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Solid-State Lighting
A System Review
CHRISTIAN BRAAS, FRANCISCO J. AZCONDO, and J. MARCOS ALONSO

his article presents the background on the development of solidstate lighting technology, which is gaining popularity as a light source application. This review focuses on the main characteristics of solid-state lighting devices as well as their supply requirements and the effect of temperature on light-emitting diode (LED) performance. LED drivers are designed to achieve the best operation conditions without degrading the longer lifetime that this technology achieves in comparison to other popular light sources. Offline LED drivers include active power factor correction while current control with low ripple is required to supply the LED units or string arrangements. Methods to achieve balanced current sharing on paralleled LED strings and some of the latest contributions on LED drivers are also explained.

LED Overview
The primary goal of this article is to provide a starting point for designers interested in lighting systems based on LEDs, which are the most recent revolution in the consumer and industrial lighting application field.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/MIE.2013.2280038 Date of publication: 12 December 2013

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1932-4529/13/$31.002013IEEE

The emission mechanism of LEDs is electroluminescence. Contrary to the perception that this technology is something new, to find the foundation of LEDs based on semiconductor m aterials, one should look back to 1907, when Captain Henry Joseph Round observed the electroluminescence phenomenon when a current flowed through a crystal of silicon carbide [1]. Independently, in 1923, the Russian radio technician Oleg V. Lossev made the first attempt to explain the electroluminescence in p-n junctions with a scientific approach, describing the current versus voltage characteristic of the new device [2], [3]. The modern age of LED technology can be dated to the beginning of the 1960s, when Robert Hall, Nick Holonyak, Marshall Nathan, and Robert Rediker reported simultaneously [4][6] the laser emission of gallium arsenide crystals. LEDs have been commercially available since then in red, amber, and green colors. The applications of LEDs have mainly been signaling, seven-segment displays, and remote control. The next remarkable breakthrough in LED technology was the development of the first feasible blue LED by Shuji Nakamura at Nichia Corporation [7]. The blue LED paved the way for the development of white-light sources by mixing red, green, and blue (RGB) LEDs [8][10]. As this method could prove expensive, the method most widely used to produce white light based on LED technology

The blue LED paved the way for the development of white-light sources by mixing red, green, and blue LEDs.
is by adding a phosphor layer to a blue LED to modify the emission spectrum. The phosphor emits yellow light under excitation of the blue light, and the resulting mixture produces the appearance of white light [11]. Recently, phosphor-free white-light LEDs have been proposed [12], providing a more efficient light source. In this case, the white light is produced in a multilayer monolithic structure where blue and yellow light are emitted from different active regions. Today, white LEDs are still under development. Every year, the lumen per watt (lm/W) efficiency is increased, while the cost is dimin ished. For example, several devices from the OSRAM OSLON SSL 80 [13] and Philips Lumileds Luxeon Rebel ES [14] families are available, achieving higher energy efficiency than 100 lm/W (Figure 1). Although these values of efficiency are obtained for a pulsed regime to avoid the effect of the self-heating of the die, such devices are competitive with traditional light sources. Because of the nature of the LED spotlight, it is possible to design a very efficient optic to bring the light where it is needed [15], reducing light pollution. On the other hand, improvements in the packaging, such as the flip-chip technology [16] combined with the use of new materials such as ceramic substrates increase the thermal capability [17] of the device, which increases reliability [18], lifetime up to 50,000 h, and light efficiency. Together with the aforementioned advantages, LED technology also overcomes drawbacks of traditional discharge lamps such as hot reignition, acoustic resonance, and warm-up time. LED technology is environmentally friendly and free of mercury and infrared and ultraviolet radiation. Organic LEDs Electronics based on organic materials started in 1977 when Heeger, Mac Diarmid, and Shirakawa published a paper describing a polymeric conductor [19]. The term organic is associated with the use of polymers based on some types of carbon composite. Devices such as transistors, diodes, and even integrated circuits are being implemented in this technology, receiving time and resource investments from different companies. The advantages of polymer-based electronics are mainly the mechanical properties, such as high flexibility, and the simplicity of the manufacturing process.

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 1 An example of an LED fixture for outdoor application. (a) Lateral view with heatsink detail. (b) Front view showing a four LED matrix arrangement. (c) Front view with the LEDs on.

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LED technology is environmentally friendly and free of mercury and infrared and ultraviolet radiation.
In addition, this technology is environmentally friendly. Electroluminescence is found in organic materials, as was reported in the early 1950s [20]. The first organic LED (OLED) was developed by Tang and Van Slyke in 1987 [21]. The device was obtained by vacuum evaporation of organic small-molecule material with a metallic cathode on a conductive substrate. The first OLED based on polymers was created in 1990 by Buroughs et al. [22], with a singlelayer device of polyphenylenevinilene made by using a spin coating process. Presently, OLEDs based on small molecules and polymers are feasible, with similar performances for both families of devices (Figure 2). Because of the organic nature of OLEDs, it is possible to achieve uniform light emission along a large surface, which is especially suitable for display applications. OLED technology allows self-emitting displays, without the necessity of backlighting [23]. For lighting applications, the luminous rendering of the OLEDs is still low, being about 50 lm/W. The research effort on OLEDs is focused on increasing the luminous rendering as well as enlarging the emitting surface and extending the device life. Typically, the luminance of OLEDs decreases down to 50% of its initial value after 15,000 h. The degradation of the luminance of OLED devices is caused basically by two mechanisms: electrode degradation and the intrinsic decrement of the electroluminescence efficiency of the emissive area [24]. Recently, devices based on field- induced polymer electroluminescence (FIPEL) have been reported [25] as a potential alternative to OLEDs. FIPEL devices are formed by a multilayer structure of polymers and carbon nanotubes, achieving an enhanced electroluminescence emission in ac operation.

Indoor Lighting
Advances in domotic, wired, and wireless communication systems and the so-called Internet of Things are available technologies to optimize the operation of the lighting system according to different criteria such as safety, comfort, work place specifications, and energy savings. The fast response of LEDs under turn-on, turn-off, and dimming commands makes them superior to previous lighting technologies for smart lighting system implementations. Solid-state lighting is well suited to some special requirements for indoor lighting, such as ambience creation and decorative light. Ambience creation is not a minor question as it is related, among other effects, to the circadian rhythm of human beings [26]. The benefits of the proper light, according to the time of day, have been proven in hospitals and

working places. LED lighting also has other advantages such as the possible reconfiguration of the lighting infrastructure for meeting specific requirements. Recently, the innovative idea of implementing a dedicated dc microgrid in buildings to supply LED-based lighting systems has been proposed [27]. This idea directly links modern lighting systems to renewable energy sources, e.g., photovoltaic systems. Sometimes, economic reasons and installation times drive a different approach, e.g., retrofitting the infrastructure [28]. To make the most of old installations, manufacturers provide LED lamps designed for direct replacement of fluorescent or halogen lamps. In such a case, special attention must be paid to the thermal management of the LED lamp [29], [30]. OLED technology also fulfils some of the requirements for indoor lighting. White OLEDs provide a more uniform light source, avoiding glare and flicker effects, which increases the comfort of users. Moreover, the color rendering of OLEDs is better than that of fluorescent lamps, and they can also save energy.

Outdoor Lighting
One significant advantage of LED lamps in comparison to high- intensity discharge lamps is the absence of warm-up time as well as acoustic resonance and hot reignition problems. This feature overcomes some safety issues of outdoor lighting installations and facilitates control. The most significant energy savings can be achieved by using sensors that detect the presence of pedestrians or vehicles on the street to adjust the light to a safe level. Additionally, LED technology allows the design of very efficient optics for the lamp to focus the light where it is required. In this way, the highway is uniformly illuminated, offering better comfort for drivers, while using less energy and reducing light pollution. Finally, the installation of LED luminaries in open spaces makes heat dissipation easier, approaching the maximum rendering of the lamp in terms of lm/W.

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 2 OLEDs can emit light uniformly, even over a large surface area. (a) A flexible amber OLED and (b) a flexible white OLED. (Photos courtesy of OSRAM SYLVANIA.)

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Thermal Issues
One of the most important aspects when designing an LED-based lighting system is its thermal design [31]. As in any other semiconductor-based device, an LEDs electrical characteristics are strongly dependent on its operating temperature. Furthermore, temperature also strongly affects the LED photometric characteristics. An increase in LED temperature produces a decrease in LED operating voltage, and it also modifies the equivalent series resistance [32]. If the LED current is regulated, that is, kept constant, an increase in temperature will generate a decrease in the LED light output. Additionally, an increase in LED junction temperature also produces a decrease in light output due to a higher level of nonradiating recombination i nside the crystal lattice. Therefore, an increase in temperature can lead to a substantial light output decrease. Junction temperature also affects the maximum current that an LED can handle for a given total thermal resistance of the heat transfer path (junction to environment). For example, for a given total thermal resistance of 70C/W, an LED can manage 350 mA up to 50 C ambient temperature but only 200 mA for an ambient temperature of 75 C. The manufacturers usually provide current derating curves, which give the maximum allowable current through the LED for a given ambient temperature and thermal resistance. The junction temperature also modifies the color of the light emitted by a monochromatic LED because of

White OLEDs provide a more uniform light source, avoiding glare and flicker effects, which increases the comfort of users.
changes in its spectrum peak wavelength. In white LEDs, the junction temperature produces variations in the light color temperature that can lead to low color rendition. Because of their low operation temperature, LEDs can barely transfer heat by infrared emission, and therefore, most of the heat is transferred from the junction to the case by heat conduction mechanisms. The typical dynamic model to study the temperature distribution in an LED fixture is illustrated in Figure 3. Thermal impedance given by a parallel thermal capacitance (C xy) and a series thermal resistance (R xy) exists between any two materials that make up the fixture, from the LED junction to the surrounding environment. The thermal resistances and capacitances of a given fixture are usually obtained experimentally in a laboratory test. Once obtained, the model can successfully be used to predict the LED junction temperature under various operating modes, including analog and pulsewidth modulation (PWM) dimming. The electrical, photometrical, and thermal characteristics are dependent on each other. Interesting studies on this topic can be found in [33] and [34]. It should be noted that the model presented in Figure 3 must only be used as a first approximation to solve the LED thermal design problem. There are some effects that are not considered in this model, for example, heat radiation, phosphor conversion losses, and three-dimesional effects. To accurately predict the LED junction temperature, precise finite element analysis is employed [35]. Thermal modeling is usually combined with mechanical modeling, which takes into account the mechanical stress in the materials due to the effect of different thermal expansion coefficients.

Driver Architecture
The static and dynamic characteristics of an LED matrix impose the specifications of the drivers. In an initial approach, LED light sources lead to a simplification of the power supply compared with the electronic ballast counterparts required to supply discharge lamps. Ballast circuits have a double function: to stabilize the discharge arc, whose smallsignal impedance is negative, and to fix the operation point at the required current/power level with limited ripple. Only the second function remains as a general objective for LED drivers. The current mode control is generally adopted because the current is the electrical variable with closest relationship to the emitted light and the power dissipated in the LED, due to the rigid current versus voltage

Junction

Case

Isolating Tape

TJ RJC LED Power PD

TC

RCI

TI

RIH

Heatsink

TH RHA Ambient Temperature TA Vdc +

Ambient

Io dc/dc fB + V Rs

CJC

CCI

CIH

CHA

FIGURE 3 A simplified thermal model of an LED fixture: different complex mechanisms that result in heat sources, such as conduction losses in LEDs, driver operation, and phosphor conversion, are not detailed.

FIGURE 4 Current control is achieved via the voltage sensed in the shunt resistor Rs.

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Io Vac ac/dc + V Rs Vac ac/dc CB

Io + dc/dc V Rs

fB

fB

(a) FIGURE 5 (a) Single- and (b) two-stage architectures used for LED drivers.

(b)

characteristic of the diode. Moreover, the need to limit the current ripple derives from the fast lux versus current response of the LED. Low-power applications such as flashlights or bicycle lights require few LEDs arranged in a single string that can be driven by a dc-to-dc converter controlled in current mode. Commercial controllers designed to control dcto-dc converters in voltage mode can be adapted for driving LEDs [36], [37] (see Figure 4), paying special attention to reducing the feedback voltage so

ig + vg Integrated PFC/dcdc Stage CB

io + vo

Lamp

FIGURE 6 A high power factor integrated LED driver can be used to maintain low ripple current.

that excessive power dissipation in the current sensor (Rs) can be avoided. Drivers to supply higher-power indoor and outdoor illuminationoriented applications face different challenges, not just current control, to optimize the use of LEDs. For lighting systems connected to the utility, standards such as International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)-61000-3-2 and Energy Star must be taken into account. As is illustrated in Figure 5, offline power supplies include power factor correction as a single stage [38], [39], integrated [40][43], or with a two-stage arrangement where the first stage supplies a front-end dc voltage for a second stage that controls the LED array current. One important aspect to consider when designing LED drivers is reliability. This is because LEDs have extremely long lifetimes that can reach 105 hours under some circumstances. When developing offline drivers, large capacitances are required to smooth the changing low-frequency

D1

D2

D3

LED Lamp

+ Line L1

C1 +

L2 M

C2

FIGURE 7 An integrated double buck-boost converter simplifies control circuitry and reduces costs.

line voltage. They are needed because designers like to have an LED current with low line-frequency ripple so that the emitted light is high quality and able to be used in any application. Electrolytic capacitors are usually employed because of their high capacitance/(volume * cost) figure of merit, but they can barely reach 10,000 h lifetime under strict temperature conditions. In this aspect, integrated converters can help to attain low LED current ripple while maintaining low filter capacitances with a limited cost and volume. Figure 6 shows the block diagram of an integrated LED driver, which includes a power factor correction to provide low-current harmonic injection into the mains, and a dcdc converter to supply the LED lamp with low ripple current [37]. An example of an integrated converter is illustrated in Figure 7, where two buck-boost converters have been merged by sharing their controlled switches. In this way, a single switch converter is obtained, thus simplifying the control circuitry and reducing cost [40], [41]. Using this converter, a 70-W LED driver with a 12-F bulk capacitor and a 3-F output capacitor with 86% efficiency has been demonstrated [41]. Electrolytic capacitors were avoided so that the converter lifetime matches that of the LED lamp. The requirements of Energy Star and IEC-61000-3-2 are also fulfilled. In addition, the converter admits amplitude (AM) and PWM dimming to control LED lamp luminosity. Another area of research on the use of integrated converters for LED drivers is presented in [42]. There, a

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buck-boost converter integrated with a buck converter is used to supply two low-voltage LED arrays used in highpressure lamp retrofit applications. A general study on the use of integrated converters for high-reliability LED drivers can be found in [43]. The integration of resonant converters and high power factor correction stages as offline LED drivers is also possible. Resonant converters can help to increase the driver efficiency owing to their inherently low switching losses. Some converters have been investigated in recent literature [44][46].

LED Lamp Integrated High Power Factor LED Driver PWM Dimming Switch PWM Dimming Generator Low-Pass Filter

Line

PWM Dimming Switch

Dimming Level

Error Amplifier

Current Sense Actual LED Mean Current

LED Peak Current Reference

Dimming LED Mean Duty Cycle Current Error +

Dimming Control
The modification of the LED current reference, i.e., amplitude modulation

LED Mean Current Reference FIGURE 8 A high-frequency PWM dimming circuit ensures constant LED peak current and regulated LED mean current.

Ch2 Average 888 mA Ch2 Frequency 500.8 Hz

Ch2 Average 1.347 A Ch2 Frequency 500.8 Hz

Ch2 500 mA P 400 s A Ch2 1.24 A 19 January 2012 0.00000 s T 11:01:50 (a)

Ch2 500 mA P 400 s A Ch2 1.24 A 19 January 2012 0.00000 s T 11:04:11 (b)

Ch2 Average 766.6 mA Ch2 Frequency 499.1 Hz

Ch2 Average 888 mA Ch2 Frequency 501.2 Hz

Ch2 500 mA P 400 s A Ch2 990 mA 19 January 2012 0.00000 s T 11:09:14 (c)

Ch2 500 mA P 400 s A Ch2 1.24 A 19 January 2012 0.00000 s T 12:09:59 (d)

FIGURE 9 Current profiles at 500 Hz for dimming implementation of LED lamps: (a) PWM, (b) bilevel, (c) negative sawtooth, and (d) low- resolution sine.

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The static and dynamic characteristics of an LED matrix impose the specifications of the drivers.
(AM) of the LED current, to perform dimming control modifies the LED color rendering; while a low-speed PWM generates undesired flickering effects and, possibly, utility ac current distortion. On the other hand, the high-speed performance is not compatible with the low-frequency bandwidth required for the control of the power factor correction (PFC) stage output voltage where it is necessary to keep the input current shape proportional to the utility voltage. Integrated converters are particularly suitable to incorporate highfrequency PWM dimming capability. A special control circuitry can be incorporated into the driver so that the LED peak current is kept constant at each dimming level [47], [48]. Provided that a greater PWM dimming frequency is chosen than the converter cut-off frequency, which usually means a few kilohertz, dimming can be performed without distorting the line current so that harmonic injection related standards can be satisfied. Figure 8 illustrates the block diagram of this circuit. Basically, the LED mean current reference is indirectly obtained by multiplying the dimming level by the

Vo

Io

ac/dc or dc/dc

Vo

Current Control Unit

Vref Io1 Io2 IoN

Io = Vref/R

desired LED peak current. The current reference is then compared to the actual LED mean current and the difference is applied to an error amplifier. The converter operates by regulating the average LED current, even in PWM mode, while maintaining the LED peak current at the desired value so that constant color coordinates are assured. A combination of amplitude and PWM is also proposed to create different current profiles [49], [50], while preventing flicker effects. The experimental LED current waveforms illustrating this case are shown in Figure 9. In many situations, LED lamps are used to replace incandescent lamps in applications where dimming is attained using inexpensive TRIAC-based dimmers. In these applications, LED drivers must be designed so that the LED power can be adjusted depending on the TRIAC firing angle. A very typical solution used for this purpose is based on the flyback converter operating in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) or in the boundary between continuous conduction mode and DCM. In this manner, automatic power factor correction is achieved, and some kind of control algorithm can be used to detect the TRIAC firing angle and control the LED power [51].

Current Sharing
The distribution of LEDs in a set of different strings to form an array requires action to be taken to balance the current distribution among the strings when the paralleled strings are not matched to avoid uneven current sharing. As has been studied for the parallel connection of junction devices, sufficiently large series impedance in each LED string (Figure 10) makes the dispersion of the current negligible. This solution, however, decreases the efficiency of the whole lamp. On the other hand, active current control in each string, as shown in Figure 11 [52], not only assures adequate current distribution but also solves the problem of using LED strings with different i versus v characteristics, as is the case of LED strings emitting light of different colors so

FIGURE 10 The current of LED strings is adjusted by independent current sources.

Vo1

dc/dc

Io1

Vo + Vdc

dc/dc

Io2

VoN

IoN dc/dc

FIGURE 11 Independent active control of each LED string allows LEDs of different colors to be used together to create a variety of lighting effects.

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that a variety of light ambiences can be created. Nondissipative current balance is achieved using the coupling of single or multiple secondary side windings in a transformer core [53], which is also used for isolation purposes and to set a convenient voltage level. Moreover, the current balance is achieved with the help of coupled inductors [54]. In this case, the current balance is achieved in ac, so a later rectification and use of a large capacitor filter are required.

The integration of the power factor correction and LED driver stages results in a robust and cost-effective solution.
Science (TECFEDER 2011-23612 and DPI2010-15889). from the University of Oviedo, Spain, in 1990 and 1994, respectively. Since 2007, he has been a full professor with the Electrical Engineering Department of the University of Oviedo. In the field of power electronics for lighting applications, he has participated in more than 20 research projects, has been supervisor of eight Ph.D. theses, and holds seven Spanish patents. Since 2002, he has served as an associate editor of IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. He has been a co-guest editor of two special issues in lighting applications published in IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics (2007) and IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics (2012). He also serves as secretary of the IEEE Industry Applications Society Industrial Lighting and Display Committee. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE and a member of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society.

Biographies
Christian Braas (branasc@unican. es) received his Ph.D. degree in electronics engineering in 2001 from the University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain. In 1995, he joined the Microelectronic Engineering Group at the University of Cantabria, where he is currently an associate professor. Since 1997, he has been involved in several research projects in the field of power electronics for lighting applications. He is a coauthor of 15 international journal publications and more than 50 international conference papers in this field. He also holds a Spanish patent. He is a Member of the IEEE and a member of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. Francisco J. Azcondo (azcondof@ unican.es) received his E.E. degree from the Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Spain, in 1989 and the Ph.D. degree from the University of C antabria, Spain, in 1993. He is currently a professor in the TEISA Department at ETS II y T, University of Cantabria, Spain. Since 1997, he has been coordinating research projects in the field of lighting applications. He is a coauthor of 35 international journal publications, 16 of them in this field, along with more than 50 international conference papers. He was a guest coeditor of the special section on modern ballast technology and lighting applications of IEEE Transactions on Industry Electronics in 2012 and coorganizer of special sessions focused on lighting at IEEE-IECON. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE and a member of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. J. Marcos Alonso (marcos@uniovi. es) received his M.Sc. degree and Ph.D. degree, both in electrical engineering,

Conclusions
Recent advances in LED and OLED lamps cover most light source applications, such as signaling, illumination, decoration, and ambience, with improvements in energy efficiency and light control flexibility. The steep di/dv characteristic of LED lamps and the effect of temperature on the i v curve and on the d eviation of the light emission spectrum require a tightly regulated current and limitation of the current ripple to prevent flickering. The dc bus and output capacitances are minimized in high-performance LED drivers to avoid using short lifetime electrolytic capacitors. The PWM is usually preferred to implement dimming because the modulation of the LED current amplitude may affect color rendering, while combination of amplitude and PWM paves the way to carrying out a more flexible diming and color temperature adjustment with better EMC. The integration of the power factor correction and LED driver stages results in a robust and cost-effective solution. Recent contributions on integrated stages present novel highfrequency PWM with fast dynamic response to preserve the light chromaticity and power factor in dimming operation.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank Jo Olsen and Eliecer Muoz from OSRAM SYLVANIA for their help in obtaining the OLED pictures that appear in this article. This work was supported in part by the Spanish Ministry of

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