12/12/2011

Basics of Lime & Cement Block 3

Initial set, final set, flash set, false set w/c ratio & concrete workability concrete workability tests mixing, handling, placing & compacting concrete

Initial Set, Final Set & Hardening

Initial set - provides an estimate of when (in hours & minutes) the concrete has reached the point where it has stiffened to such an extent that it can no longer be (vibrated) without damaging the concrete. This is roughly equivalent to a penetration resistance (using a weighted needle) of 3.4 MPa.
Under hot weather conditions, the time to initial set will be shorter than under normal temperatures, which will affect the construction crews ability to consolidate & finish the in-place concrete. Under cold weather conditions the time to initial set is extended.

Concrete Penetrometer for determination of setting time of the mortar fraction of fresh concrete. Spring loading device graduated from 2 to 150 lbs. Stainless steel needle points of 650, 325, 160, 65, 32, and 16 mm area.

12/12/2011

Initial Set, Final Set & Hardening

Final set - is roughly equivalent to a penetration resistance (weighted test needle) of 27.6 MPa at which point the concrete has reached a compressive strength of around 0.6 MPa and it could carry some measurable loads.

Flash set v.s. False set

Soon after mixing, if insufficient sulfate is available (in solution in the pore fluid) from the added gypsum to slow the hydration of C3A, the resulting rapid hydration of the C3A produces AFm phase (e.g. monosulfate) in the form of hydroxy-AFm. These crystals link up the particles (cement, aggregate, hydrates) in the mix & quickly cause the mix to become unworkable. This is termed a flash set. The rapid hydration of the C3A results in the evolution of much heat. Concrete strengths where flash setting has occurred may be lower than normal.

12/12/2011

Flash set v.s. False set

Conversely, if an excess of sulfate is present in the form of hemihydrate (possibly caused by high mill temp.), the hemihydrate dissolves & then reprecipitates as gypsum. Again, the growth of gypsum crystals cause a rapid set due to the linking of the particles in the mix. This is referred to as false setting. However, unlike flash set, there is no rapid evolution of heat because C3A hydration is inhibited by the sulfate. Another difference between false set & flash set is that a false set may be reversed if continued mixing can break up the gypsum crystals bonding the solids. The resulting gypsum fragments then slowly dissolve & the concrete should set normally & show fairly normal strength growth.

High mill temperatures can decompose the gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) i.e. dihydrate form, to hemihydrate (CaSO4~0.5H2O), also known as plaster of Paris. Reminder, solubilities: hemihydrate > gypsum > natural anhydrite

Clinker Grinding & Gypsum Addition

Cement ground to a finer particle size will react more quickly with water than the same cement milled more coarsely. Fineness is measured as the specific surface area in (m2 kg-1). Typical range: (350-450 m2 kg-1) rapid-hardening (high early strength) cements will be at the higher end of this range.

Particle size analysis laser diffraction

Blaine fineness apparatus (air permeability)

12/12/2011

The control of fineness is critical to cement performance. Particles that are too fine (< 2m) lead to the cement curing exothermically, setting too fast & cracking. Large particles (> 32m) may not be fully hydrated, reducing the strength of the final product.

Basics of Lime & Cement Block 3

Initial set, final set, flash set, false set w/c ratio & concrete workability concrete workability tests mixing, handling, placing & compacting concrete

12/12/2011

Hydration of cement and water/cement ratio

The water/cement (w/c) ratio is a crucial parameter in cement hydration because it directly affects porosity & permeability. The w/c ratio influences concrete strength & resistance to water ingress, frost attack, leaching & other detrimental chemical & physical processes. w/c ratio is defined as: (mass of water)/(mass of cement) Most concrete has a w/c ratio between 0.3 and 0.7. Below a w/c ratio = 0.44 there will always be some residual un-hydrated cement if no water additional to the original mix water was available during curing. Above w/c = 0.44, there is sufficient water for complete hydration & also enough space in which the hydration products can form, so in principle, the cement can hydrate fully.

Fresh Concrete Workability Compaction is a process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete & packs the aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete. Compaction increases significantly the ultimate strength of concrete & enhances the bond with reinforcement. When first placed in the form, normal concretes, excluding those with very low or very high slumps, will contain between 5% & 20% by volume of entrapped air. Figure shows that the strength of concrete containing 10% entrapped air (air voids) may be as little as 50% of a fully compacted concrete.

Loss of strength through incomplete compaction

12/12/2011

Fresh Concrete Workability

Sufficient workability is necessary for virtually full compaction to be possible, using a reasonable amount of work. Higher w/c ratio concrete mixes are more convenient when placing the concrete, as it flows more easily. However, the consequences for the hardened concrete are strongly negative.

Fresh Concrete Workability Voids in hardened concrete are, in fact, either bubbles of entrapped air or spaces left after excess water has been removed. The volume of excess water depends solely on the w/c ratio of the mix. Whereas the presence of air bubbles is governed by the grading of the fine particles in the mix & by the fact that the bubbles are more easily expelled from a wetter mix than a dry one.

12/12/2011

Factors affecting workability: Water content of the mix adding more water increases inter-particle lubrication. Finer particles require more water to wet their larger specific surface. Irregular shape & rougher texture of an angular aggregate demands more water than a rounded aggregate. Porosity or absorption of the aggregate mixing water will be removed from that required for lubrication of the particles. For a constant w/c ratio, workability increases as the aggregate/cement ratio is reduced because the amount of water relative to the total surface of solids is increased. A high ratio of volumes of coarse to fine aggregate can result in segregation & in a lower workability, so that the mix is harsh and not easily finished. Too much fine aggregate leads to a higher workability, but such an over-sanded mix makes less durable concrete. Air entrainment (admixture) - reduces the water requirement for a given workability.

Basics of Lime & Cement Block 3

Initial set, final set, flash set, false set w/c ratio & concrete workability concrete workability tests mixing, handling, placing & compacting concrete

12/12/2011

Workability tests Cone height = 305mm, base dia. 203mm placed on a smooth surface with smaller opening (102mm dia.) at the top. Inside of container is moistened & is filled with concrete in 3 layers. Each layer is tamped 25 times with a standard 16mm dia. steel rod. Top surface is struck off by means of screeding & rolling motion of the tamping rod. Cone is slowly lifted & unsupported concrete will slump. The decrease in height of the centre of the slumped concrete is called the slump (measured to 5mm).

Slump: true, shear & collapse

Shear slump indicates harsher mixes (harsh = high vol. coarse to fine agg.) caused by lack of cohesion in the mix. In lean mixes (i.e. high aggregate/cement ratio) with tendency to harshness, a true slump can easily change to the shear type or even to collapse. Slump test is unreliable for lean mixes.

Workability tests

Compacting factor apparatus

Compacting factor test: Test consists of 2 hoppers (with hinged doors at the bottom) & 1 cylinder. Total height = 1.2m. Upper hopper is gently filled with concrete. Door is released & concrete falls into lower hopper. This hopper is smaller than the upper one & is therefore filled to overflowing (this reduces the influence of the personal factor in filling the top hopper). Door of lower hopper is released & concrete falls into cylinder, top surface is struck off. Net mass of concrete in the known volume of the cylinder is determined. Compacting factor = ratio of density actually achieved in the test to the density of the same concrete fully compacted (i.e. 4 layers each tamped or vibrated). Unlike the slump test, the variations in the workability of dry concrete are reflected in a large change in the compacting factor, i.e. The test is more sensitive at the low workability end of the scale than at high workability.

12/12/2011

Workability tests

Degree of workability Very Low Low

Slump (mm) 0-25 25-50

Compacting Factor 0.8 0.87

Applications Vibrated concrete in roads or other large sections Mass concrete foundations without vibration. Simple reinforced sections with vibration. Normal reinforced work without vibration & heavily reinforced sections with vibration. Sections with congested reinforcement. Not normally suitable for vibration.

Medium

50-100

0.935

High

100-180

0.96

Workability tests Vebe test A standard slump cone is placed in a cylinder 240mm in dia. & 200mm high. The slump cone is filled in the standard manner, removed, & a disc-shaped rider (weighing 2.75kg) is placed on top of the concrete. Compaction is achieved using a vibrating table (50Hz) & is assumed to be complete when the transparent rider is totally covered with concrete & all cavities in the surface of the concrete have disappeared. This is judged visually. It is assumed that the input of energy required for full compaction is a measure of workability of the mix, & this is expressed in Vebe seconds.

Vebe apparatus

This is a good test for very dry mixes. This is in contrast to the compacting factor test where error may be introduced by the tendency of some dry mixes to stick in the hoppers. Vebe test also has the advantage that the treatment of concrete during the test is comparatively closely related to the method of placing in practice.

12/12/2011

Compacting factor apparatus

Vebe apparatus

Reminder: Slump is insensitive at the low workability end (i.e. unreliable for lean mixes). Vebe is less sensitive at the high workability end (good test for very dry mixes). Compacting Factor test is more sensitive at the low workability end of the scale than at high workability.

Workability tests Test is more widespread for flowing concrete made with superplasticizing admixtures. Concrete is compacted by light tamping in a cone: 200mm high, bottom dia. 200mm, top dia. 130mm. Board is hinged along one side & can be lifted up to a stop so that the free edge rises 40mm. After mould is removed, table top is lifted & allowed to drop 15 times, each cycle taking approx. 4 sec. The concrete spreads & the max. spread in mm parallel to the 2 edges of the table is measured. A value of 400 indicates a medium workability, 500 = high workability.

Flow table test

10

12/12/2011

Density of compacted fresh concrete Obtained by weighing the compacted fresh concrete in a standard container of known volume & mass. From the known density (), the volume of the concrete can be found from mass of the ingredients. When these are expressed as quantities in 1 batch put into the mixer, we can calculate the yield of concrete per batch.

V = volume of compacted concrete obtained from one batch (yield). Masses per batch of: W = water, C = cement, Af = fine aggregate, Ac = coarse aggregate,

Basics of Lime & Cement Block 3

Initial set, final set, flash set, false set w/c ratio & concrete workability concrete workability tests mixing, handling, placing & compacting concrete

11

12/12/2011

Mixing, handling, placing & compacting concrete The correct quantities of cement, aggregate, & water, possibly also of admixture, are batched & mixed in a concrete mixer. This produces fresh concrete, which is transported from the mixer to its final location. The fresh concrete is then placed in the forms, & compacted so as to achieve a dense mass which is allowed, & helped to harden. Note: the size of a mixer should be described by the volume of concrete after compaction, as distinct from the volume of the unmixed ingredients in a loose state, which is up to 50% greater than the compacted volume.

Ready-mixed concrete If instead of being batched & mixed on site, concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant, it is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete. This type of concrete is used extensively as it offers numerous advantages, including: Close quality control of batching which reduces the variability of the desired properties of hardened concrete. Use on congested sites or in highway construction where there is little space for a mixing plant & aggregate stockpiles. Use of agitator trucks to ensure care in transportation, thus preventing segregation & maintaining workability. Convenience when small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing is required.

12

12/12/2011

Central-mixed concrete Concrete Batching Plant

350 m3/ h output Capacity 200 tons x 4 cement silo 30 m3 x 10 aggregates hopper

Transit-mixed concrete: materials batched at a central plant but are mixed in the truck either in transit or immediately prior to discharging the concrete on site.

13

12/12/2011

Ready-mixed concrete

Agitating differs from mixing solely by the speed of rotation of the mixer; agitating speed = 2 to 6 rpm mixing speed = 4 to 14 rpm. The time during which cement & moist aggregate are allowed to remain in contact should be limited to 2 hours (BS 5328:1991).

Placing & Compacting The main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided & the concrete can be fully compacted. Collision between concrete & formwork or reinforcement should be avoided. Placing concrete in a deep wall

Correct

Incorrect

14

12/12/2011

Placing & Compacting The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, not in large heaps or sloping layers. The rates of placing & of compaction should be equal. Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next one, & each subsequent layer should be placed whilst the underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is achieved (long delays can result in the formation of cold joints)

Cold joint problem identified following an earthquake

15

12/12/2011

Placing & Compacting

Placing concrete in a deep wall

For deep sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of location of the concrete & minimum segregation.

Correct

Incorrect

The purpose of compaction is to remove as much of the entrapped air as possible so that the hardened concrete has a min. of voids & consequently is strong, durable & of low permeability. This effort is mainly provided by the use of internal vibrators. Poker is moved from place to place so concrete is vibrated every 0.5-1m. Other methods: External vibrators (clamped to formwork which rests on an elastic support) & Vibrating tables.

Placing of poker (or immersion) vibrators

16

12/12/2011

Concrete Vibrator Poker

(70-200Hz).

High frequency external vibrators

17

12/12/2011

End of Block 3

18