tensile
Tests
of Copper
243
author
suggests
that
the
AKHo
where whether
pointin
the
show
and its alloys. He has not data available copper to loAver allotropic AKH^ change corresponding
comes,
it is at
the
hump
in his iron
curve
or
at
some
higher
temperature.
that there should be theory requires something of the a gradual change as the temperature rises or falls, of straining. and rate R stress R form S", S being maximum iron diifereut at in As Rosenhain examining temperatures did not find The
viscous-amorphous cement
=
he fulfilled,
not
assumed
that He
it would
have
"
been
. . .
so
intervened. referred
have
to
has
been
the
is
exactly
the
the
which relationship
flow of
a
would
been
obtained
from
experimentson
iron, however,
critical
very
the
matter
is
viscous
points
Arg
and
Ar^."
author's render the
construed
rightly changes AKHj, AKHo opinion the allotropic form of viscous necessary. unRosenhain amorphous cement between cement for an amorphous the necessity In suggesting to have and others appear Rosenhain, Sears, Bengough, grains, crystal
In
the
overlooked
the
fact that
it is
only
Avhen
the metals
are
worked
that the
this
by
that
coming
Beilby has
it
of
of this material he
"
in the boundaries
appears
to
admit tacitly
the
when
says
on
p. 6 of his
According to
all the internal
this
from
formation
at
layerssimilar to those produced on the outer surfaces by polishing.These layers their mobility for a very brief period and then solidify retain only in a vitreous amorphous state, thus forming a cementing material at shear throughout the mass." all surfaces of sli]) or
surfaces shear of mobile
be difficult it would examining the author's photomicrographs, lamellfe the crystal that if amorphous material exists between agree
After
not to
it must draw
also form
out
as
between
are seen
the
boundaries. crystal
done
The
on
could crystals
their
not
to have slip which the originally globules copper-oxide by emphasized in the surrounded the photomicrographs seen crystalgrains and are of cement, into lines. drawn amorphous out speaks Beilby Although his for to be sufliicient there would amorphous not appear endowing reason and assumed known The of a cement. material with the qualities perties proall the would to meet of the amorphous metal requirements appear it of the case cement. without a considering of mobile The existence layers of vitreous amorphous momentary
they
without
boundaries.
This
fact
is
metal
between
the
lamellae is
remarkable
natural
for provision
an
cating lubri-
placein
orderly
manner
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals
No.
,
244
without
in and
a
than
with
a
friction.
At
highertemperatures, just as
friction fails,
is set up between journal does in the fracture
journal
bearing,the lubrication
the lamellae
just as the they begin to seize, ultimatelythey actually do seize and without planes which regard to the slip
ceased
"
takes
to all intents at
and
at
have
tures boggles lubricating high temperait has of time Perhaps in a hotter in coui'se be There limits to its to no evolved some satisfactory appear system. circumstances. of accommodating itself to its surrounding powers and AKH, to the AKH^ If function by the author be assigned of what happens at about 470" C. admitted, then Carpenter'sexjjlanation be accepted. He claims that cannot in copper- zinc alloyscontaining /? ^ breaks up into a higher and a lower phase,viz. a + y. If the author's be the Whatever case. change explanationbe accepted this cannot in character,and not a phase change. takes placeit is allotropic that we but little doubt There are dealing with phenomena appears it would appear metals and alloys. If that is conceded to many common all the observations on likelyto advance the elucidation of the subjectif and correlated matter this and different metals were alloys bearing on
to
exist.
Even
Nature
in
this
world.
considered The
use
together. phasesin alloysof /?, y, "c., to denote and allotropic changes in simple metals percentage compositions
of
the
same
letters
a,
different
and
we
solid have
lead to considerable
y the
confusion.
In
iron
above, but
a
both
above
below
AKH."
y
in
have
/?
believed
corresponds to
that the
A3, and
denotes
phase
with
more
zinc.
It is suggested
are
ing, annealpoints AKHj and AKH., allotropic of metals whilst being wrought, and the behaviour recrystallization, of such great practical importancethat they should have appropriate
which
control
names
common
to
all the
metals
assigned to
them.
This
should
prove
useful and
work congenial
Committee.
In
the concluding,
author
has
much
Mr.
valuable
the
by
Woollven
in
gettingout
accompanying this
paper.
APPENDIX
The
cases
A.
does
not
information refer to
the Two
given
rods from
in
this
in
Appendix
The
in necessarily
or were
all
tips used
were
making
rod.
one
other
measurements
micrograp photoplotted
A
examined.
same
tensile
curves
from the
i.e.
cut test-pieces
the
Appendix
in crystals
a
ten
different
fields of
lengthwere
the
counted,
line
one
millimetre the
in
length was
of
100
diameters,and
were
number
sections counted
to perpendicular at
a mean
the
screen magnified projectedon The it counted. cut crystals by fields The the of axes test-pieces.
were
distance
of 4 millimetres
from
the
fracture.
246
than
538"
=
C.
(1000" F.).
Number
of 40.
39,
Mean Mean
number size of
at
41*3.
crystals
section
=
24*93
/a.
Diameter
9-88
millimetres.
Summary.
The the
second
series itself.
was
made
one
as
check.
on
A each
small
was
flat
was
ground
At
on
fracture
Only
the
field
measured.
to
measure.
the
highest temperature
grainswere
II.
too
broken
up
Second
taken
Series.
on
1.
Reading
each
tip.
In
are
curves
(Figs.6
and
mean
sizes of
where the
the
crystals
were
shown
measured
bars
fields
Atmosphericon
Tensile
Tests
of Copper
247
mo
2O0
300 OF
6.
900
soo
600
TEMP"R/^TUff"
Fig.
TesT
200
SOO
WO of
600
Temperature
Fig.
Test.
7.
248
than
Benedicks
in the the
depending
"I. The
on
temperature
from
"
to
c
in four
and principal
different
"
ways
(typesof allotropy).
deviation
at the transition (Fig. 8, I.f) occurs temperature T perfectlyabruptly, so that
neither
nor
the
curve
cd
from
the
'
normal
from
'
course
at
some
distance
T.
The
The
body
of
sharply.
no
tinuous con-
transition
may
also be
takes
This
both
modifications
are
insoluble ideal
case
in each which
the
other.
77- a
"
"
This
is
the been
hitherto
generallyhas
of
an
"
regardedas thought
more
expression
one
be cd
that
or
of the
from
curves
or
'
deviates
less
on
x/
"jj J
the
, ,
normal
course
(shown
the
in
dots
the
'" T
'" T,
when followingfigures)
curve.
This
the
a
either
with
ab
(Fig.8, II.,a) or
this
case
cd
transformation said to
T
abrupt;
may the be
can
part of the
be
transformation allotropic
have
placebefore
It may
temperature
is reached.
:
also
a
expressedas
dissolve
;
no a
follows certain
the
modification
or
versa
,
IV
I
T,
Fig. 8. TEMP^
"III. and
course
cd
quantity /?, is hereby made. supposition It is further possible that both ah deviate from the respectivenormal (Fig.8, III.)in the proximityof T.
vice
real
'
'
The
means
transformation
with
a,
fi becomes
by these
be
still less
shai'p.
has normal
In
analogy
a
that both
"
modifications The
the
manner case
have
limited be
the
said
IV.
yet
to
considered,when
ah and cd
occurs
the
transformation
a tinuous perfectlycon-
between
two
curves
in
mean
(Fig.8, IV.) case, may between the supposed modifications,no tropic alloperfectmiscibility will the definito occur transformation-temperature corresponding
which
In
this
also be said to
Journal
of the
Iron
and
Steel
Institute, No.
II. 1912,
pp.
244-246.
t Ibid., p. 244.
Atmospheric
on
Tensile
Tests
of Copper
249
be fully tion ; but it may to speak of a transformation justifiable range. of this An found is in the liquid in nature state (forinstance example that gases having molecules instance iodine). temperatures (for " It is not logically unimaginablethat either
.
. .
sulphur)and
in
dissociate
at
increasing
could,
course
or
both
the
the
curves
the
temperature approachesT,
to
deviate
from
normal
in
oppositedirection
transformation
what become
has
supposed,whereby
than in
case
could
more
I. ;
but this
"
is,from
I.-IV. said
physical reasons,
III.
almost
be
Cases be
to have, therefore,
considered.
may
that
ought
is
to
represent the
graduallyworking its way that it is always certain solubility between bodies. account two a necessary shown Bornemann that in certain cases fusionhas, for instance, recently the of which demands are fullyagree with diagrams, thermo-dynamics, if small, reciprocal even obtained,only provided that a certain, solubility
to
chemistry the
conviction into
take
between
"
combinations modifications
be
is assumed.
of the
same
body
and
between
two
"
It may
therefore
be
regardingan
of
said to present any essential difterence. natural asserted that the most legitimately position supis that its course is that transformation allotropic the be
others
as
type III.,which
should
embraces
case
attention
of how
or,
given
a
to
from
the normal
cases special ; afterwards determinations experimental lines (a", be resp. aX) may
in
other
words,
to
what
degree
reciprocalsolubility may
be
supposed.
"
as
between two modifications, insolubility suppose a perfect little justified that has usually been done, is probably to suppose as as
priori to
sulphateof
is evident any
barium that
is
water.
On
the other
hand,
it
be
requiredbefore supposing
modifications.
mentioningbetween two is not in opposition to the phase rule, while, on the solubility the of the modifications two assumption of an aggregate contrary, under different at constant pressure) occurring temperatures (and
"
worth solubility
a
Such
would certainly
Professor
be."
"
in his paper The Critical Ranges of Pure on Carpenter, attention to a paper Iron,"* after quotingBenedicks' views,calls special fessor Eine neue entitled Theorie der ErscheinungAllotropie," f in which Pro"
A.
Smits
puts
forward
the
view
that
"
heterogeneous allotropy
the existence solid
of of
correspondsto
and of the
same
geneous homo-
liquidor
a
exist in
state
solution The
with
state
which
varies with
regarded as
solution of
transition points are allotropic of solid a homogeneous being the splitting up {Entmisclmng) The author's the two modifications." curves might also be the temperature. this way.
Journal
explained in
*
of the
Iron
and
Steel
Institute, No.
I. 1913,
p. 315.
250
Effectof Tempei^aturesHigher
also
"
than
in present number of Common in Abstracts Metals Allotropy under of the Journal heading The Propertiesof Metals and Alloys." Various importantquestionswhich have a bearingon the author's paper discussed are by Professors E. Cohen and A. Smits, and importantexperiments heats in 1892 are by Le Verrier on specific quoted.
See
APPENDIX
C.
author's
Fig. 9,
912 paper.
as
reproduced below,
has
been
replottedfrom
the
200
300 OF
fOO
SOO''C.
7EMPER/\TU/fE
Fig. 9."
TEST.
Copper-zinc
about
60/401(16.1.00).
Atmospheric
Fig.
compare
10 has
not
on
Tensile
Tests
It
of Coppei'
is of interest
to
251
been 9
published
with
and the
before.
other
pare com-
it with both
Fig.
with
and
Bengough
Hudson's
to
Vd
30
80
28
a
70
26
I*
'^f
",
60
22
\
\
I
50
Y-..
^
18
X.
IQ
I"
?L
QQ
12
fO
ii
^
X\
50
10
V
BREfiK/h'C ftO^/GA'/ON
ReL.
200
20
LQ*1D 10
of
/ifi"fl
0 300 of WO
100
SOO'C
Temper/iture
Test
received
Fig.
10."
Copper-zinc
about
70/.36(13.12.99) as
(annealed).
Fig.
11
is
Bengough
hard
and
drawn It
Hudson's
curve
way." It
eflfects of
are no
is for
wire,
the
and
is therefore
annealing.
between
shows
critical
point
460"
0.
There
points
0" and
300".
252
than
/OO
200
30O
WO
SOO
600 C
Temperature
Fig. 11."
70/30 Brass
wire.
APPENDIX
The 1912
D.
tests
was
metliod
of When
making
the
hot
described
soft
in the which
author's
elongate testingby paper. in order to prevent saggingof the bar it is best to suspend consideral)ly, and them attached the holders by iron straps encircling by a wire or not to chain to something at a sufficient height above the machine
prevent
the
this method
metals
test-bar
extendingin
true
horizontal
direction.
^." C.
"
Fixed Wire
Shield. Hooks
55."
(fixedto
head
of
As
the
heat
is
applied at
the
both
the
part
the
to
be
tested,
the bar
it is necessary
that
source
follow
on
extendingbar
of
^ari
2^ci^su, otherwise
the
flame
would
impinge
the
part
254
Heat
Treatment
of Admiralty
Gun-metal
THE
HEAT
TREATMENT
GUN-METAL.
By H. S. primrose
OF
ADMIRALTY
(Ghent).
Shortly
Heat Mr.
priorto
the
of publication
paper
*
under
the
title, Practical
"
Treatment
J.
purposes of this
Numerous
Admiralty Guu-nietal," by the present writer and S. G. Primrose, it was agreed that gun-metal for Admiralty considerable could contain a percentage of lead, and quantities from of lead. 0'5 1 made cent, to were containing alloy per
of
test-bars of this
to
fashion
vdth
were
that
used
in
not
tested,after heat treatment, in similar the previous research,which, however, dealt only
were more
metal
not
having
considered
than
0*2
per
cent,
of from
lead. those
The
results
to
be
variant sufficiently
employed for the although a wider range of temperatures was confirmed fact that almost The the results an inappreciable annealing. much conducted at a was by annealing produced temperature change any
below this
700"
case
C,
even
was
with
most
the
increased how
percentage
much
of the
of lead results
present.
were
In
also it
remarkable
the
affected
by
and
to
rate
coolingafter
when bars
solidification,
cast
a
obtained
ensured slow
were
close
largebody of
assured
cold metal.
This
solidification of
was
and gun-metal,
by means cooling of
The
of the chill
rapid
mass
the
solidified
by
which
surrounding
test-bar for half
to 500"
was
an
mould
becoming
showed
heated
bars
no
on
castingto
various
attached.
hour and
temperatures
almost
change in
the
microstructure
rightup immediately700"
under
C,
tion transforma-
C.
was
attained.
that
uniform strictly
conditions
for half an hour at 250" C. the structure of bars annealed upon of The following figures tensile tests bear out the above interesting and the three
at 90 diameters photomicrographs
ments, state-
material
cast
C.
Average
Tests
of Gun-metal
Bars, dry
sand
and
cooled. sloxvly
Journal
of the
Institute
of Metals,
No.
I)
(U
t3
ai
256
The Copper,
Heat
Treatment
the metal
;
of Admiralty
gave
"
Gun-metal
of analysis
88'00 per
cent.
cent.
cent.
Lead,
0'475 per
cent.
Considerable
was difficulty an
found
at
in
maintaining a
constant
even
temperature
the
in
industrial furnace
this
temperatures below
in
annealingbelow
the
use
point was
a
usually conducted
By
of
temperature
and
in the The
region of 700"
writer had
comparatively
to read at
been
as
interested read
Messrs.
paper,*taken
of Naval Architects
made
the
Newcastle
the section dealingwith particularly different the tests annealingat temperatures. It of castingthe that the temperatures and conditions appeared regrettable these bars had a profound effect not as were fullyspecified, gun-metal in changing the structure and strength of the alloy. Thus comparatively the of be differences in rate quite sufficient to coolingwould slight in Fig. 13, and for the variations in the propertiesrecorded account It is attributed also advisable to the different annealingtemperatures. in
July, and
to
use
more
than
It
was
one
test
bar, and
of tests.
C,
as
the average values from a series that the Table V. did not go beyond 600" showed a distinctly improvingtendency,
plot
corresponded with the writer's results,and From improvement continued right up to 700" C.
which in
he the
had
found
this
700"
ence experiat largeand intricate castings the in trouble ever was C, no regulating experienced ture temperaand evidence of burning was to no ever prevent overheating, annealinga great
number
of both
writer's
observed. of it
on
It
appeared
to
him
much
an
at annealing
700"
C. in
the
C,
was
and
350"
as
C,
which
the structure
its the
prevent
it from
cored original
to
formation.
There
was
no absolutely
they
should
be allowed
As
the result
of heat
heavy
was
and
intricate
no castings,
evidence
of
observed.
see
to interesting to prove
the
fuller
promised,as experiments
further
that
said to be noticed
by Messrs. Longbottom and Campion at 250" C. actuallytakes placeon evidence commercially-prepared heat-treating gun-metal. Microscopical and confirmation alone is insufficient to establish this conclusively, by is the thermal and of test an coolingcurve accuratelytaken heating It is somewhat said strange how the homogeneous structure necessary. normal cored 250" C. restored the could be to be got by annealing at to recalescence. structure on annealing to 350" C. without giving some the The of is its and whereas final test a theory practical application, has 700" at annealing treatment satisfactorily accomplished this, no the show is has been this evidence adduced to case on annealing at the lower temperature suggested.
*
[See Abstract,
p. 281."
En.]
257
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:
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les Silicates."
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Macmillan
The
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Metals." An Introduction
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259
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260
OBITUARY.
Thomas Richard
Bayliss
Nortlifield,
seventy-sixth year.
of
a
son career
well-known
brassfounder,
an
his
showed
signs of
in
the
metallurgy and
founder of
engineering. Associated
with
exceptional INIr.
Adderley Park Metal Rolling-mills, in perfecting machines considerable he displayed designed to ingenuity and of casting, generalworking up of rolling, improve the methods work. Mr. Bayliss the original for ammunition was metals, particularly for small arm of the solid drawn case inventor quick-firing cartridge navies of the since adopted by all the armies and and other guns,
Abraham,
the civilized world. Nordenfelt which
made In
this connection
a
he
was
called
in
by Mr.
Thorsten
to manufacture
both
gun
and
immediately adopted by the in the early'seventies war place on record that after the Franco-German Mr. to of last century, Baylisswent over Spandau, Erfurt, and Dantzig,
to
six-pounder gun, a complete success, and they were cartridge It is interesting British Government. to
suitable
erect
arm
of solid drawn
ment.
of the then new plantfor the production for the ImperialGerman cases cartridge
he
design
Govern-
At
the
age
of
twenty-four
the
married
was
Abraham,
Small Arms director.
In the
and and
when Metal
business he
Company
for ten
remained
its
managing
commenced
few late
year the
his
at
son
Mr.
T. A.
he Bayliss,
months
Mr.
later, after
the
large King's Norton, and some its establishment, he called in his friend, the
then
works
Arthur
Greenwood,
well-known
his
Chairman
of Messrs.
Greenwood
" of
Batley, Ltd.,
Leeds,
company, and
machinery cartridge
it
son
"
manufacturers
a
with
assistance
and
was were
formed
into
limited
liability
from
"
of which
father
company
jointmanaging
directors
its
has
inception. This
enjoyed
most
a career
of
and
Metal Co., Ltd. King's Norton and is now one steadily increasingprosperity, businesses interesting
and his in the
the
of the
extensive
the
country.
at Bayliss colleaguesthe works were splendidlyequipped,the plant includingcomplete King's Norton the for production of coinage. provision of land were Some sixtyacres acquiredat Abbey Wood, years ago
Under
direction
of Mr.
this
site
works
was
erected,
contracts
for
ammunition
executed
by
the
large orders,not only from the British foreigngovernments, amongst which may be mentioned and Spain. Sweden, Denmark, Italy,
Japan,
SECTION
II.
ABSTRACTS
OF
PAPERS
RELATING
TO
THE
NON-FERROUS
METALS
AND
THE
INDUSTRIES
CONNECTED
THEREWITH.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Properties Electro-Metallurgy
of
Met.\ls
and
Alloys
264 312
. . .
and
Electro-Chemistry
Pyrometry Methods
Analysis,
Furnaces
Testing,
and
and
324
Foundry
339 359
364
Statistics
Bibliography
264
THE
PROPERTIES
OF
METALS
AND
ALLOYS.
C O N T E N T S.
PAGE
I. II. III.
264 281
295
I."
PROPERTIES
OF
METALS.
"
Absorption
W. Planck.*
of
The
Light by Copper
determinations
Films.
been
Copper
examined
films
glass, by optically
on
opticalpropertieswere
and
made
transmitted
reflected
from
light.
1'3
to
The
46
thickness
iijx.
of
the
was
twenty-ninefilms employed
found
varied
A
the
formula
which
between
thickness
and
refraction. C. H.
The
generalconclusion
on
is that
electrons
less and
"
less influence
D.
the
as optical properties
film becomes
thinner.
Allotropy of
been made
Common
and
Metals.
"\V. D.
"
Some
remarkable
observations
have
E. Cohen
that pure Heldermann.f of turnings, has a specific gravity which is unchanged dioxide
at
It is found
150"
C.
to 100" C. for seventy-two hours in a solution other hand, heating and cadmium of cooling rapidly,reduces the specific sulphate, gravity
from
8'643 has
cadmium
of cadmium
it is found that Following up these observations, 64*9" If C solution a point at kept in a boiling its specific sulphateand then cooled rapidly, gravity gradually
to
8-633.
transition
increases
at
any
temperature
below
a
64'9"
C,
or
diminishes
above
that
With
material be
having
a displaced
the indicating
is for
a
probable existence
of
than
two
modifications.
metal may
There
exist
lag in
in
a
the
long
*
time
metastable
Ultimately, however,
\).
the
1914, PhysikalischeZeitschrift,
503.
The
metal
of
a
Properties of Metals
the stable condition. Fine
and
Alloys
and the
265
does
reach
division
presence recorded
that
suitable
Many
cadmium
as
by
different
accounted
for, and
of two
or
it is evident
more
ordinary "cadmium"
its constitution
variable mixture
its
modifications,
depending on
observations
thermal previous
been made
history.
Quite
In this
similar
a
have
case
transformation
is observed
from the by rapidly cooling pure copper that kept i n below temperature, and decreasingwhen increasing density less times thousand is many it. of transformation The velocity above fine turnings when the metal is used in rods than when are employed. behaviour of copper have been noticed by in the physical Irregularities observers. previous In addition to the observers.! Zinc has also been studied by the same at 170", one well-known change at 300"-350",and a possible allotropic low undetermined is found at an ture, temperaa new change,also reversible, value for the The lowest indicated as before by volume changes. metal for obtained freshly by Kahlbaum specific gravityof zinc was Zinc which has been used for metallic cooled. distilled and very rapidly and metastable condition, coatings by the Schoop process is in a specially after a time. be expectedto disintegrate may is discussed The bearingof these observations on theory and practice by Ernst Cohen. J It seems probable that our ordinary metals are, at condition, and consist of atmospheric temperatures, in a metastable indefinite mixtures
of their
regard to copper.* at 71-7"; the copper, prepared and then turning, meltingpoint
Avith
of difi"erent
modifications. allotropic
Our
tions determina-
constants physical are, therefore, of a haphazard character, depending on the previoushistory of the specimens employed. It is of metals, to for the comparison of the physicalconstants necessary, able into by suita permanent state employ material which has been brought
thermal
It
treatment.
follows
that under
metastable certain
materials
may
undergo spontaneous
to
integrati dis-
conditions, owing
from in
a
the
very
considerable
In
volume
changes which
a
accompany
their transformation.
this
nection con-
statement
is
quoted
the
of disintegration
of tin. of cadmium The
copper
has
to 300 B.C.) referring Theophrastus (c. the well-known severe frost, recalling
behaviour
case
been
further
W.
such
D.
Heldermann," with
in the the
the
objectof
cadmium
a
is formed that
of electrolysis
salts. The
apparatus used
a
is
cadmium
is
solution
same
to
determine
a
the difference
The
amalgam,
been
fresh
quantity of
which It
has
partly exhausted.
is found
that the
varietycalled
* Zeitschrift fur physikalischeC/iemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxvii. p. 411). t Ibid., 1914, vol. Ixxxvii. p. 426. X Ibid., 1914, vol. Ixxxvii. p. 431. 1914, vol. xvii. p. 122. " Proceedings of the Royal Acadeiny of Sciences, Amsterdam,
266
Abstracts
is
of Papers
and that this changes into stable always deposited, a-cadniium in time, causinga decrease in the electromotive force of the cell. On depositing the cathode, which a further quantity of cadmium on has passed into the a-modification, the new layer again consists of the
y-cadmium
Cadmium y-modification.
state
which
has
been with
to
obtained
the
from
the
molten in
is assumed
to
contain
y-cadmium
other
and varieties,
accordance
Avith this
it is found supposition
no givepractically
motive electro-
formed for There is room againstcadmium by electrolysis. difference of opinion in the interpretation these results. of * In a further this E. Cohen refers to work on subject, by Le paper that Verrier in 1892, which showed the mean heat of several specific metals remained 200" after it changed 300" constant to to which C, up abruptly. The same thing had been observed by Ponchon in 1886 for
force
iron,cobalt,and
of these discontinuities was position to depend on The the previousthermal of the metal. history examined with their transformation by Le Verrier, were points,
"
nickel.
The
found metals
copper,
the
fact
260" C. : lead, 220" to 250" C. ; zinc, silver, and The author calls attention aluminium, 300", 530" C. that aluminium The temperatures readilyundergoesdisintegration.
are
750"
C. ;
given above
In
a
theoretical
a
paper,
metal
too
high.
electrolytic tion deposition internal transformathe
the
of
metastable
that
at
much
smaller
of
the stable
that when
of velocity
is deposition
is
temperatures
is
at
which
the
transformation
deposited.This
The conversion
same
is confirmed
by
the author's
is accelerated
metal. is
by
contact
solution Cohen
ions containing
of the Cohen
objects that
ago and
this
last conclusion
and Van
identical
in
with
that the
by
Eyck
regard to
his
A. reply,
two
between between
solid
Smits
different chemical
of
within
the
same
solid
phase.
kinds
The of
study
A
the
must
latter emit
case
Moreover,
of ions.
these
different
molecules
different
kinds is ||
further
paper
by
A. Smits
highlytheoretical.
"
"
C. H.
D.
Annealing Cold-Rolled
deals with the effect of
Six per of
Copper.
copper, rolled
paper
by
E.
S.
on
Bardwell^
different
annealingtemperatures
with
oxygen
content
bars of
cent,
were
wire.
The
was
coils
were
drawn
an
No.
All
12
electric 10" C.
muffle,
six
temperature
which
in
a
maintained
"
specimensbehaved
*
critical temperatures
curve
for each
pro-
of Sciences, Amsterdam,
X Ibid., p. 807.
p. Wfbid.,
t
H
1167.
p.
of Mining
Engineers, 1914,
2075.
The
perty
The 300"
could be
Properties of Metals
without
and
Alloys
curves are
26 V
shown in the
drawn
These difficulty.
Fig. 1.
electrical of
the temperature exceeds (about is maximum takes The increase rapid place. very there is very little change reached before 800" F. (430" C), after which until 1200" F. (6-50" C), beyond which the conductivityfalls ofifvery diminishes the metal being injured. The tensile strength considerably, with increase of temperature of annealing, rapidlyat the same falling
temperature
the wires
increases
very
slowly with
600"
F.
C.)
when
0.40
z
0.30 E
z
o
"
0.20
o
_i
Ul
IZ
0.10
^,
200
400
600
DEGREES
800
1000 FAHRENHEIT
1200
1400
1600
0.0 1800
Fig.
1.
"
Variation
of
Wire
with Variations
in
pointas
there
is
almost indeed
to
a
conductivity. At higherannealingtemperatures follows an of strength. The elongationcurve a slight recovery the slightly elongation increasing very exactly oppositecourse,
the
change
of
up
to
300"
C. The
or
and higher,
then
maximum. the
F. best
conclusion
are
from
the results
shown
that
results
in by annealing
1100"
The
(595" C).
formerly
instead
content
results
by
Grard C.
gave
C.
due
as
the
the
transition
range,
300-430"
of cent.)
are
This
to
Grard's included
specimens.
in
the paper. The
268
Abstracts
of Papers
specimens annealed at temperatures up to 200" C. still show tlie strained 300" C. the slip bands At with structure disappear,and slip bands. At 400" C. the their appearance. fine grained crystals make very regular". At 500" C. the crystals larger and inore crystalsare slightly much 600" this point C. and at are larger. From considerablylarger, but in an onwards irregular manner, they continue to increase in size, the the small. at of the large crystals Twinning is growing expense the appearance of the polyconspicuous in these annealed crystals,
"
in conductivity with the decrease coinciding synthetic twin crystals and elongation. Other photographs show the effect of annealing copper containing
"
secondary importance. At 1100" F. (595" C.) suffice for the complete annealing of cold-rolled copper, twenty minutes hour. but the metal is not injuredby exposure to that temperature for an
time factor is of The C. H.
oxygen. The
importanceof
D.
pyrometriccontrol
of
annealingis emphasized.
"
Atomic
Heat
"
and
been
Molecular
Homology.
P. Ludwik
*
"
The
term
homology
condition ratio atomic is
to
has
introduced
by
at
to denote
are
of different substances
temperatures which
Various worked
are a
in the between
same
the
heat and
to
as
important
such when
relations
out
on
the
this basis. It
of the
function
are
rature, tempe-
hardness,
in
a
the
metals
an
question are
the
sum
heat of specific
alloyis
should view.
of the
heat specific
components,
these
conclusions
on
be
applicableto
at
alloys.
between
The
author
promises
1200"
C.
tensile tests
"
temperatures
D.
20"
and
C. H.
Capacity
of bare Three copper
of Bare
conductors
Copper
been
Conductors.
"
The
carryingcapacity
is discussed
by
W.
A.
Coates.f
computed dealing with the maximum missible perin amperes of single loads (direct strips, current) copper copper rod. in parallel, and round strips copper It is stated that the actual capacityof a conductor depends not only A single its surface. also its cross-sectional area, but on radiating upon from this point of view. stripstandingon edge is the ideal conductor full for value the upper surface only is of convection, as the Lying flat, the under side. air will tend to heated pocket against
tables have
" "
In
fact
that
some
portion of conductors
considered, whilst
is
some
on
been
been
joints.
the inner surface affected
value heat-dissipating
*
by the
Elektrochemie 1914, vol. xx. p. 325. Zeitschrift f-iir The Electrical Review, September 18, 1914, vol. Ixxv. "j,
p. 411.
270
12.
Abstracts
Cobalt be
than
of Papers
a
may solution
more
more
nickel, at
"
much
higher current
density
and
several times
rapidly.
"
F. J.
Colouring Aluminium.
colouringaluminium
The
or
Eeference
is made
to
new
method
of
introduced
by
aluminium
is treated
with
A.
copper,
chloride of iron, and then, without of the A film is left on the surface
and coating,
metal,
white
and
lacquered
if desired.
a
black The
enamellingof
"
coatingsis
results.
F. J.
Complexity
radium
the is that
same
of
Lead.
to
"
The lead. of
end-productof
Recent
all the
the have
of disintegration led
to
believed the
be
studies
the
clusion con-
end-products
the
have
periodictable,namely, that occupiedby lead. similar chemical and physical Such precisely perties, prohave been called and but different atomic isotopic weights, elements through or isotopes by Soddy. Lead derived from uranium have atomic weight from radium a different should, on this hypothesis, The from first successful lead derived thorium. experiment in this H. Hyman.f The generally direction is due to F. Soddy and accepted would atomic assign to the weight of lead is 207-1, whilst theory that atomic and the to derived from uranium 206, weight isotope 208'4. thorium derived from Ceylon thorite,containing62 per cent. place in products should
"
" " "
oxide, with 0'39 only 0'85 per cent, of uranium lead with a mean atomic weight of 208"4, per cent, of lead oxide,gives the difference used being a purely comparativeone, and the method from ordinary lead being much greater than the error of experiment. M. E. Lembert W. and Richards T. Other :|: give by experiments,
of thorium
oxide, and
atomic
weights lower
the
lead The in values
than
these
207-1
minerals
for
radioactive
uranium.
to
found
different
minerals
range
same
from
206*40
206-86,
Other
all the
by
the
method.
workers
obtained 206-74
similar
as
results.
for
O.
lead
Honigschmid
from
and
Mile.
S. Horovitz
and ore), for
"
find M.
the
value
pitch-blende
lead, and
from
(uranium
207-08 thorium.
It may of
lead
from
for uranium
largelyderived
regarded as established that ordinary lead is a mixture isotopes. The spectra of these isotopesare the same, so far as yet
thus be
and
determined,
than
those
*
it remains
to
be
seen
whether
"
any
other differences,
of atomic
weight,are
to be
recognized. C.
H.
D.
Foundry, September 1914, vol. xliii.p. 301. Transactions 1914, vol. cv. p. 1402. Society of the Chemical , Chemical Society , 1914, vol. xxxvi. p. 1329. X Journal of the American 11Ibid. , p. 167C. " Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clviii.p. 1796'.
The
The
Conductors
has mercury
of Metals Properties
without Resistance.
"
mid
Alloys
the
271
trical elec-
The
2" absolute
absolute,
suddenly
The 6" absolute.
sistance. super-conductor without appreciablerefor tin is and for lead 3"8^, corresponding temperature
becomes
"
about
A
lead wire, 01
ohms ends
in section, and of total resistance 7.36 coiled on a bobbin, and the two at the ordinary temperature, was then This cooled in a magnetic field to was joinedby welding.
square
millimetre
1"8" absolute.
in the
to
On shown
coil, as
or
current
was
found
to be
flowing
per
needle.
at the
were
This current
rate
amounted
cent,
0'4
0-6
hour.
In
of 1 per
each
with
coil at the
weld,
same
throw
moment
of the
needle at the
Contact
been
Differences
certain
of
Potential.
The
"
The
contact
diiferences
a
of
in
vacuum,
have
by
A. L.
Hughes.f
eliminate
influence of occluded
a
by
to
means
of
quadrant
so
with
time.
The
to
littleair is admitted
to air is always more surface of distilled zinc after exposure negative electroof polished zinc. It appears than one that zinc,when quite free from to platinum, but becomes as positive gas, is electro-negative
in The results are being reached. with those of Polil and Pringsheim, accordance accordingto which the limit effect of the the towards moves photo-electric long wave-length of gas. red end of the spectrum with increasing absorption Bismuth in the same behaves manner as zinc, but the change of is not quiteso large. C. H. D. potential
a
"
air is absorbed,
maximum
value
Cooling" Curves
according ordinary temperature,
to
of
and
Metals.
is
"
The
P.
K.
is Laschtschenko.J
of 580"
aluminium,
C.
to
the axis.
convex slightly
the
temperature
590"
at
It
shows
decided
change
is without
in
direction
on
a
between
and
580^
C.
Molten but
aluminium
act
action The
silica tube
700-720" Calories
C,
per the
begins to
at
750" C.
of
heat
of
fusion is 1-70
gramme-atom.
The
curves
heat of transformation
to be
nickel
at
363" A
is determined
from
3'11
at
per
gramme-atom.
of fusion of
further transformation
curve cooling
is indicated
Antimony gives a
heat
continuous
4'85
in
the
Calories
per
gramme-
Comptes Rendus, 1914, vol. clix. p. 34. t Philosophical vol. xxviii. p. 3.37. Mai^azine, 1914 [vi.], X Journal
of the
Russian
Ivi. p. 311.
272
Abstracts
of Zinc.
rate
of Papers
been made
Corrosion
determine
cent,
"
Experimentshave
of
cent,
by E.
zinc 5
Prost in 0'5
to
the
of corrosion
per With
various
per
cent,
sodium
solutions.
passed,
covered
some
white
an
sodium
per of air
being
to
the metal
becomes
acts
with
extent
layer of
An
the
zinc
hydroxide, which
usual
as
a or
are
protection.
iron increases
increase
in the
of proportions
lead, cadmium,
and
corrosion
by acids,whilst arsenic
;
antimony
"
corrosion increasing
the pure
in sodium
chloride
solution C. H.
and
impure
specimens.
Crystalline Form
of Selenium.
been
Crystals examined by
"
of F.
metallic C.
Brown.
selenium,
f
The
C. Acicular are crystals largestcrystalsare formed above up to than 0"2 millimetre thick. Flat 11 millimetres and not more long, be 9 millimetres There are crystals long and 2 millimetres wide. may semi-flexible The and lamellfe. also twinned thin, crystals pressure and temperature gradientinfluence the form of the crystals. All are the conductivityincreasing fairlytransparent and conduct electricity, increase the conductivity under illumination. Mechanical pressure may 1000 times. The
was
210"
with
the
temperature
at
which
the selenium
C. H.
D.
Crystalline
copper
Structure
been
of
examined
Copper.
"
The
internal method
as
structure W. 1
of
crystalshas
Natural
but square, reflections.
by
the
X-ray
Bragg. J
crystalsare
these
are
by large as
L.
metre centi-
and distorted,
give
cases
factory unsatis-
showing
the whole
facets parallel
are
obtained
to
Avithout distortion.
specimen
The
proves
consist of
the
crystal. single
of
relation faces
between which
angles
reflection from
a
the
three
cipal prinlattice.
is that
would
exist for
face-centred
cubic
results are obtained, in spiteof slightwarping of the Very accurate found is the simplest that has yet The structure crystalemployed. been
observed.
"
C. H.
D.
of copper of the elasticity Elasticity of Copper. Measurements been A. the have wire Colonnetti," publishedby experimentsreferring in tension are observed the form of the when t o tests cycle specially It concluded that the of copper, is behaviour intervals. repeatedat is usuallyconsidered which to diverge very widely from the accepted
"
conform to the latter in a satisfactory manner theory of elasticity, certain limits the cycle is of very small amplitude,between The
rate at
when of
stress.
which
the
alternations
are
carried
out
is almost
without
* de la Soci^d Bulletin chimique de Belgique, 1914, vol. xxviii. p. 94. vol. iv. p. 85. t Physical Review, 1914 [ii.], vol. xxviii. p. 355. % PhilosophicalMagazine, 1914 [vi.], dei 1914 [v.], vol. xxiii. No. 1, pp. 1C.5,225, 421. Reale Accademia Atti della Lincei, "
The
influence individual
on
Propertiesof Metals
generalcharacter
values.
"
and
Alloys
273
alters the
the
of D.
the
cycle, although it
numerical
C. H.
Electrical
Conduction
at
E. F.
High Temperatures."
Northrup employed are
*
The
to
is discussed and
by
with
references
the methods
described
in
brings out
expansion,
different bismuth.
metals,at
The
at
least for
temperature, is
for brass shows a curve change of direction resistivity-temperature volatilization zinc that appreciable loss of 1090" C, indicating by begins
at that
temperature.
"
C. H. D.
at the experiments by H. KamerlinghOnnes.f temperature of liquidhelium have been made Coils of tin and lead,which have been found to become super-conducting the is applied, field When used. at that temperature, are a magnetic tion introducof The the field. observed resistance depends on the strength effect as heatingthe conductor, but for of the field has the same
Hall
Effect
at
Low
Temperatures.
"
Further
lead
there
For
is
threshold
is
a
value
for
effect.
but fields,
no
a
quite sudden
lead the transverse
change change.
"
it is without
curve
for low
Using
weaker
wire,it
is found
the
is eff"ect longitudinal
than
efi'ect. C
H.
D.
and
Chromium."
Further
powdered metals have been made by in Both metals are W. Lepke. % showing a maximum ferro-magnetic, itself is only of the the susceptibility although the susceptibility curve, The finely metals. order as for paramagnetic powdered metals are same much high more magnetic than the massive metals, but for sufficiently D. values would the two field strengths probablycoincide. C. H.
"
Melting
W. Heike
Point
of Arsenic.
the
much
"
obtained
as
830"
or
C. few
The but
in
undercooling
some
sometimes
was
to
as
40"
have
50",
of
the
experiments this
Further arsenic
and and
*
avoided
air The the
by leavinga
not
arrests
at lower
temperatures
than
is
inore
resistant to
to enclose
American
the
metal
fused
cooled
in the vessel.
pressure
during
melting is
an
considerable,
it is necessary
Transactions
vessels in porcelain
iron
of the
Electro-chemical
xxv.
1914, vol. xvi. p. 987. t Proceedingsof the Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam, vol. xvi. p. 369. 1914, der deutschen Gesellschaft, ph'ysikalischen X Verhandlungen
"
International
274
Abstracts
an
of Papei^s
calculates the
By
to
meltingpoint of
The data
"
arsenic
are
be 929"
C,
but
this is almost
too certainly
the
of arsenic and
high. antimony.
before the
used
C. H.
D.
Metals
Under
Stress.
"
In
paper
read
Birmingham
the
H.
Lantsberry f
reviews
evidence behaviour
endeavoured
to elucidate the
under
stress.
stresses
given,whilst
the
compound
and
impact
tests is mentioned.
The
stress-strain
diagram
a
analyzed
which
and
explained, three
which
regions
an
elastic deformation
in
occurs,
intermediate
occurs.
and region,
third
region
The
of plasticity and
all metals
is noted,
includingsuch
lead
as
antimony
The
bismuth.
of in
occurrence
in slip-bands
with
stressed the
receives
of
and attention,
other
have The
features been
connection
occurrence
which slip-bands,
formerly noted by Ewing and Kosenhain, are reviewed. slip-bandtheory is pressed into service to explainthe phenomena
in
a
revealed
stress-strain
in appearance between ing The effect of work metals is treated,the increased density resultupon from hot- work being attributed to the closingup of cavities.
to
explainthe
differences
fractures.
An
essential condition
for
the
be
makes
cold-
series of
gliding
series of
slip-bands.
three
of
in slipping
into
of the material
smaller
in the breaking planes, resulting Rest or heatingsimply crystals. also properties, The
stable. rendering the system more the Cold-working,in addition to afirecting mechanical effect of whole
of the
affects the
physicalpropertiesof
that limit, of soft
metals.
property
mostly
affected is elastic
times of
increase to fourteen
The
modulus
ing. value of wire-draworiginal process thermal electromotive solution tension, elasticity, density, its
copper by the
of being susceptible
force
are
among A
etc., againstother metals, thermal and electrical conductivity, the properties Avhicli undergo changes as a result of coldof
working.
study
the effect of work
to
on
the
density of
and
metals
follows,and
collaborators.
that
reference
is made
with
a
the
work
of
Kahlbaum
and
his
Working
metal
had
Kahlbaum
Sturm
was
found
the
cast
which
increased
to to
21"4314
by
but
After
wire the
21*4136,
observed
annealing.
variations
in
metals
are
as
follows
Atti
i-eale Accademia
del Lincei,
1914
1, p. G9.3.
vol.
v.
p. 101,
The
Properties of Metals
and
Alloys
2 75
nution explanationof the considerable differences in the dimiof density is that they are due to differences in methods of translation of small along the glidingplanes ; being simple in the cases and of in of those more density complex change greater change, and in the formation of twin resulting crystalsand consequent development Tammann's of channels. of much The offered. A
most
on
theory is met by the fact that copper, a metal capable undergoes very slight twinning, change of density.
of
This
phenomenon
twinning
is
considered,
deformation
and
an
explanation
is that produced
effect interesting
the energy
of cold
a
of
metals
content,
fact which
considerable
heat,and
as
in the metal
The viz.
1
.
electrical
behaviour
:
"
Development
in direction of overstrain. crystallites 3. metal A decrease in conductivity along slip-planes. follows from each, but in case be removed by annealing. (1)cannot The profound influences of annealingare mentioned, the two objects of the process being : 1. To bring about homogeneity of the metal and to remove tional constituchanges brought about by rapidcooling.
2.
Arrangement Loosening of
2.
To
remove
the
effects of
stresses
and
strains
set
up
in
the
material.
[There
The
are
two
distinct
objects set
forth
in
case
(1).
"
Note
by
abstractor.]
attributed theory of amorphous cement elaborated by Beilby,Bengough, subsequently is reviewed illustrations.
"
Rosenhain
and
Ewen
seven
at
some
length. Meeting
Proceedings
The
article is
accompanied by
W.
F. .J.
At
the Australian
*
Rosenhain
276
said that for strain normal the
a
Abstracts
rational
of Papers
the
understandingof
of
behavionr
and
of
metals
under their
all metals
alloysin
of fundamental
variety of
includingthe
oriented
development of
lustre
"
"
etch
figures,"
of
crystalline aggregates.
when material a crystalline aggregate is formed such as undergoes solidification by a process of dendritic crystallization in metals is illustrated by the buildingup of aggregates of is typical cubical blocks,a process which is shown by the aid of the cinematograph. of behaviour etched the the metal surfaces under same means oblique By and of The behaviour of demonstrated. is a crystals crystalline light is next the manner deformation and considered, aggregate under plastic in which a crystalcan undergo deformation by a process of slipon its and is illustrated by the cinematocleavageor glidingi:)lanes explained of the evidence which our a upon present knowledge grajih, summary
The
manner
in which
of
the
true
nature
of
deformation plastic
is based
being given
with
and
illustrated. The
more
detailed and
fracture of
and
metals
attention increasing
recently are next considered,including such phenomena as " fatigue," by, and failure under, shock or repeated impact,and the phenomena testing and The elastic recovery. of semi-plasticity of metals behaviour and the explanationof these at high temperatures is also discussed development of the theory of an phenomena aftorded by the modern in metals, as originated by Beilby and extended by the amorphous phase is summarized. author and his collaborators,
PalladiTim
and
and
Hydrogen."
G. Wolf wires
has
determined
the
sity den-
conductivityof
as
of occluded
different containing
anode
sulphuricacid.
is in three
The
specific
0 to
conductivity-hydrogenconcentration
40
parts.
From
is the conductivity hydrogen (to 1 volume of palladium) 40 t o the concentration. From 600 to volumes inversely proportional the fall of conductivity is asymptotic,and above is this the conductivity of the to In the middle quantity hydrogen. againinversely proportional
volumes
of
section of the
in the
curve
the of
compound
of
PdHo
is
supposed
in
to
be
formed,
and
last the
excess
hydrogen
two
dissolves
the
compound.
The
and
a
density curve
The
same
consists
only
parts, a
line of straight of
The by A. Sieverts.f quantity wire is hydrogen by a givenweight palladium independent of the surface. At the melting point liquid palladium absorbs less than the solid metal. The of different hydrogen varying behaviour specimensof palladium black is attributed to the presence of both amor-
Zeitscli rift Chemie fur pliysikalisrhe t Ibid., 1914, vol. l.\xxviii. p. 103.
p. 575.
278
denum from
Abstracts
of Papers
with metallic calcium at high their oxides byl treatment As 800" an or more. C, example of the process, say temperatures, of pure zirconium is instanced. Fifty the case of the production grammes of metallic calcium,and mixed with 72 grammes of its oxide is intimately the mixture
and rapidly, proceeds The reaction metallic bomb under vacuum. bomb is in the cooled phere atmosan completion the is and then from free mass nitrogen ; oxygen preferably dilute the remaining acid to remove and treated with water calcium, at a tempewhen the insoluble residue is filteredand dried in a vacuum rature It is claimed that the productwill be 96 per of 300" or 400" C.
is heated in
on
other impurities. differ from those announced of the element thus prepared The properties and the authors ascribe the diiference to the fact that former heretofore, D. H. have not producedpure zirconium. investigators
cent,
about zirconium,
and oxide,
"
Production
been observed the reduction
used for the grammes
of
High
Vacua
*
by
that
means
of
Copper."
copper,
It
has
by
T. R. Merton
hnelydivided
gases very
a by sealing
of copper
absorbs salts,
of production
highvacua
bulb
The copper is of the copper to the vessel to be exhausted. and on to obtain the vacuum, heated to 250" C, using a Fleuss pump first obtained. On is vacuum a heating, cooling non-conducting easily the occluded moisture,"c.,is sometimes evolved rather violently.
Oxides Helium
are
of carbon is not
are
absorbed.
on
againevolved
heating. C. H. D.
"
Pyrophoric Metals.
It is
by suggested
A.
Smits,A. Kettner,and
condition in metals is due, not merely A. L. W. Gee f that the pyrophoric is of their fine state assumed, but to their initial to as division, generally loses condition. liberation in a metastable Pyrophoriciron gradually in a sealed tube, the converwhen heated for long periods its pi-operties sion The of 310". in hours at forty-eight disappearance beingcomplete
to character is shown, by dilatometric experiments, pyrophoric in H. D. C. volume. by a considerable increase accompanied
the
be
"
Reduction
made R. E.
of
Oxides
by Carbon.
"
Measurements
have
been
Slade and G. I. Higson \ to determine the equilibrium by with carbon. Equilibrium may pressures when certain oxides are heated values are obtained : be reached from either side. The following
Transactions of the Chemical Society 1014, vol. cv. p. 645. 1914, vol. xvi. p. 999. t Proceedings of the Royal Academy of Sciences,Amsterdam, X Report ofthe British Association, 1913, p. 450.
*
,
The
Properties of Metals
and
Alloys
279
"
C. H.
D.
Resistance
have been
of
Antimony
by W.
of
A
in
Magnetic
*
Field.
a
"
Exact
ments measure-
made
J. de Haas,
and
for the
change
has been
of resistance arrived
at.
diamagneticsubstances
connection of
and resistance,
with
magnetic field
the
"
is also shown
exist between
diamagneticsusceptibility.
Resistance
been
of
Nickel
in
M.
Magnetic
and J. E. and 0*0206
further studied
3'61
by
W.
Jones
Field. Malam.f
"
This
A
effect has
fine
straight
wire, only
used,
and
millimetres
long
millimetre
diameter, was
tion accuratelyin a specialapparatus designed for exact rotathe poles of the electro-magnet. between The effect for the longitudinal field is always greaterthan for the transverse field. A complete set
theorycannot
The 5
were same
yet
be
formed.
been
effect has
examined
millimetres obtained
long
and
0"015
millimetre
at different
temperatures. It is found that the parts, one of which givesan increase and
other
reaches
a
maximum,
The
transverse
whilst
the
gives a
a
decrease
and
does
to
not
reach
mum. maxithe
effect longitudinal
is very
similar
the
first
part of
other.
effect.
of
There
is
the the
change of
of the
dimensions A
and
that
resistance,but
an
is not
cause
structural which
be show the
change is
cause,
as
assumed. and bismuth the metals are Iron, nickel, but the magnetic properties abnormally largeeffect, cannot in the that
case
iron
should
than
at
nickel.
Moreover,
the
magnetic
on
reach properties
values D.
effect
resistance is not
saturated.
0, H. Thiel
Solution
of inactivity
of Metals
obtained The
is
in Acids.
when
"It
is shown
by
A.
"
that
the
nothingto do with
consists
The
and
black
residue
zinc is dissolved
a
cadmium. which
the
presence
influence
partlycapillary. It
"
surface and
C. over-voltage.
H.
D.
1914, vol. .\vi. p. 1110. % Ibid,, p. 731.
*
* Proceedingsof the Royal Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam, vol. xxvii. p. (549. t PhilosophicalMagazine, 1914 [vi.],
Elektrochemie
,
1914, vol.
xx.
p. 4G0.
280
Abstracts
at
of Papers
"
SpecificHeats
has been
Low
W.
Temperatures.
Nernst
a
Work
*
on
this
the
subject
former
continued
of electrical
by
and
F.
method
heatingin
even
vacuum
ments. improve-
The
heatingcoil
is of constantan, which
at
means
almost
temperature coefficient
vacuum
the
lowest
temperatures.
charcoal
the
is maintained A
by
of coconut is used
for
cooled
hydrogen.
and
lead wire
the
resistance
measurement
of the cylinders
to increasing
calorimeter has
at
difference of temperature between the outer and inner is measured couple. by a copper-constantan thermoan
Aluminium MOT
heat has
a
atomic and
heat of
2-355
52-4"
at
has
the
atomic
2'92
22*9"
19*1"
molecular
heat which
a
is
immeasurably small
suitable
as
at
or
(absolute).It is therefore
to
very
zero,
substance
the
for
the
of if
study
40"
the its
absolute
from
temperature
any
propertiescannot
at
undergo
zero.
change
The
they
at
such
heat
as
to have
finite value
the absolute
at
lowest
atomic
20-1"
magnesium 0. H. D. (absolute)."
found
for
is 0"335
and 27'2",
for
silica O'OSl
Temperature-Coefficientof
metallic
conductors It
to
Resistance.
"
It is known
that
many
sistance. re-
exhibit shown
of negative temperature-coefficient
F.
is
now
by
Streitz t that
the presence of minute which close as the cavities, filaments have a small The denser varieties of carbon
that value
platinum black, which has a very small increased until by strong compression,
It is believed
for
the of
drawn
wire is attained.
abnormal the
same
behaviour
way.
"
is to
be
accounted
C. H.
Thermo-electric
thermo-electric
measured effects K.
Forces
produced
when
by
are
Deformation.
deformed
the have
"
The been
produced
and W.
metals
by
Baedeker
Within
is observed, the phenomena beingvery similar to those of maghysteresis netic The deformation. hysteresis. A time effect is observable in plastic has that d eformation the effect during plastic within the opposite sign to elastic range,
the and tends drawn
towards
with the
value. limiting
the
relation
to
is not
considered.
The
C. H.
D.
Tungsten
and
Preparation.
"
similar
bent,
and
otherwise
staller." The
*
bodies in a form Avhich can be drawn, refractory is described and worked, by Schwarzkopf Burgand operation is a combined sintering reducing prok. Akademie der
der Sitzungsberichte
Wissenschaft,Berlin, 1914,
p. 355.
der Physik, 1914 [iv.J, vol. xliv. p. 545. t Annalen % Ibid., p. 783. " Metallurgical and Che7nical Engineering, July 1914, vol. xi. (No. 7), p. 480.
The
cess
Propejdies of Metals
in two
and
Alloys
281
conducted into
to 1100"
compressed
heated
metallic oxide is powdered stages. The are rods, which relatively strong and coherent 1150" C. in 2600"
a
and then
to
stream
of
hydrogen, the
metal
an
material
thereby
current
sintered
of
and
partlyreduced.
to
The
C. in
can
is then
heated
to electricity
2700"
and
and
the
rods resulting D.
are
ductile
be
being by a hydrogen,
a
red
heat."
H.
Volatilization
effect of
been have
current
of Metals
to very
at
heating metals
The has
examined
been
by
E.
Tiede
a
and
Birnbrjiuer.*
in which
Two
a
types
to
of
furnace
used, one
a
resistance thin
furnace
heavy alternating
receive
a
a
is
passedthrough a
cathode
boat,
the
other
material
is found
even
resistance
heating
or
to
1200"
C. in contact
with
any Most
other
material refractory
may
means
hitherto
metals
be volatilized
of
a
easilywhen
mercury
at
is
kept
as
ciently suffiof
high by
copper 880" as
Gaede
pump.
Thus
Tin
3 grammes leaves
maybe
C,
1360"
C.
volatilizes
low the
silver at 830" C
volatilizes at
brittle. be
remainingmetal
freelyat
The of the 2450"
and extremelycrystalline
volatilizes its
C, whilst
is of the
manganese
may
distilled
this
manner.
below rapidly
and meltingpoint,
in convenientlypurified
character
condensed
material
depends on
and
the temperature
dense tungsten conan adherent,
condensing surface.
in
distinct
form
mirror-like
of
some
layer on
method
cold
surface
of
glassor
silica.
Photomicrographs
are given by the authors. deposits of some was same employed in examining the properties 2400" C, of the oxides and carbides. Beryllium oxide melts at about but lime and alumina are its meltingpoint, and does not volatilize below lower volatile at much temperatures. Magnesia dissociates readily at and in 1900" C. a deposit of metallic magnesium is a high vacuum,
of these
The
obtained
are
on
the
walls
of the
the
carbides
also
and volatile,
may
be distilled.
C. H.
D.
l\."
PROPERTIES
OF
ALLOYS. Tests.
cent,
"
Gun-metal,
accurate tests
High
have
used of been
Temperature
made
Very
and
by
1-94
J. C.
per
Longbottom
The
of
material
contained
87-96
tin,0-13
were
iron, 0-18
one
lead, and
1 inch
of zinc.
cast
test-bars
*
used,
turned
from
round
bars, the
Zeitschrifi ficranorganische Chemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxvii. p. 129. of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders Newcastle Meeting.
t Transactions
in
Scotland,
1914,
282
Abstracts
of Papers
and 0"564
middle
portionbeing
bars
cast
3" 5 inches
long
then
inch
other from
5'5 inches in and
a
to
shape
inch
and
turned, with
The bars
long and
horizontal
to
0'798
diameter.
were
cally electriof
the furnace
lagged
the
insure
of temperature.
for
a
Martens'
mirror
apparatus
of
used
the
measurement
strain,so
The
scales
that
under
were
increments
of elongation
measured
with progressiveloads could be measured from mirrors distance the such a placed at
to
a
give a magnification
millimetre
on
of 1000
scale; this
was
it
was
the
millimetre.
ing Load-
until
temperature of the furnace had remained minutes, the deflection of the measuring mirror
the
test
being
The
The
more
sensitive
pyrometer.
The
modulus the
this purpose than the readings of the of elasticity in all cases. determined was
for
are following
results principal 13
to tons
obtained
at
maximum
stress, about
up about
the
and
ordinary temperature,
then
remains almost
at about
constant practically
zero
200" final
C,
at
750" then
C.
The
150"
C, and
350"
course,
falls C.
rises to a maximum elongation low a nearly constant rapidly, reaching The contraction
of of
area
value
between
same
and
550"
follows almost
constant
exactly the
up
to about
200", and
those annealed
then
agreement with
Tests results
and J.
as on
obtained
bars show
rapidly. by Bach.
that the the
The
in
good general
at 700" C, annealing
S. G.
Primrose,*
whilst
annealingat
(page 254) on
is stated
to
show
that
complete
an
solution, producing
the
a
almost of the
homogeneous
cored
structure
metal. and
260"
0.
and
the reappearance
accounted
as
of
complex
of the The in
become
evident.
This
the form
known.
the
is not
for
by
at
present
C.
was
S constituent
400"
observed
In
addition
accompanied by six
Those
at the
highertemperatures
regard their
an
remarkable
as
fractures. intercrystalliue
The
to
of
been
announce
eliminated
from
the of
temperatures,
non
and
their intention
"
higher
in
a
tests
atmosphere. -oxidizing
C. H.
D.
Ageing
of Silver-Tin
*
Alloys.
"
The
of silverproperty of filings
This
Journal,
The
tin
"
Properties of Metals
power of
and
Alloys
with mercury
283
after
combinins^
W.
has ageiug,"
not
been
further
and
investigated by
there
A.
Knight.*
The
tilings
of any
are
aged by
ozone,
is
no
evidence is
no
of the
formation
change of weight, perceptible but the volume diminishes in the on change ageing, pure AggSn being about 0-4 per cent. In solid solutions containing the ageing effect silver, is roughly proportional to the amount of AggSn present, vanishingcompletely for pure tin. An explanation of the change has not yet been
film of oxide
during ageing.
There
found."
C. H.
D.
alloy has been patented by W. A. M'Adams,! of Bay Shore, New York, which, it is said, will not tarnish, pressions and which that it will take the smallest imso great fluidity, possesses from The and of mould. is a zinc, alloy aluminium, copper,
Aluminium
Alloys.
"
new
the best
of
are proportions
said to be 70
copper, and
cent,
of
D. H.
compositionof a ternary alloyof aluminium, zinc,and cadmium as patented by T. Baylissand B. G. Clark and the method of producingit are given. is as follows : \ The range of composition
range
The
of
"
Cent.
to
19-999
10
80 to 90
to
The which
added
method
and
not
so
of
to
producing
add the
the
alloy
is to
melt in
the
aluminium
in
crucible
do if
zinc and
cadmium
determined
exceed desired.
are
the above-mentioned
The mixture
suitable a limits,
to
is allowed
remain
molten
zinc and
is then An
cadmium
uniformly distributed
is to add
a
throughoutthe mass,
alloy of
added
desired.
allowed
to
alternative
to
known
composition
the made be molten
or
the the
aluminium, whilst
condition.
made
use
either
in be
can
solid
The
produced, can
It
or
into
cast
castingsor
sand
or
of then
in
in
in
chill and
hammered,
annealed,
of
stamped.
and
; ;
The
of properties
the
of its
alloys. It has
a
those
worked
can
aluminium
in all conditions
it possesses
smooth
and
cast
which
be
easilymachined
it is malleable
wire, "c.
two
suitable
for
for the
Per Aluminium
. .
Cent. 91 8 1
!
i
Aluminium
.
.
Zinc
....
Zinc
....
Cadmium
...
Cadmium
...
Transactions
of the
Chemical
Society, 1914, vol. cv. p. 63U. Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. No. 15, 1914, vol. vii.,No. 5, p. 7.
5, p. 352.
284
Abstracts
two
of Papers
aud
These
cast
alloysare
when
tenacious
cast
malleable
have F. J.
a
to
liigh degreewhen
and surface,
*
into
strip ;
in sand
they
"
smooth
can
be
drilled. shown
silicon
are
by
C. E. Roberts
to form
simple
cent,
eutectiferous
of silicon.
C. and
or
10
per
compounds
are
and
the
two
branches
quite
C. H.
D.
C. F. Grimm
has
patented
lead 25 per
solder
It
for
aluminium,
of zinc
which
25 per de
can
be
applied
tin 50
to
the
metal
while
it is cold.
cent.
consists
cent.,
per
cent., and
Another
of 30
solder,patented by Auguste Cornande % Brussels,consists of 52 per cent, of zinc, 17*5 per of tin, and 0'5 per cent, of nickel. per cent,
an
and
cent,
Henri of
Cruys
be
aluminiunij
may
The
nickel
by replaced
equal amount
of German
silver.
"
D. H.
Annealing
have
cent,
Alloys
by
after
Quenching.
"
Some
brasses and
bronze needles with of the
bronzes
19
a
been
studied
of tin after
to
A.
per
stituent con-
appear
arrangement
when per
cent,
like
the
Widmaustatten
figures.
825" C. also
This A
structure
even persists,
is annealing of in the
complete.
stage
of and but annealing, the distorting
brass
a
containing42
gives longerannealingcauses
needles." C. H.
D.
Widmaustatten
structure
alteration
of this
by rounding
preliminary communication by W. that bismuth and Heike ||states melted arsenic,when together in a sealed porcelain in the miscible fluid tube,are perfectly state, contrary arrived to the conclusion at by investigators working with open vessels, in which thorough mixing is impossible. Arsenic separates as primary
"
Bismuth
and
Arsenic.
and the eutectic point is close to the bismuth end of the series. crystals, For developing the microstructure a preliminary etchingwith alcoholic nitric acid is given,followed chloride solution." by dilute copper- ammonium C.
H.
D.
Bismuth
and
been
Cadmium.
once more
"
This
system, which
has been
repeatedly
and A.
studied, has
in the cadmium held C. H.
*
examined
by
G.
J. Petrenko
S.
to
The
clear up discrepancies to the mutual as solubility eutectic point at 140" C. and 40 per cent, of
it is found the that
cannot
the
quantity
exceed 0"1
of
each
per
metal
cent.
"
in
D.
by
other
of the Chemical
Chemical
t Metallurgical and
+
1914, vol. cv. p. 1.383. Society, Engineering, May 1!I14, vol. xii. (No. .5), p. 352.
of Metallography
286
the
Abstracts
cold-drawn
an
of Papers
straining consurface-layer Facts are quoted
to
support
A survey
was
the
is elaborated in
a
to
some
extent.
1^ inch
cold-drawn
manganese
rod
made
variations
stresses
\ length due
inch
the layers,
to
from elongationresulting
relief of
measured. carefully
stress
From
the
differences
in
length the
in
in each is of in
no
layerwas
need
to
calculated.
is
suggested
that
there
put
or
to
structural use,
as
the
cold-worked
and
condition, any
obtained
the
three
alloys mentioned,
hot-rolled obtained
to
strength
to
a
are elongation
the extruded
material
satisfactory degree.
When the
axes
be
by cold-rolling,
of
being
inclined slightly
that
the
rod, thus
structural
the outer layer and relieving the tension. enlarging The following for rolled,extruded, specifications
brass
are
and
drawn
proposed :
"
Minimum
and
Drawn
Material
not Annealed.
The
For
cent,
Propertiesof Metals
tubing the requiredminimum
table. AH
ana
Alloys
2(S7
sheets and
less than
given in
to
a
material
must
or
angle of 120"
stand
radius
hot
to
a
thickness.
Bars is
must
hammering
produced point. Scrap,except such as material used. The must be not composition, may and of uniform clean, smooth, straight, injuriousdefects,
fine
uidess condition size ; it must be in the cold-worked and not quality be effected by simplebending must specially permitted. Straightening the exceed of hot-rolied material and not by rolling.If the hardness material must be annealed. Drawn, unannealed figureit must typical strain in the for maximum initial strain ; be tested a specimen 5| inches longand over \ inch thick may not exceed 0"002 inch in lengthof 4 inches. Instructions for obtainingthe measurement are given. Sheets and in be tested by immersion tubing less than \ inch in thickness must
a
saturated
two
solution
weeks
of mercuric the
chloride for
one
hour
; if cracks
appear
within
from
"
date of
immersion,
regardedas
Electrical
Bornemann Bornemann
excessive.
F. J.
Conductivity
and and
of
Liquid
subject
has
Alloys." The
been
work
of
E.
Miiller K.
on
this
continued
by
Wagenmann,*
nesia mag-
tubes, heated in carbon tube furnaces. The breaks in the conductivity-temperature curves
Thus
the
may
used
to two-
boundary curve plot the equilibriumdiagram. for has been alloysof copper and lead, accurately plotted liquid region with of Mixtures copper diagram. copper completing the thermal of also allow ferrous and and of sulphide sulphide sulphide copper
the
the
determination method.
discussion
of
the has
that
over
the the
the
remaining curves
come
to
have
appeared
results
in
the
August number,
and
curves
which
has not
been
to hand.
The
the
not
figures experimental
broad may
have, however,
copper the
and published,
be
author's
are interpretations
available.
minimum
at
and
tin show
well-marked
in
conductivity and
With the maximum pass
the
curves temperature-coefficient
the
composition CugSn,
temperature.
minimum
and
copper
Cu^Zng, but
small
and local
in the
case
of copper
at
cadmium
The
through
minimum,
with
the
composition Cu^Cdg. are complex. Both the conductivity copper-aluminium curves between 30 and show a minimum and the temperature-coeflScient curves of direction marked 40 atomic change per cent, of aluminium, with a
at
CuAlo
and
less distinct
one
at
CugAl
and
; whilst
maximum per
cent.
occurs
at
the
highertemperatures between
*
80
90 atomic
Ferrum,
288
It would that
A bstrads
seem
of Papers
of
the
existence
is
molecules
of
in solution
curves
are
at
not
or
the
molecules
of
some
compound
formulae
a
compounds
accuracy
be present in the
remain
undetermined.
of the
The method.
curves
"
are
considerable
C. H.
An
D.
Ferro-Silicon
into the
and
its
Dangers.
of
"
inquiryby
leads
to
G. E.
Pellew*
per drums
were
cent,
character
ferro-silicou is for
a
clusions. coninteresting
50
the
to
electric furnace.
per
cent,
The
of explosions found
and
60
ferro-silicon in 1903-1904
cause
proved
as
to inflammable
gas.
The
of this
was
to
be the presence
arose
carbide
the
Now
same
that
phosphide. The ferro-silicon industry and in some cases industrywas declining, used for the two was products alternately. been discontinued, this source of danger has
and
s.s.
and
disappeared.
In 1905
eleven
fiftycases
from
cases
of
sickness
were
steerage
to the
was
evolution
passengers of
the
Vaterland, which
fatal
on
occurred
poisonous gases
other
This boats.
followed
gas
The
arsenide.
cent,
by many proved to be hydrogen phosphide containingsome that the product containing less Inquiry showed
and
was
canal
hydrogen
than
30 per
and was not liable to poisonous impurities, T he rich with 96 70 to spontaneous disintegration. grades, per cent, of but contained small not liable to disintegrate, of were silicon, quantities
of silicon
free from
poisonousimpurities. The intermediate grades,with 35 to 60 per cent, of silicon, As a result, were highlypoisonous and liable to disintegrate. the carriage of ferro-silicon has been prohibitedon most steamers.
The
manufacturers
of
calcium
selected
have
the
adopted
on
similar
In
to
but precautions,
cases
roasted
Rio
Tinto
ore
in
of
place
gases,
steel scrap.
exposure
as
both
all
evolution
water, have
C. H.
disappeared. It
in
D.
restrictions
made
to
transport might be
"
from
pure
materials.-
Growth
of
Eutectics.
the and
to to
"
The
formation
of
"halos,"
been
separating
by
been gested sug-
primary
F. E. E.
crystals from
banded
eutectic,has
examined
Lamplough
it is due
frequentlyattributed
that the
J. T. Scott,
has have
eutectic
at
the
boundary
thermo-
of
The
copper-con
stantan
Journal
Industry, 1914,
xc.
A, p. 600,
The
Properties of Metals
in A
to
and
Alloys
a
289
with
galvanometer, with
the
of
is vibration,
used
are
determine
curves. cooling a
grammes
a
of metal
used, enclosed
can
in
short
be controlled
within
fraction of
degree.
No relation between the
and the formation of degree of undercooling halos in tin-cadmium is found, and alloyscontaining primary cadmium such formation is not afi'ected when is lation. undercooling prevented by inocuthat the eutectic Chillingafter partialsolidification shows and at the primary cadmium that growth does not originate crystals, the halo is only present round those primary crystals which have become Other alloys behave similarly. by the growing eutectic. enveloped Eutectics mainly fall into two classes : (1) those of spherical radiating Halos are contours. growth ; (2)those having well-defined crystalline eutectic growth. Silver-copper show always present in spherical alloys when the primary only occurs contour, and halos are crystalline The gold-antimony eutectic, then absent. Au-AuSbg is a good example. In a third type, representedby the copper-antimony eutectic, Sb-CuoSb, eutectic and constituent the one growth very separates as laminae, this of in the at case one definitely CugSb. originates primaries,
second
this structure
well.
The
class
constituent
solidifies with
definite
It
was
not
found
to possible
confirm
Vogel'sobservations
The
as
to
the
of alloysof rapidcooling
structure
zinc
and
cadmium.
is
may
usually diminished
also be
D.
eutectic
by rapid cooling. The habit of the of the bismuth-tin in the case affected, especially
C. alloys."
H.
Hall
Effect
copper,
*
in Heusler's
Alloys.
"
The
Hall longitudinal
effect in
alloysof
has been aluminium, and manganese 72 O. Bouazzi. Using an alloycontaining per cent, of of manganese, and 10 per cent, of aluminium, it cent,
a
examined
18
by
skilled workman
cm.
to prepare
a a
wire 0"1
mm.
in diameter.
70
long,
Hall
are
wound
into
with spiral
insulated
turns.
The The
efi'ect is then
measured
been
in the usual
way.
resistance
D.
diminishes
with
strength of increasing
which
has
the with
that resembling
obtained
C. H.
Hardness
hardness
of
to
and
modulus
Elasticity of
of
Copper
Nickel
Alloys." The
for a series have been determined elasticity found It is these alloys by N. Kurnakoft" and J. Rapke f necessary be which obtain add manganese in order when to alloys casting may and
without
modulus
cracking.
of
The
hardness
is determined the
by
Brinell's
composition,
theory,the
1, p. 427. T
is shown
*
in the table.
Accordingto
dei
Maxwell's
vol. [v.],
relaxation
xxiii.
,
Atti
della Reale
Accademia
Lincei, 1914
No.
290
Abstracts
friction of
a
of Papers
is equal to solid, ""?,
the
coefficient of internal
product of the of elasticity, modulus E, and the time of (time required of internal strains). As the hardness,H, is known for the equalization
relaxation,T
to must
be
is the measure to the pressure of flow, which proportional be proportional increase of hardness obtained to "";. The
with In
same
of i^, it
on
ing alloyof be
copper relaxation.
due
to
nickel other
cause,
must
thus
be
due
to
an
technical
as no
alloys the
increase
means
increased
the
in the
modulus increased
is elasticity
observed.
It is
Increased
time
of relaxation
brittleness.
is due to an that alloysmay exist in which the hardness possible of elasticity, and not in the time of relaxation. in the modulus increase Such alloyswould be hard without being brittle. It is suggested that steels may nickel,and other special belong to this class,but manganese, has not been tested experimentally. the question
"
C.
H.
D.
Intermetallic
Compounds
*
in the
the
State
of
Vapour.
"
memoir
by H.
theorem
case
von
Wartenberg
discusses
compounds
and Trouton's of
in
the
rule.
gaseous
metallic of existence of interpossibility in of Nernst's the condition, light existence another and
the is most
a
Such
with
one
an
probable in
the
metals
The
which
actual
unite heat
of
with
of but
heat.
the
of
combination
is known alkali
in
compounds
as
magnesium
has
themselves
The
suitable.
compound
in
at
a
without mixed
MgZn2 at decomposition
1300"
already been shown by A. Berry to distil If magnesium and 600" C. zinc vapours are served vapour-densityapparatus of iridium, no contraction is obC,
although the
reaction
Mg
-|-2Zn
MgZn2
would
almost
The therefore be require a large contraction. compound must that dissociated at completely temperature. Argon is used as the neutral atmosphere. Solution in acid of the separate metals and of the small formation the of of the heat as relatively compound gives MgZuo
*
vol.
xx.
p. 443.
The
value
of 1314 cal.
Propertiesof Metals
Calculation
state at
and
Alloys
must
291
shows
that the
compound
the
be
fairly
low
for
temperatures, but
a
600
"
is
to likely
be too
low
to
much
greater heat
it should be
13,000
account
cal.
to
that
stable
at
attempt
of
vapour-densityat
on
failed,on
of
rapid action
glass,and
different temperatures and adopted distilling pressures, and determiningthe compositionof the distillate. It is found that at 444"
at two
C. the
compound is stable,whilst
at
380"
C.
even
small
quantity of
is present. [It should be noticed compound containingmore mercury that the most stable compound of the series, indicated by the equias librium of the liquid diagram and also by the electrical conductivity amalgams, is not NagHg but NaoHg.] C. H. D.
"
Lead
immiscible
to be
and
Arsenic.
"
The
alloysof
lead
and
arsenic
have
been
again examined
It has been supposed that a region of by W. Heike.* shown not liquidphases exists in the system, but this is now
of difficulty By using sealed the
the case, the previousresult having been due to mixing two substances of such different densities.
furnace,which could be repeatedly inverted, perfectmixture Avas obtained,and alloyscontaining even more than 60 per cent, by weight of arsenic could be prepared. The freezingis a simpleone, the two branches meeting in a eutectic point point curve of arsenic (3"2per cent, by weight). at 280" C. and 8-25 atomic cent, per There is no indication of solid solutions, and compounds are not formed. of the the of 852" C. arsenic curve Extrapolation as gives melting point
tubes, heated porcelain
an
in
electric
"
C. H.
D.
general review of is given by some metallurgical investigations J. H. The chief methods of producing alloys,including Stansbie.f of compression of metallic powders, are Spring'smethod given. The in which the constituents of distributed a are given alloy way through
"
Modern
of
Views
of
Non-Ferrous
Alloys.
the
results of modern
its
are
mass
and
the
manner
in which
affects its
two
properties
only alloysare solid solutions and compounds, the so-called free metals being very dilute solid solutions. A short account is given of the methods employed togetherwith results obtained in investigations of the relations of solid solutions and of alloys. The three compounds to the physicaland chemical properties
constituents
of
" "
considered,the author
takingthe view
methods
and chemical. physical, microscopical, The and used described to electrolytic theory of corrosion is briefly the corrosion of and when metals of the to action explain alloys exposed electrolytes. The author, however, considers that corrosion may not
are
*
discussed
International Journal of Metallography, 1914, vol. vi. p. 49. t Proceedingsof the Birmingham Metallurgical Society, 1911-13, vol.
v.
p. 25.
292
Abstracts
of Papei's
to suggest that appears the question.
action,and always be ascribed to electrolytic purely chemical action may have a bearingon
The
from the use of pure nitric acid as a resulting gaseous products solvent for metals are stated to be nitric and nitrous oxides, nitric oxide, perwhilst and and ammonia nitrite, are nitrate, hydrogen, nitrogen, of these By the quantitativedetermination has been the metals studied action of by alloying products nitric acid compared with that of the pure metals. the alloys upon in view of their great practical The copper-arsenic alloys, importance, A series of ten alloyswith arsenic, studied. have been specially varying the of nitrous acid from O'Ol to 3"0 per cent., was examined, weight constant left in solution after treating a weight of alloyin a constant formed
in
the
solution.
the
eifect of
"
with the measured being taken, together of gases evolved, as criteria for making a comparison. The quantities quantitiesof nitric oxide and nitrous acid pass through a minimum whilst that of nitrogen at a composition of passes through a maximum 0*25 per cent, arsenic. examination is said to show that Microscopical marks of arsenide of copper in this composition the limit of solubility [This is considerably below the limit given by Friedrich, copper.
volume
of
dilute
nitric acid
"
Hill, this Metallurgie, 1905, vol. ii. p. 477, also by Bengough and Journal, No. 1, 1910, vol. iii. Note by abstractor.] Assuming that the related to the chemical the physical are closely properties, properties
"
author
be
the opinionthat the useful expresses worked is 0'25 per cent. and annealed
to
The
behaviour
up
to
of the
per
cent,
40
series is also instanced, taining alloysconcopper-zinc of zinc giving almost identical reactions with
zinc a quantitative effect upon of copper ; with more the reaction In neutral is observable. solution, alloys copper-nitrate containing up to
those
30
per
cent,
zinc
affected,whilst
much
those
extent
"
more containing
smaller
solvents
pure
zinc. 70-30
that
the
a-solid solution
of other
the
alloy consists
and
"
is very
stable towards
nitric of the
acid,
pound com-
to the stability
presence
in solid solution
As
another
instance 50
of the
modification
of
the
action
of
solvents
by
the protecting
pletely com-
As which
In
an are
instance
not
of the behaviour
but
in solid solution
alloysare
a
given.
whilst
numerous.
alloythe lead is distributed in largesegregations, slowly-cooled smaller but more in a rapidly-cooled are alloythe segregations
The
cause
latter
dissolved
more
rapidly in nitric
acid
than
the
former, the
a
being attributed
of contacts.
"
to
greaternumber
Potassium
F. J.
and
Rubidium
pressure
294
Abstracts
of
the
"
of Papers
"
Specific Heat
Rolla
*
Solid
atomic
Solutions."
deals
with
a
solid solutions
curve.
curve
of atomic
the
ing-point freez-
heats of the the specific investigated copper-nickel, gold-copper, followingseries of solid solutions : silver-gold, values The pared comare experimental nickel-manganese,manganese-copper.
The
author
has
with
fair
those
calculated
"
by the author's
H. D.
theoretical
and formulae,
agreement
is found.
C.
Thermo-electric
Pelabon
maximum
Power
of
of
Selenides.
with
"
Measurements selenium
at
by
a
H.
t show
in the
that
curve
alloys of antimony
thermo-electric
have
strong
power
the
composition
SbgSeg
The
when
force
measured is
a
againstplatinum.
at
The
value
maximum
700" C.
same
author
has
on
examined
the D.
curve,
Only a alloysof tin with selenium. the with that namely corresponding
C. H.
Alloys.
"
The the
reduction
of
by
reducing metal,
with
simultaneous
the basis of many metal, has formed however, producehomogeneous high titanium that
to have
overcome
these,
claims
alloys. by
as
"
by which
mixture The
when
this
gives
be
several
alternative
obtained H. for
use
of aluminium
and
a
copper. metal
"
D.
productionof
added
to
metallic
compound
is
and
purifyingagent
and
molten
patented by
carbon the
A.
J. Kossi
are
are
W.
F.
Meredith. crucible
of
1| Iron,
an
titanium
oxide,
electric
furnace, and
is
cast
"
conditions
give the
mass,
when
the
charge
as
quickly
H.
as
formation
carbon. of graphitic
D.
Type
a
Metal
0-39
Oxidation.
cent,
"
that
mony, anti-
type
metal and
containing 80-30
per of
of
lead, 19-21
acted
water.
so on
per In
cent,
of
arsenic
is not
by ordinary hard
observed this respect it is thus
by distilled
of
often
the
on
action the
of
condensed
is
a
the
grey
powder
metallic
which
mony. antiper the be
collects
surface
mixture
hydroxide and
A
cent,
of lead
less lead
comparison with type metals containing 72-12 and 82-34 that resistant the alloys are shows more respectively Washing with turpentineor petroleumis to they contain.
with
water.
"
to washing preferred
C. H.
D.
* vol. xxiii., No. 1, p. G16. Atti Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 1914 [v.], % Ibid., p. 1897. t Comptes Rejidiis, 1914, vol. clviii. p. 1669. Engineering, 1914, vol. xii. (No. 5), p. 352. " Metallurgical and Chemical II Ibid., (No. 6), p. 413. IT Zeitschrift fUr angewandte Chemie, 1914, vol. xxvii. p. 436.
The
Propertiesof Metals
Alloys.
"
and
Alloys
the
two
295
Zinc-Silver-Lead
B. The
This
are
system
melted The
has been
partly studied by
ing result-
three metals
togetherand
determine
solidification.
triangulardiagram given is
the
not
isothermal, and
the
"
it is not D.
to possible
equilibrium
from
figures. C. H.
\l\"IND Aluminium
of horst show the the
U STRIA Steel
A P PLICA
TIONS.
mittee ComWick-
and
American
states
a
that tests
on
of aluminium
takes
on
Bessemer
the
that
consolidation
is
ingot head
on
greater,and
small
ingots pipingin
along the
Tests
in
ingotare
absent.
aluminium-treated
ment improve-
and considerable increases in transverse strengthand ductility carbon steel. in cent, the of 0"61 before case breaking per flange sag uniform of more were as a mould-addition Ingotstreated with aluminium the former of Bessemer than steel, composition throughout ingots plain steel but having denser having largerand deeper pipes than the latter, in the neighbourhoodof the pipes. F. J.
of
"
Aluminium
of it
in
Automobile
is
Industry.
"
It
is stated
that
the
in aluminium chill-casting
automobile
very
over
parts, to
in the preparasuperseding the sand-casting tion which it readilylends itself and to which It also
gives a
Perfect
pleasing lustre.
the
possesses series
In
an
other
than
artistic
advantages
reason
of
of
the
the
mould.
off
by
the and of in
initial cost of
is
quicklyset
by
the
labour
and
by
the
are
avoidance
of wasters.
Owing
air the
a
metal
The
be
formed
manufacturing
; in a
expenses,
case
allows of
diminution
in thickness per
cent,
was
of metal
effected.
special
use
quoted
The
savingin
are
weight of 20
mechanically serviceable that it is proposed to parts aluminium produced in this way for moving parts, e.g. for pistons.
so
crank case forming the largealuminium base for a twelve-cylindermarine gasolineengine built for the new hydroplane. Disturber IV. (U.S.A.). The castingweighed .365 lbs. in in an ordinary flask, in green sand the rough ; it was moulded using a crank the the wooden case being centre, split through pattern, which was A
photographis given" of
Comptes Rendus,
t Iron Trade Revieiu, 1914, vol. liv. p. 589. X Mdtauxet Alliages, 1914, vol. vii. No. 12, p. 7. " The Foundry, July 1914, vol. xliii. p. 262.
,
296
moulded the metal
90 its sides.
was
Abstracts
on
of Papers
along one side,and time, using crucibles
poured
Six gates entered the mould at one through six runners aluminium each.
"
holding
lbs. of molten
F. J.
Aluminium
issued
the
use
Network
aluminium
as an
Feeders.
"
Reference
is made
to
leaflet
on
by
note
of
a
additional
overhead
feeder to
an
outlying
safety
of portion
network.
a
The
sag
is 12 inches for
lbs.
as
span
of 120
factor of
the
breaking load
of the hard-drawn
aluminium
bonds with
are
are
used
no throughout,
other
metal terminal
being brought
where poles,
out
the
aluminium
except
connect
on
at
the
clamps special
of the
employed to
boxes. made
to the
copper
leads, taken
aluminium the form
cable
and
are
The
end
connection
of
between
and
kicking coils
cable
"
by
means
aluminium
clamps in
of
lugs. F. J.
of
a
Application
Reference
is made
Protective
J. Osborne
Metal
Surface
of
by Spraying."
a
by
to the invention
Japanese
lurgist, metal-
and
surface
be coated with aluminium to steel may in first the instance, tinned, or is,
prevent
immersed with
is
in molten
steel wire
aluminium,
brushes
to
under
the
surface
zinc
or
which
it is scrubbed
remove
the metal
coating,which
is coating
The
with
its
through which
it may
have
to
cannot, however, be
jected subthe
process.
The
proceeds to
describe The
development
described
of the
evolved finally
is not that
spraying of metals.
by the author.
It is stated
density(9-5)of
lower than that of a steam was superheated with hydrogen. sprayed of flow Hydrogen,for a givenpressure, possesses a much highervelocity with metal is the than superheated steam, and so projected pulverized is proportional This increase of energy proportionately greater energy. it is therefore a nd of the the to possibleto vary the velocity, square in order to obtain a density suitable for any particular velocity purpose. of the sprayed coatingsis usually hardness The greater than that of
the cast
metal.
be put are given, sprayedcoatings may for electrical resistances, the coppering and include thin sprayed strips of electrical and electrode ends, the perfecting of carbon brushes contacts, structural of the broken the mending of cracked surfaces, or galvanizing Instances of the
use
to which
Iron
and
Coal
Trades
Review,
p. 203.
t Machinery, 1914,
The
iron
Properties of Metals
aeronautical
wooden
"
and
Alloys
and
work,
the
coating of
ravages,
fabrics
wooden
"c.
F. J.
Babbitt
and
in the
other
Electric of
Bearing
Journal,
Metals.
T.
"
In
an
article which
*
first
ditions con-
appeared
to
J.
Johnston
reviews
the
of service be
the anti-frictional
alloys. The
are following
stated
good bearing material should fulfil: It of sufficient be heat not must strength to sustain its load ; it must be capable of being easily have good worked rapidly ; it must ; it must anti-frictional properties, and different internal structure a durability, from that of the revolving journal which it has to support.
the which requirements The metals
are
given
as
enteringinto
the
compositionof
copper, list would be and
"
white
metal
alloys
bismuth
aluminium,
recommended.
[A
more
a
correct
lead,
The
copper,
"
zinc ; sometimes
little
bismuth,
other occasionally
elements.
Ed.]
discussed,bronze being used composition of bearingshells is fully in railway work because its use certain the completion of a run makes the if accidental overheating babbitt melt even occurs. though liningmay The anchor holes or grooves provided in iron shells are not necessary in all bronze if properly If used, they tinned." shells,especially should be small and few in number. sion Tinning" is effected by immerin the 1 and uniform 1 solder, and the coating should be i:)erfectly
" "
over
of The the
"
will result. A thin wash the entire surface ; otherwise loose linings " talcum should be appliedto the parts not requiring water tinning.
babbitt
"
still hot
from
(88"88 per
excellent
to
such
an
antimony, and 3"7 per cent, when properly made ; the cost of tin has properties the use of a cheaper metal necessitate extent to as
cent,
tin,7'4
per
cent,
The
the
use
place. metal in melting babbitt to be observed precautions of an electric temperature-regulator being advocated
a
lead in its
are
stated,
for maintaining
constant
temperature of
of
a
about
465"
C. of the The
use
Efficient
use stirring,
of scrap metal, and periodical of dross are advisable. removal of a bearing metal lies in the ability of the bearingsurface to resist the minute in the steel inequalities
merit
yield to and not journal. Consequently the bearingsurface,instead of being injured by contact and momentary high the way is smoothed and coefficient of friction, burnished, thus preparing for a uniform coefficient of running friction. oil film with a minimum in addition to their antiThe other advantages of white-metal alloys, frictional properties, run to melt and discussed,whilst their liability are
from
the
bearingshell
if accidental
Babbitt
is not overlooked. occurs overheating receives specialattention, whilst history, of of mandrels, method given for the preheating its
World,
Mechanical
298
A bs tracts
of Papers
temperature.
areas,
If the
temperature is
are
and
"
broken
anchors
results.
the
slow
if too
low,
"
coarse
granular
the
structure
of
as cooling,
influenced
by
high temperature
constituents
and
of shell
or
mandrel,
results in
of hardness.
lack of
uniformity
are
Details
repair work
in of
also
given.
Three
the
mandrels article
described
ings, bearbabbitting
the
three
types
described.
In
a
subsequent issue f H.
comments
on
W.
Hawkins
discusses
the
same
subject,
tions. sugges-
adding
L. and of
the
former
article and
making
further
D.
Allen
discusses
the
suitable material importanceof selecting in reducing friction and bearing surfaces antifrictional
machinery.
He
states
or
that
properties are
A
metal
of
more
compressive strength. and content good compressive strength would readilyoverheat at high speed, owing to the generation of heat being faster
importancethan
tensile
with
high
and than
tin
fuse its
the
which
metal
of
the
wear
expense and
of
even
temperature
entail of
running
in antifrictional
of the
therefore
great
a
requirements
various
are as
detailed.
metals follows
:
used
reviewed, and
the
their influences
Tin
toughens, lowers
lowers softens, reduces
in
assists
producing
antifrictional
reduces
pr")]:)erties.
meltingpoint,and
than any metal.
friction
cheap babbitt
metals.
raises the
melting point.
It
slightly
Antimony
fracture. The
hardens
and
raises
the
melting point.
friction.
It
improves the
metals
are
reduces
produces a crystalline
and
greatest with
Bismuth
On
account
Third
proportionof 13 per cent, antimony. lowers the melting point, reduces shrinkage and friction. of its costliness, it is not in great favour. man, [CompareGoodto the Alloys Research Committee liejjort (1895),p. 289.
"
maximum
Ed.]
Aluminium Babbitt
toughens but
metals
are
increases
the
divided
into
three
Machinery August 6, 1914, vol. iv. p. 595. t Ibid., September 24, 1914, vol. iv. p. 822. + Mechanical World, July 10, 1914, vol. Ivi. p. 16.
,
The alloys,in
metals 10
to
of Metals Properties
lead tin and
is
and
metal
Alloys
;
299
which
the lead
predominant
are
(2)
semi-tin-based
in which 20
per
about
equal,the
which
cent.;
(3) tin-based
metals
contain
per For
cent.
tin.
lead-antimony and
metals made
period is recommended
Babbitt
lead-antimony-tinalloys a lengthyannealing to obtain uniformity and homogeneity. from pure metals are to those produced preferred
in order
It is claimed
by of properties
Reference
the reduction
the
of dross.
into
the
alloysthan chemical
*
composition. F.
of
J.
to practicaltests conducted of bronze journalbearingscomposed of 65 per determine the efficienc}' solid cent, 30 cent, lead, and 5 per cent. tin. They were per copper, babbitt bronze no surface, but could scarcely lay castings requiring claim to be new in composition to one of the well; they corresponded to
is made
the
results
known years. In
which
have
been
in
use
in
America
for
some
test
Baltimore
tender of
a
and
placed under
had
run
the
Ohio
to
have
worn
^.V inch
only
and
to have
given
no
trouble
in
heating.
"
tested in the form of 75-pound mill For mill purposes, the bronze was under the rolling brasses" table of a 108-inch platemill,the minimum of which
was
weight
The
estimated
at
10,000 lbs.
service
for four
bearings
"
gave
continuous
weeks
without
lubrication.
F. J.
Bronzing
by
a
of Metals
of other
and
Alloys.
"
The
bronzingof
to
common
metals
them
process
atmosphericand
is described
protect
iron
from
confer
j in detail.
Conditions
for the
bronzingof
by
for
some
steel,
in
an
tin, and
also and
are
nickel those
chemical
the
bronzing by
treatment
of iron
steel and
non-ferrous
alloys.
F. J.
Cold
of
a
An
10
illustrated
chilled rolls. striprollingmachine, by in a sliding is fixed, The upper the lower roll being mounted roll-bearing of wedges and mild steel screws bush which is adjustableby means nected conto allow either end by bevel gearing,which may be disconnected plate, in the baseof the roll to be separately collects Lubricant adjusted. and is conveyed to a drain. The roll-housings, pinions, coupling
cold
inch
and
method
of drive
are
described.
"
F. J.
The of practice
Bronze
and
*
Cast
Trade
et
Iron
Bearings"
manufacturers
Iro7i
t M^taiix X American
1914, vol. liv. p. 1009. Alliages,May 15, 1914, vol. vii. No. 9, p. 7. Machinist, August 22, 1914, vol. xli. p. 24 E. Review,
300
of
A bstracts
machine-tools
in
of Papers
criticized
by repairswhich
The author's
C. C.
omitting to put bushings in wherever possibleis Anthony,* who emphasizes the important savingin
be
might otherwise
of cast
effected.
bronze
to
relative merits
iron and
for
bushingsare considered,
the
experience inducinghim
lie claims
iron,for which
of
better when
troublesome
rate
conditions
a preferencefor cast and less aggravation equalities wearing the bearingsbecame hot, owing to the
"
entertain
lower
of
expansionof cast
iron.
F. J. An
Copper-Coil Forming
given t
of
a
Machine.
to
"
illustrated
descriptionis
with together
machine
designed
coil copper
and coiling it lighting systems, taking the copper in strips F. J. arbor. of insulation on a rectangular a strip
"
Copper
of
a
for
Drilling Holes
in
Glass.
in
"
By
a
means
of
drill
down
sisting conon
to
in
up glassupon which a mixture of emery and be readily pierced, if the the glass may sides
or
pieceof
set copper-tubing
oil has
dropped, holes
on
operation is carried
from
both
jV
inch
conductor local
alternately. having a wall-thickness of J The copper-tubing is soft enough to hold the emery, and, being an excellent of heat, prevents cracking from which would excessive ensue
more
"
heating.
a
F. J.
Drawing
the
TF
Circular
he
Brass
had in
Cup.
"
A
a
writer
brass
outlines stock
experiencewhich
inch thick.
drawing
from
the
difficulties
means
several
drawings
of
"
the
F.
various
J.
punches
used
for
the
drawing
and
upsetting
operations.
Firebox
in firebox
is
are one
Riveting Device.
described
the
"
device
for
using two
by J.
means
air hammers
is stay-bolts riveting
and
illustrated
to
K.
Long. ||
small
The
inverted, and
other
device
can
fastened be
moved
it.
Inside
of
wrought iron
handles
pipes
from
to
pipes,which
to
by
point
another.
After
to
a
hammers
be
used, air
is admitted the
thus cylinder,
are
where
hammer usual
against
way.
"
which stay-bolts,
then
riveted
in
the
F. J.
Gas-heated
heated
are
Soldering
eightsmall
Iron.
"
are
given
In
of
gas-
iron soldering
introduced
by
holes
^
cap
two
largeand
*
which
Machinery, September 24, 1914, vol. iv. p. 815. t Atnerican Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. p. 171. X Machinerv 1914, vol. iv. p. 757" Ibid. p. 505. II America?! Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. p. 164. 11 Mechanical World, 1914, vol. Ivi. p. 9.
, ,
302
has adherent,
a
Abstracts
more
of Papei^s
has spangle, smaller
of alloy and crystals, low
beautiful
is free from discolorations. Aluminium should be added in the form of an It is claimed that the than 480" C). point(lower
due
to the
melting
increased
and to the influence of aluminium deoxidizing It is for of the the latter iron. only precipitation purpose that
is used
not
in
whilst wire-galvanizing,
for hard-drawn
carbon-steels it should
"
clear " the bath " is inadvisable in baths containing cake " as the zinc does not then rollers, the rollers. on bath are distributed The average losses of zinc in a wire-galvanizing
The
as
follows
:
"
68 18 12 2
per cent, in the coating. 91 per cent. zinc. per cent, to form dross containing 66 to 68 per cent. zinc. per cent, to form ashes containing "c. per cent, volatilization,
Reference is made
made Revue
to reduce
in detail to the various attempts which have been of which had been previously described in some losses,
of these innovations
a
de
Metallurgie.Several
zinc.
take
of advantage
the
of iron in insolubility
lead,and
a superimposed layerof
baths
by
the author
are
illustrated and
F. J. of locomotive subject
Locomotive
of and
Boiler Tubes.
"
A treatise *
on
the
fixing. For
brass
are
the material of which they made and methods are the material iron is preferred but copper by the majority,
the United
used by a considerable minority.Iron is much used in States and in Canada ; brass in Belgium and India,where is bad ; steel in France,where the water is good; and copper
:
in Australia
all four
are
used
in the United
are as
Kingdom.
follows the
:
claimed advantages of
Low
initial cost,
retention
less
shape
of
firebox
withstand
higher
fore there-
and tube-plates
leakage. The or comparedwith brass and copper are : Pitting disadvantages i n service unsuitable to lower thermal water), conductivity, grooving (due and lower value as scrap when no longer serviceable. The various ways of fixing tubes in tube-plates employedby different
are railways
described. and
ferrules are almost universally used at copper tubes, the firebox end, for,in addition to keeping the tube tight, they protect the internal front end from the abrading action of ashes and cinders With
brass drawn
in
by
the blast.
ends
Flanged ferrules
of
are
used
by
some
are
to railways
protect the
beaded
the
tubes.
Illustrations
given and
of the British method of securing include representations brass tubes,of of securing the Continental method iron tubes with copper ends,of the
*
Mechanical
The
American
end and of the the
over.
Prope7'ti"s of Metals
of
a providing
and
Alloys
the iron
303
tube
method
thin copper
method
providingseveral
into the firebox method
tube
is
expanded
to
and tube-plate
Reference
where
is made
come
the
of
Swedish
the
they
in contact
are
with the
Illustrations
given
of
and operations,
the tool
hammers. the
"'tinning"tube ends copj^er tube-plate. ing" "expanding,"and "bead"inserting," ends tube the for used beading" over
of
"
by
means
of
pneumatic
of
tubes
at
is tube-plate
attributed
less to
alternate
coolingthan to cold feed and existence of scale. Where hot feed is used, leakageis comparatively rare. of tube The ends reduced owing to the length of tube tightness in thick tube-plates has been counteracted by unprotectedby water
"
"
method in the
used
in the
United
States:
the
tube
end
is beaded
over
flange
only about two-thirds into hole,the tube thus reaching tube-plate the of the plate. A is inserted between the thickness copper-ferrule tube end and that part of the plateagainst which the tube bears. illustration is given of the method An employed on the Lancashire
and
Yorkshire and
of
expanded
Methods
and
fixed in the
the
order
in
which
tubes On
are
tubes repairing
described
brass
and
illustrated. brazed
new
on
Indian
Continental brass
or
With
ends
to
ends
only
been
method. satisfactory
For the
renovation
a
of
copper
tubes
installed removal
with
by
of their
their
length, original
reduced slightly
F. J.
Making
made copper
the
Dies
to
for
Drawn
of
Copper Shell"
the
actual dies
preliminary
ferrules for
the
manufacture
are
for
Experiments producing
by A. C. Lindholm.* dimensions The ferrules were to have the following : inside diameter, of inch ; the ends material, \\i inches; length,\\ inches; thickness y^ the sides parallel for electrical contact. to be flat and were It was found possible to design dies to produce these ferrules in three and without annealing, viz. a drawing, a flattening, a sizing operations and The dies and punches are trimming operation. experimental
fuses cartridge
described
described.
bottom of
With the
punch,
fracture
was
occurred
at
the
was
information
gained.
shell in
one
It
then
was
necessary
to
ascertain
if the
productionof
the
draw
and this was done feasible, by rounding off the bottom of the punch ; drawn shell being produced without fracture. this resulted successfully, a then A single-acting at a speed of used, and, if run power press was strokes per minute, shells could be produced without fracture. thirty-five
*
American
Machinist,
304
The
Abstracts
of Papers
as
design of
the
dies
was
such
to
allow
of uniform
pressure
on
requiredangle was blank, and dishing of the blank drawn die and the blank was entered before the over cuttingpunch and and drawing punch out knockthe plug. The drawing die mth cutting it being arranged for a singledescribed and illustrated, is clearly with ability on a double-acting principle, acting drawing die to work
the the also to dish the blank.
ing operationof squaringthe bottom of the shell in a flattenand illustrated. the a operation flattening During outside small bulge appeared at the bottom edge of the shell,but was of a sizingand removed trimming by the third operation,by means the illustrated i s Before treatment which of an description given. die, the and when forced than in diameter thus, shell is slightly die, larger with and leaves burnished becomes the a slightly punch, through by The
to the
efl'ectedas
second
die
is described
smooth
surface.-
"
^F. J.
Manufacture
method
for
of Seamless
seamless
at
a
Tubes.
tubes.
"
L. J. Krom molten
metal
describes is
new a
making
The
poured
into
mould, which
side up
is rotated outside
metal
being thrown
to the
by
to
Tubes
be
any
manufactured wall
22
diameter, of
feet
long.
J. L. H.
Metals
and
die
Castings." E.
F.
Lake
t classifies
alloysfor
castingsinto : alloyswith a lead base,alloyswith a zinc The other metals used may be selected base, and alloyswith a tin base. from antimony, bismuth, boron, cadmium, copper, aluminium, nickel, and iron. silver, For the dies special alloysteels have been found superiorto bronze,
cast
Lead-base
cannot
easilycast,
service.
but
In Table
use as
I.
are
given the
suitable alloys
for
die-castings.
alloys for the purpose of Antimony is used in nearly all die-casting shrinkage,but zinc-base alloysrequirelittle (1 to 2 per cent.), lessening the low and shrinkage. Antimony reduces owing to their hardness of 13 per antimony content shrinkage of lead progressively up to an
cent. ; this influence
then
falls off to
at
minimum
at
35
per
cent,
mony, anti-
a againreaching
maximum
lead-antimony alloysmaximum 17"3 per cent, antimony. of shrinkage in a die-casting is said to be increased by The amount the metal into the moulds. Bismuth the pressure employed for forcing is twice as efficient as antimony in causing an alloyto completely fillthe within 0"005 inch of correct size ; mould, thus enabling it to be made bismuth costly. is,however, twenty times more
Of
*
off. 50 per cent, and again falling that hardness is attributed to ing contain-
Metal
Industry, 1914,
t Mechanical
World,
The
Propertiesof Metals
and
Alloys
105
Table
I.
"
Table
II.
"
Zinc-base
Alloysused for
Die-moulded
Castings.
One
per
cent,
copper
also
added. 4 '5.
t By analysis.
J Phosphor copper,
106
of Papers
be the
be high. The unless the copper highest tensile strength is obtained by keeping both copper and tin A to purify little aluminium be used 2 and 5 per cent. between may
; tin should
exceed
15 per cent,
but in high percentages will raise the melting point. strengthen, The suited for bearing metals. alloys are stated to be more analyses are given : following and Tin-base
"
White
Tin
. .
Bronze.
Per
Cent. 29 0
65-0
.
Zinc
Copper
4-5 1-5
.
Antimony
Aluminium Lead
.
Parmns'
Tin Zinc
White
Bronze.
Per m 38 2 Cent. "5
Copper
Antimony
Aluminium Lead
........
1
........ .......
0 0
great need
in the
manufacture
"
of
F.
is a die-castings
method
for preventing
at sponginess
the centre.
J.
Making
describes
a
Half-round
method
for
Polished
Brass
Moulding.
use on
"
A.
Grieve
of motorcar
making
brass
moulding for
sawn
edges
in
a
Brass
was
in
two
halves
specially
steel holder ; the interior of the halves were then The method of slitting is illustrated, filled with soft solder. "F.J.
Non-ferrous
are
Mixtures.
"
Patents
by E. D. Gleason
bronze.
of
New
York
fused
described
1.
as
follows
Improvement
of
in manufacture calcium
of aluminium
one mass
Into
bath
three
parts
aluminium
and
ingotsare
introduced, and
The
latter
are
added
under
of ten oxide
parts
copper
melted
charcoal
and
black
alloys for bearing metals. copper-tin in is said to be overcome The trouble of lead segregation these alloys by derivative of An -metallic lead,e.g. galena. a non example incorporating lead-copperand
*
of manganese. 2. Plastic
alumina.
American
Machinist,
t The
Foundry,
The
is
Propertiesof Metals
galenabeing added
lbs.
to
an
and
Alloys
307
given, 5
lead
"
lbs. of
5
GO
of
and
of
tin.
Such
F. J.
Schoop
of M.
Processes
account
of Metallization.
in
"
full discussion
of
Vezoul's
Industrielle
the
processes.! The
of other metals shown
taken known
various
to
of
metals coating
are
deposits
molten
when
it is prior that the principle of the Schoop process was embodied in a patent manufacture of accumulator for the out thirty : plates years ago lead was by a jet of steam into a metallic trellis, which, projected
Schoop'sinvention
reviewed,and
as
an
accumulator
plate.
the pulverized by Schoop is described, and metal the cleaned to previously being projectedon object, of the depositbeing perfect. It is suggested warmed, the adherence that the force with which the solid molecules are driven against the surface of the body bringsthem into the liquid or, at anyrate, the malleable in perfect them and the consequent formaunion between tion state, resulting of a homogeneous body. of metallization is based on this conception, method the new Schoop's apparatus being supplied with powdered metal prepared by the original The by the coating thus produced is equal to that j^roduced process. is superiorin density to the molten rolled of liquidmetal, and or use is of the new metal. A description given. apparatus The metallic particles carried with a are speed which depends on
The
of apparatus used
several
of density
metal
; the
the be
gas, fineness
measured
of
ticles, par-
or directly
hardness
of the gas and the nature of the coat, depending upon be determined the of can metal, also upon pulverization, degree
but experiment,
is under
control.
The
be
most
energy
in the
is transferred projectedparticles
to melt
may
supposed temporarily
essential condition
them
and
thus
promote
coat
A
of for
for
a
homogeneity of the
neutral
or
oxide
reducing
the zinc
gas
should
and
of the coat
pressure pointedout that the of hydrogen)of 5 kilogrammesper sq. centimetre, is 7"42, its (presumably with a density hardness being 48 per cent, greater than that of cast zinc, of 7-29.
taken.
process has
been
alloys, e.g.
copper,
pistol sprayer,
is described
to high melting point metals applicable and even bronze, gold,nickel,platinum, glass. and thread which metallic is melted in a verized, pul-
made
and
illustrated. shows
et
examination Microscopic
*
that
all the
pores
of the
metallized
Mitaux
Alliages 1914,
,
to
p. 124
7, p. 3. volume.
308
Abstracts
are
of Papers
coat
body
characteristic
portion pro-
Many
"
uses
of applications
bodies
are
discussed.
F. J.
Separation
of bismuth
of
Bismuth
the of
*
from
United
Copper.
States
"
process
for
the
covery re-
from
of by-products
patented
by William
The
Thum,
the
KefiningCompany.
to all materials is applicable showing a concentration of process the copper of copper. bismuth in the presence It consists in converting the wth alkali bismuth into matte metal, sulphide, leaving by fusing
electrically. and bismuth antimony, and (arsenic, containing copper is oxidized, lead having been removed crushed, and mixed by cupelling) and carbon with an alkali sulphide, or preferablywith an alkali sulphate mixture coke is in cake and The smelted a reverberatory breeze). (salt to be scraped down furnace breast which can providedwith a cupelling in added amounts follow the level of the charge. Fluxingingredients are equal to about two and a half times the theoretical requirementsfor the
can
which
be
treated
The
material
reduction
and
conversion
of
at
of the
metals
on
and
salts.
bismuth.
The
mass,
when
fectly per-
consists liquid,
the copper
three
the
layers:
bottom in
top
is the
matte, and
in the
the
present, are
will be found
concentrated
matte.
mainly
The
the
bismuth, but
matte not
more are
certain amount
slag and
drawn
than
separately,
leavingthe
1 per cent, of than is 1 per cent, bars and refined. When cast into anode more copper, of copper is found, the metal is oxidized by blowing air it,and
bismuth, which,
if it contains
through
the
repeated.
be
When
the
bismuth
contains
much
recovered
the
stopped when
of
a
nearlyall
the product,the by oxidizing ing bismuth is oxidized, the residue then consist"
rich
bulUon. gold-silver-bismuth
D.
H.
Railway Waggons. (issuedby the Raihvay Clearing House) to the standard and drawingsrelating to privateowners' specifications waggons of Great the railways Britain and Ireland, there appear the following on
Standard
In
an
in
"
addendum
for specifications
"
brasses
"
"
and
white
be
an
metals
for
use
in axle-boxes.
Brasses." the
'"'"
Brass
bearingsto
"
alloyof
copper,
tin,and
zinc in
proportions: following
Copper
Tin Zinc
. . .
Per 84
. . . . . .
Cent.
to
88 4
10 to 12
. . . . . .
2 to
White and
Metals.
"
White
metal
to
be
"
an
alloyof
copper,
tin,antimony,
lead in the
: following proportions
Metallurgical a7id
Iron and Coal
Chemical
vol. xii.
Trades
Review,
310
More in the main blades recently
Abstracts
have been
of Papers
with feet which fitinto a groove provided between the blades dovetail into the element. Spacers blade-carrying the the bladingand rendering interlocking groove, thus completely
strengthof attachment
equal to
that
of the blades
themselves.
"
F. J.
Straightening
a
Aluminium
Tubes.
"
is given* description
of
tubes 2 feet 9 inches aluminium employed for straightening long by 3 inches diameter, and 0' 1 inch wall-thickness ; these were bent from ^ to ^ inch,and requireda bare 3V inch to be turned off to bring them to the required diameter. Each filled with well-dried finely -sifted silver sand, both ends tube was method
soft wood
to retain the
on
sand.
Bored
mild
steel end
a
placed
and
of
set.
the
ends
of each
a
bored the
applied with
as
tube
mild
guard
againstdistortion
fulcrum turned
to
tubes
they
were
The
tubes
the
required diameter.
and distortion from circularity, and prevented buckling sand-filling the fitted the outside of tubes on guaranteed end-plates being their truth at each end, and helped to prevent distension during the straightening operation. F. J. The the centred
"
Tungsten
described
For
rea.son
Uses.
"
in Adualites
use
of
tungsten
as
better suited than platinum,by tungsten seems and low vapour thermal hardness, conductivity, high great
pressure.
For used
an
(1800" C.) electrical tube furnaces it may be high-temperature the where round tube,or may constitute the tube itself, winding atmosphere of hydrogen or of hydrogen and nitrogen mixed is
for for
which
the
drawn
to a diameter
in
is suitable for
and watch-springs
Useful
cast
Annealing
blanks
Device.
to rotate
"
annealing of
slow
is described
and
iron wheel
is caused
are
by
of
worm
and
bevel gear
at
dropped into slots milled in the wheel, are and fall out by passage through a small gas-flame,
Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. p. 44. Alliages,May .30,1914, vol. vii..No. Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. p. 136.
American
et
t MHaux
10, p. 6.
X American
The
Properties
of
Metals
and
Alloys
is
F.
"
311
by
gravity
for
into
use
trough telephone
of
water.
The
apparatus
work.
specially
mended recom-
in
and
electrical
J.
Wire
clearance
Rings
around and the and
for
the also of
Leaky
Boxes.
"
In in
order the
to
close
up of
the the
piston-rod
at
engine,
bottom it wire
stuffing-box
to
the
bore
or
the
packing-gland,
a
is
proposed
of No. 5
replace
6 B.
ring
S.
babbitt
which
by
ring
up
of
copper
so
or
gauge,
take
much
space
as
the
former. The
method
of
fixing
the
rings
is
described.
*
"
F.
J.
Mechanical
WoHd,
1914,
vol.
Ivi.
p.
17.
312
ELECTRO-METALLURGY
ELECTRO CHEMISTRY.
AND
I."
ELECTRO-MET Nickel
ALL Aluminium."
URG
A
*
Y.
method
of
Deposition
alumijiiuia
The with
of
on
coating
by
E.
Tassily.
of
aluminium
bath
cent,
bath
after which iron per litre, when the nickel coat will be of
potash, washed with boiling bath of potassium cyanide for of hydrochloric acid containing it is nickel-plated in the usual
found
to
be
perfectlyadherent.
"J. L. H.
Electrolytic Treatment
Chile, according
to
of
Copper
Ores.
the
"
At
Chuquicamata,
which
is mainly Cappelen Smith,! ore, brochantite (basicsulphate of copper) mixed with salt in the upper is The first unit of the plant portions, to be treated by wet methods. now buildingis designed to treat 10,000 tons of ore per day, and the will have a capacity of 335,000 lbs. of copper electrolytic refinery per day. The crushed is at first leached with dilute sulphuric but the ore as acid, extraction proceeds no further acid is required,as the sulphuric acid increases content considerably. Chlorides are removed from the solution with shot copper in a revolving drum, the precipitated by treatment mixed with chloride limestone and coke, and being filter-pressed, cuprous smelted, giving a slagof calcium chloride. For the electrolysis of the solution, free from chlorine,insoluble now anodes of magnetite are These in Germany by a used. anodes, made the secret with hollow are on castings electro-plated process, copper inside. Good cathode quite free from arsenic and antimony, is copper, E. A.
obtained. The
will refinery r5
metres
consist of 510
tanks, 5'7
metres
wide, and
deep, made
for
The tanks will sheets. making cathode starting will be divided into 30 solution circuits. form 5 electric circuits, and The 13 x 5 x 120 magnetite anodes are centimetres, arranged five to a
bar.
*
The
Revue
cathodes
de
are
120
90
centimetres.
"\ Transactions
ElectrO'Chemical
1914, Society,
vol.
.\xv.
p. 193.
ElectroOther
account
Metallurgy and
described
processes
at
ElectroR.
Chemistry
who
313
plants are
of
by
R.
Goodrich, *
use.
the wet
a
present in
anode
more
In
also
suitable
have
insoluble
has
processes
use
been
employed
methods
of
R.
checking the
Deacon,
losses in
An
electrolytic copper
system
C. H.
of
"
are refining
discussed
by
W.
elaborate
in detail.
correlations
of
weighingsand analysesis
Electricsil
manufacture reference
described
D.
of
frames optical
the heat is produced by the same as of electricity i.e. the passage of a large current action, through the joint. The general method of holding the pieces to be of solderingconsists with the ends of the work A in firm contact. joinedby clampingjaws to melt heavy current of electricity regulatedto heat the jointsufficiently The in the the solder is then passed through the work. form of solder, tape or wire, is then applied to the joint. It flows in and round all parts heated
an
electrical
is
E.
the proper
using a
been
as
of
being left
in the
to
annealed
use
condition
when
flame.
This is attributed
the
of
alternating-
of which is on the surface of conductors, thus leaving currents, the the core at a temperature insufficiently high to effect annealing. flow
Two
process
highly "tempered"
offer the
same
wires
to
soldered
togetherby
at
the
at
electrical
any
resistance
bending
the
joint as
other
point.
The
range of metals
for economical
electrical
No fumes noxious German are silver,gold,and silver. copper, of 3 5 seconds the is made to a joint produced; very rapidly, period
brass,
coveringthe operations of heating the joint,applying the solder,and off the current. shutting of optical are given of the electrical soldering Examples (illustrated) the ing the of of advantage frames, an instance being given process in renderhad been of working certain parts which the methods unnecessary order of to in softened recover some during the gas-soldering process stiffness. the original It is also claimed that the solder gainsin fluidity, owing to the absence of oxidation during the electrical process. for its is invariably current used^ the reasons High-voltagealternating direct current over superiority being set forth.
"
"
A
as
transformer
are
must
be
used, and
the of
construction
of
one
is
described,
at
also
two
the controlling
temperature
the
joint.
A
*
machine
Transactions
of the
1914, Soziety,
,
vol.
xxv.
t Ibid., p. 255.
X Machinery,
93, p. 456.
314
Abstracts fullydescribed
which has
made and been and found
of Papers
The
tion,are
illustrated.
most
suitable
metal and
jaws owing
of the
to
machine
are
of
the
;
low
between electrical
this
the work
owing
high
is less heated conductivity, by the copper and conducts the heat also from of the current, the work passage away metal than other available. commercially quicker any
thermal
work
in the of
case
of
metal gold-filled
to
prevent
scribed, de-
methods The
coatingwith
the
being given.
and
a
preparation of
to
method
of
feedingthe wire-solder
of overheating
overcome
Considerable
and
trouble,owing
has been the of metal the
the
been
perienced, ex-
by
to
the
This break
heatingcaused
at
become
of the work-holder.
parts
the
overcome
would
either Some
the
side
jointupon
of application
was
slightest
pressure.
trouble
experienced
at
by
these used.
making
contact
would points
When
of copper
happen when
silver
was
"F.J.
Nickel
as
Electro-Deposit.
"
The
chief
are
features discussed
of
nickel-plating
B. Barham.*
applied
to
electro and
stereotypes
by
G.
connected with the installation of small possibilities in tages The advanconsidered. are plants electro-depositing printing-works to the that the metal is uonblocks are printer of nickel-plated is oxidizable, it is termed, as very hard, takes ink well, and "gives ofiF," much In many of the red inks used by the printer, better than copper. in deterioration is of copper^ but being without present, resulting mercury effect on nickel. Nickel is also said to sharpen up the work.
The
commercial
Some
of the
nickel-faced
press
so
nickel
are
for of
a
that
they
or
much
better
than
a
stereos
is deposit
but sufficient,
the
heavier
one
electros
depending on
which it is the
of the
hardness, toughness,and
the
made,
hardness
and
at
surface which
packing,the speed
machine,
and the
ink.
the details
The The
main
features of the
necessary
reviewed,and
of the process. from the use of nickel-faced stereos resulting are in and time to last saving owing to their ability output throughouta run, no stoppages for renewals being necessary. 2. Saving in stereo metal, nickelled stereos giving250,000 impressions,
economies
"
1. Increased
whereas 3.
unfaced
stereos
may
have
to
be recast
after
15,000 impressions.
a
Saving
"
in
ink
"(about25
per
whilst cent.),
denser
colour
is
obtained.
F. J.
Plating
in Colours.
*
"
T. J.
Baker,f in
paper
read
p. 231.
to the
Institute
The Metal
Electrical
Review,
Industry, 1914,
and Electro-Metallurgy
of
Electrovarious
Chemistry
solutions
315
shows Electroplaters,
that
by using
and
of acetates,
and nitrates,
sulphates of
the
copper
zinc, it is
and
possibleto
He
get
various the
coloured
effects in
platingof
brass
copper.
divides
of the colours reagents into ten groups, and givesa description of the reagents are given. J. L. H. The composition
"
obtained.
Stripping
not
remove
of Plated
Goods."
such
as
Giraldus
Jones*
shows
alkalies will
mineral the
and
that
vaseline, from
a
is
frequent source
for this trouble in many cases. responsible Differential expansion of the plating and the platedmetal, as well as the effect of occluded hydrogen,is also invoked of stripping. as a cause
current
densityis also
"J.
L. H.
Treatment
of
ores
Tin
as
Ores
The by Electricity."
in the Revue Indusirielle
subject of the
is
smeltingof tin
The
discussed
reviewed.!
required smelting principle, process, considerable practical for its successful working. The ore, mixed experience with anthracite (culm), 20 heated in was usually to 25 per cent, of the charge, a slow, especifurnace,the rate of heating ally reverberatory being necessarily if the gangue in order loss of tin the in to avoid silicon, were slags. The sever^al details of the process, including and the of slags treatment of the crude tin,are described. refining In discussing that no advantage disthe electrical smeltingof tin,it is claimed in f urnace the from a accrues employment of well-designed
old Cornish
althoughsimple in
the
formation
of
"
hardhead
''
is
less, and
more
the process is economical where cheap power is available. The slag may contain as little as 0"25 per cent, tin, but economical which to leave 14 to 16 per cent, tin in the slags, in
a
it is
are
treated
second
furnace.
The
the
chemistryand
thermo-chemistry of the
energy
out
distribution
of electrical
In
by
it Polytechnic,
to too
found
that
continuous
and
to
great
production of heat
of
a
the
described.
arc was
The
formation
direct
avoided.
; such
Arrangements
to
were
made
to avoid
or
loss of tin
by volatilization
:
loss amounted
0*5
per
cent.,
yieldof tin, consumption of energy, and loss in the found connected. to comproeconomical It was are slag, closely mise very tin and between of slagscontaining 0*25 the production cent, per and of the production high current-consumption slagscontaining 17 to 19 per cent, tin and low current-consumption.During a week of continuous grammes kilo6498 mixture and of ore residues containing working a of tin yielded6428 a kilogrammes,this representing recovery
*
Metal M^taux
hidustry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 190. et Alliages 1914, vol. vii.. No.
,
10, p. 1.
316
of 96'75
Abstracts
per
of Papers
kilowatt
hours.
It is concluded
biggeryieldis
second of which
smeltingby
the
usingtwo
Pure
furnaces,in the
making
from
not
solder.
the with
commencement
with operations
the
Hand
labour
the
the
of electrodes
item. negligible
process F. J.
"
is less
reverberatoryfurnace.
Zinc
electro
Electro-metallurgy.
"
C. V.
Lordier*
reviews
at
length the
by dry methods. Important features of the the with furnace, are coarser compared Belgian-Silesian of the ore-charge and texture continuity of operation. The relative calorific efficiency of the electric furnace is discussed, and is claimed to be 60 per cent, as compared with 8 per cent, for the most modern Belgianmetallurgy
electric furnace, as Silesian
retorts
of
zinc
furnace.
Instead
of
dealing with
has the
infusible been
a
charges as
in
the
of the last-named
furnace, there
to
of
render
for inventors
discussed,those designed attention. by receiving special The Cute and Pierron process, however, is given the foremost place, in the feature of the the an of blende important smelting process being
types of
electric furnace De and Laval, Imbert-Fitzgerald,
from
cupolas.
Johnson
raw
state.
Whilst
the
difficulties of
of the which
In order to dispose operation of the c aused and disadvantages by the gases notablyby carbon monoxide, iron into Cote and Pierron have introduced impedes condensation, zinc
the
this method
increases
the A
charges.
vapours
are
"
The
thus blue
obtained
"
undiluted
with
carbon
monoxide.
and in
high
proportionof
prevent
chamber iron
in
powder
vapours also
order
to
this, the
filled with
through
any
an
vertical The
piecesof carbon.
reacts
the
not
charge
be
with
sulphideof
processes
need therefore,
previously separated by
be
The
molten and
lead may
the zinc
tapped
out
from
the
bottom
of
the
chamber,
the
then
driven
of vapour
smelting by raising
temperature.
been for carbon have substituted Recently lime and iron, and is given oif with the zinc vapours, it does not although carbon monoxide interfere with the production of fluid zinc, owing to the new type of heated condenser. electrically The of iron is somewhat be regenerated use by costly,but it may smelting the sulphideof iron in an auxiliaryelectric furnace with lime and carbon and the calcium ; the iron is used' again in the ore-charges,
*
M^taux
et
Alliages,1914,
vol.
vii.,No.
12, p. 1.
318
Abstracts
and
of Papers
method
to the
Siemens Hill
Halske
have
Broken
using,however, deposits,
the process in favour
of
lead, but
have
one.
of
purely chemical
is a simplemodification Cowper-Coles process at Hayle in Cornwall of lead and rotary cathodes also of the Letrange process. Anodes used. The results are not commercially satisof zinc or aluminium factory, are trials Hill at the Broken confirmed as by recent Proprietary works. Company's
The
from employed at Lipine (Silesia) till the present day, the electrolyte used 1893 being a solution of the of zinc and double sulphate magnesium. A table is givenshowing that be a corresponding decrease in with decrease of temperature there must current densityin order to preserve coherency of the zinc deposit. of of zinc from solution Burghardt introduced a process of electrolysis zinc electrodes, oxide in potash or soda. Pure hollow the commercial The
Nahnsen
process
has
been
and
means
of
"
circulation
used.
of
the
electrolyte effected by
"
are
Germany, Austria, and England, the Hoepfner process has been commercially successful, being employed in England for the manufacture of Mond zinc of 99 '96 per cent, purity.
In
The
the
is electrolyte discs of
solution
of chloride
of zinc and
of lead
or
sodium,
anodes
tical rotatingverbeing of lead or carbon, and the cathodes The is immersed in the zinc,partly electrolyte. process
for
treatment
of poor
process, manufacture
ores.
zinc the
ores
and
for
use
in
at
junction con-
the
ammonia-soda
for
chlorine
of
liberated
the
being
in
available
the
calcium
which chlorite,
The
Dieffenhach process
of crushed
applied to
followed
Westphalian
by
a
zinc, which
ore,
is extracted
contains
only
0*5
of
aqueous
solution
compartment
The liberated chlorite.
In
vats, the
chlorine
anode
by leaching with for iron, per cent, zinc,and is smelted zinc chloride is electrolyzed in doublebeing completelyclosed. compartment
in
iron
being employed
that the
the
manufacture
of calcium
conclusion, it is stated
in
of the
of electro-metallurgy
successful methods
Nahnsen,
solution of
are
Hoepfner,
said
to
and
more
zinc chloride
be
the electromotive for force necessary sulphate, less than for the latter, being although that it is claimed the electrolyte which by Gabran gives the best results in the rapid deposition of zinc is a zinc sulphate solution of the : composition following
solutions
zinc
decomposition of
the former
Parts.
Zinc Water
sulphate
1200
6000 60
"F.J.
ElectroThe
319
electric furnace is
considered
of zinc
ores.
by
G. C. Stone The
to
be
an
for appliance of
the reduction
the
must
ratio of surface
zinc.
to
charge
usually higherthan
goes
to
in the
Belgianfurnace,and
the
of
more
dioxide
the
thus
electric furnace
condenser
most retort
Moreover,
of difficulty with
keeping the
the size.
of the the
within
limits of
temperature
increases
The
hopeful
furnaces. W.
outlook
is in the direction
improvement
present
other
Ingallsf considers electric smelting to be as practicable, althoughit has hardly advanced mental yet beyond the experiis of The the formation blue difficulty principal powder stage. also reoxidation. The of the is cost high. by process very In the course W. of the discussion, McA. Johnson J expressedthe that of the labour in electric cost estimated, smelting had been overopinion
On
hand,
R.
and
that C. H.
the
D.
to
electric process
^
could
be
used
and successfully
economically.
"
is made the
of and
Canadian
for
process
Johnston " in the April by W. McA. in which described a are Mining Institute, of complex zinciferous copper and treatment
paper 4 per
cent."
After
roastingthe
reduce
ore
to
6 per
cent,
a
a pre-heatsulphur,
ing and
so
bituminous iron
coal in
to
muffle
furnace
follows
as
to
of the
oxide
to
metallic
iron.
reduction
leads
the
zinc,which slag.
blue the
In
cent,
matte,
per
cent,
It is stated that
on
an
average
cent,
as
powder
and
40
per of
and spelter,
of
slagis
very
low.
a
the treatment
mixed
ore
containing35
ozs.
cent,
10
4 dwt. of
1490
kilowatt-hours
ton.
"
per
cent,
zinc, 9
of electrode
F. J.
II."
ELECTRO-CHEMISTR
Y.
eastern
Site for Electro-chemical Industries." South Alaska as is W. P. well suited to the ment to Alaska, according Lass,|| developof electro-chemical
industries those of
water requiring
power.
The
climatic of water
conditions
power
are
not
unlike At
cent,
Scotland, and
the
cost
the of
is abundant.
per
Speel
River
and
allowing 10
5 dollars
*
for
interest
The
is estimated depreciation,
coast
per
horse-power-year.
of the
American
wjiole
is open
vol.
,
navigation
p. 161.
Transactions
Society 1914,
169. t Ibid..Y".
t Ibid., p. 175.
x.
II Transactions
Society 1914,
,
vol.
xxv.
p. 178.
320
A bstracts
of Papers
There of sulphides, and the are large dejDosits throughout the year. of iron pyrites as a by-product. gold industry yields large quantities with A map and table illustrations of rainfall. is provided, a together
The
75
to
168
inches
per
annum.
"
C. H.
D.
of.
"
by
R.
of
Kremaun,
It
Avas
J.
Lorber, and
R.
Maas
alloysof
chromium.
with any
not
with aluminium, zirconium,antimony, and copper found to deposit zirconium as an possible alloy
or
other metal,
in
the
pure
state.
Aluminium
and copper may
also does
be
not
deposit Antimony copper. but contains cathode the much alloy together,
with deposited
copper.
"
together with
deposited
is not
oxygen.
Chromium
C. H.
D. conditions
Bennett
"
The
for
depositingbrass
A.
examined
by
at
C. W.
2000
and per
W.
son, DavidThe
f
used
as
An
aluminium
the
pipe,rotated
aluminium
revolutions
minute, was
copper.
cathode,
being
first coated
with
from which brass could be obtained only electrolyte was one taining conthis hard and brittle Even ing showcyanide. yielded a deposit, The brittleness trace of crystalline structure. no was principally due A less to hydrogen. brittle hotter bath metal. With a gave further increase of speed of rotation, zinc was deposited.
The
cathode.
iisual The
method
of
brass
is
by using
stationary
has
low
be hard, and may polishedwell, but tensile sti-ength. is no There advantage in using a rotating
deposit is
D.
cathode."
C. H.
"
The
conditions
for
the
Kremann, present.
either tartrate be
have been examined deposition of tin and copper by C. T. Suchy, J. Lorber, and find that R. Maas, \ who or cyanide baths may be used, and sufficient alkali must The
more
depositsare
copper uniform
anode
then
becomes than
passive. The
tartrate
"
cyanide
baths. D.
in structure
those from
C. H. this
Cadmium,
F. C.
Electro-depositionof
and H. M.
"
In that
review
cadmium
of
subject,
used
Mathers
for
Marble, "
state
has
been
for
used
from plating,
cyanide solutions.
An
been
better than platingsteel,the alloy withstandingtarnishing but is little commercial there Cyanides are generallyused, very has been refined by electrolysis platingof cadmium. Impure cadmium from a slightly acid solution of the sulphate. Experiments by the same authors,|| with the objectof preparing silver. fiir Chemie, 1914, vol. xxxv. Monatshefte p. 581. t Journal of Physical Chemistry, 1914, vol. xviii. p. 488. X Monatsheftefiir Chemie, 1914, vol. xxxv. p. 219. Electro-chemical " Transactio7is of the American Society, 1914,
II Ibid., p. 319.
*
vol.
xxv.
p. 297.
Electrosmooth
321
show that deposits of cadmium from sulphate baths are deposits, better,but chloride deposits,in the always spongy. Phosphates are and other vegeabsence of other compounds, are always rough. Tannin table make the deposition best still worse. The extracts deposit is
obtained
from
an
acid
chloride
solution
containingammonium
chloride,
ferric chloride, and borofiuoride, or peptone. Fluoride, silicofiuoride, of solutions 4 cent, cadmium, with free acid containing per perchlorate little peptone, deposits. C. H. D. and
a
"
or glue,phloridzin,
clove
oil
Device
in described.*
the
for
The
Cleaning" Silver.
other
"
-A
as
and gold,silver,
metals,
involves
devised
simple method by J.
attrition
of M.
nor
wares cleaning
Hotchkiss, is
dissolution
of
method is
or
neither
surface,and
A
zinc
in character. electrolytic
tray
the
article to
bars
of
which
common
quart
of
tepidwater).
forms voltaic to zinc, the combination a being electro-negative nascent cell, hydrogen being liberated at the surface of the silver and attackingany oxide or sulphide depositwith which the silver may be
tarnished.
"
F. J.
of to the use advantages attaching discussed nickel salts in electroplating are by S. W. Rowsbar. f all nickel and method is in acid contained a salts, nearly rapid
Nickel
Solutions.
"
The
"
ra^iid
Boracic
for
"
its
detection
A
is described.
pronouncedfeature of rapidnickel of both solution and higher efficiency In rapid nickel solutions the amount
great
current
as
solutions is their
anode of than
acidity, involving
solutions. twice
as
in alkaline
nickel
is
more
than
in
solutions
in
of
double
nickel
thus salts,
and
diminishingloss of
salts ; also less
involved
decomposing water
ammonium
An anode hydrogen is liberated, and the loss of nickel is reduced. but with of 90 per cent, is about the limit with double salts, efficiency
rapidsalts
Anodes avoid
double
use compared the cost be doubled, and sulphate solution, the output may the nickel smaller number reduced to solutions, owing by using rapid and of tanks required for the same fittings output and the diminished anode The initial cost entailed by due to superior efficiency. upkeep of the introduction however, high. rapid nickel solutions is,
" " " "
98 per cent.
should
be
used,
the
in
order
to
with
of the
The
of composition
is stated
than
to
givea
double
durable
salt
non-
porous is as follows:
coating in
"
much
ozs.
the
solution
sulphate of nickel,5 ozs. boracic acid, and 1^ be easily chloride to each gallon of water. The depositcan sodium oz. and has but the solution requires buffed a constant, careful good colour, and the anode is attention to avoid exhaustion, efficiencylow.
24
*
The The
Electncal
Review,
p. ,39.
Foundry, 1914,
322
The
Abstracts
of Papers
a
savingis
cent,
effected in buffs,
anodes and
per
nickel
enables
the
plater
to work
with
anodes
clean
solutions,the
absence
of
slime
being
very
noticeable, the
a
remaining comparatively
clean.
moderate
amount
of
are chlorides,
results.
of Copper-plating
all steelwork
F. J.
Nickelling
discovered
of Aluminium
given* of the process, and E. Tassilly, for the nickelling of aluminium. is effected in boiling aluminium potash solution,
"
is
lime
and
immersion
for
few
minutes
in
0"2
solution
in water
of
potassiumcyanide.
each
follows
a
stage.
: composition following
Immersion
follows
Hydrochloric
Water
.
in
bath
......
of the
acid
. ......
500
500 cubic
grammes. centimetres.
Iron
........
1 gramme.
a
it has
an
receives
assumed
the
solution
metal
is washed chloride.
of the
deposit has
white
matte
appearance,
which
becomes
bright when
hammered
scratch-brushed. The
or
deposit is remarkably adherent, not that the bent, and it is only by fracturing
force is necessary
to
cracking when
aluminium detachment
can
Considerable
effect
the
coating.
The nickelled aluminium
may the
to
the The
of
melting point
aluminium
of
aluminium adherence
without
separationof
to
perfection of the
ferred con-
is attributed
the
specialcondition
the A
by
acid bath
of
acid bath. hydrochloric ferruginous does not give the same similar strength
simplehydrochloric
results.
"
F. J.
Power
for
foot of
Electrolytic Deposition."
In the
This
subjectis
York,
20
current
discussed
per
by
L.
Addicks.f
neighbourhood of
surface
New
amperes
active
cathode
is the
usual
density in
copper.
is consumed for 6 lbs. of refining; 1 kilowatt-hour 30 of 3 feet be used electrodes, as pairs square, may ampc'res.
As
in
means
tank,
1500
requiring10,000
kilowatts.
With
current
at
150
volts,this
The
tanks
of dissipation
at
of the
to
32"-38"
to
keep
must
the be
ture tempera-
supplied
use
increase
it further
54"
American
LongwellJ
takes
the
view
that
steam
Mitaux
et
Transactions
vol.
x.xv.
p. 65.
Electro-Metallurgyand
turbines
are more
Electro-Chemistry
that
323
economical
of
to
*
engines are
should F. D.
out
the the
than
gas
turbine
be
geared Newbury
steam
generator.
discusses turbines
design of
used,
the the
is
the
most
from
for
the
tanks
is
that
a
where
is too
great
D.
economical
current
mission trans-
low
voltage,the
is to be
combined
"
alternating
C. H.
generator
and
rotary
converter
preferred.
"
The
of much
a
free acid
in
great find,however,
of free acid
then and
fall in
the with
that
be
may
present, and
with with the
ratio of zinc
actuallyincreases
also increases
up
to
certain
value,
sulphuricacid
to
50
95
amperes per
cent.
of
5
15 grammes of density. With 100 of cubic and 20 current a centimetres, density per zinc is wdth an decimeter, deposited efficiency per square With lead anodes this requiresa potential difference of zinc anodes.
volts,or
3 volts with
of
obtained with high current densities by the addition are Brightdeposits small of colloids. Dextrin gives very bright but brittle quantities of gum obtained are by the addition deposits. The toughest deposits
tragacanth
exceeds
with
per
some
dextrin.
The
falls efficiency
when
the
colloid surface
cent.
tension
has
not
current
Although a certain relation between has been obtained, the effect of the efficiency
for. very in
colloid
accounted satisfactorily
present
does
not
the
solution, has
the
little
tendency
to
be
contaminate Richards
zinc. the
of zinc electrolytic refining of precious metals. is scarcelypracticable On at present, in the absence the other hand the electrolysis of zinc solutions, using insoluble anodes,
by
J. W.
that
is
two
of suitable
anodes
a
and
melting
in
down
of the cathode
graphiteis
able suitLead
sulphates. in an lyte. alkaline electrolonger if previously peroxidized of lead peroxide have Tubes also been manufactured. Probably fused The be only solution must magnetite anodes w'ould be successful. acid. very slightly The effect of organic studied the deposit of zinc has been substances on P. Watts and tried O. A. Of substances C. the forty-two by Shape."
corrodes, but
lasts
anode
chloride
solutions, but
disintegratesin
/3-naphthol gave
*
"
C. H.
D. Society 1914,
,
Transactions Transactions
Electro-chemical
vol.
xxv.
p. 8.5.
Society 1914,
^
vol.
cv.
p. 710. vol.
.\xv.
,
Electro-chemical
Society 1914,
p. 281.
324
ANALYSIS,
TESTING,
AND
PYROMETRY.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. II. III.
324
.331
.
.336
I." ANALYSIS.
Aluminium,
extent
Detection
of.
"
Aluminium,
of
even
when
to the jDresent
devised
The and
iron,may
be detected
by
test
the
of barium solubility
aluminate.
until
free from
of 2
ammonium of
salts,
barium
boiled
with
The
water
with
the
addition
grammes
hydroxide.
filtrate.
and
a
After
concentration
hydroxideis
added C. H.
to
D.
Antimony,
wanning with
take
Qualitative Recognition
in mixed
water
of.
"
Antimony
is
veniently con-
detected
and
place:
+ llH.p + 14Na.2O.2 Sb2S;j
Na.2H2Sb.2O7+ 3Na2SO4
N
20NaOH;
H
.
aaHgSbaOy
5Na2S04
+ 28 NaO
antimonate
tin is
on crystallizes cooling.
When
removed of the
present
hot D.
stannic
oxide
is
but precipitated,
by antimony.
"
the filtering
solution.
Arsenic
is tested
C. H.
Composition
Schoeller
both in
a
of
and
Antimony
"
Sulphide.
"
It is found
by W.
R.
tains con-
that oxide
Chinese
crude
antimony
metallic
antimonv.
''
stream
of
3H2S=:Sb2S3-|-3H20.
vol. [vii.], ix. p. 66.
Journal
de Pharmacie,
1914
t Zeitschrift fur anorganische ChemiCy 1914, vol. Ixxxviii. p. 108. X Journal of the Societyof Chemical Industry, 1914, vol. xxxiii. p. 109.
326
A bs tracts
be may at the anode. detected
of Papers
a
Manganese
Cobalt Nickel
by
purple coloration
of
the
solution
givesa
copper
blue
colour
when
"
tested
by ammonia
after removal
of
the
by
F. J. electrolysis.
Micro-chemical Electrolytic
use
Methods.
described
0-1
"
Methods Heinze.*
involvingthe
The cathode
of
cathode rotating
is
are
by
R.
12 to 25 millimetre thick, and a platinum or gold wire, carried by a light on a glass long, wound holder, frame, glass The from which it is readily unwound. is weighed on a Nernst microware of almost balance,using a counterpoise exactlythe same weight. The anode is of platinum wire,0"25 millimetre in zigzag on a thick,wound The vessel for frame. is a cylindrical glass electrolysis glassweighing bottle of 12 cubic centimetres capacity, provided with a tap for emptying A stand without stoppingthe current. is provided for rotation of the
employed
centimetres
cathode. The
test
to
mercury,
which
zinc
is
depositedon
more
than
is not
as
mercury
is present.
Other
metals
are
also stated to
give good
"
results. H. D.
C.
Electrolytic Separation
is found that
to
of
Copper
A. Sieverts
and
and
Arsenic"
W.
This
tion separa-
be
complete by
is in the with
the arsenic
are
quinquevalent condition.
also
electrodes
In
used,
ammoniacal
of
complete; 0"1
0"3 of
taining con-
depositedin 15 minutes in the presence copper may of arsenic, using 125 cubic centimetres of solution
cent,
5 per
of
ammonia
and
2 per
cent,
of ammonium
nitrate at
may
being passed. As the arsenic is not reduced,it C. H. D. directly by magnesia mixture. precipitated
amperes
"
90", 5
be
Free
of of
Cyanide
Estimation
in
Plating
Solutions."
new
method
estimating free cyanide is recommended by G. E. F. Lundell,Jnone the existing It consists in adding methods accurate results. giving to the ammoniacal cyanide solution a small quantityof dimethylglyoxime, and with standard solution of nickel ammonium a titrating sulphate. Ko red precipitate of the glyoxime nickel compound is formed until all the cyanide has been used up accordingto the equation
NiS04 The nickel solution
and is
+ 4KCN
=
K2Ni(CN)4+K2S04. of nickel
monium am-
of concentrated is
to diluting
solution dimethylglyoxime
xxvii. p. 237.
Society 1914,
,
vol.
xxv.
p. 369.
327
a analysis,
cent,
in
95
per
cent,
alcohol.
For
the
volume mixed
platingsolution
is diluted to 100
and
a
cubic
metres, centi-
1 cubic centimetre
of ammonia
of
titrated until
permanent
tion coloura-
is obtained.
"
C.
H.
D.
Iron
and
Manganese
oxidation
G.
van
Pelt,* ammonium
reagent for the
chlorides of
in persulphate of
is the
best
chromium.
containingthe
zinc
may be
iron, aluminium,
follows
:
chromium,
cubic
manganese,
and
separatedas
The
of solid ammonium
with 2 grammes mixed centimetres, nitric of and heated on a few drops acid, which It takes about fortyminutes. the water bath until completely yellow, of ammonia is then cooled and pouredinto a mixture (75 cubic centimetres)
to
solution is diluted
300
and persulphate
and
with solution (75 cubic centimetres), some monium amhydrogen peroxide minium, with constant The chloride, stirring. hydroxidesof iron, aluis and The are completely precipitated. precipitate manganese carbonate dried,and fused with a mixture of equalweights of sodium
and
potassium nitrate.
is obtained
with
as
After
extraction
ferric
of the
fused
mass
with
water,
iron
insoluble
reduced
followed
an hydrogen peroxide, The by hydrogen peroxide, which precipitates manganese. and the aluminium filtrate from this is acidified and boiled, precipitated
by
ammonia.
The
filtrate from
and
the
reduced
and
with the
by ammonia,
ammonia and
expel
zinc. precipitate
C. H.
D.
Metallography
a
in
Three
examined
Dimensions.
usual
"
The
solid structure
of
of
few
alloyshas
been In
serial sections.
place of the
grooves
on
the
device with pins on the microscope stage, a new specimen, corresponding contained in a is employed, the specimen being embedded in cement and into a small steel tube provided with adjustment marks fitting It then of is bronze collar on the stage Chatelier microscope. a Le easy examine the of a nd uniform thickness to remove to by grinding, layers
same area
repeatedly.
an
This
method
is
applied
to
tin-antimony
of
and
approximate reconstruction
solid
crystals
is
given.
"
C. H.
D.
New
It
Oolorimetric
Process.
"
process
estimatingsmall
useful
in
Hiittner.J
hydrochloric depends on the coloration imparted to very concentrated acid by cobalt,nickel, Thus, nickel chloride dissolves iron, and copper.
*
Bulletin
de la SociiU
chimique
de
Beige, 1914,
,
101, 138.
t International Journal of Metallography 1914, vol. vi. p. 58. % Zeitschrift fur anorganische C/iemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxvi. p. 341.
328
in the acid with shade cobalt.
appears
a
Abstracts
free yellow tint,
the nickel
of Papers
from
any
as
trace
of
as
green, but
0*1
green
when
contains
little
per
cent,
of
solution. wide
compared with that given by a standard of the nickel within independent of the concentration limits, provided that this is large in comparison with the cobalt.
The
It is
or or
coloration
is
Chlorine
as
be removed O'l
to
before
cent,
making
the
test, as
well
iron
copper.
10
per
of cobalt may
be estimated
acid usinghydrochloric
as
0"001
per
cent,
of
with
acid. hydrochloric
for O'l
This
is unaffected when
by
and
may
be
used
detectingiron
to
in manganese,
10 per
cent.
a Copper yields
similar
be dissolved aluminium, 0'5 gramme analyzing commercial may in hydrochloric acid, the copper as precipitated sulphide, ignitedto estimated oxide, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and colorimetrically. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness,dissolved as before,and the iron
In thus
The
metals:
in Kahlbaum's
cent,
pure
zinc,0*0002
0*004 per
per
cent,
"
cent,
cadmium,
per
cent,
iron C. H.
cent,
iron
copper.
Phosphorus
of
in
Phosphor
Bronze.
"
new
method
from the Babcockphosphorus in phosphor bronze is announced New It York.* is claimed that a Lackawanna, Hagmaier Laboratories, well as an increase in the accuracy, as by largesaving in time is effected, the use for the phosphorus. The disadof cerium chloride as a precipitant vantages of method is
the
usual
methods Dissolve
are
discussed
one
and shortly, of
the
bronze and
following
in
5 10
suggested:
of of
gramme acid is in
the
cubic
centimetres
concentrated
hydrochloric acid
a
centimetres
concentrated
nitric solution
and 10
tall-form add of
cubic
300 150
a
centimetres centimetres
of cerium
beaker.
of
When
water
complete,
centimetres
hot
cubic
solution
chloride
(1
hydrochloricacid, and
solution from blue of
one
of cerium
25 chloride, of and
centimetres Now
of
centimetres
water).
two
add
water
hydroxide until the a burette, stirring continually, This will require from cast. 25 to 30
centimetres the
hot of from
part ammonium
parts
has
a
solution cubic
greenishNow
centimetres.
add
4 cubic
Remove will
as
acetic acid, and boil for five or ten minutes. to settle ; this plate,and allow the precipitate
requireseveral minutes.
or
Syphon
centimetres
off of
as
much
of
the
clear solution
add 100 cubic possible, this operation six Repeat all but about 30
hot
eight times.
of
again syphon.
manipulation
removed
cubic centimetres
the
solution cubic
be
each
time
15
without cubic
precipitate.After
and 3
sufficient
centimetres heat
centimetres
washing,add hydrochloric
which cool
acid, and
*
Metallurgical and
Chemical
(8), p. 524.
329
ammonia
(1-1),when
able
to
the
phosphorus is phos})horus
With
precipitated
By
method Tables
this
the
be
author
has
been
have
an
the
hour.
in precipitated
on duplicate
three
sampleswithin
on a
this of
determined
separate sample.
to which
given of analyses of
been
"
bronzes
definite amounts
of actual
D.
The
commercial
be
alloys, pyrophoric
the method
which
of iron and
cerium,
From
may
analyzed by
After
0'5 to is
1 gramme
of the
render
alloyis
0'5
dissolved
gramme
in
of
acid hydrochloric
filtered. The
containingbromine.
mixture filtrate is mixed
with
adding
potassiumchlorate,the
to evaporated
silica
and insoluble,
tartaric
poured into 50 cubic centimetres 15 to 30 cubic centimetres heated to 60", and of ammonium sulphide solution are slowly added, the solution being stirred. The acid,and
It is then contains all the iron,with any copper and zinc. It is precipitate with water ammonium and sulphide tartrate, and containing to oxide, and analyzed for copper and zinc. ignited separately washed
is then
Cerium
It
is estimated
in the
filtrate by
twice
remove
ing evaporattartaric
oxalate.
is dissolved
acid, and
as precipitated
in the filtrate.
C. H.
D.
Iron, Aluminium, and Phosphorus. is use "cu])ferron" (ammonium nitrosophenyllhydroxylamine) recommended by W. M. Thornton,jun.f Hydrogen sulphideis passed the acid with sulphuric acid and solution, slightly through containing tartaric acid,to reduce is then added, and hydrogen the iron. Ammonia ferrous as sulphide. sulphidepassed until all the iron is precipitated The acid filtrate is boiled with dilute to expel hydrogen sulphuric of a 6 per cent, solution of cupferron and when cold an excess sulphide, with dilute is added The is washed to precipitate titanium. precipitate hydrochloricacid,dried, and ignited. C. H. D.
Separation from
"
of
"
Tinplate Sampling
is
.J. A.
and
plate given by edge comparatively rich in the heavy metal due to the flow of metal after coating)is ignored. Tin is determined titration beingcarried out with IST : 20 by distillation, iodine solution,using starch solution as indicator. in nitric acid solution at a temperaLead is determined ture by electrolysis and 2-3 to 2-5 50" of 1 to 2 amperes of to 00" C, using a current
volts.
*
method
of
the "list
Zeitschrift fiiranalytischeChemie,
vol. xxxvii. t A mencan Journal of Science, 1914 [iv.], X Iron Trade Review, 1914, vol. Iv., No. 1, p. 30.
330
A direct determination
X
Abstracts
of the
of Papers
2 inch
or
2 inch
nickel
weight of the coating is also made, four being carefully pieces weighed/then wrapped in platinum and in acid for one immersed concentrated hot, wire, sulphuric piecesare
"
minute. The
four
dried
some
and
reweighed,
is
the
the
coating and
F. J.
iron, which
loss in
permanganate.
Tung"Sten
by Hans
in fine in Arnold
Metal
* as
Analysis.
"
the
powder,
with
dissolves
method is recommended following result of extensive experience. The metal, if in ammonia or containinghydrogen peroxide, The Coarser
ammonium
persulphate solution.
nitric acid and
powders
massive
are
alternately
must
moistened
dissolved
or
in air. ignited
The
metal
be
in ammonia electrolytically
fused
persulphate,
alkalies in
by
dropping into
alkali nitrate.
by
the
ordinary way,
''
"
by ammonia
carbonate
after
grinding very
and finely
peptonizing
The
solution,or
tartaric acid
to by adding sloAvly
hot concentrated
ammonia.
with
molecule then
saturated
tungsticacid)and acidified with hot with hydrogen sulphide. The precipitate of sulphides
Any molybdenum
then be thrown
down
is free from
tungsten.
must
present is contained
from
the
this
precipitate.
The
tungsten
excess
filtrate
The
by pouring
into
must
an
hydrochloric acid.
The methods.
be
well
dilute acid.
in the filtrate
The
by
the usual
benzidine
is not
quantitative. C.
Estimation
H.
D.
The methods for the Coinage Bronze." estimation of zinc usually give unsatisfactory results with coinagebronze, and Sir T. K. Eose t has proposedto revert to an old-time assay method, in the zinc by heat and determiningthe loss of consisting volatilizing These are weight. The old crucibles are still used. hexagonal prisms
Zinc
in
across
and
of the
same
height.
cavity
1'5 centimetre
deep is hollowed
several
providedwith
One
are
gramme placed in
each
salamander hours
crucible and
a
charcoal.
After
heating in
of every bronze
are
gas
with
through 90"
samples
or more
quarter of
many
are
removed,
be
and
the
brushed
weighed.
perature tem-
of 1375"
is
required. As
at once,
heated
*
in
the
outer
pot
four
being
t Journal
Zeitschriftfur anorganische Chemie, 1914, vol. Ixxxviii. I tidustry 1914, vol. of the Societyof Chemical
,
331
about 0'03 per cent, of zinc per cent, of zinc, residual metal, and 0"2 per cent, of copper and tin is lost and allowed for by means of the check assay. The process by volatilization, much less time than the usual method, and is equallyaccurate. requires When
a
trial
plateis
used
the
error
does not
exceed
"0'05
"
per
cent.
C. H.
D.
W."
TESTING.
A
Brinell
for
Hardness
Tests.
a
"
report
is
given *
of H.
Hess's
recom-
during Society TestingMaterials, on the subjectof Brinell tests. It is suggested that the standard diameter of the ball be 10 millimetres, with a permissible variation of 0'0025 millimetre plusor minus. Reference in measuring the diameter is made to the of the error indentation and depth caused of the metal by the raising immediately is the indentation this marked in the of soft more case surrounding ;
before the American metals. this error. A suggestedand described for eliminating used for is the of simplemicrometic taining ascermeasuring apparatus purpose A ball-indentation the depth of impression due to the full load. is produced by one-tenth of the normal load and its depth measured ; an of the full load is then made, and the depth of the increased application the two indentation measured. The difference between is taken readings the depth of impressiondue to the full load. F. J. as representing method is
"
submitted jnendation,
discussion
Fatigue
C. E.
Limits
of Metals."
Tests
of
type
and
were
made As
the
seven
was
cones.
waist
eliminating,
as
far
as
apparatus, thus
The
metal.
rical empi-
formula
c(f)"
nominal is the
fits the
cause
Fl
and
C is
coefficient
the affecting
endurance
stresses.
The
fatiguestress is greater than the actual, as it is calculated whereas there is on elastic, assumption that the metal is perfectly some plasticity. with a calorimetric device is also described, A fatigue torsional machine for measuring the fatiguelimit directly. The extrapolated limits fatigue for and the for torsion (shear) of those about coefficients are bending, f C are about 0-3 of those for bending. Definite fatigue limits are found The results are given. for all the metals examined. following
nominal
the
"
American
Machinist,
p.
274.
xc.
A, p. 411.
332
Abstracts
of Papers
Material.
Tool
"
steel
......
Era
"
manganese
steel
Manganese Manganese
Chrome
steel, 14 per cent. steel, 10"5 per cent. nickel steel, ID'6 per.
......
cent,
nickel
Farnley
Cast Rolled iron
iron
......
nickel
.......
.....
Copper
Phosphor
Rolled Rolled
bronze
.....
aluminium
....
magnalium
....
"
C. H.
the
D.
in Metals.
the
"
F. Robin
discusses
and
mena pheno-
solidification of
metals
the
growth of
a
Microscopicobservation
passes
over
shows of
that
the
at
the
moment
of solidification
the
surface and
metal,
and
the field of view. liquid parts passes across In the case of pure metals the solid part in coolingwithout disturbance, the vicinity of the line is as homogeneous and as reflecting the liquid. as In the case of impure metals first the outlines of the crystals, one sees and then two difterent of the crystal kinds of lines : (1) the boundaries and be age caused by shrinkgrains, (2)a cellular structure. (1)appears to of liquidmetal between the crystal and this metal is the first grains, to liquefywhen the temperature is raised to the melting point. These lines can be obtained but to on a by casting the metal plane surface, the of It is suggested that they are prevented by impurities. presence the metal solidifies in the amorphous state and then crystallizes. Metal which has
not
the
been altered
to subjected
any
mechanical
treatment
will not
have
its structure
by
the
a
heat
treatment.
(2)
become
In
some
cases,
when
dendrites
form,
at
the
moment
when
the
shrinkage between
covered with
cell-like
the grains suddenly crystalgrains is complete, hatching (reseaux).This is accompanied of strip worked the and annealed of the metal and
by recalescence.
On
gets first
next
new
growth
melted partly
in the
crystals. These
these
become
covered
with
the
of solidification crystals
liquid
at temperatures neaiof Crystalson Annealing. On annealing takes the melting point crystal place by growth pushing forward of boundaries. In the case of low temperature annealingneighcrystal
"
Revue
de
Metallurgie, 1914,
334
and reviews Turner's
A bs tracts
of Papers
of
comparison
the
*
Turner
sclerometer, Shore
a
Brinell scleroscope, An
indentation,and
Keep cuttingtests.
to
establish
converted
factor
to
be
whereby scleroscope
order that
the
in
may
lie compared,
the
results
Over
given
500
various
technical
readingswere
taken
are curves.
numbers. shown
different metals
by
different
the plotting
factor
steels the
6.
is
6"67, for
cast
iron and
bronzes
for
Considerable
variation
is found
than the
"
even
in the
"
metal,
a
ball-tests.
with
an
a
Alpha
machine, having
with
a
diameter,with
pressure
of 3000 taken J.
kilogrammes
Shore
instrument,having a
On of the variable element Sclerometer. account in Improved resistance abrasion to H. L. Heathcote f devised means testing by hand, for measuring the friction under a given load. A pairof scissors with filesin place of shears proved unsatisfactory. small flat articles on the top of a file, ness their degree of hardBy placing be end of the file and one gauged by raising may observingthe angle at which the article slides. This led to placing the article under the file, the weight of which relative motion, which motion if not too rapid,when the ceases, frictional forces become is for sufficiently great. Such an instrument
causes
round testing
surfaces.
The
angle is indicated
the take
outer
the
slotted
quadrant, hence
form
instrument
is named
adajited to
that the
largerarticles
two
can
so files, triangular
be
moved
farther
apart
An
is
given.
to
quadrant sclerometer
of
capableof dealingwith
Instead
is said
be
sensitive,handy
a
and
short
or
time.
be
carborundum files,
aluudum
sticks
pencils may
without employed,but files give very good results and last many months due to wear, and showing any errors provided they are properlymade
use.
have between
been the
the the
angle should
"
limits specified
in
order
to
pass
F. J.
Lead-Copper Bearing
alloymakes lead-copper
*
Metal.
very
"
E.
D. Gleason
states
that
50
50
Iron Trade Review, 1914, vol. Iv. No. 1, p. 24. t Ibid., May 7, 1914, vol. liv. p. 843. X Metal Industry,July 1914, vol. vi. p. 318.
335
and
also where
small amounts
of
present.
"
J. L. H.
Manufacture
foil is a considerable rolled into
of Aluminium
in industry
Foil.
South
"
The
manufacture The
the
of aluminium is first
of oil in water.
Germany.*
a
aluminium
and sheets,
are are
these
are
painted with
rolled out annealed then
solution
to
The The
sheets sheets
then
rolled
superposed and
cold and
desired
thickness.
in
vacuo.
Testing of Metals.
the British Association
some
"
In
paper
read
at
the
Australian
Meeting of
by W. Dalby,| there is given a short account of testing methods The practice materials. photographic of metals of photomicrographyhas of showing the structure by means The author has recently steadily developedduring the last few years. method for obtaininga record of the relation applieda photographic between the load and extension of metals right point. up to the breaking show taken this in of t he The diagrams peculiarities the way vei-y clearly and also the load actually the specimen at metals at their yield points, on
of
E.
modern
the moment
of fracture. research.
The
combination
of the two
methods
offers
promisingfield of
Testing Metallic
that
Coatings."It
may
is
pointed out
by J. A. Capp \
of chemical by not generallyapplicable. The Preece are attack, but that such methods results for on yieldsgood comparative instance, galvanized test, coatings, but does not givecomparableresults when applied to sherardized articles, resistance
to
corrosion
be
tested
methods
or
to
articles coated
with
tin
or
lead. the
removal
suggestedfor Strong alkalies have sherardized oxide on depositwhich occurs iron. without action on the undei'lying
been The
of the
zinc-zinc
would
as articles,
they
be
indicate the efficiency of the however, do not necessarily results, the the of results with Preece test on are nor they comparable coating,
coatings. galvanized
The
water
author
on
to
to
imitate
natural
rain
by delivering
individual into
ordinaryrosette, but
cloud
then of
the
stream
produced
projecteda
was
moisture
specimens
from
exposure
removed
the
test
with good results tried, direct path of the jet. first used has
now
atmosphere coatings.
was
for
the testing
been
employed
imitate
a
metallic testing
account
On marine
better
to
salt in water
being
is
substituted
plainwater.
Board
Thus
an a
atomized
spray
of salt water
from
Journal,
nozzle to which
the water
is lifted
of Trade
1914.
t Proceedings of the British Association, 1914. X The Iron Trade Review, 1914, vol. Iv. No. 1, p. 36.
,
336
Abstracts
of Papers
"
in the chamber, jetof compressedair,and a " salt fog is maintained which relief of pressure to jjermit is opened sufficiently produced by the air jet. of a The be raised by means temperature of the atmosphere may be rendered acid or alkaline. steam slightly jet,or it may of any coatingat edges, sharp corners, the efficiency The test reveals
by
and
over
porous may
spots in
in
a
the
metal
surface.
the
Rust
develop
few
hours, and
and
A thicker,well-applied will resist attack for at least a coat poor. week, whilst if no rustingdevelop in two weeks' time, the life of the
coatingmay
to
use
be assumed
and
sherardized when
and
these figures indefinite, practically referring is test The said be of to coatings. galvanized special
to
be
processes
of
different
acter, char-
author
which
a
approximates
reasonablyshort
F. J.
\\\."PYROMETRY.
Combination
and
and the
Portable
well-known
Testing
"
Set
Le
Using
Chatelier
Resistance
Pyrometers.
Heraeus
Heraeus
thermo-electric
elements
in the combination
and
by
The resistance Manufacturing, Co.* of chemicallypure consist of a spiral thermometers embedded platinum, thus insuring from contamination freedom in quartz glass, by injurious in of resistance no addition, and, change by evaporation. The gases,
the Hanovia
Chemical
thermometers individual
-f-1300"
are
mounted
in
any of
form
which
may range of
be from
desired
-
to
suit F. to is
requirements.
F., and
an
Their
temperatures
330"
accuracy
of
1 per
cent,
guaranteed.
pyrometer is of the ordinary type, mounted of a portable form, and is suitable for the measurement is used, instrument Only one indicating temperatures up to 3000" F. the number, two which is graduatedwith several scales, or being more,
The Heraeus in Le
Chatelier
convenient
fixed between
by
individual desired
requirements.
limits within
the
The
range
thermometer
of the
scales
any without
thermometers
is
with interfering
scale between and
one
the 32"
pyrometer
F.
and
can
scale,which
F. used
with
number
standard of
3000" be
made
neat
pyrometers
from
thermometers
to
with
testing
is
set, the
button.
change
The
another
being
in
a
by merely pressing a
case,
instrument
is mounted
which
easily
are
carried in
an ordinarysuit case, and the thermometers also providedwith a suitable carrying D. H. case.
"
and
pyrometer
Recording Pyrometers.
*
"
general account
of
these
instruments
337
givenby
C. R.
recommends
base-metal intermittent
to
industrial with
use
at moderate
temperatures.
recorder may
Of thermo-electric instruments,
an
and
gives
be
on
paper
and graduations,
adapted
make
records.
recorder
mechanism,
but
be used
with the
nickel-chromium oi'dinates
as
concentric
The
Cambridge
driven,and
records.
thread has
a
Paul's instrument
is also
is motor-
multiple
The
Leeds
Northrup
recorder
This instrument employs a zero deflection method. which an arm in which there is a slide wire over circuit, potentiometer is and a mark boom is in the the until zero moves position, galvanometer and recorder chart. Roberts-Austen's made on the recording photographic
semi-automatic Brearley's Of
recorder
are
also mentioned.
is
of high susceptible
The
workman.
Leeds
Northrup
R. S.
form
is
more
robust. instrument
also drew instances
Whipple f
to
was
easilyused
"
by
D.
who control
were
not
attention existed. A
new
automatic
of temperature, of which
C. H.
by the recording pyrometer, recentlyplaced on the market is account of on noteworthy J Philadelphia, Company, Thwing " this new which of its original on ink-pad." The principle capillary A horizontal plane of brass ink-padoperates may be shortlydescribed. In this plane of which carries the chart. is mounted above the drum is filled with ink, and a brass,or ink-pad,is a circular well, which
Instrument
to V-shaped groove, corresponding
the
arc
throughwhich
force
so
travel,as
actuated
groove
by
the
at
thermo-electric the
of the
the
couple.
needle
may
This
be
V-shaped
is open
bottom,
that
As the ink-well depressed through the groove upon the chart below. of the groove, end the filled the ink extreme to is spreadsby capillarity when that a film of ink separates the needle, elevated,from the chart. so lever which is actuated by is attached to The depressor a arm depressor wheel having regularly a contact spaced teeth,with a gradualrise and an abrupt drop. The ink does not follow the needle down on to the chart, even though the needle be depressedlong enough to form a continuous
line.
are
The
depressing apparatus
a
and
drum
which
carries
the
record
the
a
operated by
of ink
common
clock.
type of
must
ink-pad
possesses
advantage over
supply
It is
even
that
in which
that that
the
more as
return
to periodically
for renewal,
as
claimed
that D. the
many
be
taken.
can
be
"
taken, and
recorder.
*
"
instrument
is able
as
coolingcurve
H.
1914, of the Faraday Society,
vol.
x.
Transactions
p. 139.
t Ibid.
"\
5), p. 350.
y
338
Abstracts
of
Papers
Resistance
Thermometer.
"
^A from The
new
resistance
pyrometer
zero
for
rately accu-
measuring
illustrated and low instrument
current
temperatures
described.*
200"
below is
to
1800"
F.
is
for
instrument
particularly
adapted
measuring
The
temperatures.
consists
is F.
"
of and
bulb which
or
coil
of in
resistance resistance
wire,
with
through change
which in
j^assed,
J.
changes
temperature.
Iron
Trade
Review,
1914,
vol.
Iv.
p.
204.
FURNACES
AND
FOUNDRY
METHODS.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Furnaces II.
339
.........
Foundry
344 353
III. Electric
furnaces
Furnace
Lining.
"
lining of
have
to
minium alu-
nitride is
very
suggested as suitable
for furnaces
which
stand
C* It can be to, say, 2000" up moulded into various forms the use by
easily
of
a
sodium
silicate. action
of
It
is also
stated
that The
such
resists the
corrosive D.
H.
many
chemicals.
process
patented.
"
for Non-Ferrous Metals. An illustrated Annealing Furnace is given | of the latest design of furnace installed at the description British Insulated and Helsby Cables, Limited, Prescot,Lancashire.
"
The
with
furnace the
is
combination
of the Bates
and
Peard
continuous
type
Gibbons
ends
The
water
open
contained
tanks
on
both
is fed
of the
tank
to tank
by
are
way
endless
passes
through
which
below the
the
ground line
driven
on on
and
The
on one
drums
conveyer
a worm
through
The
worm
wheel is
side of the
by
tlie shaft.
worm
the
turn
motion from an eccentric attached to a countershaft. reciprocating within and is rollers the tanks, guide guided by conveyer platesare providedto prevent the material fouling. The general design of the furnace and producer is described by the
aid of illustrations.
An
as
Coke
a
is used
in the
producer.
is
with given,together
illustration of
double-tube
"
furnace
data
to its
*
capacityand
Iron and Coal
efficiency.F. J.
Chemical Trades
Metallurgical and
The
xii.
(No. 8), p.
533.
340
Abstracts
and
older
of Papers
Metals.
states
"
Melting
various
over
Casting Non-Ferrous
furnaces, C. Vickers*
from
In
describing
forms
the
of crucible
that little
types is
furnaces
in
such converting
what
has been
improvement accomplished
Preference
is
givento
the
the
blast-driven
furnaces
those
dependingupon
former
unaffected
by variations in weather
of
whereby gas-leakage
atmosphereof
Under upper
the foundries located on are e.g. where in largecities and stacks of sufRcient height to floors of buildings
conditions,
provide
than 4
natural
be
or
built,
steam
the
"jet-drive" is
stack
not
enteringthe
that
is claimed
in
compressed
the
was
air is
used economically
passingit under
a
grates
of the
furnace.
a a
concrete
instance
was
given of
furnace introduced
which
tittecl with
stack
6 feet
high, and
the
worked
for successfully
melting copper
into the
a
with
at
40
lbs. pressure
stack, and
sealed its
when unsuccessfully
jet was
brought under
furnace
furnace The
be 224 lbs. of copper, brass,or bronze 15 to 20 per cent, of in twenty minutes, with a fuel consumption of from the laborious furnaces the weight of metal melted. By the use of tilting
task of
is illustrated and
described
pulling pots
has been
abolished.
Attention
given to improving the pit furnace by the speed of melting without and economies increasing general design. Such an improved furnace embodying
hot-blast shell circular
and
features
as
is described drop-bottom'
and
illustrated. in the
space,
The
an
body
inner
and
of
cast
the furnace
iron
is of cast
so
iron,the
form
an
liningbeing suspended
annular space between
as
to
inner
and
outer
shells.
a
The
blast enters
opening low fuel consumption, of melting, The advantagesclaimed are rapidity of the shop and ease of operation, whilst the disadvantages are pollution metal blast chilled the of annular and obstruction opening by atmosphere
"
issues from
in
case
of
crucible
troublesome
repairs.
An
illustrated
is given description
of
forced for
an
draught and
empty
novel
with
an
enlarged flue to
is and
crucible.
This furnace
Another
this furnace
room
type is described
meet
with pit-furnace, chamber form a pre-heating capable of meltingwrought iron. the details of operation given,
a
solid-fuel
being designed to
of
were
and
absence
wooden handle
steps
as
low
head
full
height,
to
reach
the
fires and be
the pots.
but practiceof withdrawing the pots is described, with considerable risk and danger.
*
The
attended
appears
to
The
342
Abstracts
of Papers
"
Portable
lead
The
with
hole
The gases
for meltingA portablefurnace Lead-Melting Furnace. mains is described.* for pouring into the joints of cast iron water in brick, fireof steel plateslined with furnace is cylindrical shape, made turntable. It is fired is mounted and the whole on a ball-bearing has fan The a tapping coke, a hand-driven supplyingthe blast. pot hand-wheel. is closed by a plug,moved in the bottom, which a by is warmed metal is tapped into a long launder, which by waste
from the furnace. and it is made
by
Messrs.
Refractory Materials.
to
are
zinc
furnaces, are
than
the The
denser
temperature.
with special reference Refractorymaterials, firebricks Machine-made G. Rigg-t by hand-made, and are equally resistant to changes of to burnt prevent clay or "grog" which is used
"
discussed
high a temperature as possible.The with is best tested by soaking in a solution of a dye thickened porosity ferences and indicate difdoes not glue. Plain water penetrates too readily, of the The of porosity results well. glue test agree sufiiciently
shrinkage
should
be
fired at
as
well
with
those
obtained
in actual
service.
fire-brick intended
have
a
to
be
exposed to zinc or other corrosive substances should will completely penetrate a brick of loose Molten spelter
An old zinc
retort
hard
skin.
texture.
shows
great alteration
of zinc
texture,
zinc
oxide
of the
clay to
form
conductivitydepends mainly
more
on
compactness,
bricks.
For is much
bricks
conductingmuch
of
than
or
loose-textured other
loose
loss preventing
more
heat,a
layer of
"
ashes D.
material
eff'ective
than
firebrick.
C. H.
Surface
societies W. of
of
Combustion.
"
In
and
lecture
delivered
to
the
metallurgical
Birmingham University, Professor A. Bone discovery by Sir Humphry Davy \ refers to the original ence surfaces in promoting combustion, referthe influence of hot metallic also being made to further investigations by Davy and others.
Rirmingham
of influence accelerating surfaces upon
The
of
chemical
changes
drawn
in gaseous
between
systems
the
two
:
all hot
is noted, and
under which
distinction
conditions possible
1.
gaseous
combustion the
may
occur,
as a
viz.
throughout ec[ually system point,slowly and without temperatures below the ignition point rapidlyand with flame. temperatures above the ignition 2. Heterogeneou.sly, or only in layersimmediately in contact surface hot or incandescent (surface combustion). This is 1 process, ceteris paribus,than Homogeneously,
i.e.
.
at at
faster
The
catalyzing power
*
non-reducible
oxide surfaces
Engineering, 1914, vol. xcviil. p. 2'J8. t Journal of the Society of Chemical indust)y, 1914, vol. xxxiii. p. G19. IQVi, vol. v. p. 65. X Proceedings of the Birmingham Metallurgical Society,
Furnaces
examined
to
ajtd
was
Foundry
Methods
343
by Professor Bone
highlystimulated
by previous exposure
by association with
intimate tion "associa-
the combustible
"
" active " gas, Avhich is rendered combustion Catalytic depends upon an
surface
surface
such combining gases, incidentally electrified during the catalytic stronglynegatively bustion. comand
with
the
argued that if hot surfaces can accelerate gaseous combustion below ignition such acceleration is greater at highertemperatures, point, when and the surface becomes incandescent ; in fact the so especially laid role is in the stress combustion surface greatest by the played upon
It is incandescent
The
"
solid.
practical aspects of
evolved under
the process of "incandescent surface tion combusProfessor Bone's direction are mentioned, and its
:
is
accelerated by greatly
the incandescent
surface,and
concentrated
is
heat
is
required.
excess
Combustion
minimum
of air.
obtainable heated
the
without
elaborate
"
regenerative
"
devices.
4.
of heat
to
objectvery rapid.
and the among other
Of heat
systems
of
in use,
diaphragm
the
manufacture
The
of roasting
fusible metals, such as type metals for newspaper meltingof readilj' field efficient of has for Professor afforded a an application printing,
Bone's
system.
"
F. J.
of
revertilting
type
The
furnace
standard
is
in construction.
The
it
can
melting
be
zone
is
lined
\vith
simple firebrick,
arranged so
Metal
contact
that
has
been
eliminated
the iron work. replacedwithout dismantling in in parts likely to come far as possible as
other oil,or with gas. With inch is required, well as the oil of 5 lbs. per square as a pressure on J. L. H. of not more air pressure than \\ to 2 lbs. per square inch.
The
is fired with
crude
oil
or
oil
an
"
Zirconia
as
Refractory Material.
Bruschke,t
up
to
"
According to
O.
Buff, H.
tains con-
and Seiferheld,
O.
zirconia
resistance furnaces
and
2200"
C.
in carbon
only
of
83'5 per cent, -t'Z per cent, of ferric oxide, is more than the artificial pure oxide. refractory porous,
of zirconium
dioxide, with
The
silica
but
has glazing
been
found
not
The
zirconia,which
must
have
than
1000", is mixed
*
while
dry
of
Metal
Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 256. Zeitschrift fur anorganische Chentie, 1914,
vol. Ixxxvi.
344
cent,
Abstracts
of
of Papers
just moistened
hour
and
at
per
a
magnesia.
dried
at
It is then
with 140"
water,
for
shaped
in
press, and
100" the
for
one
three
hours.
strength during this operation. The crucibles 2200". at much then fired at 1500", and finally are Magnesia causes but little that. H. D. C. at 1500", beyond shrinkage very
The starch increases
"
II. FOUNDRY.
Abrasives
wheels
are
and
Grinding
Wheels.
"
Notes features
on are
abrasives
and
ing grind-
given,*and
their various
discussed.
for Peripheralspeeds for cylindrical grinding(6000 feet per minute), and for cutting off (9000 to 10,000 feet) internal grinding(5000 feet), and the of speeds discussed. best combination are given, of In grindingmaterials low tensile strength cast iron,brass, and {e.g. brittle bonding phosphor bronze)a wheel of great hardness but relatively in order is required, that the cuttingparticles break away easily may
when blunted.
Reference
for harder
is made
to
cases
where
softer
grades should
be
substituted
papers
grades,whilst
the selection of
grindingcloths and
extreme
also
of backlash
to enable
and rigidity
make
a
best
and
modern
to
secure
in
up
high
are
divided
into
cylindrical (externalor
convenience in
the
importanceof
internal) manipulationis
in the machine
emphasized.
Methods of
of in the work securing rigidity
as
well
as
parts
are preventing chattering given. discussed water are cleaningand lubrication, points supply for of dust wet removal grinding,cases in which dry grindingis practised, and grit. The trouble known as "drawing-in," caused by overheating from the removal of metal and at an excessive rate, is explained, resulting
and
Other
the
remedies
"
"
softer wheel
plentifulwater suggested. F. J.
a
more
"
supply, a
shallower
cut, and
Accurate
Patternmaking-.
"
H.
E.
Harris
t discusses
the
ance import-
of accuracy of Avork in the patternmaking department in its relation machine to the foundry and struction shojj. Emphasis is laid on the proper conof the pattern and the of for suitable allowances on making and of the coring, shrinkage, fitting rapping, factors in the cost of production. The composition of metal patterns and core
core
printsas
is
as
boxes
beinggiven to cast
*
iron treated
with
beeswax
Machinery, 1914, vol. iv. p. 465. t Ibid., 1914, vol. iv.. No. 100, p. 677.
Furnaces
of of
and
of
Foundry
Methods
the minimum
345
with castings
amount
becoming
less
made low
metal white suffer from the disadvantages of of of ceptible sticky, heavier, easily susbeing being more greasy of of of and to changes being shape and loss by wear, accuracy tage The from sand mould. chief advana easilycapable of withdrawal with which of brass is the ease be corrected or changes an error can metal has the advantages of by adding solder patches. White and F. of J. rapidity preparation. expense
and
"
Adjustable
is
Aluminium
made flask,
are
Snap
of
Flask."
with
An the
illustrated
given
of
aluminium,
stock
and
ears,
which iron
are
of
semi-steel and
the catches
and
of
and
cold-rolled
to
sherardized
bronze
protect them
surfaces
cent,
All the parts not of respectively. from rust, pitting and corroding. the top of the flask is
are
hinges contain
steel
and bushings,
protected
sand. The is
strips.
The
about
inside
15
The
flasks average
and
per
and adjustability
a
of the interchangeability
described,as also
vibrator
illustration is
given.
"
F. J.
Brass
from
to the
Foundry
melting
guns
Difficulties"
H.
H.
foundry
practicein
United
down
the
rifles and
recovered
as
Mexican
States
scrap
brass. still have the primers intact, cartridges the cases faultily probablyrepresenting
the
A and
large number
many contain
of
the
rifle these
reloaded The
author
when
chargingare
"
and given,
the removal
primersbefore chargingis
Losses.
"
recommended.
F. J.
Brass
to
Foundry
bulletin
An
the
issued
by
the
United
with
melting and
of the
cent,
fuel the
losses in
brass
author Gillett,
5 per
bulletin,states
is
"
of
metal original
is shown
no
melting practice. Dr. H. W. that in current at least practice, in the whilst melting of all lost,
from
90
to
non-ferrous heat
units
it alloys, losses
that
95
per
cent,
of the
in the fuel do
are
useful
work."
and it is estimated and efficiency annual
The
annual
computed,
that
by reducing
the average
metal
to
loss and
bringingfuel
present
That
average
savingof 2,000,000
emphasized by reports
per
dollars would of
be effected.
a
there is losses
wide
lack of technical
from
cent.
control is
cent, to
metal
varying \\ to 16 per
"
per
22
cent., and
fuel
wliich
experience the
lowest
losses,invariably employ
metallurgist.F. J.
*
X Ibid., p. 320.
Abstracts
Vulcanite
"
of Papers
Cutting Wheels
heated and
are
Metal
melt
wlien abrasive
"The when E.
use
of
"
hard
cold
wheels
is shown
by C.
had
Gillett
have
been
after
hydrauliccement
had the
"
wheels
been
tried
in imitation
stones, and
failed.
Although
clay bonded
kinds be
of work
vitrified "
or
"
completely fused
are
there superiority,
with
a
stillcertain
cannot
wheels
bonded where
shellac
or
rubber
such excelled,
work slotting
thin wheel
of shellac
is essential.
and
The
elastic wheels consists gums, bonding material between abrasive the which fill the interstitial grains, completely spaces is of A rubber. whilst in vulcanite wheels the bonding material but this dense structure is conferred by a pressing or rollingoperation, in does not permit of so fast a rate of grinding as is possible wheels
of
structure. porous The has elastic bond
a
in
other
limited
range
of
a high grades,
tensile
strength
cannot
and
considerable
of the
The elasticity.
elastic
vulcanite
bond
or uses
has
the
degree of
are more
hardness
be
varied
so
vantage Ad-
is taken wheels
very
as
thin
diameter
being
up have
to
made
as
thin
wheels, inch, up to
of very
12 inches
^
as
inch. thin
as
Wheels
fine
thin
gritand
wheels
are
small
used
diameter
for steel
been
made
'-^inch.
The
dottingand
or
cuttingoff
stock.
Tubing,pipes,
hold
for
materials which are difficult brass, and most off easilyand efficiently cut by tools,are cutting by regular which
and
are
mounted
or
will cut
to
tubing
pipe up
3 inches
diameter,
cut
the work
burr
metal to 2 inches of any practically up and, moreover, pipe with great rapidity, of the pipe and do reduce the not area perfectly true,
on
a by raising
the inside.
"
F. J.
Electro-Magnetic
cost
Hammer.
air
"
With
view
and
to to
save
the
capital
certain
of
an
specialcompressed
equipment
has
eliminate
to
losses,
where
hammer electro-magnetic
been
invented
is available.
and
Such
tool,known
uses
the
Schuler
is described
illustrated.! The
of
to store
hammer
crank-driven
armature
which
energy
constitutes
the the
hammer,
motor.
the The
being used
an
"
by supplied
with 11 of
electric hammer
but per has
cent.
compared
per
the
air
cent., that
latter
being
F. J.
Iron
Trade
Review,
June 4,
vol. liv.
,
1914, p. 1016.
t The
Electrical
Review,
Ftirnaces
and
sources
Foundry
of
Methods
347 considered,*
schists which
Graphite.
and
occur
"
The
chief
of
the
difhculties United
for
in the
uses
States.
The and
which
graphiteis
of
suited
are
physicalcharacteristics
of
the
material.
graphite from
manufacture Mexican
are furnaces)
Ceylon and Madagascar finds its principal use crucibles. graphite graphiteand manufactured graphite(produced in
both
electric
unsuitable
for
use
in the manufacture
of crucibles.
"
F. J.
is described
are
High-Pot Die-Casting
E.
Machine.
"
machine die-casting
several This makes it
Viall.f
The
of which
illustrations
the die.
the
metal
from
the
bottom
of
pot, and
used for die-cage. The operationof the agitator and continual of the some requiring use stirring) device The described in detail. a safetyvalve-locking are designof the the of for a large dies and makes the same use possible cages cages metals
(only those
number
of
dies,and
available
for
small comparatively
Avide
High-Speed
described The
Cold
has for
Saw.
"
metal-cutting sawing-machineis
catch lubricant
and
and
illustrated.
a
machine
means Special
The
saw
is driven
chips. work are provided. clamping special from a singlepulleythrough a friction clutch so hard encountered and the frictions are places slip
to
"
"
trough base
are
breakage of the saw. train and The driving-gear automatic the t o given relating output. F. J.
"
feed
are
and described,
figures
Improved
available for
It is stated
Tube
that
Cutter.
up the
"
An G
cuttingtubes
to
the three rotary cutters to which are position thus equidistant, adjustableto suit various sizes of pipes are practically equilateral givingapproximately triangles.The hinged jaw formed by the designhas instantaneous lockingaction, the cutters being always in
line.
It is further
stated
that
wheii is
" "
the
and
the
a
tool in
strong, construction.
Separator.
*
"
machine
iron and
is illustrated steel
||which
is meant
treatinglargequantitiesof
Iron Trade
contaminated turnings
by
t American
1914, vol. Iv. p. 270 C Review, Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. p. 61.
X Machinery, 1914, vol. iv. p. 525. Machinist, 1914, vol. xli. " America7i
II Tlie Iron
Trade
Review,
348
about metal close The
"
Abstracts
5 per cent, difficult to of non-ferrous
of Papei^s
material
"
such
as
brass
and
babbite
of its
because
entanglement.
material
of is lifted and that all the
so magnetic field,
it passes through the as vigorously agitated shaken out. are non-magnetic particles
about lb.
"
The
value
the may
turnings is increased
be
%\
brass
per
per F. J.
ton, and
the
covered re-
Making
moulding
inch valves
form
a
Heavy
and
are
Bronze
number
Valves.
of H.
"
The
methods
employed
and
in
48to
casting a
described
new
72-inch
bronze
riser-valves
part
of the
E.
the valves
being
for the
intended
York.
in
Their
construction the
surrounded of the
with
to particular,
great weight
of bronze to be melted. largequantities in crucibles in furnaces pro\'ided carried out entirely The meltingwas less with special equipment for rapid handling. The melting loss was for the of the than the 72-inch '.\ shells With valves, exception per cent.
which
Avere
moulded
in
made
in
dry
sand
moulds
meant
to
control
the
flow
to
of water feet
vertical shafts
connect
a
which
subterranean
manganese
752
the
in
with
the
an
surface.
made when
years. The
of
once
bronze
owing
designed
to
difficulties of
them repairing
one
fixed ;
they are
for
life of operating
thousand
and each valve castings for the bronze are specifications very rigid, valve is subjected to severe tests before shipment. small in in crucibles quantitiesat a time was comparatively Melting could results be the only method considered to be whereby uniform
obtained.
result
in
the
relative
in the
the
of
than casting
and aluminium. tin,manganese, methods of moulding, Details regarding the dimensions of castings, to the and set The are pouring, tangentially gates handlingare given. that the metal is givena whirlingmotion as it enters the mould. so flange, of Inter alia, the specifications provide for a hydrostatictest-pressure 600 lbs. per square inch maintained for thirtyminutes. In another the finishing and article jtesting of the riser valve parts in the machine the article being accompanied by shop are described, in the
case
seventeen
The
steam
forged from
idtimate
bronze
ingots under
hammers,
square
and
must
have
tensile
lbs.
lbs. per
an
inch, an
28 per
elastic limit of
cent,
35,000
of elongation
*
in two
inches.
24, p. 1041.
Iron Trade Review, 1914, vol liv., No. t //5?V.,June 18, 1914, p. 1093.
350
Abstracts
of Papers
"
Polishing Aluminium
aluminium
with polish the No.
Castings.
of
For
following method
70 emery; then
follow
polishing is
on
hrst,
pressed com-
canvas
wheel, and
is
grease with
No.
160
120
with
No.
emery
felt wheel.
The
final
a
lustre
on polish
stitched
be
using a good grade of white imparted by buffing, wheel. If castings not cotton are rough the No. 70
emery The
may
omitted.
be accomplishedby tumbling, of simple castings polishing may buff wheel. The effected on a tumbling process is being finishing
described.
"
F. J.
Problems
and and
to the
in
the
Manufacture
to
of
problemshaving reference
production and
reviewed attention
its
the
treatment
treatment
of scrap of manufactured
products
in copper
material
of casters'
alloysare
by F. Johnson. f
to
Particular
of the two the
is drawn
the
treatment
ashes, and
the dry concentratand ing, viz. the Avet concentrating processes, certain latter under author of the indicates the superiority
are :
conditions,which
1. The ikc. furnaces, 2. A 3. 4. The under A A
existence of
sufficient
and
labour.
treatment
as
direct
of casters' ashes
:
in the
cupola
conditions
given
follows
1. The
to
a
coke in the "ashes," leading complete utilization of the unburnt saving in the normal fuel consumption of the cupola. almost ashes."
of
2. The
completerecovery
the expense
of
the copper
contained
in the
"
3. Avoidance
"
washing
the
ashes,"and
4. The
5. The
of
drying and
"
metal.
ultimate
the unrefinable
refined copper, as against of marketable production brass produced by wet concentrating. impure pig
from of copper oxides such material ashes," and
contained
other
non-metallic
treatment
matter
escaping
used
in the wet
concentrating process.
The and
contra
arguments which
in detail.
had
been
by A. Spittle %
are
set
out
answered Difficulties
arising in
as
alloys,such
Under
non-ferrous
mechanical described.
unsuitable
thermal
treatment,
are
of sponginessare suggested,one castingdefects the causes such cause occlusion of hydrogen and being attributed to the possible the steam the reaction between from cai"bon monoxide, resulting proThe Foundry, 1914, vol. xliii. p. ,302. Proceedings of the Birminghaiii Metallurgical Society,1911-13, X Metal Industry, February 1913.
*
vol.
v.
p. 92.
Furnaces
duced in
a
and
Fo7indryMctJiods
351
damp sand-core or mould and the temporary incandescent during the operationof pouring. dressing due to enclosed dross or Weakness inhomoor oxides, to irregularit}' of to to composition, coarse geneity crystallization, shriid?:age-cracks, and to intercrystalline eutectic or eutectoid are instanced and explained; remedies the and, where possible, are case suggested. In the last-named
carbonaceous
zinc
and
on
the microstructure
of
ordinary copper-tin
micrographsexplainingthe of Admiralty gun-metal as compared with mechanical properties superior zinc-free gun-metal.
Several
are
the illustrated,
defects due
"
to
unsuitable
mechanical
and
thermal
treatment
described.
F. J.
Sound
Copper Castings.
"
A method
and Two
or
castings
described
free
from
blow-holes
of
by
C. L.
Spinney.*
to
and silver obtaining copper electrical is high conductivity more parts of B^Og for every 100
of
parts
of the metal
be
cast
are
placed with
crucible.
to
the charcoal
is then It is then
or
other
in the
and
bottom
of
the
Metal
placed on
covered
molten and
superheated (copper C). stirred with a graphite rod, whereupon the all dissolved risingthrough the mass, removes anhydride,
and gases. obtained. The author
states
1300"
boric
combined
a
that
to
with
per
this
cent.
method
castingshaving
standard
can
as conductivity high as
"
90
95
Matthiessen
be
D. H.
The of commercial
Tin
is the form
Recovery.
subjectof
of furnace
a
"
recovery
the mixture A
of
divided finely
tin and
of tin scrap,
patent
is
grantedto W.
to
a
Hopkins
three
rows
Chicago.!
special
proposed,having
carbon is
levels.
and
It is filled with
mass
level above
the Avhole
being in
the
metal is charged into the The mixture part of the furnace. upper in a reducing atmosphere, and the oxide is reduced, the molten furnace
metal
being drawn
"
D.
H.
Treatment
many
of Metals
by Compression."
of
It
is stated
that
for
By employing pressures
copper,
or
pression treatingmetals in the foundry by comadvantages over foundry processes. up to 1,000.000 kilogrammes articles in brass,
may
be
obtained
with
the
minimum
of
hand
the case be. as partly manufactured may three A The reduction in advantages: (1) striking process possesses tion hand labour,and consequentlyin net cost; (2)the jmrt or total eliminaof mechanical treatment densityand homogeneity. ; and (3)superior the The Society Metallurgiquedu Rhone at Lyons proposes to devote
labour,completely or
greatestefforts
*
to
the
development of
Chemical
the process
of
compression. F.
"
J.
Metallurgical and
,
Engineering, 1914,
vol. vii. p. 11.
6),p. 412.
+ Ibid.
p. 413.
et
X Metaux
352 Use
care
Abstracts
and Care of Crucibles."
is based
on
of Pap
An
67^ s
article W.
the describing
on
use
"
and Brass of
of
crucibles
Dr.
H.
Gillett's report
Furnace Mines.
The
or
States," recentlyissued
by
the
Bureau
had
by crucibles and the consequent scalping has been takes place in the furnace,unless resort for arranging Suggestions are made annealing,are mentioned.
"
"
placeswhere
that
crucibles
may
all moisture
and be stored kept at such a temperature may the be graduallyeliminated. Such placesare near
a
battery of furnaces,
over a core
in
over
oven,
or
provided with
of
a
dampers
"
rolling-mill.
features special is shown
The
and
importance of
usingtongs
of correct
illustrations
of four
each
being
by
means
described. of
a
different types are given, the The one-prong type is shown fixed at
the
hook
pivot,and
of two
the
an
hand
hooks lifted
fixed
the men,
handles,
one on
and
by
two
two-prong type
fitted with
in
a
trunnions,which
an
are
rested
on
shank, the
tongs
and
latter
being kept
to
horizontal
on
the
crucible forms
be
tilted
axis
trunnions.
In latter all these the
crucible
is
pinched tightlyin
tongs, the
of a link slipped the handles. Severe over being secured by means and the lead of to crucible, distortion, pinchingmay straining weakening its life. thus shortening The "grab" type of tongs has been designed to obviate this pinching
effect.
a
This
type
is intended
to
for
use
with of
mechanical
the
hoist,into
hooked.
ring,held by
chain held
each
own
handle
tongs, is
of which
crucible is thus
by
its
weight, increase
increases
grip of the
The bent chain
down
tongs.
may
at
employed
for
whilst the handles maybe replacedby a togglejoint, and above thus the point of suspension, rightangles just guiding the tongs into place without exposing the hands
be
Crucibles
" "
holdingup
to
650
lbs. of metal
can
be
grab tongs. hand-operated and electric hoists are discussed, oil in gas or of maintaining a reducing flame whilst the desirability of method furnaces is indicated, and a nd the type of burner desirable, using it are explained.
merits
of towards tion deterioracontributing given to the causes metal in the furnace, of crucibles, such being "soaking" of molten in the addition of the to which, crucible,allows of gas wear increasing of crucible absorptionand loss of zinc ; high temperature of furnace (life be for it prolonged by employing making alloys having successively may brass, and diminishingmelting points,e.g. for copper, phosphor-bronze, in cold or crucible, aluminium) ; wedging finally ingots expansion scrap
Some
attention
is
The
Foundry
Furnaces
and
Foundry
Methods
353
possibly causingweakening or cracking ; carelessness in poking fire or removing slagand clinker ; use of incorrect fuel space, an instance being the fuel consumpheats, when given of a crucible lastingfor forty-eight tion
was
33
of
metal, and
for
when
the fuel
in square
consumption was 67 lbs. per cwt., also crucible life is shorter than in round furnaces ; severe alternations of temperature,
crucible
use
rapidreplacementof
Mention
is made of crucibles.
in furnace of
of the
after
life
Various with
and basic
types of furnace
a
covers
considered,and
for furnace
the
article
cludes con-
of furnace
are
linings.Firebricks
readilyform
in from
are
recommended
not
high in linings,
them
;
that
ash
fuel may
surfaces
slag with
desiderata
smooth
FURNACES.
Attachment
for
Graphite
Furnace.
attachment which
in which
"
An
ingenious
by
has
E.
obtainingvery
The
the in
high temperature
is described
F.
Northrup. *
used
with described
intended
the
to be
furnace, which
on
been
this
The if
a
principle
cubical
attachment
depends
is not
is
shortlydescribed
space,
the
atmosphere
free to circulate, contains graphite, and is brought by the input of electrical energy of 1000" C. or to a temperature in the neighbourhood
an atmosphere in this space becomes atmosphere which is inactive chemically to graphite. A graphiteresister, through which a of be w ithin this space, current source run, placedcentrally separate may be brought, by the input of sufficient electrical energy, to a temperamay ture little short of the vaporization without of able carbon, point any observaction between the resister and the atmosphere. The resister is in inert as as a vacuum. perfect quite These have been put into practice principles by the author, with the of that device gives extremely high temperatures of not production a 3000" less than C, and which will easilymelt tungsten, while at the the resister shows time same no appreciable depreciation. It is graphite made furnace described by to fit exactlythe high temperature graphite the author, which of which the acts as a preliminaryheater,by means 1600" C. The energy is then to about temperature is raised .slowly
more,
the
switched
into
the
heatingelement
of
the
device, the
same
transformer
is a slotted tube of This heating element being used in both cases. The cascade A cheson attachment sists concomplete graphite. regraphitized fits the furnace of a chamlier,two large graphite tube which iron terminals,a graphite terminals or electrodes,two nickel-plated
*
and Metallurgical
Chemical
1914, Engineering,
354
furnace The of
Abstracts
cover
of Papers
the
refractorymaterial,and
replaceableresister-unit.
chamber, about 15 cubic centimetres in volume, attains a perfectblack-body temperature of at least 3000" C. (orless if desired), in the inner chamber off in steps from a maximum this temperature falling the lower temperature in furnace itself. (Hence the name to a considerably
internal
"
cascade
two
attachment
").
It is
to possible
use
the
same
transformer
for
the
is rendered
in
the
the energy largefurnace, and further, in material stored the insulating up in a very energy is concentrated time to cool appreciably.
place, the atmosphere of the by the chamber graphite is first yielded by the transformer
first
the
of the space
furnace, and
the
additional
itself has
small
life of
the
the
of exception is of
of
an
the
resister-
This
latter is
extremely simple
external
tube
and
graphite,1"55
diameter,
diameter of its
1*75 centimetre
This
lengthis
in
tube
is
massive
in graphite electrodes,
is held
it is held
by
of
The
crucible
by position
rod,
and
also
bottom
of the
attachment,
it almost
D.
H.
Electric
of
an
Annealing
has
Furnace.
installed
"
An
illustrated
is given* description
for
blanks
Niagara Falls,New
The steel Doors framework
are
York. is 15
long, 8
feet
wide, and
20-inch
7 feet 6 inches
high.
The which
located at both
under
treatment
on
ends
material
is
a
packed
steel pans
hearth of cast iron grids. supporting pass the furnace in and Seven pans are at one time, they are forced through by pusher mechanism, operated by a mechanical chargerworked pressed by com-
air.
As each pan of fresh
at
material
enters
the
charging door,
pan
of
annealed
material
the
water-sealed held
discharge hood,
the
it
suspended above
is pushed automaticallyinto a discharge-end where the pan is caught by two rails and water or trough containing solution, pickling basket perforated copper from the trough. periodically close A receives
into which
of each
electrical
transformer controller.
A the
equipment consists of a special200 kilovolt-ampfere the special to arranged with 12 voltage taps, connected The switchingmechanism close regulationof the a j^ermits
Weston
wattmeter
"
voltage.
and
are
pyrometer
to
"
connected
to
48-inch
couple
at
dischargeend
*
fixed
the
switch-board
panel.
Iron
Trade
Furnaces
It is stated that
and
Foundry
J.
Methods
be reached with
355
the desired
temperature may
"
precision,
and
without
danger of overheating. F.
Furnace
*
Electric
FitzGerald
of the
Efficiency- In
"
paper
on
this
F. A. subject, is the
J.
pointsout
current
important
consideration
use
as possible. Minor continuously of heat efficiency, vfec,are quite secondary to this,and improvements improvements made with such an objectoften lead to low load factors.
whole
contracted
Continuous and
furnaces
are
often
less economical
in
current
consumption,
of voltage is wasteful. Arc furnaces should be regulation step-by-step with automatic provided regulators. The same subjectis dealt with by W. S. Horry,f who draws attention A to the enormous consumption of electric furnaces. single energy sufficient furnace, 16 feet square, may require 12,000 horse-power, or for the light and requirementsof a city. In the neighbourhood power
of coal mines
from For
coal
at
cost
electric furnace
all
present requirements,
or
twelve
phaseswill probablybe
used
in future.
Thury electric furnace current regulatoris described by E. Turnbull. | This appliance is entirelyautomatic, and is provided with
damping devices,so that it is not brought into action when a sudden change of very short duration takes place. The contact-making arm the regulation from being carried too far acts intermittently, preventing
in
one
direction.
"
C. H.
D.
Laboratory
for P.
Crucible
The
coil
Furnace.
of
metal
Askenasy."
by
a
laboratoryresistance furnace wire instead of platinum, is described by wire is protected from nickel or other
"
oxidation that
the
layerof powdered
charcoal.
The
resistance the
is
so
chosen A of
from directly
lightingcircuit.
a
in ten
minutes, with
maximum
1100"
C"
C. H.
D.
Furnaces-
"
full account
is
paper four
read
by
A.
at
|!at
for
:
"
recent
meeting
of the
the
electrical furnace
as
follows the
1. Total
fuel from
furnace, thus
avoidance
allowing of better
of in impurities
the
concentration finished
2. Attainment
in smaller
space
and
product. of highertemperatures, thus allowing the production of metals and which formerly could not be produced, or alloys could be produced only with difficulty.
xxv.
,
Electro-chemical Society 1914, vol. Transactions of the American X Ibid., p. 97. t Ibid., p. 59. " Zeitschrift fUr Elektrochemie, 1914, vol- xx. p. 253. II Electrical Review, 1914, vol. Ixxv. p. 379.
p. 53.
356
3.
Abstracts
of Papers
at
the
centre, and
The
the
reverse
of other
a
are
thus
of
to ^^reserved
furnace
walls
4. Ease The
of regulation
heat.
disadvantages of electrical heating (excludingconsideration of of minor heating by induction, a method importance) are indicated. for The The vertica.1 disadvantages lie with the electrodes. position
electrodes is claimed
to
be
the
best.
The
use
of
fixed
electrodes
for
electrodes, approved,movable placed in a central Bottom electrodes credited disbath, being preferred. are as weakening the furnace construction,and as being subject to serious corrosion, thus interfering with continuity of operation these : difficulties increase in proportion With vertical electrodes to the load. of operating the possibilities with almost are large quantitiesof power furnaces in operationworking with 40,000 amperes now unlimited, some
is not
the
per
bundle
of electrodes. the
The
shape of
the
furnace
will in
generalbe
are
shape of
section.
electrode
bundles, which
open
a
All
large
the
and of
electrical furnaces
therefore
structed con-
in the form
square
shaft,the number
of
electrode
bundles
depending
employed, more being required for 3-phase than for continuous The effect of or alternatingcurrent. single-phase is and of increase phase-displacement discussed, capital expenditure. It is stated that the main problem in connection with large electrical
on
current
furnaces
gas.
is the
of closing of
the the
furnace, and
gas above
consequent utilization
the
open
of
the
Free
combustion
furnace
the
is
serious
conductance effect on injurious and electrode durabilityof conductors holders, thus necessitating of increase of dimensions or water-cooling ; also the working efficiency and the
men
is
reduced,
stated
whilst that
:
"
value of the
of the
gases
is not
utilized.
upon
The three
author
problem depended
the
or
roof.
2. Utilization 3. Continuous
of the gas.
charging. given of
the solution of these
An
The
as
account
is
problems.
the
of building
water-cooled
of the the
between partitions
electrodes served
The
supports
roof, and
the
also
as
chargingfunnels.
by the
chambers
in hang freely
furnace
funnels, being
roof
are
surrounded
material in
charge.
the
Underneath
gases
the
form partitions
and collect, is
removed under
a
them
is
all.
The
furnace
kept always
It
probable that
round furnaces
"
continuous
charging will
ones
be
shafts
the electrodes.
are
Large
preferredto small
for several
that
are
enumerated.
F. J.
358
Abstracts
of Papers
melting
chamber.
are
being
which estimate
not
an
egg-shaped
electrodes of
the life
enter
interior
the
The
with
holes bricks.
through
No has
that heats
the
furnace
lined
be
special
as
of for
the
lining
can
yet
given,
;
the
it
furnace is
to
been furnace
running
with
a
sufficiently
roof
and
long
has
period
been
but
stated
102
basic
any and
hearth
without
requiring
acid months
The roof
repairs
hearth
beyond
the
ordinary
furnace
with
two
operated
on
continually
steel,
night
less than
than
during
174
and basic
It it roof.
half
acid
a
tool
running
heats.
acid and
is is
be
run
at
temperature
that the
considerably
hearth
is
higher
the
furnace. that
and may
claimed used
o\er
practically
while
indestructible,
again
continuously
repairing
the
sides This
furnace,
has also
while
been
it
has
been with of
principally
some
used
for of
success
melting
in
iron
copper
and
steel,
brass
95
employed
small
degree
60
and
with
A
of
about
kilowatts
was
charged
copper
having
in
been
brought
minutes
to
full
an
temperature.
The of
completely
or
thirty
with
expenditure
Another of
zinc
was
kilowatt-hours,
of in 44' 5
300
copper energy
kilowatt-hours
and 30
per
ton.
charge
melted
or
kilogrammes
minutes,
per drawn into
kilogrammes
being
20
twenty
consumed
The
kilowatt" into
hours,
268
kilowatt-hours
of
brass. of
ton
melt
was
poured
ingots,
and The
afterwards
energy
tubes
per
excellent
quality.
of
course,
consumption
and will
will,
are
be and it
reduced
is
when
that in
larger
the
charges
larger
compete
is
furnaces
very
dealt
with,
with of
claimed
furnace
as
favourably
no
the
the
crucible zinc
and
brass metal
foundries,
is
there
practically
D.
"
oxidation
the
materially
improved.
H.
359
STATISTICS.
Aluminium
General
into
tons
at
in
follows
India.
:
"
report
from
the
United
States
of
Consul-
Calcutta
as
contains
"
India
For
of aluminium
340 415
tons tons
were were
this total
Germany,
It is the State
of
from
imports ending March 31, 1913, 1790 imported (presumably plates and ingots). Of from the United Kingdom, 950 tons from United and the 70 tons from Belgium. States,
the
official statistics of
aluminium
fiscal year
of
Industries
would
and
Commerce
Mysore
of small
great encouragement
for
10
be
ware
given to
plants
"
working
to
aluminium
if small
induction
furnaces
of, say,
20 lbs.
capacity could
be introduced
meltingthe aluminium.
American
W.
year The C. Phalen 1913
was
F. .J.
Aluminium
Output.
States
"
of America
aluminium
industries
of
in the States.
in
amount
aluminium
produced
country
in
1913
was
72,379,090 lbs., against65,607,000lbs. in 1912." F. J. The followingtable | gives the production of aluminium
United States between 1883
and
in
the
1913.
"J.
L.
H.
to
that
the above
*
can figures
only be
Iron
and
t Iron
Trade
X Metal
1914, vol. Ixxxix. p. 208. Trades Review, 1914, vol. liv.,No 24, p. 1070 B. Review, Industry, 1914, vol. vi. p. 318.
Coal
;60 American
the
"
Abstracts
"
of Papers
"
United of
Metals. Secondary Accordingto P. J. Dunlop,* of States Geological Survey, the value of secondary metals,
" "
gold, silver,platinum, and iron, recovered in the United States in 1913 was $72,845,000" rather less than in 1912. The from term secondary is applied to metals recovered scrap from " pri"c., as distinguished metal, sweej)ings, mary skimmings, drosses,
exclusive
" " "
metals
no
which
are
obtained
direct from
ore.
The
term
"
ary second-
in quality. implicationof inferiority in used where cases special exceptional purityis Primary" metals are required,but "secondary" metals are in general use in most foundries. amount The of covered secondary (includingthat in brass)recopper carries
" " "
"
in
1913 copper
was
136,500
from
tons,
to
being
over
"pi'imary
"
smelted
domestic
ores
22
cent,
of
the
year.
"Secondary" 72,834 tons, equal nearly 17 per " of cent, primary refined lead. zinc was Secondary 79,570 tons, equal to 23 per cent, of the
" " "
lead amounted
productionof
"
"
primary
"
"
zinc.
to 14,178 tons, valued at $12,567,379, Secondary and was than 27 per cent, of the tin imported during the equal to more in the United domestic tin ore being smelted States. no year, practically amounted tons. F. J. to 4654 Secondary aluminium
tin amounted
"
"
"
Canada's
Canada in
Aluminium
1912
1911.
$432,600 in
Colorado
Colorado
dollars. is
from exports of aluminium worth f are as $1,107,425 as given against being The greater part of this metal goes to Europe.
"
Trade.
The
Metal
Production,
1913.
"
The
metal
production of
Survey \ at 35,449,298 placedby the United States Geological increase a nd the previousyear, lead show an on Copper, silver, but the production of zinc and gold has decreased. Different items are given as follows: Gold, 18,146,916 dollars; silver, 9,325,255 ozs. ; lead, 87,620,364 lbs.; copper, 7,298,269 lbs.; zinc, 119,346,429 lbs. Creek and Leadville 79 produced 60 per cent, of the total gold, Cripple
per
cent,
of the zinc.
"
D.
H.
German
German
Exports
exports
and
of
Composition Metal,
of and 1912
"c.
"
The
values
of
imports
ware silver-plated
in 1911
and gold-plated
:
"
Metal f Ibid., 1914, vol. vi. p. 157Itidustry, p. 1024 c. % Metallurgical and Chemical 1914, vol. xii. No. 8, p. 539. Engifieey-ing, " Metal Industry, June 1914, vol. vi. p. 253.
,
Statistics
The
361
between
Per Cent.
ranges
tin
50 to 60 19 to 31
13 to 18-5
"J.
L.
H.
Metal
made copper,
Output
and
of South
in that
1913."
value
In
were
South of
1913
Dakota
its record
output
of metal year
gold,silver,
the
lead
at
being $8,019,370.*
tons ton
ore
value
in the
treated
of $3'81 in
gold
and
$-052
in silver.
"
D.
H.
of the Belgian Congo. The Katanga deposits Resources and the of the last-named tin, gold, and are production copper, M. K. Shaler.f described by S. H. Ball and The Go'pper. by the Union Miniere, Katanga copper mines owned 7200 produced in 1913 about long tons of crude copper, from 160
Mineral
"
of
"
from
30
to
60
miles
in width the
and
200
miles
authors
most
detail
the
geology of
are
district, stating
and
occur one
copper
minerals
malachite
chrysocoUa ;
cuprite and
even
at
considerable
and
rarities.
water
Sulphides
level. the
ton.
sparingly,
exception,
With
appreciable gold
maxima
of
silver
and
values
accompany per
copper,
A
reaching
centage perto
72 grammes
metric which
notable
in the crude
4
to
copper,
in 1911
cent,
90 per
per
copper,
cent,
copper,
2 to
5 per cent, cobalt,0-3 per the figures were During 1912-13 per
cent,
assayed 89 iron,and
to 95
1*1
94
per
cent, cent,
iron,and
ore
0"8 to 1 per
being briquetted
twenty
the in the
capacity of
of
per
hours ;
no
binder Gold.
Some
is given description
the
value
of and
tion dissemina-
of
and five The
gold
in the
colony.
Gold
is
widely
ore
distributed from
Katanga,
of
detrital
of the
and
derived
the
being
in
auriferous. slightly
copper
are
values
are
in
the
Iluwe
lode
in
ton
Katanga
said to average in
70s. per
silver.
which extensive and of are fairly deposits and can scarcelybe worked good tenour, but are in isolated positions and difficulties excessive taxes, but at a profitowing to transportation 1906. F. J. far back carried out as as some was smelting (at Busanga)
Tin.
"
Cassiterite
occurs
"
t Mining
Engineering, 1914, Metallurgical and Chemical Magazine, 1914, vol. xi. p. 54.
vol.
xii.,No.
7, p. 467.
Abstracts
of Papers
A
Output, 1913."
U. S.
zinc in 1913.
total value
*
given by
copper, dollars
over was
Geological Survey
This is
lead, and
1912.
a
an
of
The
silver
productionshowed
there
the
large increase
district. and
Bingham
Gold
in copper, 145,000,000 lbs. being produced in total quantity of ore The sold or treated was
10,202,566 tons,
ton. to
the average
valued
recoverable
was production
value
4*39
13,084,835 ozs.; copper, 161,445,962 lbs.;lead, 166,126,790 lbs. zinc, 18,857,827 lbs." D. H. World's
issued
; and
Output
the
of
Non-Ferrous
and the
Metals.
Metal
"
Statistics for
1913
by
Metall
Gesellschaft
Bank
of Frankfort-on-
the-Main
of
tin,lead, and
:
zinc.
The
return
gives the
are prices
undernoted in
Englishton
The
the tin
in 1913 is in the production of copper (1'24per cent.) and first for six years. Lead zinc (2'5 per cent.), (0"4 per cent.), the "3 increases over experienced (3 per cent.) preceding year.
decrease
""
Metallurgical and
and Coal
Chemical
Engineering, 1914,
vol. xii.
,
No.
7, p. 440.
t Iron
Trades
Review,
Statistics
The
363
the four
appended
:
consumption of
leading
countries
The silver.
production of
compared with 28,500 tons in 1912, years 1910-1913, Is. 5-7d. per lb.
Aluminium show^s
an
the
average
pricebeing for
tons
the
for 1913,
as
compared
with
62,600
1913 1912
tons
The
average
were: prices
Pence
Lb.
1911
-F. J.
Zinc
has
"
Output
of the
World.
"
The
Department of Commerce the output of spelter for 1913 * furnished information by the
U.S.
1913.
Short Tons.
U.S.
consuls
Italy Spain
Belgium
France
Germany
Great Britain
.
311,914
65,201 20,813 19,040 9,.520
Netherlands
Norway
Poland United
.
States Chemical
346,(576
1914, E'lgineering,
vol. xii.
"
D.
H.
Metallurgicaland
364
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cadmium,
work copper,
antimony, bismuth,
and
aluminium,
and
the
under each metal: (1) its physical and general plan followed is to consider it is the chief constituent chemical properties; (2) the alloysof which ; (3) the and the effects of substances of commercial and brands, applications composition and the processes with those applications ores interfere which by ; (4)the chief which suitable which the metal is extracted from them
or
other
sources,
and
refined
or
made
on
for the
industrial of
or. other
purposes;
(5)the
principlesand
conditions
depends ; (6)the furnaces and appliances changes and reactions which occur employed in the processes, and the chemical at the present in the operations; and (7)examples of actual practice followed time in important extraction works.]
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these
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Hale,
A. J.
The
SyntheticUse of Metals
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mercury.
1914
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A. Churchill.
matter is
as
[The classification
and silver.
follows:
I. Sodium
and
potassium.
IV. Zinc
II.
and
III.
Magnesium,
calcium, and
barium.
Appendix
lead. VI. V. Aluminium, tin, and Iron, nickel, and platinum. (practicalwork) (1) Sodium-potassium; (2) copper-silver;(.3) magnesium-calci ; (4)zinc-mercury ; (5)aluminium-tin-lead ; (6)iron-nickel.
"
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its
alloys,
the
from
ing operat-
to: Properties of Copper; Copper of Commerce Chapters are devoted : Its and their Industrial Effects Impurities Alloys ; Copper Compounds ; Copper ; Ores : their MetallurgicalTreatment ; Smelting of Copper ; Leaching of Copper ; and of Copper. Electrolysis Though the e.\amples of practice are drawn mainly from the United States, this is quite excusable, seeing that the United States produces more than half the field copper of of the and world. is The volume appears
admirably
in many
cases
to
cover
the
entire to this
cojjper
replete with
references,
these
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[The
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and silicides
thermal properties being given. There of the silicides and caranalysisis first explained, and then applied to the cases bides. Polymorphic changes in these groups are described, with methods, and in reference silicides (iron, and to various nickel, cobalt, manganese, copper),
is
"f preparation
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C. T. Vincenzi
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New
from
8vo,
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for
D.
van
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or
treatise
any
chemist
mining
engineer making
L'Lndustrie
aurifereau
A.
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son
son passe',
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Lahure.
Oliver, Sir
of
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Queensland Mineral
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Index, loith Diagrams, Tables,and 36 Maps. Brisbane, 1913 : The Department of Mines. Autogene
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London,
Constable
"
Co., Limited.
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and
6rf.)
"
Part I. The structure : (1)Introductory. of alloys. (2) The microscopic examination of metals and microstructure of pure metals. (3) The metallurgical microscope. (4) The thermal metals and of alloys. (5) The study of metals and alloys. (6) The of alloys. (7) Typical alloy the and constitutional physicalproperties diagram II. Part The iron-carbon The properties of metals as system. (8) systems. and The mechanical and constitution. (9 testing related to their structures 10) of metals. (12) The of metals. (11) The effect of strain on the structure of metals. treatment of metals. thermal (14) treatment (13) The mechanical the followingChapters [Contains constitution
"
Defects
and
failures
in metals
and
alloys.
x 4 English-Mdric Lengths. 3-|-
RosETTi, G.
pp. 80.
A.
Metric-Englishand London,
1914
:
inches,
E.
"
F. N.
Spon.
from
of English lengths figures) equivalentsin millimetres (to five significant [Gives to the nearest and inch inch to 10 equivalent gV by ^'^ feet,advancing ; of all metric
"^^inch
lengths
from
1 to
3200
millimetres
advancing by
metres.] milli-
Roxburgh,
W.
General
Foundry
Practice.
161
figures. London,
1914
Constable
(Price 6s.
net.)
[Deals with
metals
"
in
and casting the finer general iron founding, job loam practice, lurgy and brasses and alloys; practicalmetalcastings bronzes, aluminium and their struction, conthe foundry, general patternmaking, foundry ovens,
fuels, and
foundry tools.]
Smallwood,
J.
G.
Mechanical D.
van
York,
1914:
pp.
333.
New
[Deals with
the
the
mechanical
Smith,
H.
G.
Minerals
1914
:
and
the
London,
Sprague,
J. T.
T.
Murby
Microscope. 8vo, pp. 128, with " Co. (Price 3s. 6c/.)
12
plates.
The
8vo,
pp.
80.
London,
1914
E. "
F.
N.
370
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und Gesellschaft. Metallurgische its Borderland.
1914:
Metallbank
Stewart,
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W.
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2
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trations illus-
plates. London,
Longmans,
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vols.
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der Metalle
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with
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8vo,
"
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Urban
zenberg.
three
or
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233
Chemical
of
the
Geometrical
London
of Properties
and New
illustrations.
York
McGraw-Hill
The of
Book
Co.
Weed,
W.
H.
Copper
the
Handbook. Vol.
Manual
of
the
Copper Mining
1914
:
Industry
W.
H.
AVorld.
1912-13. xi.,
Houghton, Mich.,
on
Weed.
I.
(Price "1
Is.)
detailed notes all copper mines in Xorth
[Part
America,
index districts. Part IV.
in which
alphabetically arranged. Part II. (39 pages) is a useful geographical the mines are grouped by countries, states, counties, and mining Part III. (285 pages) gives detailed notes on foreign companies.
contains
statistics, and
Part
V.
(53 pages)
list of
dead
Hire
Bestimmungsnuthoden des Arsens, Antimons Trennung von anderen Elementen. (Parts XVII.
Chemische edited Anal3^se," 1914 Stuttgart,
in
Die
and
Zinns XVIII.
and
of "Die
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B. M.
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Edward
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trated. Illus-
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1914:
Arnold.
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371
Wysor,
H.
Metallunjy. Publishing
general gold,
features
Seco7id Co.
Edition.
Pp.
12*\
391.
Cleveland,
1914:
Chemical
(Price
of the
6d.)
of and iron
[Covers
tin, silver,
metallurgy
manganese,
and the
steel,
brass,
copper,
nickel,
aluminium,
rarer
metals.]
Zab^,
J.
et
B.
Traite
pratique
suivi le de
de
I'art
de
tremper
sur
I'acier,
la
et
le
fer,
la
fonte,
le
le
travail
cuivre du
le
et
bronze,
de
renseignements
des
vietaux
autogene,
fer
I'acier,
revised
decoupage
and
irropriete's.
Paris,
Second
1914:
edition,
Geisler.
enlarged,
Qd.)
Manuel
8vo,
60
illustrations.
L.
(Price
R.
2.5.
ZAgON,
L.,
and
Lefebure.
pratique
135
de
prevention
des
accidents
1913
du Les
travail. Editions
8vo,
pp.
153,
with
illustrations.
Paris,
techniques.
372
SUBJECT
INDEX
A.
Abrasives, 344.
of metals
Acids, solution
in, 279.
of, 254. Admiralty gun-metal, heat treatment tests of, Admiralty gun-metal, high temperature Ageing of silver-tin alloys,282.
Alaska
as a
281.
industries, 319.
Allotropy of
metals,
264.
Alloys,annealing, after quenching, 284. Alloys,bronzing of, 299. of, when Alloys,copper-zinc,behaviour
heated
in
vacuum,
214.
Alloys, calcium carbide for, preparation of, 285. 304. Alloys for die castings, Alloys,electrolytic preparation of, 320. industrial Alloys, applicationsof, 295. Alloys,liquid,electrical conductivityof, 287. Alloys, properties of, 264, 281. structure in, 46. Alloys, Widmanstatten Alloys, zinc-copper,critical point at 460" C, 89. Aluminium in automobile industry,295. Aluminium, in, 295. chill-casting Aluminium for coating iron and steel, 296.
Aluminium, Aluminium,
colouring, 270.
of, 271. cooling curve hand tool for, 301. curling, nickel of deposition on, 312.
detection in
Aluminium, Aluminium,
Aluminium,
Aluminium
Aluminium,
Aluminium,
influence
steel
ingots,295.
322.
Aluminium,
Aluminium Aluminium
Aluminium
Aluminium
of, 335.
network
nitride
feeder, 296.
Aluminium Aluminium,
Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium
titanium
from, 329.
trade
of
Canada,
output
360.
America,
American
of, 359.
secondary
metals, 360.
284.
374
SubjectIndex
o.
Cadmium,
Cadmium,
Cadmium,
Cadmium Cadmium Calcium
of, 320. electro-deposition physical propertiesof, 265. gravity of, 264. specific
and
bismuth,
284.
Calumet,
Canada,
extraction
aluminium
of native trade
of, 360.
Carbon,
Cascade
reduction
attachment
of oxides for
metals, 340. Casting non-ferrous aluminium, polishing,350. Castings, 351. sound, Castings, copper, influence of gold surfaces, 269. Catalytic for of sulphur, 317. Chance recovery process Chemical composition, effect of, on copper, 71. in aluminium, 295. Chill-casting Chromium, magnetic propertiesof, 273.
Coating aluminium
with
nickel, 312.
for, 296.
Coating
Cobalt Cobalt
iron
and its
steel,aluminium
and
269. possibilities,
alloys,285.
of
Cohesion
liquids, 170.
estimation of zinc
Coinage bronze,
Coke,
condenser (."old-drawn Cold-rolled
in, 330.
tubes, and
corrosion, 133.
Cold-saw,
Cold striprolling machine, 299. Cold-wrought metals, internal strains in, Colorado metal production in 1913, 360. Colorimetric process,
new,
327.
Colouring aluminium,
Common
270.
of, 360.
by, 351.
285.
corrosion, 133.
Conductivity
Conductors Contact
amalgams,
without differences
curves
resistance, 271.
of
potential, 271.
271.
Cooling
Copper,
of metals,
structure of, 272. Copper, crystalline holes in glass, 300. Copper for drilling Copper, effect of temperatures higher than
atmospheric
Lake
on
native, extraction
of,
at
Calumet,
Superior, 230.
physical behaviour
plating of, 314. production of high
tensile
of, 26.5.
vacua
by
from,
means
of, 278.
separation of bismuth
308. 5(i.
SubjectIndex
effect of temperatures higher than atmospheric Copper alloys, of, 350. problems in manufacture Copper alloys, Copper and arsenic, electrolyticseparation of, ;32G. analysisof, 325. Copper and brass, electrolytic 351. sound, Copper castings, forming machine, 300. Copper-coil Copper conductors, bare, capacity of, 2()8. Copper films, absorption of lightby, 204. Copper and lead bearing metal, 334. hardness and of, 289. elasticity Copper-nickel alloys, treatment of, 312. electrolytic Copper ores, Copper shell, drawn, making the dies for, 303. for, 309. specification Copper unions, standard
on
375
tensile
tests
of, 2o4.
of, when
tubes
heated
in
vacuum,
214.
and,
133.
historyof,
Pierron
Part
III., 133.
treatingzinc
of members
ores,
316.
Council
for 1915,
nomination
of, 39.
Cowper-Coles process for extraction of zinc, 318. brass, 285, Cracking of drawn Critical point at 460" C. in zinc-copper alloys, 89.
Crucibles,
Crucible
use
and
care
of, 352.
furnace, labcratory,355.
in metals, 332. Crystal formation form of selenium, 272. Crystalline of copper, structure 272. Crystalline tool for, 301. hand Curling aluminium, of, in plating solutions,326. Cyanide, free, estimation
De
Laval
Deformation,
Density of molten
metals, 333.
process
for extraction of
of zinc, 318.
process
drawn
making
neutral
coke, 349.
shell, making
E.
Elastic
and
vulcanite
metal
of copper, Elasticity
272.
1, 41.
furnace
for
melting
and
357 refining,
furnace
furnaces,
^'^^
Electrical conduction
at
SubjectIndex
high temperatures,
273.
Electrical conductivityof liquidalloys, 287. Electrical resistance of mercury, 271. Electrical smelting furnaces, 355. Electrical soldering,313.
treatment Electricity, of tin
ores
by, 315.
as a
site
for, 319.
319. Electro-chemistry, nickel, 314. Electro-deposit, of brass, 320. Electro-deposition of cadmium, 320. Electro-deposition of nickel, 325. Electro-deposition
of zinc, 323. Electro-deposition hammer, Schuler, Electro-magnetic 346.
Electrode
of cadmium salts,205. Electrolysis of Electrolytic analysis copper and brass, 325. tests on well-annealed rolled, 57. Electrolytic copper, of 266. a metastable metal, deposition Electrolytic 322. for, deposition, power Electrolytic micro-chemical methods, 326. Electrolytic 320. Electrolytic preparation of alloys, preparation of bronze, 320. Electrolytic of zinc, 317. refining Electroljrtic separation of copper and arsenic, 326. Electrolytic of copper treatment ores, 312. Electrolytic
312. Electro-metallurgy,
use Electroplating,
of
rapid
288.
nickel
salts
in, 321.
Eutectics,growth of,
F.
Fatigue
limit of metals, its 331.
dangers, 288, device,300. riveting 344. Foundry, Furnace nitride aluminium lining, Furnaces, 339.
353. Furnaces, electric,
as,
339.
G.
exports
for
of
composition
metal, 360.
125.
holes in, 300. drilling Gold, annealing of, effect of hydrogen on,
of, 269.
for, 353.
cascade 344.
attachment
Grinding wheels,
of, 254. Gun-metal, Admiralty, heat treatment tests of, 281. Gun-metal, Admiralty, high temperature
SubjectIndex
H.
Hall Hall effect in Heusler's effect
at
377
alloys, 289.
273.
low
temperatures,
Hammer,
Hardness Hardness Hardness
Schuler of
electro-magnetic, 346.
333.
289. copper-nickelalloys,
determination,
tests,
Brinell,331.
metals and intermetallic
Heat,
Heat Heat
of specific,
compounds,
254.
293.
of transformation
treatment
of nickel, 271.
of
Admiralty gun-metal,
effect in, 289.
Heusler's
alloys. Hall
machine, 347. High-pot die-casting High-speed cold saw, 347. tests of Admiralty gun-metal, 281. High temperature High temperatures, electrical conduction at, 273. High temperatures, tensile propertiesof copper at, 56. High temperatures, volatilization of metals at, 281. of copper, 278. High vacua, production of, by means History of corrosion. Part III., 133. Hoepfner, process for extraction of zinc, 318. Hot galvanizing, 301. Hydrogen, effect of, on the annealing of gold, 125. Hydrogen, occluded, in palladium wires, 276.
Imbert-Fitzgerald
electric
furnace,
316.
Impuritiesin zinc,
India, aluminium
Industrial Intermetallic
in, 359.
metals and 295. alloys, heat of, 293. specific
of applications
compounds,
of vapour, in the state 290. Intermetallic compounds and Iron, aluminium, phosphorus, separation of titanium Iron Iron and and manganese groups, for
from, 329.
separationof, 327.
coating, 296.
steel, aluminium
Johnson
electric furnace,
316.
L
Laboratory Lead and crucible
furnace, 355.
arsenic,
alloysof, 291.
334.
furnace,
new,
341.
Library, additions to, 257. Light, absorption of, by copper films, 264. Liquid alloys,electrical conductivityof, 2S7. of, 170. Liquids, cohesion and capillarity
Locomotive Low Low boiler
tubes, 302.
Hall effect at, 273. at, 280. heats specific
temperatures. temperatures,
process
Luckow
for extraction
of
zinc, 317.
378.
Index Subject
M.
antimony in,279. nickel of in, 279. r esistance field, Magnetic and chromium, 273. of manganese Magnetic properties
Magnetic
resistance of field,
Magnetic separator, 347. of,273. Manganese and chromium, magnetic properties iron and 327. of, separation Manganese groups, May Lecture,1, 3. Mechanical properties of copper, effect of arsenic on, 72.
Mechanical
copper,
68.
Meltingnon-ferrous
metals, 340. Meltingfurnace, electric arc, 357. Meltingpointof arsenic, 273. materials, 341. Meltingpoints of refractory
Members, election of, 1, 41. Mercury, electrical resistance of,271. 346. Metal cutting wheels, elastic and vulcanite, of a sprayingprocess, 116. Metal deposits, production of, by means Metal, metastable, electrolytic depositionof, 266. in 1912 and 1913, 361. Metal output of South Dakota
Metal Metal Metal Metal
output of Utah
116. spraying,
in 1913, 362.
Metallic Metallic
Metallization, Schoop process of, 307. in three dimensions, 327. Metallography Metals, atomic frequencyof, 294. Metals, bearing,297. Metals, behaviour of, under
stress, 274.
Metals, bronzingof, 299. Metals, cold wrought, internal strains in, 3. Metals, common, of, 264. allotropy of, 271. Metals, cooling curves
formation Metals, crystal
in, 332.
limit of, 331. Metals, fatigue of, 295. Metals, industrial application Metals, molten, density in, 333.
Metals, molten, surface tension of, 168. of, 277. Metals, passivity of, 264. Metals, properties Metals, pyrophoric,278.
Metals, solution of, in acids,279. heat of, 293. Metals, specific of,335. Metals, testing of, by compression, 351. Metals, treatment Metals, volatilization of, at very high temperatures, 281. in, 46. structure Metals, Widmanstatten 304. Metals and alloysfor die castings, Metastable metal, electrolytic depositionof,266.
Micro-chemical Mineral Molecular Molten
resources
methods,
of the
326. electrolytic,
homology and of, 333. metals, density Molten metals, surface tension of, 168. of,280. Molybdenum, preparation
Index Sitbject
N.
Nahnsen Native Network Neutral process copper, for extraction of
379
zinc, 318.
Lake
extraction
of,
at
Calumet,
Superior, 230.
349.
2',)6. process of
making,
Nickel, deposition of, on aluminium, 312. for, 325. Nickel, dimethylglyoxime method
of, 325. Nickel, electro-deposition Nickel,
heat of transformation
of, 271
magnetic field, 279. of, 289. Nickel and elasticity and copper, alloysof, hardness Nickel 314. electro-deposit, 314. Nickel-plating, 321. Nickel salts, rapid, use of, in electroplating,
Nickel, resistance of, in
a
Nickel
solutions, 321.
322. Nickelling of aluminium, views modern Non-ferrous of,291. alloys, Non-ferrous metals, annealing furnace for, 339. Non-ferrous metals, melting and casting,340. Non-ferrous Non-ferrous
metals, world's
output
of, 362.
mixtures, 306.
Obituary,
Oxidation
260. of type
metal,
294.
Oxides, reduction
of, by carbon,
278.
PALL.\DitJM
wires
containing occluded
277.
344.
conductivityof, 276.
of metals, Passivity
Patternmaking, Phosphor-bronze,
accurate,
phosphorus in, 328. of making, 349. Phosphor-tin, in phosphor-bronze, 328. Phosphorus Phosphorus, iron, and aluminium, separation of titanium Plated goods, strippingof, 315. Plating in colours, 314. of free cyanide in, 326. Plating solutions, estimation 292. and rubidium Potassium alloys,
method
from, 329.
Potential, contact
President. Protective Protective See
differences
of, 271.
Oram,
Sir
Henry J.
coating for electrodes, 357. metal surface, applicationof, by spraying, 29((. Pyrometer, use of, in annealing of brass, 112. thermometers and, set using resistance Pyrometers, combination Pyrometers, recording,.336. Pyrometry, 336. Pyrophoric alloys,analysisof, .329. Pyrophoric metals, 278.
R.
Railway Rare
336.
waggons,
bearings in,
336.
standard
elements,
Recording pyrometers,
380
Subject Index
Refining furnace, electric arc, 357. Refractory material, zirconia as, 343. Refractory materials, 342. Refractory materials, melting points of, 341.
Rennerfelt Resistance Resistance electric furnace, 3.57.
thermometer, thermometers,
new,
338.
testing set using, 33G. 343. Reverberatory furnace, tilting, device for, 300. Riveting fire-box stay-bolts, of treatingargentiferous Roessler-Edelmann 317. ores, process 299. Rolling machine, cold strip, Rubidium and potassium, alloysof, 292.
combination
s.
ScHOOP Schuler process of
metallization, 307.
346.
tubes, manufacture
of, 304.
360.
power
of, 294.
form of, 272. crystalline Silver,device for cleaning,321. Silver, lead, and zinc, alloys of, 295. Silver and silver sulphide, 293. Silver-tin alloys,ageing of, 282. Smelting of tin ores, 315. Smelting furnaces, electrical, 355. Snap flask, aluminium, adjustable, 345.
Selenium,
Sodium
amalgams,
Solid
294.
Dakota,
metal
1913, 361.
intermetallic
compounds,
293.
,
solutions, 294.
heats at low temperatures, 280. Specific unions, 309. standard, for copper Specification, Specifications, standard, for bearings in railway waggons, metal surface by, 296. Spraying, application of protective Spraying of metal, 116.
308.
Stassano-Petinot
359. Statistics,
electric
furnace, 341.
309.
higher than
atmospheric
on
tensile tests
of, compared
with
234. alloys,
ingots,influence of aluminium on, 295. tubes, 310. Straightening aluminium Strains, internal, in cold-wrought metals, 3.
Stress, behaviour
of metals
I
'
under,
315.
274.
382
Subject
Index
Structure
in
various 311.
alloys
and
metals,
46.
rings
for
leaky
of
stuffing-boxes,
non-ferrous
metals,
362.
of
zinc,
363.
of
Wrought
effect with
temperatures
and its
higher alloys,
2?A.
than
atmospheric
on
tensile
tests
of,
compared
copper
z.
Zinc,
Zinc, Zinc, Zinc, Zinc,
corrosion effect of
of,
impurities
refining
of,
in
Zinc,
Zinc,
coinage
estimation
extraction
of,
of,
of the
Zinc, Zinc,
Zinc,
minerals,
output
world,
,363.
physical
behaviour
of,
critical effect 295. of
265.
Zinc-copper Zinc-copper
Zinc-silver-lead
alloys, alloys,
point
tin
at
460"
99.
C,
89.
on,
alloys,
as
Zirconia
refractory
material,
343.
383
NAME
INDEX
A.
Adam,
Addicks, Allan,
H.
M.,
on on on
book
L.,
H.
S.,
D.,
C.
by, 3G4. for electrolytic deposition,322. power of metals, 277. passivity bearing metals,
on
Allen, L.
298. cast-iron
Anthony,
Arnold, Arnott, Asch, Asch,
H.
C,
on on
bronze
and
bearings, 300.
Arnold, H.,
,
analysisof
tungsten
John, elected
D., book
member,
by,
on
364.
W.,
book
furnace,
sampling
and
analysisof
thermo-electric K. forces produced by deformation, 280. on Baedeker, Baker, T. J., plating in colours, 314.
,
Ball, S. H.,
Bardvvell, E. Barham,
G.
on
mineral S.
,
resources
of the
on on on
,
annealing cold-rolled
nickel electrode its for zinc
2(!6.
B.,
L.
314. electro-deposit,
Barnebey, O.
Baskerville,
T. Bayliss,
,
estimation, 325.
on on
Hon.
member,
41.
structure
Paper
author's H.
The
in meteoric
:
various
iron C. A.
figuresin
Communications
previous
50;
47.
F.
Carpenter,
Desch,
51;
A.
M.
Portevin,
S.
Primrose,
53.
on
,
Benedicks, C. A. F.
G. D.
,
Widmanstatten condenser
structure
in various
alloys and
154.
metals, 50.
coke, on corrosion, tubes, Bengough, "The tensile properties of copper at Paper on Bengough, G. D., and D. Hanson high temperatures," 56 ; previous research, 56 ; criticism of specialtype of testing machine used, 56 ; changes in design of heating furnace, 57 ; tests on welland
"
annealed of the A.
rolled
electrolytic copper,
work, 68;
57 I review
of the
results
obtained, 65;
effect
effect
on
mechanical
effect of chemical
of arsenic
mechanical
Campion
A. H.
on
and
Communications:
;
Carpenter, 78
85,
O. F, Hudson,
Huntington,
Johnson, 84;
Hanson,
384
Name
C. W.
, ,
Index
325.
Bennett,
on on on
Birnbrauer, E. Bissett,C. C,
Blount,
very
high temperatures,
281.
silver
sulphide,2'.)3.
B., book
on
,
by,
Hall
3()4.
Bogitch, B.
Bonazzi, Bone, W.
zinc-si1ver-lead
alloys, 295.
289. alloys, 342.
O.,
on on
effect in Heusler's
A.,
,
surface
combustion,
3(i4.
Borchers, R.
Bornemann,
book E.
,
by,
on on on
L.,
C,
of liquidalloys, electrical conductivity 287. of copper, 272. structure crystalline of selenium, 272. form crystalline
W.
,
N., book
on
by, 364.
Brunck, O.
Bruschke,
for nickel, 325. dimethylglyoxime method O., on zirconia as a refractory material, 343.
and
molybdenum,
280.
o.
Calvert,
A.
on
P., book
Diehl-Faber
by, 364.
of making neutral coke, 349. Campbell, process of tests Admiralty gun-metal, 281. Campion, A., on high temperature of tensile properties copper at high temperatures, 77. Campion, A., on of aluminium, 322. Canac, J.,on nickelling Capp, J. A., on testingmetallic coatings,335. 101. Carpenter, H. C. H., on the critical point at 460" C. in zinc-copperalloys, of native Lake extraction Note "The Calumet, at on Carpenter, H. C. H. copper of of the the U.S.A.," 230; treatment 231; 230; description ores, Superior, ores, 232. of Lake structure Superior copper, of copper 78. at high temperatures, Carpenter, H. C. H., on tensile properties various m structure alloysand metals, 50. Carpenter, H. C. H., on Widmaistatten
"
John, elected
aluminium
on
member,
2.
on
Clerkenwell, O.,
A.,
on
283. alloys, device for annealing of blanks, 310. carrying capacity of bare copper conductors,
268.
Cockburn,
Cohen, E.,
David,
on
elected
member,
41.
metals,
copper,
272.
aluminium aluminium
alloys, 284.
284. alloys,
Cruys, H.
Curie, P.,
by, 365.
of lead, 270. comple.xity
Dalby,
W.
E.
on on
Darling, C. R.
David, E., book
A.
by, 365.
on
,
Davidson,
W.
member, member,
41. 41.
ores,
Trevor,
on
treatment electrolytic
of copper
313.
by,
365.
the
critical
point at 460"
C.
in
104. zinc-copperalloys,
Name
Desch, Desch,
C. C. H.
,
Index
metals, 210.
in various 2.
385
on
surface
tension
of molten
structure
H.
,
on
Widmanstiitten
alloysand
metals, 51.
Donaldson,
Thorneycroft,elected
member,
Dony-Henault, O., book by, 365. Doyle, J. A., on tilting reverberatoryfurnace, 343. of nickel, 325. Dugliss,R. P., on electro-deposition Dunlop, P. J., on American secondary metals, 360. Duponchelle, J., book by, 365.
E.
Ekecrantz,
Ellen, T. Ellis, Owen
R.
,
T., book
on
W.,
member,
2. 41.
Enidin, Archie
Estep,
H.
C.
bronze
valves, 348.
F. Fedoroff, Fischer, F.
,
a.
S.
on
bismuth
and
cadmium,
284.
355. efficiency, Fleming, S. H., on protective coating for electrodes, 357. Fran9ois, L. book by, 366.
,
Frank, William
41.
G.
Gall,
by, 365. Gee, A. L. W., on pyrophoric metals, 278. Georges, H., book by, 366.
,
H.
book
C. E. Gillett, H. W. Gillett,
on on on
elastic and
brass brass
vulcanite
metal
Gillett,H. W.,
Frank Gilligan,
352. practice,
41.
P., elected
,
member,
Gleason, E. D.
Gleason,
E. R. W.
,
on on on
D.,
mixtures, 306.
of copper
ores,
Goodrich,
Gowland, Gowland,
R.,
W.
313.
book
book book
,
making
on
C. F.,
by, 366. of metals, 277. passivity book 366. Griinwald, J., by, Guernsey, Lord, obituary notice of, 261. Guye, P. A., book by, 365. 2. Gwynne, Nevill G., elected member,
H. Haas, Hale, Halse,
W. A.
J. de, J. book
,
on
resistance
of
antimony
in
by, 366.
E., book
by, 366.
elected
Ham,
John William,
member,
2.
386
Hanson,
D. Paper Bengough, G.
"
Name
on
Index
at
"The
high temperatures."
See
D.
Harris, H. E. on accurate 344. patternmaking, Harris, Jonathan Wistar, elected member, 2. influence of gold surfaces, 269. H., on catalytic Hartley, Hawkins, H. W., on babbitt and other bearingmetals, 298. Hays, J. W., book by, 3G6.
,
Heathcote, H. L.
meltingpointof arsenic, 273. micro-chemical Heinze, R. on electrolytic methods, 32G. of common Heldermann, W. D., on allotropy metals, 264, 265. electrical smelting A., on large Helfenstein, furnaces,355. Internal strains in cold-wrought metals, Heyn, E. May Lecture on
,
on on on
bismuth
and
arsenic, 284.
"
"
and
some
troubles
;
caused
nature
thereby," 3
manner
in which
strained conditions
may
be
broughtabout, 3
of internal strains, 4 ; method of distinguishing a system under internal strains from an unstrained one, 4 ; how internal strains can be set up in solids,7 ; of internal strains caused by cold work, 9 ; spontaneous cracking of investigation cold-worked in cold-worked
tests may
of such cracking, 22 ; removal of internal strains metals, 21 ; cause in which the indications of the ordinary tensile metals,26 ; manner be affected by internal strains, 29.
Higgs, Claude, elected member, 2. Higson, G. I., on reduction of oxides by carbon,278. Hind, H. L. book by, 367. Hiorns, A. H., book by, 367. Hodginson, F., on steam turbine blades, 309. 285. Hodgkinson, W. R. on calcium carbide for alloy preparation, Hoffman, M. K., book by, 367.
,
Hofman,
H.
O., book
,
by, 367.
electric furnace
on
device for
Hudson, O. P., on annealingof brass, 115. when heated in a vacuum, 226. Hudson, O. F. on behaviour of copper-zinc alloys critical pointat 400" C. in zinc-copper 89 The alloys," Hudson, O. F. Paper on
"
"
planation ex-
G3-40 per containing change which takes placein alloys of annealing 91 ; methods cent, of copper, 89 ; Professor Carpenter's experiments, used in author's experiments, of results obtained,93; experiments 92; summary carried out to find some could exist as a stable positive proofthat j3(or rather jSj) below 460" 94 conclusions, 98 C, phase ; general ; Appendix : on the effect of tin the zinc-copper on H. C. H. Carpenter,101; 99. Communications: alloys, C. H. Desch, 104; F. Johnson, 105; F. C. A. H. Lantsberry,107; W. E. 108 ; O. F. Hudson, 108. Thorneycroft, of copper at high temperatures,78. Hudson, O. F,, on tensile properties Hughes, A. L. on contact differences of potential, 271. o f Humphreys, T. C. on electrolytic analysis copper and brass,325. Note on "The effect of temperatures higher than atmosphericon Huntington, A. K. tensile tests of copper and its alloys, and a comparison with wrought iron and steel," 234 ; Appendix A, 245 ; Appendix B, 248 ; Appendix C, 250 ; Appendix D, 252. of copper at high temperatures,79. Huntington, A. K. on tensile properties of the thermal
, ,
"
Hiittner, C,
on
,
new
colorimetric
process, 327.
Hyman,
H.
on
Name
Index
387
Ingalls,
W.
R.,
on
Jenkins, Johnson,
of nickel in a magnetic field, 279. annealing of brass," 111 ; author's previous papers. examination of faultytube-casting, 112 ; use of the pyrometer in annealing Commimications of faultytube, 113. F. Hudson, case 112; another : O.
W.
A.,
on
resistance
"
F,
"
Note
on
The
111
tions, opera-
115;
F.
Johnson, F.,
F.,
on on on on
,
226.
F.,
F.
Johnson, F.,
W.
on
hydrogen on the annealing of gold, 131. of copper 350. problems in the manufacture alloys, tensile properties of copper 84. at high temperatures,
on
effect of
McA.,
babbitt
by, 367.
member,
42.
coke, condenser
resistance of drawn
tubes, and
in
a
corrosion, 154.
field, 279.
of nickel
magnetic
Jonson, E.,
cracking
brass, 285.
K. Keane,
C.
a., book
by, 368.
determination, 333. Kelley, E. J., on hardness elected member, 42. Kelly, Ernest Malcolm, of nickel, 325. Kenny, H. C. on electro-deposition 42. Kernot, Joseph Charles, elected member, A., metals, on 278. Kettner, pyrophoric King, A. G., book by, 367. 283. Knight, W. A., on ageing of silver-tin alloys,
,
KoUe, Kraus,
Harold
Werner,
titanium
elected
member,
42.
E.,
on
294. alloys,
Krause, Kremann,
Kremann, Krom,
book
by, 367.
on on
R.,
R.,
320. preparation of alloys, electrolytic electrolytic preparation of bronze, 320. manufacture of seamless
L.
J., on
N. N.
tubes, 304.
42.
Kurnakow,
Kurnakoff, Kurnakoff,
Nicolas
S., elected
on on
member,
and and
S., S.,
hardness
Kuzel,
on
Lake,
E.
F.,
on
metals E.
,
and
on
alloysfor
die
castings,304.
growth Lamplough, Lang, A., on colouring aluminium, 270. of metals under stress, 274. Lantsberry, F. C. A. H., on behaviour critical 107. Lantsberry, F. C. A. H., on the point at 460" C. in zinc-copperalloys, Laschtschenko,
P. N.
,
F. E.
of eutectics, 288.
on
cooling
curves
of
metals, 271.
388
Lass, W.
Le Le
Name
P.,
on on
Index
319. industries,
Alaska
as
Blanc,
M.,
by, 371.
and
E.,
Lepke, Lepsius, B.
Lindholm, Lombardi, Long,
chromium,
273.
book
,
by, 367.
on
A.
C,
making
by, 368. by, 368.
drawn
copper
shell,303.
Lindley, C. H.,
L.
,
book book
rivetingdevice,300. tests of Admiralty gun-metal, 281. high temperature of copper at high temperatures, 77. J. G. on tensile properties Longbottom, 322. deposition, Longwell, H. E., on power for electrolytic 320. Lorber, J. on electrolytic preparation of alloys, of 320. on bronze, Lorber, J., electrolytic preparation o f C. 316. V., on electro-metallurgy zinc, Lordier,
J. K.,
on
firebox
on
Longbottom, J. C,
Low,
Stanley C,
P.,
on
elected
member,
heat and
Ludwik,
atomic
on
Lundell, G. E. P.,
estimation 368.
by,
M.
electrolytic preparation of alloys,320. preparation of bronze, 320. electrolytic 283. W. M'Adams, A., on ageing of silver-tin alloys, McLeod, A., book by, 368. E. G., book Mahin, by, 368. resistance of nickel in a magnetic field, 279. E. on Malam, J. 320. of H. M., on electro-deposition cadmium, Marble,
Ma AS, R.,
on
Maas,
R.,
on
Mathers,
Mazzotto,
of cadmium, 320. electro-deposition by, 368. Merck, E. book by, 368. F., on titanium Meredith, W. alloys,294. of Merton, T. R., on production of high vacua by means F.
C,
on
D., book
copper,
278.
Metcalf,
Henry
H.
Ernest,
elected
member,
42.
by, 368.
brass
"
spraying," 116; earliest attempts, 116; metallic or "pistol," 117; brief powders, 116; description of the spraying machine 122 ; table action of deposition, explanation of the theory of spraying, 119 ; the
K.
Paper
Metal
of gas-pressure
and
feed
Mortimer, Murray,
John Ernest,
elected
Charles
Walter, elected
N.
Nernst,
W.,
F.
on
heats specific
on on on on
at
low
temperatures,
280.
D.,
F.
,
power
for
Nikitinski, A. L,
E. E. F.
,
potassium
cascade electrical
attachment conduction
390
Name
book
on on on on
Index
Romegialli, E. A.,
Rose,
Sir Thomas,
by, 369.
behaviour of copper-zincalloyswhen heated in a hydrogen on the annealing of gold, 131. of zinc in coinage bronze, 330. of molten
vacuum,
220.
tension
metals,
210.
Rosemberg,
Rosenhain, Rosenhain,
Rosetti, G. Rossi, A.
P.
,
book
on
,
by,
W.
behaviour
stress, 275.
W.,
book
by,
361).
A., book
by, 309.
294. alloys, 321. rapid nickel salts in electroplating, Ro.x burgh, W., book 3G9. by, material, 343. Ruff, O. on zirconia as a refractory
J.,on
titanium
on
,
Rowsbar,
S. W.
s. Samson,
W. G. E.
J., on C,
P.,
on on
hand
tool for
curling aluminium,
277.
301.
Schmidt, Schoch,
of metals, passivity
of metals, 277. passivity R. Schoeller, W. on composition of antimony sulphide,324. intermetallic and heat of metals Schubel, P., on specific compounds, 293. of metals, 277. Schulze, G. on passivity Schwarzkopf, on preparation of tungsten and molybdenum, 280. heats at low temperatures, 280. Schwers, F. on specific
,
, ,
Scott, J. T.,
on
growth
of eutectics, 288.
Seiferheld, H.,
Senter, G. Shaler, M.
on
,
Shakespear, Shape,
A.
G.
,
A.,
on on
on
surface
tension
of molten of the
metals, 211.
361.
K.
mineral
resources
Belgian Congo,
C,
on on
of zinc, 323. electro-deposition and density conductivityof palladium wires, 276. separation of copper and arsenic, 326. electrolytic
Sillince, William
on
Patrick, elected
reduction
member,
42.
of oxides
by carbon,
278.
Smallwood,
J. G., book
,
of copper
ores,
312.
by, 369.
42.
"The surface tension of molten metals," introduction, Sydney Paper of 169 fundamental and conceptions of the cohesion object present paper, ; surface of of capillarity, tension, 174; a constant 177 ; capillarity liquids, 170; short review of previous work, 178; adoption of a method, 184; apparatus ployed emthe manipulations required,186 ; experimental results, 192 ; discussion and 202 ; bibliography, 208. Communications C. H. of results and conclusions, : Rose, 210 ; G. A. Shakespear, 211 ; R. S. Willows, 212 ; Desch, 210 ; Sir Thomas
168 ;
S. W.
Smith,
212.
a
on on on
metastable
metal, 266.
castings, 351.
2. of non-ferrous 291. alloys,
member,
J. H.,
A. W.
,
on
modern
views
book
by,
370.
Name
J., book Stieglitz, Stone, G. C,
,
Index
391
by, 370. of zinc, 319. electro-metallurgy of resistance,280. Streitz, F. on temperature-coefficient C. limit of E. 331. on metals, Stromeyer, fatigue C. of T., on electrolytic bronze, 320. preparation Suchy, of zinc, 317. Sylvany, R. on electro-metallurgy
on
, ,
T. Tainton, Tammann,
U. G.
, ,
C,
book
of zinc, 323. electro-deposition by, 370. depositionof nickel on aluminium, of aluminium, 322. nickelling book 370. by,
on
312.
on
solution
of metals
in
acids, 279.
334.
J. J., on
W. E.
hardness
on
,
determination,
Thompson,
electrical
soldering, 313.
elected
Ernest,
on
,
student, 42.
C.
"
E. E.
,
the T.
"
critical Turner.
and
in
Behaviour
vacuum,
214; reference
series
to
patent
literature,214;
classification
of
;
alloys,215
221
;
of present
217 ; W.
of
21(1 ; materials
;
used,
of
21G
consideration 226
; F.
results,
;
conclusions, 224.
Rose, M.,
329. 226
on
Communicatio7is
;
O.
F.
Hudson,
T.
Johnson, 226
and
Sir Thomas
Thornton,
W.
jun.,
E.
Turner,
229.
iron, aluminium,
phorus, phos-
Thum,
Tiede,
W.
,
on on
separationof
K.,
on on
bismuth
copper,
308.
E.
volatilization of metals
hot
very
high temperatures,
281.
Turnbull, Turnbull,
Turner,
T. See
N. R.,
"
301. galvanizing,
electric furnace
on
"
Paper
Behaviour E. 43.
heated
in
vacuum."
Turner, Turner,
Treasurer, 40.
u. Ullmann,
F.
,
book
by, 370. V.
Vanstone,
E.
,
on
Varinois, M.,
book
on
,
sodium
amalgams,
285.
Vehrigs, W.
Vezoul, M.,
on
thermo-electric
forces
on
Schoop
of metallization,
C.
on on
melting and
method of
casting non-ferrous
metals, 340.
Vickers, C,
making phosphor-tin,349.
"W.
Wagenmann, Walker,
T.
K.,
L.. book
H.
on
electrical
by, 370.
on
Wartenberg, Watts, O.
P.,
von,
intermetallic compounds
in the
state
of vapour,
290.
on
392
Wedekind,
Weed, Weir,
W.
Name
on
Index
277.
preparation George,
S.
,
of
rare
elements,
H., book
R.
by, 370.
elected
James
member,
42.
Whipple,
Wickhorst,
Williams, Willows,
on
recording
on
pyrometers,
of aluminium
337.
on
M. Harris
H.,
influence
Bessemer
steel
ingots, 295.
Gregory,
on
elected tension
member,
of molten
2.
R. S.
,
surface
on
,
metals,
of
212. and
Wippelmann,
Wolf,
G.
on
W.
copper
arsenic, 326.
density and
Wysor,
H., book
by, 371.
Yardley,
William
Henry,
elected
member,
2.
z.
ZabiS, J. B., book
by, 371.
by, 371.
oxidation,
294.
Zinberg, S.,
on
type metal
Printed
by Ballantyne,
at Paul's
Hanson
6=
Co.
Work,
Edinburgh
Form
A.
(Membership Application. )
INSTITUTE
Founded 190S.
OF
METALS.
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To the
Secretary,
I, the undersigned
,
being
of
of the
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of
and
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are
of
becoming
formed,
Member
Metals,
as
that I will be
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or
governed by
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Association
they
they
may
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and altered,
may
the
Association
our
far
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in my
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hereby
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recommend
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Qualifications
Signature
Dated this
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,
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mendation, recom-
present Mr
as a
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Balloted
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^o
be
filled up the
by
Member
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ounci.
Caxton
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Westminster,
S.W
CJiairnian.
Dated
this
day of.
191
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