Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30 (2011) 102115

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Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

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A tale of two sites: Functional site differentiation and lithic technology during the Late Pithouse period in the Mimbres area of Southwestern New Mexico
Bernard A. Schriever a,, Matthew Taliaferro b, Barbara J. Roth c
a

Gila National Forest, 206 Beech Street, Trinidad, CO 81082, USA Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA c Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada Las Vegas, 4505 S. Maryland Pkwy Mailstop 455003, Las Vegas, NV 89154-5003, USA
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
The raw materials from which stone tools are made can provide considerable information relevant to behavioral variation within a prehistoric population. By examining the stone used for tools from two different types of Late Pithouse period (A.D. 5501000) residential sites from the Mimbres Mogollon area of Southwestern New Mexico, this paper illustrates how understanding the lithic landscape of a region provides a means to assess behavioral variation in stone procurement practices. The analysis indicates that the differences in mobility and economic pursuits between longer-term residential sites containing pit structures and a shorter-term seasonal residential site with ephemeral architecture structured the raw material procurement practices of sites occupants. Pit structure sites were focused on agricultural pursuits and used a technology that centered on the production of informal tools fashioned from locally available raw materials. The seasonal residential site focused on wild resources and evidenced greater reliance on formal tool production using raw materials acquired from beyond the immediate vicinity of the site. Despite increasing sedentism and agricultural dependence of the regions population, some portion of the population exercised seasonal mobility strategies and associated technological and behavioral practices more typical of hunting and gathering populations, suggesting a diverse socioeconomic system within the region. 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 2 February 2010 Revision received 23 September 2010 Available online 20 January 2011 Keywords: Mobility Lithic technology Procurement Economic Subsistence Residential Pithouse Mimbres Mogollon

Introduction A valuable, but often overlooked, property inherent in a piece of stone is information about its place of origin (Odell, 2000, p. 272). Knowledge of the geological distribution of specic stone and the localities from which it was acquired provides the means to address a wide range of research topics, including the technological strategies, subsistence practices, exchange relationships, and social organization of past people (Andrefsky, 2008; Odell, 2000, 2001). For example, does the distribution of particular stone material in the archaeological record relate to the preferential use of material for specic purposes, resource control and exchange relationships, mobility strategies, or some combination of these? Unfortunately, practical constraints often limit knowledge of the distribution of lithic raw materials and its procurement localities. While geologic maps can be used to identify the nearest potential sources of stone materials, the usefulness of such information is often limited. Only by establishing the actual distribution of material sources and preferably specic locales of procurement

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bernardschriever@gmail.com (B.A. Schriever). 0278-4165/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jaa.2010.12.001

can the implications of the distribution of stone material in the archaeological record be evaluated (Ericson, 1984, p. 5; Wyckoff, 2005). Depending on the uniqueness of a stone material or the ability to reliably discriminate between different materials, this task can require extensive survey and the evaluation of resources within a vast area, which may be impractical given the economic and temporal constraints with which researchers often deal. However, if our goals are to accurately infer past human behaviors, especially related to lithic source use, it is essential to become familiar with the lithic landscape. In this paper, we address the role of raw material availability and its impact on lithic assemblage variability using a case study from the Mimbres Mogollon region of southwest New Mexico. We compare lithic assemblages from two types of Late Pithouse period (A.D. 5501000) residential sites to illustrate how knowledge of stone procurement localities can illuminate behavioral differences between short and long duration residential occupations. Previous studies of Mimbres Late Pithouse period stone procurement have only involved pit structure sites that represent long duration occupations focused on agricultural pursuits (Dockall, 1991; Nelson, 1981). Other types of sites, including residential sites lacking pit structures, are present in the region, and these are generally considered to represent short-term

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seasonal occupations directed at other economic or social activities such as gathering desert resources. Specically, this study investigates how the differences in economic pursuits practiced by people at pit structure sites occupied for long periods and those of contemporary seasonally occupied residential sites differed in relation to lithic raw material procurement and their organization of lithic technology. Our primary goal is to determine if lithic technology was organized similarly throughout the Mimbres area regardless of the site setting, function, and occupation duration. Or, did the differing economic pursuits at seasonally occupied sites lead to different ways of organizing lithic technology, as would be expected based on studies of foraging groups (Binford, 1979; Jones et al., 2003; Kelly, 1995; Shott, 1986)? This study seeks to answer these questions by drawing upon the excavated assemblage from the Florida Mountain site (LA18839), a seasonally occupied

residential site located outside Deming, New Mexico, and the results of an opportunistic catchment survey around the site (Fig. 1). By comparing the Florida Mountain site assemblage with data from contemporaneous pit structure sites, we can address whether the organization of lithic technology at residential sites vary based on the economic focus of the sites occupants. Cultural setting The cultural developments within the Mimbres Mogollon region mirror those occurring throughout much of the greater southwestern United States. Through time, people in the region adopted agriculture and gradually increased their dependence on it. Residential mobility decreased over time, and groups began aggregating into larger villages, with residential pit structures eventually replaced by pueblos. These trends all reect peoples

Fig. 1. Location of sites discussed in text.

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changing life ways as they accommodated the growing labor demands of agricultural intensication, increasing population, and resource stress (Creel and Anyon, 2003; Hegmon, 2002; Minnis, 1985). In the Mimbres region, the Late Pithouse period represents that pivotal time during which many of these changes occurred. During the Late Pithouse period, Mimbres family groups lived in domestic pit structures that are essentially roofed pits excavated into the ground. While the available data are sparse until the latter half of the period, there were probably a few co-resident families living at each site, and these occupants built and constructed specialized pit structures to serve as communal space (Creel and Anyon, 2003). Mimbres Late Pithouse period pit structure occupations are characteristically located near the best potential agricultural land and exhibit ample evidence for the production, preparation and storage of cultigens (Minnis, 1985). Initially, people occupied these sites seasonally, probably during the winter months when they would subsist on stored agricultural products (Schriever, 2002). People at pit structure sites also hunted and gathered wild resources, but through time they became less residentially mobile and more dependent on agricultural products (Diehl, 1996; Diehl and Minnis, 2001; Minnis, 1985). Unfortunately, little is known about where Mimbres groups were and how they lived when not in residence at the pit structure sites. Surveys and excavations in the Mimbres region have been focused primarily along the regions major rivers and their tributaries, where pithouse sites are virtually the only type of site for the period (Lekson, 1992; Schriever and Holcomb, 2004). Limited surveys in other environmental settings have been conducted in the region, and these surveys have identied sites dating to the Late Pithouse period (Blake and Narod, 1977; Kemrer, 2003; Lekson, 1992). Based on the few excavated sites in these other settings (Minnis and Wormser, 1984; Timothy Kearns personal communication, 2003), the occupations exhibit less investment in architecture and site maintenance, suggesting that people anticipated occupying them for shorter durations than pit structure sites. The evidence from one of these short-duration occupations, the Florida Mountain site (Schriever, 2002, 2010), also suggests that the purposes of these sites differed from those of pit structure sites. While pit structure sites are typically associated with the best arable lands within the region and contain considerable evidence for the use of agricultural products, the locations of sites like Florida Mountain are not conducive to agriculture. Many of these shortterm occupation sites are located in the lower desert elevations of the region where agriculture is only possible through irrigation. There is no evidence for irrigation features or even features associated with ak-chin techniques associated with these sites (Schriever, 2002). Rather, they appear to be best suited for providing access to seasonal game and wild plant resources.

tion of the future tools use is a determining factor in the selection of the material used in its manufacture. Other technological constraints such as reliability, maintainability, versatility, exibility, and transportability will likewise be contributing factors in the selection of adequate materials (Bleed, 1986; Kelly, 1988; Nelson, 1991; Parry and Kelly, 1987). The availability of suitable raw material is an important factor inuencing the technological strategy used by social groups (Andrefsky, 1994; Binford, 1979, 1980; Brantingham and Kuhn, 2001; Nelson, 1991; Parry and Kelly, 1987; Roth and Dibble, 1998; Wenzel and Shelley, 2001). A different technological strategy would be implemented in areas where suitable raw materials were present throughout the landscape when compared to an area where suitable raw materials were present in only a few select localities (Andrefsky, 1994; Brantingham and Kuhn, 2001; Daniel, 2001; Kuhn, 1991). Binfords early formulation of the forager and collector concepts carried expectations for the utilization of tool stone based on its availability. Generally, an expedient technology will be practiced in areas where raw materials are abundant and resources are homogenously dispersed and predictable. Where raw materials are scarce and resources are likewise distributed in an unpredictable, patchy manner, a curated technology is likely to be practiced (Binford, 1979, 1980). Using this line of rationale, Parry and Kelly (1987) conducted a comparative analysis of various groups practicing different mobility and subsistence strategies. Their research showed that there were correlations between sedentary populations and expedient technologies, as well as between groups practicing maize horticulture and using an expedient technology (Parry and Kelly, 1987). Recently this simplistic dichotomy of expedient and curated technologies has come to the forefront of discussions concerning the organization of lithic technologies (Andrefsky, 2008, 2009; Bamforth, 1986; Nash, 1996; Odell, 1996). Many researchers now view curation along a spectrum that reects a tools actual use in relation to its maximum potential use (Andrefsky, 2009, p. 71). Thus all tools are located along a spectrum ranging from low to high use in relation to maximum potential use. Despite this reformulation of the curation concept, researchers agree that there are multiple factors that inuence lithic technological organization, reduction strategies, and tool use, with one of the most significant being raw material availability.

Previous investigations of Late Pithouse period stone procurement in The Mimbres region Few specic locations for stone procurement (mines or quarries) have been reported in the Mimbres area (Dockall, 1990; Fitting, 1971; Fitting and Stone, 1969; Kemrer, 2003). Further, lithic studies in the region typically note the potential geologic sources of raw materials without thoroughly investigating the specic distributions of these material sources or whether specic procurement locales, in fact, exist (Dockall, 1991; Fitting, 1972; Schriever, 2002; Turnbow et al., 2000). The diverse geology of the region (Mack, 1997) and the perception that alluvium and stream sediment loads mirror this diversity have led many researchers to simply assume that much of the material used for tool stone was locally available at sites situated in or near alluvial settings. There are only two detailed studies of stone procurement related to the Late Pithouse period in the Mimbres region (Dockall, 1991; Nelson, 1981). Both of these studies deal with pit structure sites located along the Mimbres River that were involved in agricultural subsistence pursuits. Nelsons (1981) technological analysis focused on stone assemblages from multi-component and single component pithouse and pueblo sites stretching up the

Lithic technology and raw material availability Lithic technology offers insights into a multitude of social practices. From a technological organization perspective, analyses of lithic assemblages have been used to make inferences about practices as diverse as mobility strategies, risk management, design optimality, semiotic signaling, and social complexity (Andrefsky, 1994; Bamforth, 1991; Bamforth and Bleed, 1997; Barton, 1997; Bleed, 1986; Cowan, 1999; Daniel, 2001; Kelly, 1988; Kuhn, 1991; Nelson, 1991; Odell, 1998; Parry and Kelly, 1987; Sackett, 1982; Shafer and Hester, 1983; Tomka, 2001; Torrence, 1983; Weissner, 1983). The operational sequence for lithic material begins with the procurement of raw material suitable for producing the desired end product. As this statement implies, a preconcep-

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Mimbres Valley from the desert lowlands in the south to the ponderosa pine forests in the mountains to the north. As part of this analysis, she also conducted a limited catchment survey to identify stone sources available within a 1=4 mile radius of each site, including the alluvium of the river and major side drainages (Nelson personal communication, 2005). With respect to the Late Pithouse period, she found that lithic technology at the investigated sites was primarily expedient and based on coarse-grained stone procured from the immediate vicinity of the sites (Table 1). Only formal chipped stone tools such as projectile points were made of materials from non-local sources (e.g. obsidian), which were available in areas, located a considerable distance from sites (tens of kilometers). Likewise, Dockall (1991) conducted a technological study of the chipped stone assemblage at NAN Ruin that included a 2 km-radius catchment survey to locate stone resources. While NAN Ruin is a multicomponent site with both Late Pithouse and Classic Mimbres period occupations, the excavated contexts were adequate to allow Dockall to segregate archaeological materials by time periods and examine technological changes through time (Dockall, 1991). For the Late Pithouse period, he found that lithic technology was primarily expedient, and that it was based on the use of coarsegrained stone raw materials derived from local alluvium and bedrock outcrops located within a few kilometers of the site (Table 2). Again, all of the stone originating from beyond this range was associated with formal tools used for specic tasks, such as obsidian used for projectile points and greenstone used for axes. These studies agree that, except for the rare formal tools, Mimbres stone technology at Late Pithouse period pit structure sites was expedient and based on the abundant coarse-grained materials procured within a few kilometers of sites. Other studies that have considered stone use within the Mimbres region have also noted that distance to source is an important factor in the variability of lithic assemblages (Findlow and Bolognese, 1984; Fitting and Stone, 1969). Further, Dockall, (1991, p. 154) critiques previous studies (e.g. Lekson, 1990 and Nelson, 1981) that suggest variability in Mimbres lithic assemblages reects temporal changes in technology and raw material use associated with subsistence changes. Rather, he argues that the variability in assemblages is explained as a function of the geological availability and proximity of raw materials. Given the close proximity to abundant sources of stone, the expedient nature of Mimbres technology is expected (Andrefsky, 1994; Brantingham et al., 2000; Daniel, 2001; Kuhn, 1991; Nelson, 1991). The focus on the production of informal tools may also be

related to the poor quality of locally available materials. The abundance of raw materials allowed knappers to generate adequate ake tools for most tasks. Formal tool production could thus be reserved for higher quality raw materials procured from more distant sources. Previous research on Mimbres stone procurement indicates that stone procurement at Mimbres Late Pithouse period residential occupations along the Mimbres River was conditioned by the availability and proximity of raw materials. At pithouse residential sites focused on agricultural pursuits, stone procurement was directed at obtaining coarse-grained materials from sources within a few kilometers to support lithic production dominated by informal tool production. If Mimbres technological strategies were conservative and if there were few differences in raw material availability and access among sites, we could expect that the same stone procurement practices exhibited at Mimbres Late Pithouse period residential sites would be practiced at all Late Pithouse period sites, regardless of differences in the economic focus of those sites. Alternatively, it is possible that sites focused on hunting and gathering may exhibit more careful selection of stone for tools that would lead to greater use of more distant resources than at agriculturally focused pit structure sites, tied to both differences in economic pursuits and occupation duration. No previous studies of stone use have been conducted at nonpit structure sites in the Mimbres region. However, a study of two contemporary Jornada Mogollon sites from the desert setting on the eastern piedmont of the Franklin Mountains near El Paso is comparable. Jornada Mogollon groups practiced some agriculture, but they were less dependent on cultigens than people in the Mimbres area. The site occupants invested less in architecture and site maintenance than groups in the Mimbres River Valley, and they were more seasonally mobile (Miller, 1989; Whalen, 1994). Miller (1989) found that over half of the stone materials in the archaeological assemblages from the two sites were present as raw material in the alluvium of the piedmont. However, negrained materials, particularly cherts, accounted for a considerable portion of the archaeological assemblages (Dockall, 1999a) but were rare in the piedmont alluvium. The results suggest that tool stone selection required the procurement of materials from outside the immediate environs of the site.

Stone availability and the Florida Mountain site The Florida Mountain site (Minnis and Wormser, 1984; Schriever, 2002) provides the opportunity to investigate whether stone procurement practices of Mimbres Late Pithouse period people varied as a result of differences in site function and occupation duration. The site is a seasonal residence located about midway along on the western piedmont of the Florida Mountains (Fig. 2). It is situated in the Lower Chihuahuan ecological zone, which is typied by desert scrub-brush vegetation. The surrounding soils are unsuitable for cultivation without irrigation, and the nearest reliable water supply is over 3 km to the north, making agricultural production untenable (Neher and Buchanan, 1980). This setting differs from contemporary pit structure villages, which are typically located along major rivers and their tributaries adjacent to expanses of arable land (Blake et al., 1986; Minnis, 1980). The Florida Mountain site consists of a large artifact scatter with eight circular stone clusters (Fig. 3). The architecture at the site differs considerably from that of contemporary residential pit structures that required considerable costs in labor, time, and materials to construct. The excavators noted no evidence of oors, postholes, or superstructures within the excavated structures (Schriever, 2002). Only a few features were encountered during

Table 1 Galaz lithic materials and distance to sources. Number Coarse Basalt Rhyolite Quartzite Greenstone Other local and siltstone Fine Chalcedony Chert Jasper Glassy rhyolite Other exotic Obsidian Total Percent coarse Percent ne Percent distance 3874 438 118 14 21 1538 99 180 41 3 70 6396 69.81 29.55 98.86 0.05 1.09 Within 3 km X X X X X X X X X X X 6323 3 70 320 km >20 km

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Table 2 Nan lithic materials, distance to sources, and cortical variation on akes. Number Coarse Andesite/basalt Rhyolite Other Fine Chalcedony Chert Obsidian Other Total Percent coarse Percent ne Percent distance 2345 632 51 659 392 130 47 4256 71.15 28.85 85.43 9.21 3.05 Within 3 km X X 320 km >20 km Primary 303 32 Secondary 749 136 Non-cortical 1293 464 Total 2345 632

X X X 3636 392 130

9 16 10

88 59 40

562 317 80

659 392 130 4158

8.06 0.84

21.28 4.50

42.26 23.06

Fig. 2. Map of the Florida Mountains showing location of the Florida Mountain site and landscape features.

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Fig. 3. Map of Florida Mountain site. The outer dashed line delimits extent of site. The inner dashed line delimits sample strata 2, the area between rock clusters.

excavation at the site: one possible hearth in Rock Cluster 5, a large pit feature under a portion of Rock Cluster 1, two paved circular rock areas of unknown function, and a linear rock alignment. However, the recovered artifact assemblage consists of a diverse array of objects including thousands of sherds, chipped and ground stone, and animal bone fragments. Minnis and Wormser (1984, p. 244) noted that the diverse assemblage from the site mirrors that from contemporary pit structure villages such as Harris (Haury, 1936) and Galaz (Anyon and LeBlanc, 1984), suggesting that the occupants of the Florida Mountain site may not have led signicantly different lives from contemporary inhabitants along the oodplain of the Mimbres River. While this may be true regarding the social life and daily practices of the site occupants, the lithic assemblage indicates behavioral differences related to the economic activities pursued from the site. Investigation into the mobility strategy represented at the site suggested that three to six contemporaneous households occupied the site at least twice during the Late Pithouse period (Schriever, 2002). The ephemeral architecture, lack of features including hearths, and informal refuse disposal across the site indicated that the site was primarily occupied during non-winter months and most likely only for a single season. In addition, the primary purpose for the sites occupation was to access wild resources. The large faunal assemblage recovered from the site consisted exclusively of economically important species (such as cottontail, jackrabbit, pronghorn, and deer) (Schmidt, 2002), indicating that the sites inhabitants practiced a considerable amount of hunting. The breakage patterns of most of the 28 broken projectile points are consistent with use as hunting tools (see Dockall, 1999b; Odell, 1981; Odell and Cowan, 1986). Wild plant remains, including cheno-ams (chenopodium, amaranthus), tansy mustard (Descurai-

nia spp.), dropseed (Sporobolus spp.), and walnut (Juglans major), were present in the processed otation samples, but no cultigens were recovered. Finally, the ground stone assemblage is made up of at/concave and basin metates, lacking the trough metates regularly associated with the processing of cultigens.

Stone procurement at the Florida Mountain site The lithic assemblage used in this study came from excavated contexts at the Florida Mountain site. The excavation strategy divided the site into three sample strata: (1) stone concentrations, (2) the areas between stone concentrations, and (3) the site periphery (Minnis and Wormser, 1984; Schriever, 2002). Only 1.2% (81.4 m2) of the total site area (6537.9 m2) was excavated. Excavations focused on the area within rock structures (47.9 m2) and the areas between them (28.5 m2), with limited testing around the site periphery (5 m2). The data presented here derives from 61 of the 82 excavated units and includes 40 of the 48 units within structures, 18 of the 31 units between structures, and all ve of the units around the site periphery (Schriever, 2002). Attributes recorded during the analysis of lithics from the site included raw material, cortex, weight, and tool type. Raw materials were divided into categories based on texture, color, and the size and proportion of phenocrysts. Cortical variation was recorded using four categories: primary (akes with 100% of the dorsal surface covered in cortex), secondary (akes with 99% to no cortex covering the dorsal surface), and non-cortical/tertiary (akes lacking any cortex on their dorsal surface). Tool type categories include projectile points/hafted bifaces, bifaces that lack hafting attributes, uniface tools (akes with edges modied in a patterned manner),

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modied akes (akes exhibiting minimal to moderate edge modication), and cores. A great diversity of material types is present in the chipped stone from the site (Table 3). Based on a geologic study of the Florida Mountains (Clemons, 1998), potential sources for all of the materials at the Florida Mountain site are represented in the complex amalgamation of metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary rocks that compose the Florida and the Little Florida Mountains (Fig. 4). While this suggests that most of the raw materials were available locally, it should not simply be assumed to be the case. Source locations were thus investigated to determine if materials were, in fact, locally available. To begin investigating the stone procurement practices of the sites occupants, a transect survey was conducted along the piedmont beginning close to the western base of the Florida Mountains in Mahoney Park and proceeding west for approximately 5 km to the point where the piedmont becomes obscured by dunes (Fig. 4). The transect was placed to pass close to the Florida Mountain site and represents one of the longest potential study sections across the piedmont at any point around the Florida Mountains. The length of the transect provided the opportunity to evaluate changes in the distribution of stone resources and their quantities along the piedmont slope. This allowed for an evaluation of the extent to which material used at the site was readily available in the alluvium of the surrounding piedmont. At six locales along this transect, samples of raw materials, each consisting of 150 stones, were recorded. These sampling locales were spaced at 1000-m intervals. At each transect sample location, every piece of stone within an expanding radius circle was recorded until the minimum count of 150 stones was reached. For each stone in a sample, the material type, size, weight, color, and cortex characteristics were recorded. A raw material type collection was used to compare specimens observed in the eld with known rock samples. Measurements of the stone were taken using digital calipers, and weights were taken using a digital scale that had an upper weight limit of 5000 g. For the few stones that exceeded the scales upper limit, a measurement of 5000+ grams was recorded. Twelve different material types were represented in the 902 analyzed stones from the six samples (Table 4). The majority (96%) of the materials recorded in the samples were mediumto very coarse-grained with the remaining materials ne- to medium-grained or vesicular. From a tool stone perspective, the ne- to medium-grained materials in the six samples would be considered coarse for knapping purposes. There were no negrained cryptocrystalline materials encountered at the sampling localities.
Table 3 LA18839 lithic materials, distance to sources, and cortical variation on akes. Number Coarse Andesite/Basalt Rhyolite Quartzite Type A Other Fine Chalcedony Chert (agate) Jasper Obsidian Total % Coarse % Fine % Distance
a

As expected, the lithologies of the materials recorded in the samples are consistent with the upslope bedrock sources, the only exception being a piece of vesicular basalt in Sample 6. Based on the geologic map of the upslope bedrock sources (Clemons, 1998: Sheet 1b), it is not surprising that granite/syenite represents over 80% of the samples and is the most common rock type at each sampling locale (Fig. 5). The relatively low proportion of limestone (8.3%) in the samples is somewhat surprising given the presence of considerable exposures of limestone bedrock sources near the upslope transect initiation point. The dearth of other materials in the samples is consistent with the limited potential bedrock sources for these materials upslope. Comparing the results of the transect survey to the Florida Mountain stone assemblage, it is readily apparent that the procurement practices at the site are different than those at contemporary pit structure sites in the Mimbres Valley. At the Florida Mountain site, ne-grained material is more prevalent than would be expected given the material types identied in the sample transect, and most of the lithic assemblage derives from sources over 3 km away from the site. Of the chipped stone materials present at the site (Table 3), it is unlikely that any of the ne-grained cryptocrystalline materials were from the piedmont alluvium. Given the amount of these materials present, particularly chert (agates), it could be expected that at least a few pieces of raw material would have been recorded in the transect samples if these materials were procured from the alluvium surrounding the site. Two pieces of quartzite were recorded in the transect samples, but the low incidence of this material within the alluvium does not seem sufcient to account for the fact that one-quarter of the chipped stone assemblage from the site is quartzite. Further, these two pieces differ in color and texture from the quartzite present in the lithic assemblage. Basalt also had a low occurrence in the transect samples, suggesting that much of the basalt from the Florida Mountain site did not derive from the piedmont alluvium. The same can be inferred for the rhyolite and andesite materials represented in the lithic assemblage. The single granite piece can reasonably be assumed as local, whereas the Type A variety of rhyolite, schist, siliceous siltstone, and rhyolitic tuff do not derive from the piedmont alluvium. With respect to the other igneous category, reanalysis of these materials after completing one of the many reconnaissance trips around the Florida Mountains found most of the items to be the microcrystalline rhyolite that forms the White Hills (Schriever, 2002). These hills protrude through the western portion of the Florida Mountain piedmont some 2.4 km to the northwest of the site (Fig. 2), making them a local source of stone. Large akes, tested cobbles, and both unstandardized and bifacial cores were

Within 3 km X X

320 km

>20 km

Primary 26 15 23 8 1 1 34 7 0 2.71 1.56

Secondary 91 37 177 79 13 39 307 41 8 14.73 14.66

Non-cortex 179 97 546 154 28 72 553 146 13 37.25 29.09

Total 296 149 746 241 42 112 894 194 21 2695

296 149 746 241 42 112 894 194 21 2695 54.69 45.31

Xa X X X X X 487 2187 X 21

18.07

81.15

0.78

Asumes quartzite derives from somewhere in the Florida Mountains, southern Cookes range, or the Tres Hemanas range.

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Fig. 4. Map showing geology of the Florida Mountains (after Clemons, 1998) and location of transect samples.

encountered when the White Hills locality was surveyed. A single rounded cobble (16 13 5 cm) of White Hills rhyolite was recorded in Sample 3 of the Florida Mountain transect, upslope from the White Hills but close to the site. While this stone could come from upslope dikes, human intervention is suspected because it was the only stone of this type encountered in the transect and was located close to the site.

Further analysis of the lithics from the site involving comparison of compositional data with rock samples from the piedmont alluvium could help clarify which materials derive from the piedmont alluvium. Because basalt, rhyolite, and andesite do occur in the piedmont alluvium, a conservative assumption would be that these materials could have been more prevalent in the alluvium prior to human exploitation. Even so, assuming these materials

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Table 4 Material types of all rocks recorded from the six transect samples near the orida mountain site. Stone material Granite or syenite Limestone Andesite (altered) Rhyolite Basalt Sandstone Hornfels Quartzite Igneous Quartz Vesicular basalt Total Number 749 75 35 17 13 6 2 2 1 1 1 902 Percent 83.0 8.3 3.9 1.9 1.4 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 100 Grain size Coarse to very coarse Medium Medium Fine to medium Fine Medium Medium Fine Vesicular Crystalline Vesicular

along with the granite, other igneous (White Hills rhyolite), and quartz were all acquired from the piedmont alluvium, together they represent only about 18% of the lithic assemblage from the site. Given that the Florida Mountain site is surrounded by piedmont alluvium for at least 3 km in any direction, it is clear that the majority of the lithic material was procured from sources not in the immediate vicinity of the site. Unfortunately, the knowledge of the distribution of stone sources in the Florida Mountains is not yet sufcient to condently infer the distance from which all stone materials in the site assemblage were procured. However, personal reconnaissance and professional survey of the surrounding area (Gilman et al., 2007, 2009; Schriever, 2004) have allowed for an evaluation of the distribution and use of various stone resources in the Florida Mountains. Together, this work provides a 512 km catchment around the Florida Mountain site. At each location visited, the area was surveyed in an effort to locate bedrock exposures and secondary deposits of stone resources. The stone resources present were then evaluated for their potential use as tool stone based on the materials size, texture, fracture characteristics, and evidence of ancient procurement. Samples of materials were collected for additional analysis.
95.45 18 16 14 12 96.62 69.33 88.00

As a result of this work, a number of stone sources present in archaeological assemblages from sites around the Florida Mountains were located and evaluated. Chalcedony, jasper, agate, perlitic obsidian, and other ne-grained volcanic and hydrothermally altered stone occur in the rhyolite and tuff beds exposed along the southern portion of the Little Florida Mountains (Fig. 4) some 10 km away from the Florida Mountain site (see Clemons, 1998, pp. 4647). There is ample evidence for ancient procurement activity in this area, including tested cobbles, vast amounts of debitage, isolated tools, and even lithic reduction sites. Evidence that the inhabitants of the Florida Mountain site used these sources was incidentally provided through the sourcing of obsidian from the site. One piece of obsidian in the assemblage came from the perlitic obsidian zones that are exposed in the southern Little Florida Mountains. While other sources of stone may also have been accessed, it seems reasonable to suggest that this area represents the source for much of the jasper, chalcedony, ner-grained rhyolite, and chert (agate) present in the site assemblage. Basalt is also relatively common as clasts in formations and alluvium in the northern Florida Mountains. Therefore, it could easily have been procured from many locations including those in the southern Little Florida Mountains. Unfortunately, the wide area where this material is available plus the regular evidence that people procured it wherever it was located precludes being able to identify the precise location where the Florida Mountain site occupants obtained their basalt. However, basalt does not occur with frequency within a 4 km range of the site. The only exposure of Type A rhyolite is located on the eastern side of the Florida Mountains in the White Dome Well area, about 4 km over the mountains to the east of the Florida Mountain site (see Fig. 2). This material occurs naturally throughout this area as boulders and cobbles in the gravels of the piedmont surface. There was considerable evidence of ancient procurement associated with the material. A thin discontinuous scatter of lithic akes and debitage covers the entire piedmont. The vast assemblage of the area and lack of nearby sites suggest it represents an informal lithic procurement and reduction zone.
68.00 80.67

Percent of sample

10 8 6 4 2 0 Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6

Granite or Syenite Basalt Igneous

Limestone Sandstone Quartz

Andesite (altered) Hornfel Vesicular Basalt

Rhyolite Quartzite

Fig. 5. Proportions of stone material in transect samples.

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Although no sources of quartzite were located during the study and none are reported in the geologic description of the mountains (Clemons, 1998), the presence of a few pieces in the piedmont alluvium indicates that a bedrock source may exist somewhere in the Florida Mountains. Potential sources for quartzite could be the upslope siliceous sandstones of the Bliss Formation (Fig. 4), particularly if there is any metamorphism due to faulting or intrusions. The sources for the obsidian artifacts from the Florida Mountain site are widely distributed across the region (Shackley, 2004) (Table 5). The Sierra Fresnal and Los Jageyes sources located 50 to 100 km away in northwestern Chihuahua comprise over half the sample. Mule Creek localities and the Blue/San Francisco River sources along the New MexicoArizona border, some 100150 km distance, make up nearly one-quarter of the sample. Four specimens represent the Antelope Wells source, 90 km to the southwest. The single piece from the Mount Taylor source likely originated from the Rio Grande alluviums as close as 10 km the east. As noted earlier, one piece of Florida Mountain perlite from the Little Florida Mountains was present. Thus, the majority of the obsidian (75%) derives from sources between 50 km and 100 km away to the south and southwest, while all but two of the remaining items come from sources over 100 km to the northwest. The results of this study support the suggestion made earlier in this paper and elsewhere (Schriever, 2002) that much of the material used by the areas inhabitants could have been available within the mountains and surrounding alluvial deposits. However, the results also suggest that these resources are not ubiquitous, and most would have required effort to procure. Unlike contemporaneous pit structure sites, the Florida Mountain site occupants did not rely on the locally available coarse materials for the majority of their lithic needs. Rather, the majority of the lithic materials in the sites assemblage originate from sources over 5 km away.

Table 6 Chi square statistic data for the distribution of coarse- and ne-grained lithic materials between sites. Site NAN Ruin Galaz LA18839 LA 18839/NAN ruin Observed 1474 1221 3028 1228 v2 = 195.745**
**

Coarse 3028 4465 1474 LA 18839/Galaz ruin Observed Expected

Fine 1228 1931 1221 NAN ruin/Galaz ruin Observed Expected 2993.824 1262.176 4499.176 1896.824

Expected 1745.488 949.512 2756.512 1499.488

1474 1760.599 3028 1221 934.401 1228 4465 4175.401 4465 1931 2217.599 1931 v2 = 191.257** v2 = 2.191

p < 0.001.

Statistical analyses Statistical tests were carried out to begin to explain the variability present between lithic assemblages recovered from the Florida Mountain site (LA18839) and two pit structure sites in the Mimbres River Valley: the NAN Ranch and Galaz ruins. The rst of these was aimed at discerning whether or not the distribution of coarse- and ne-grained lithic materials between sites was a result of chance (Table 6). The results of these tests showed that there was a signicant difference in the distribution of these materials between the Florida Mountain site and both Galaz and NAN Ranch (v2 = 191.26, df = 1, p < 0.001; and v2 = 195.74, df = 1, p < 0.001 respectively). Interestingly there was not a signicant difference in the distribution of ne- and coarse-grained materials between NAN Ranch and Galaz (v2 = 2.19, df = 1, p = 0.14). These results suggest that selection of either ne- or coarse-grained materials at NAN Ranch, Galaz, and possibly within the general Mimbres Valley proper differed signicantly from selective mechanisms at the Florida Mountain site. Based on the expected values

Table 5 Sourced obsidian data from the Florida Mountain site. Source Sierra Fresnal Los Jagueyes Mule Creek Antelope Creek/Mule Mountains Mule Creek North Sawmill Creek Mule Creek San Francisco/Blue River Antelope wells Mount Taylor Florida Mountain perlite Number of samples 23 2 7 1 1 4 1 1

of the tests used, the difference with regards to the Florida Mountain site can be accounted for by the larger than expected number of ne-grained materials present in this sites assemblage. To further investigate these apparent patterns and potentially make some statement about the organization of lithic technology within the Mimbres Valley and at the Florida Mountain site, statistical tests were carried out that measured the distribution of ne- and coarse-grained materials with respect to cortical variation in akes. For this portion of the analysis the collection recovered from NAN Ranch was compared to the Florida Mountain sites assemblage (Table 7). With regard to both ne- and coarse-grained materials and different ake types as represented by their cortical variation (e.g. primary akes, secondary akes, and tertiary akes) a signicant difference is present between the NAN Ranch and Florida Mountain assemblage (v2 = 57.64, df = 2, p < 0.001). Further analyses measuring the distribution of ne- or coarse-grained material fashioned into different ake types as represented by cortical variation found more dissimilarities between the sites assemblages. With regards to different ake types manufactured from ne-grained materials, the Florida Mountain site assemblage differed signicantly from the NAN Ranch assemblage (v2 = 33.66, df = 2, p < 0.001). Likewise, the distribution of different ake types manufactured from coarse-grained materials differed signicantly between sites (v2 = 541.07, df = 2, p < 0.001). Again, based on expected values it appears that the majority of these differences center on the exploitation and reduction of ne-grained materials at the Florida Mountain site while sites within the Mimbres Valley, represented by the NAN Ranch assemblage, tended to focus on the exploitation and reduction of coarse-grained materials. Analyses were also conducted that compared the distribution of paired levels of cortical variation between sites. Thus primary and secondary akes, secondary and tertiary akes, and primary and tertiary akes were compared between the assemblages collected from the NAN Ranch and Florida Mountain sites (Table 8). Results of these analyses showed that there were signicant differences between the NAN Ranch and Florida Mountain site with regard to all ake type pairs and all raw material textures. Again, the signicant differences centered on the discrepancy between ne-grained material at the Florida Mountain site and coarse-grained material at NAN Ranch. All but one relationship was signicant at the 99.9% condence interval. The one exception measured the distribution of primary and secondary akes fashioned of ne-grained material between NAN Ranch and the Florida Mountain site. This relationship, while still signicant (v2 = 5.40, df = 1, p = 0.02), potentially points to a general trend in the data sets in two ways. First, a major source of the variation contributing to these signicant differences is the distribution of

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Primary + tertiary/secondary

Site NAN Ruin

Material type Fine Coarse Total Fine Coarse Total

Primary 35 335 370 42 73 115

Secondary 187 885 1072 395 397 792

Tertiary 222 464 686 784 1004 1788 Expected

LA18839

Observed

Primary + secondary/tertiary

LA 18839/NAN ruin: all materials and ake types (primary/secondary/tertiary) 370 213.991 1072 822.433 686 1091.576 115 271.009 792 1041.567 1788 1382.424 v2 = 57.638** LA 18839/NAN ruin: ne-grained material and all ake types (primary/secondary/ tertiary) 335 142.742 187 220.36 222 380.898 42 234.258 395 361.64 784 625.102 2 ** v = 33.665 LA 18839/NAN ruin: coarse-grained material and all ake types (primary/ secondary/tertiary) 335 217.566 885 683.625 464 782.809 73 190.434 397 598.375 1004 685.191 v2 = 541.071**
**

Expected

783.267 737.733 175.733 268.267

Primary/secondary + tertiary

p < 0.001.

Table 8 Chi square statistic data for the distribution of paired levels of ake cortical variation between sites.

Expected

432.102 746.898 149.898 259.102

primary and secondary akes between these two sites. Generally, more of these ake types are present in the NAN Ranch assemblage except for those fashioned from ne-grained materials, which are more numerous at the Florida Mountain site. Likewise, signicantly more tertiary akes fashioned from both coarse and ne-grained materials are present at the Florida Mountain site. The second general trend has been alluded to previously, that a major source of variation comes from the discrepancy between NAN Ranch and the Florida Mountain site and ne-and coarsegrained material. Together these patterns show an increasing preference for negrained material at the Florida Mountain site when compared to the Galaz and NAN Ranch ruins, whose assemblages are predominantly composed of coarse-grained materials. In comparing ake types and the materials they were fashioned from between NAN Ranch and the Florida Mountain site, another series of relationships was elucidated. The tests measuring the relationship between sites that compared ake types fashioned from different textured materials potentially points to different reduction strategies operating at the Florida Mountain site and NAN Ranch ruin. At the Florida Mountain site the disproportionate amount of tertiary akes fashioned from both ne- and coarse-grained materials potentially points to a technology centered on tool production and maintenance. Likewise, the disproportionate amount of primary and secondary akes primarily manufactured from coarse-grained material potentially points to technology that focused on the production of informal tools.

Secondary/tertiary

Expected

58.728 767.282 18.272 238.728

Primary/tertiary

LA 18839/NAN ruin: coarse-grained material 73 113.467 73 397 356.533 1004 335 294.533 335 885 925.467 464 v2 = 23.355** v2 = 332.999**

LA 18839/NAN ruin: ne-grained material 42 51.061 42 395 385.939 784 35 25.939 35 187 196.061 222 v2 = 5.404* v2 = 21.615**

Primary/secondary

Expected

Observed

237.23 842.77 173.77 625.23

397 1004 885 464 v2 = 383.551**

* **

395 784 187 222 v2 = 19.525**

Observed

653.121 747.88 628.88 720.121

73 1401 335 1349 v2 = 155.953** p < 0.05. p < 0.001.

Observed

42 1179 35 409 v2 = 14.573**

Observed

190.434 1283.566 217.566 1466.434

56.467 1164.533 20.533 423.467

Expected

470 1004 1220 464 v2 = 519.812**

437 784 222 222 v2 = 27.491**

Observed

788.809 685.191 901.191 782.809

1077 397 799 885 v2 = 213.937**

826 395 257 187 v2 = 13.660**

Observed

875.625 598.375 1000.375 683.625

Expected

Table 7 Chi square statistic data for the distribution of ne- and coarse-grained materials with respect to ake cortical variation.

794.2 426.8 288.8 155.2

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113

To investigate the above proposition, similar analyses were conducted to test whether the relative proportions of formal and informal tools at the Florida Mountain site, the Galaz ruin, and the NAN Ranch ruin represented similar sampling populations (Table 9). The results of these tests showed that there was a significant difference in the distribution of formal and informal tool types among all the sites. Specically, the Florida Mountain differed signicantly from both the Galaz and the NAN Ranch ruins (v2 = 244.569, df = 1, p < 0.001; and v2 = 32.456, df = 1, p < 0.001 respectively). Based on expected values of formal and informal tools at the different sites, it is apparent that the Florida Mountain site has greater than expected values of formal tools and less than expected values of informal tools when compared to the Galaz and NAN Ranch ruins. Similarly, NAN Ranch ruin differed signicantly from the Galaz ruin due to its higher than expected frequency of formal tools and less than expected number of informal tools ((v2 = 72.473, df = 1, p < 0.001). Taken together, these results suggest that there were different ways of organizing lithic technology in the Mimbres region during the Late Pithouse period. When compared to sites in the Mimbres Valley, lithic technology at the Florida Mountain site was apparently organized to focus on the procurement of ne-grained material, which would initially be reduced off-site and transported to the site where the nal stages of the reduction sequence took place. Generally, sites in the Mimbres Valley tended to focus on the exploitation of coarse-grained raw materials that were locally available in the valleys alluvium. When compared to the Florida Mountain site, sites in the Mimbres Valley tended to focus on the production of informal tool types. However, these valley sites also appear to show variation in their investment in the production of formal and informal tools. Based on the data presented from the assemblages collected from the NAN Ranch and Galaz ruins (Table 9) it appears that the Late Pithouse period inhabitants of the NAN Ranch ruin produced more formal tools and less informal tools than expected when compared to the Galaz ruin where the inhabitants focused more intensively on the production of informal tools. Discussion Data from the Florida Mountain site illuminate the differences in stone procurement behavior and the organization of lithic technology among Late Pithouse period people as structured by their economic pursuits. Variens (1999, pp. 153155) discussion of the site catchments of agriculturalists provides a productive framework within which to consider these differences in stone procurement behavior. Drawing on cross-cultural studies, Varien concludes that in at terrain (1) the size of the most intensely used area around a settlement is approximately 2 km in radius, (2) the size of the area in which resources are regularly procured is around

Table 9 Chi square statistic data for the distribution of tool types among sites. Site NAN Ruin Galaz LA18839 LA 18839/NAN ruin Observed Informal tool 138 775 28 LA 18839/Galaz RUIN Formal tool 72 93 68 NAN ruin/Galaz ruin Expected

Expected Observed

Expected Observed

28 52.078 68 43.922 138 133.922 72 96.078 v2 = 32.456**

**

28 79.967 68 16.033 775 723.033 93 144.967 v2 = 224.569**

138 177.857 72 32.143 775 735.143 93 132.857 v2 = 72.473**

p < 0.001.

7 km in radius, and (3) the maximum size of daily procurement forays would have been around 18 km in radius. When terrain is variable, the effective radii of catchments shrink based on the energetic output necessary to traverse the terrain. The results of previous studies of stone procurement at Mimbres pit structure sites in the Mimbres Valley, where groups were dependent on agricultural production, t nicely with Variens model. Both Dockall (1991) and Nelson (1981) found that almost all of the stone used at pithouse sites in the valley was acquired from sources within a few kilometer radiuses around them. Except for a few materials used for special tools, the remaining material derived from sources within the 18 km daily foray distance. Thus, peoples stone procurement practices at these sites were on an as-needed basis requiring little investment or planning. In contrast, the occupants of the Florida Mountain site must have had to consider stone procurement concerns regularly. Some of the coarse-grained materials in the lithic assemblage were available locally in the piedmont alluvium and in the nearby White Hills. However, the site was not located to provide access to the raw materials that occur most frequently in the assemblage. Depending on the location of stone sources and the routes taken to reach them from the Florida Mountain site, topographic relief could be considerable and could signicantly affect the extent of the catchments to the east of the site. However, the limited size of the Florida Mountain range, the relatively shallow passes through the mountains (some only about 2000 feet higher than the site elevation), and the relatively at nature of the piedmont, make it likely that the majority of stone sources in the mountains would have been accessible within the 18 km catchment around the Florida Mountain site. It would have only taken several days to circumnavigate the entire Florida Mountains range or travel from the site to any point in the mountains and return. The occupants of the Florida Mountain site could have procured stone from sources in and around the mountains through movement directly to and from the sources within a day. However, based upon ethnographic studies of forager resource procurement (Binford, 1980; Kelly, 1995), it seems more likely that they would have embedded tool stone procurement in short duration logistical forays, such as hunting or gathering trips, in and around the mountains. Statistical analyses point to differences in core reduction and tool production strategies in the valley proper and the Florida Mountain site. These differences show an overwhelming preference for locally available coarse-grained material at NAN Ranch and Galaz while inhabitants of the Florida Mountain site more frequently used ner-grained materials. Likewise, the disproportionate amount of primary and secondary akes recovered from sites in the Mimbres Valley, and the abundance of tertiary akes at the Florida Mountain site, could point to differences in the organization of lithic technology of Mimbres peoples. Implicit in any discussion of technological strategy is design efciency (Bleed, 1986; Nelson, 1991). A tool must function when required to reduce the risk of failure (Bamforth and Bleed, 1997; Bleed, 1986; Nelson, 1991; Torrence, 1983). Lithic technologies are generally designed to be reliable and/or maintainable, though exibility, versatility, and transportability are also deciding factors (Bleed, 1986; Nelson, 1991). Reliable tool designs often include components that are over-designed to withstand the stresses accrued through use and often implement redundant components each with a similar function to assure the tool functions when needed (Bleed, 1986, pp. 739740). Generally, reliable tools are used at predicted times and are designed to function at these times. Maintainable tools on the other hand often feature modular components for easy replacement when faced with failure. These tools are designed for partial function so that they work even when part of the sub-system fails. Maintainable tools are used for general tasks that are most often continuously or unpredictably scheduled

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and tool maintenance takes place as needed and are most often used when failure cost is low (Bleed, 1986, pp. 740741). We believe that different design systems were being implemented at sites in the Mimbres Valley and at the Florida Mountain site. The focus on informal tool production in the Mimbres Valley proper is more reminiscent of a system focused on producing maintainable tools. Within this system, tools were produced as needed to meet demands that were continuously present and the components of the general tool-kit were modular in design and were in essence under-designed with little or no evidence of retouch. This design system made use of locally available raw material to produce tools that were exible in design and were capable of performing varied tasks. Conversely, the inhabitants of the Florida Mountain site appear to have invested in a different design system that valued reliability and transportability over other factors. In this system ner-grained materials that required more investment to procure were used predominately for formal tool production. The relative lack of primary and secondary akes fashioned from ne-grained materials attests to the fact that initial reduction of the material took place off-site, and that reduced cores were being transported back to the site for further reduction and use. We argue that these design systems were tied to both economic pursuits and mobility strategies. Procurement, use, and rejuvenation of ne-grained materials are known strategies of raw material use associated with mobile foragers. It is clear that the occupants of the Florida Mountain Site targeted ner-grained materials; we argue that this strategy was designed to provide reliable and maintainable tools that could be transported on gathering or hunting forays.

Acknowledgments This study would not have been possible without the support provided by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Las Cruces Field Ofce, the Graduate College at the University of Oklahoma and the University of Oklahoma Anthropology Department. Special thanks go to Neil Suneson of the Oklahoma Geological Survey who provided invaluable assistance in identifying samples from the Florida Mountain site lithic assemblage and eld samples from the Florida Mountains to create a reference collection for eld and lab analysis. Dr. Margaret C. Nelson provided crucial unpublished data from her dissertation research on lithic raw material availability near Mimbres Valley sites. Meade Kemrer, Thomas Holcomb (BLM-Las Cruces) and Joshua Jones (Western Cultural Resource Management, Inc.) shared their insight into the stone materials of the Mimbres area. This paper beneted greatly from comments by Robert Stokes, Harry Shafer, and George Odell. However, all problems and errors with this work are solely the responsibility of the authors.

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Conclusions The results of this study show that economic pursuits and differences in occupation duration structured not only stone procurement practices but also the manner in which lithic technology was organized during the Late Pithouse period. At agriculturally focused pit structure sites occupied for long periods, stone procurement was primarily limited to approximately a 3 km radius from the site as would be expected considering the high availability of raw material and the use of an expedient technology that focused on the production of informal tools. In contrast, the occupants of the Florida Mountain site procured the majority of their stone from sources located over 10 km from the site. Stone procurement could have occurred during foraging forays and may be related to the need for reliable and maintainable tools for hunting and gathering activities. Thus, both the economic pursuits practiced at these sites and the mobility strategies of their occupants played important roles in the organization of lithic technology during Late Pithouse period. The results also demonstrate the relevance of investigating the stone raw materials available in as broad a region around a site as possible. Only by accurately characterizing the lithic landscape around sites within a region will it be possible to examine the differing choices and practices of the occupants and to begin developing explanations for these. Based upon the previous studies that have investigated Mimbres stone procurement practices and the pervasiveness of cobbles of various materials in the piedmont alluvium around the Florida Mountain site, it could be expected that the stone procurement practices at this site would mirror those at pit structure sites in the Mimbres Valley. However, as the results indicate, simply assuming that most of the material at the Florida Mountain site was procured from the surrounding alluvium would have presented a grossly inadequate portrayal of the raw material availability in the area and lead to erroneous inferences about the site occupants access to lithic raw material.

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