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DECLARATION

Ihere bydeclarethatthis project reportentitled WIRELESS NOTICEBOARDisabonafiderecord of project work done byus during the course of project and that the report has not

previously formed the basis for the award to us of any degree , diploma,Associateship,fellowship or any other similar title.

FEBIN .K. F RISWAN SIDDIQUE JAISON BABY SINSON .T.V

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to MRS. SHEEBA.M.K principleGovt. polytechnicCollegeChelakkara, for the excellent co-coordination for the project. I am grateful toSMT. ASHA.G.NAIR Head of Department, Computer Hardware Maintenance for her sincere effort to make the project a grand success.I am thankful to all my dear friends who had spended their time to make the project granded success, and also thankful to all the staff of computer department for their valuable guidance in the preparation and presentation of this repot. Finally, I thank all my friends for their encouragement during preparation of this project. Above all I wish to express my gratitude to God and MY Parents for inspiring me to complete this project successfully.

With affection regards, FEBIN.K.F RISWAN SIDDIQUE JAISON BABY SINSON.T.V

PROJECT TOPIC:WIRELESS NOTICEBOARD DEPARTMENT:COMPUTER HARDWARE MAINTENANCE

MEMBER DETAILS

1.

FEBIN.K.F REG NO:10150603 PHONE NO:8086989253

2.

RISWAN SIDDIQUE REG NO:10150633 PHONE NO:9562568738

3.

JAISON BABY REG NO:11150127 PHONE NO:8943213313

4.

SINSON.T.V REG NO:10150963 PHONE NO:9605844332

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.INTRODUCTION 2.PROJECT DESCRPTION 3.COST AND ESTIMATION 4.BLOCK DIAGRAM 5.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM 6.THEORY OF THE CIRCUIT

1 2 4 6 9

CONCLUSION

REFFERENCES

APPENDIX

1.INTRODUCTION
Mobile Phones and the related technologies are becoming more and more ubiquitous.Various technical arenas in the field of Telecommunication and Embedded Systems have comevery near to the common people. The number of people with cell phones is on the rise. A daywill come, somewhere in the near future, when a mobile phone is referred to in the same class of Food, clothing and shelter". Improvements in the Networking technologies have fostered growthof very dense networks. Land line telephones have been becoming less and less popular and people now prefer communicating while on the move A R e mo te Co ntr o l i s p er ha ps th e m o s t po p ul a r g a d g et t o d a y . R i g h t f r o m t h e i n t en s e creativity of remotely controlling laser chip markers to the highly destructive remotely ignitable bombs, from the pins to the planes, remote control is not only occupying a omnipresence state, but is also enhancing its scope and domains W h en p eo pl e ha v e a g o o d co nn e cti v i t y a t t he i r d i s po s a l , w i t h t r e m e ndo us po w er o f mobile computing to supplement the same, we can think of connecting their home appliances toa mo bi l e p h o n e w i r el es s l y . Wi t h t hi s , p eo pl e w o ul d b e a bl e to t ur n o n a n d o f f , a n d to s o m e extent, control the appliances at their home even from a distant place. One of the very basicexamples of an utility of this is switching on the air conditioner in the room just some time before reaching home, so that the room is sufficiently cool by then. The usefulness of a longrange remote control to home appliances has no limits. A setup facilitating such a thing would beto connect the home appliances to a microcontroller interfaced to a GSM modem that receivesthe controls from the user, the means of sending signals to the appliances being a mobile phone.

2.PROJECT DESCRIPTION

3.COST AND ESTIMATION

4.BLOCK DIAGRAM

WIRELESS NOTICE BOARD

GSM

LCD

MICRO CONTROLLER

BUZZER

5.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

6.EMBEDDED SYSTEM
Embedded systems are systems which perform a specific or a pre-defined task. It is the combinations of hardware and software. It is nothing but a computer inside a product. It is a programmable hardware design nothing but an electronic chip. A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant. Embedded reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. In many cases their embeddedness may be such that their presence is far from obvious to the casual observer and even the equipment for sometime before being able to conclude that an embedded control system was involved in its functioning. At the other extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious. All embedded systems are or include computers or microprocessors. Some of these computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer. The very simplest embedded systems are capable of performing only single functions to meet single functions to meet a single predetermined purpose. In more complex systems an application program that enables the embedded system to be used for a particular purpose in a specific application determines the functioning of the embedded systems. The ability to have programs means that the same embedded system can be used for a variety of different purpose. In some cases a microprocessor may be designed in such way that application software for a particular purpose can be added to the basic software in a second process, after which it is not possible to make further changes. The applications software on such processors is sometimes referred to as firmware.

The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a chip), which may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid systems or Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output goes to a switch or an activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a machine or, operating a value, may control the flow of fuel to an engine.

7.THEORY OF THE CIRCUIT

7.1 MICROCONTROLLER: PIC 16F877A


PIC is a family of Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip Technology, derived from the PIC1640 originally developed by General Instrument's Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface Controller". PICs are popular with developers and hobbyists alike due to their low cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or free development tools, and serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory) capability.

7.1.1FEATURES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER General Features High performance RISC CPU. Only 35 simple word instructions. All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycles. Operating speed: clock input (200MHz), instruction cycle (200nS). Up to 3688bit of RAM (data memory), 2568 of EEPROM (data memory), 8k14 of flash memory. Pin out compatible to PIC 16C74B, PIC 16C76, PIC 16C77. Eight level deep hardware stack. Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources).

Different types of addressing modes (direct, Indirect, relative addressing modes). Power on Reset (POR). Power-Up Timer (PWRT) and oscillator start-up timer. Low power- high speed CMOS flash/EEPROM. Fully static design. Wide operating voltage range (2.0 5.56) volts. High sink/source current (25mA). Commercial, industrial and extended temperature ranges. Low power consumption (<0.6mA typical @3v-4MHz, 20A typical @3v32MHz and <1 A typical standby).

Peripheral Features Timer 0: 8 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar. Timer 1:16 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar. Timer 2: 8 bit timer/counter with 8 bit period registers with pre-scalar and post-scalar. Two Capture (16bit/12.5nS), Compare (16 bit/200nS), Pulse Width Modules (10bit). 10bit multi-channel A/D converter Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (master code) and I2C (master/slave). Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) with 9 bit address detection. Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bit wide with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/46pin).

Brown Out circuitry for Brown-Out Reset (BOR).

Key Features Maximum operating frequency is 20MHz. Flash program memory (14 bit words), 8KB. Data memory (bytes) is 368. EEPROM data memory (bytes) is 256. 5 input/output ports. 3 timers. 2 CCP modules. 2 serial communication ports (MSSP, USART). PSP parallel communication port 10bit A/D module (8 channels) Analog Features 10bit, up to 8 channel A/D converter. Brown out Reset function. Analog comparator module. Special Features 100000 times erase/write cycle enhanced memory. 1000000 times erase/write cycle data EEPROM memory. Self programmable under software control. In-circuit serial programming and in-circuit debugging capability. Single 5V,DC supply for circuit serial programming WDT with its own RC oscillator for reliable operation. Programmable code protection. Power saving sleep modes.

7.1.2 PIN OUT DIAGRAM

Input/output ports
PIC16F877 has 5 basic input/output ports. They are usually denoted by PORT A (R A), PORT B (RB), PORT C (RC), PORT D (RD), and PORT E (RE). These ports are used for input/ output interfacing. In this controller, PORT A is only 6 bits wide (RA-0 to RA-7), PORT B , PORT C,PORT D are only 8 bits wide (RB-0 to RB-7,RC-0 to RC-7,RD-0 to RD-7), PORT E has only 3 bit wide (RE-0 to RE7). PORT-A PORT-B PORT-C PORT-D PORT-E RA-0 to RA-5 RB-0 to RB-7 RC-0 to RC-7 RD-0 to RD-7 RE-0 to RE-2 6 bit wide 8 bit wide 8 bit wide 8 bit wide 3 bit wide

All these ports are bi-directional. The direction of the port is controlled by using TRIS(X) registers (TRIS A used to set the direction of PORT-A, TRIS B used to set the direction for PORT-B, etc.). Setting a TRIS(X) bit 1 will set the corresponding PORT(X) bit as input. Clearing a TRIS(X) bit 0 will set the corresponding PORT(X) bit as output. (If we want to set PORT A as an input, just set TRIS(A) bit to logical 1 and want to set PORT B as an output, just set the PORT B bits to logical 0.) Analog input port (AN0 TO AN7): these ports are used for interfacing analog inputs. TX and RX: These are the USART transmission and reception ports. SCK: these pins are used for giving synchronous serial clock input. SCL: these pins act as an output for both SPI and I2C modes. DT: these are synchronous data terminals. CK: synchronous clock input.

SD0: SPI data output (SPI Mode). SD1: SPI Data input (SPI mode). SDA: data input/output in I2C Mode. CCP1 and CCP2: these are capture/compare/PWM modules. OSC1: oscillator input/external clock. OSC2: oscillator output/clock out. MCLR: master clear pin (Active low reset). Vpp: programming voltage input. THV: High voltage test mode controlling. Vref (+/-): reference voltage. SS: Slave select for the synchronous serial port. T0CK1: clock input to TIMER 0. T1OSO: Timer 1 oscillator output. T1OS1: Timer 1 oscillator input. T1CK1: clock input to Timer 1. PGD: Serial programming data. PGC: serial programming clock. PGM: Low Voltage Programming input. INT: external interrupt. RD: Read control for parallel slave port. CS: Select control for parallel slave. PSP0 to PSP7: Parallel slave port. VDD: positive supply for logic and input pins.

VSS: Ground reference for logic and input/output pins. 7.1.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PIC 16F877A

7.1.4 MEMORY ORGANIZATION

There are three memory blocks in each of these PIC micro MCUs: The Program Memory, Data Memory and EEPROM data memory. Program Memory Organization The PIC16F87X devices have a 13-bit program counter capable of addressing an 8K x 14 program memory space. The PIC16F877/876 devices have 8K x 14 words of FLASH program memory. Accessing a location above the physically implemented address will cause a wrap around. The reset vector is at 0000h and the interrupt vector is at 0004h. Data Memory Organization The data memory is partitioned into multiple banks which contain the General Purpose Registers and the Special Function Registers. Bits RP1 (STATUS<6>) and RP0 (STATUS<5>) are the bank select bits. RP1:RP0 00 01 10 11 Bank 0 1 2 3

Each bank extends up to 7Fh (128 bytes). The lower locations of each bank are reserved for the Special Function Registers. Above the Special Function

Registers are General Purpose Registers, implemented as static RAM. All implemented banks contain Special Function Registers. Some high use Special Function Registers from one bank may be mirrored inanother bank for code reduction and quicker access Data EEPROM and FLASH program memory The Data EEPROM and FLASH Program Memory are readable and writable during normal operation over the entire VDD range.The EEPROM data memory allows byte read and write. When interfacing to the data memory block, EEDATA holds the 8-bit data for read/write and EEADR holds the address of the EEPROM location being accessed. The registers EEDATH and EEADRH are not used for data EEPROM access. These devices have up to 256 bytes of data EEPROM with an address range from 0h to FFh. The EEPROM data memory is rated for high erase/write cycles. The write time is controlled by an on-chip timer. The write time will vary with voltage and temperature, as well as from chip-to-chip. Please refer to the specifications for exact limits. TIMER0 MODULE The Timer0 module timer/counter has the following features: 8-bit timer/counter Readable and writable 8-bit software programmable prescaler Internal or external clock select Interrupt on overflow from FFh to 00h

Edge select for external clock TIMER1 MODULE The Timer1 module is a 16-bit timer/counter consisting of two 8-bit registers (TMR1H and TMR1L), which are readable and writable. The TMR1 Register pair (TMR1H:TMR1L) increments from 0000h to FFFFh and rolls over to 0000h. The TMR1 Interrupt, if enabled, is generated on overflow, which is latched in interrupt flag bit TMR1IF (PIR1<0>). This interrupt can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing TMR1 interrupt enable bit TMR1IE (PIE1<0>). Timer1 can operate in one of two modes: As a timer As a counter The operating mode is determined by the clock select bit, TMR1CS (T1CON<1>). In timer mode, Timer1 increments in every instruction cycle. In counter mode, it increments on every rising edge of the external clock input.Timer1 can be enabled/disabled by setting/clearing control bit TMR1ON (T1CON<0>).Timer1 also has an internal reset input. This reset can be generated by either of the two CCP modules TIMER2 MODULE Timer2 is an 8-bit timer with a prescaler and a postscaler. It can be used as the PWM time-base for the PWM mode of the CCP module(s). The TMR2 register is readable and writable, and is cleared on any device reset.The Timer2 module has an 8-bit period register PR2.Timer2 increments from 00h until it matches

PR2 and then resets to 00h on the next increment cycle. PR2 is a readable and writable register. The PR2 register is initialized to FFh upon reset.

7.1.5 I/O PORTS PORTA and the TRISA Register PORTA is a 6-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISA. Setting a TRISA bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISA bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTA pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin). Reading the PORTA register reads the status of the pins, whereas writing to it will write to the port latch. All write operations are read-modify-write operations. Therefore, a write to a port implies that the port pins are read; the value is modified and then written to the port data latch. Pin RA4 is multiplexed with the Timer0 module clock input to become the RA4/T0CKI pin. The RA4/T0CKI pin is a Schmitt Trigger input and an open-drain output. PORTB and the TRISB Register PORTB is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISB. Setting a TRISB bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISB bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTB pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin).Three pins of PORTB are multiplexed with the In-Circuit Debugger and Low-Voltage Programming function: RB3/PGM, RB6/PGC and RB7/PGD. Each of the PORTB pins has a weak internal pull-up. A single control bit can turn on all the pull-

ups. This is performed by clearing bit RBPU (OPTION_REG<7>). The weak pullup is automatically turned off when the port pin is configured as an output. PORTC and the TRISC Register PORTC is an 8-bit wide, bidirectional port. The corresponding data direction register is TRISC. Setting a TRISC bit (= 1) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an input (i.e., put the corresponding output driver in a High-Impedance mode). Clearing a TRISC bit (= 0) will make the corresponding PORTC pin an output (i.e., put the contents of the output latch on the selected pin).PORTC is multiplexed with several peripheral functions When enabling peripheral functions, care should be taken in defining TRIS bits for each PORTC pin. Some peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an output, while other peripherals override the TRIS bit to make a pin an input PORTD and TRISD Registers PORTD is an 8-bit port with Schmitt Trigger input buffers. Each pin is individually configurable as an input or output. PORTD can be configured as an 8-bit wide microprocessor port (Parallel Slave Port) by setting control bit, PSPMODE (TRISE<4>). In this mode, the input buffers are TTL. PORTE and TRISE Register PORTE has three pins (RE0/RD/AN5, RE1/WR/AN6 and RE2/CS/AN7) which are individually configurable as inputs or outputs. These pins have Schmitt Trigger input buffers. The PORTE pins become the I/O control inputs for the microprocessor port when bit PSPMODE (TRISE<4>) is set. In this mode, the user must make certain that the TRISE<2:0> bits are set and that the pins are configured as digital inputs. Also, ensure that ADCON1 is configured for digital I/O. In this mode, the input buffers are TTL.

CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM MODULES Each Capture/Compare/PWM (CCP) module contains a 16-bit register which can operate as a: 16-bit Capture register 16-bit Compare register PWM master/slave Duty Cycle register Both the CCP1 and CCP2 modules are identical in operation, with the exception being the operation of the special event trigger.

MASTER SYNCHRONOUS SERIAL PORT (MSSP) MODULE The Master Synchronous Serial Port (MSSP) module is a serial interface useful for communicating with other peripheral or microcontroller devices. These peripheral devices may be serial EEPROMs, shift registers, display drivers, A/D converters, etc. The MSSP module can operate in one of two modes: Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)

ADDRESSABLE UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER TRANSMITTER (USART) The Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) module is one of the two serial I/O modules. (USART is also known as a Serial Communications Interface or SCI). The USART can be configured as a full duplex asynchronous system that can communicate with peripheral devices such as CRT terminals and personal computers, or it can be configured as a half duplex synchronous system that can communicate with peripheral devices such as A/D or D/A integrated circuits, serial EEPROMs etc. The USART can be configured in the following modes: Asynchronous (full duplex) Synchronous - Master (half duplex) Synchronous - Slave (half duplex) Bit SPEN (RCSTA<7>) and bits TRISC<7:6> have to be set in order to configure pins RC6/TX/CK and RC7/RX/DT as the Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter. The USART module also has a multi-processor communication capability using 9-bit address detection ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (A/D) MODULE The Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Converter module has five inputs for the 28-pin devices and eight for the other devices. The analog input charges a sample and hold capacitor. The output of the sample and hold capacitor is the input into the converter. The converter then generates a digital result of this analog level via successive approximation. The A/D conversion of the analog input signal results in a corresponding 10-bit digital number. The A/D module has high and

low voltage reference input that is software selectable to some combination of VDD, VSS, RA2 or RA3.The A/D converter has a unique feature of being able to operate while the device is in SLEEP mode. To operate in sleep, the A/D clock must be derived from the A/Ds internal RC oscillator. The A/D module has four registers. These registers are: A/D Result High Register (ADRESH) A/D Result Low Register (ADRESL) A/D Control Register0 (ADCON0) controls the operation of the A/D module A/D Control Register1 (ADCON1) configures the functions of the port pins The port pins can be configured as analog inputs (RA3 can also be the voltage reference) or as digital I/O.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE CPU

Watchdog timer, which can be shut off only through configuration bits. It runs off its own RC oscillator for added reliability. There are two timers that offer necessary delays on power-up. One is the Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST), intended to keep the chip in reset until the crystal oscillator is stable. The other is the Power-up Timer (PWRT), which provides a fixed delay of 72 ms (nominal) on power-up only. It is designed to keep the part in reset while the power supply stabilizes. With these two timers on-chip, most applications need no external reset circuitry. SLEEP mode is designed to offer a very low current power-down mode. The user can wake-up from SLEEP through external reset, Watchdog

Timer Wake-up, or through an interrupt. Several oscillator options are also made available to allow the part to fit the application. The RC oscillator option saves system cost while the LP crystal option saves power. A set of configuration bits are used to select various options. Configuration Bits: The configuration bits can be programmed (read as '0') or left unprogrammed (read as '1') to select various device configurations. These bits are mapped in program memory location 2007h. Oscillator Configurations: The PIC16F87X can be operated in four different oscillator modes. The user can program two configuration bits (FOSC1 and FOSC0) to select one of these four modes: LP Low Power Crystal XT Crystal/Resonator HS High Speed Crystal/Resonator RC Resistor/Capacitor Reset: The PIC16F87X differentiates between various kinds of reset: Power-on Reset (POR) MCLR reset during normal operation MCLR reset during SLEEP WDT Reset (during normal operation) WDT Wake-up (during SLEEP) Brown-out Reset (BOR) Power-On Reset (POR): A Power-on Reset pulse is generated on-chip when VDD rise is detected (in the range of 1.2V - 1.7V). To take advantage of the POR, tie the MCLR pin directly (or through a resistor) to VDD. This will eliminate external RC components usually needed to create a Power on Reset. A maximum rise time for VDD is specified.

When the device starts normal operation (exits the reset condition), device operating parameters (voltage, frequency, temperature) must be met to ensure operation. If these conditions are not met, the device must be held in reset until the operating conditions are met. Brown-out Reset may be used to meet the start-up conditions. Power-up Timer (PWRT): The Power-up Timer provides a fixed 72 ms nominal time-out on power-up only from the POR. The Power up Timer operates on an internal RC oscillator. The chip is kept in reset as long as the PWRT is active. The PWRTs time delay allows VDD to rise to an acceptable level. A configuration bit is provided to enable/disable the PWRT. The power-up time delay will vary from chip to chip due to VDD, temperature and process variation. Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST): The Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST) provides 1024oscillator cycle (from OSC1 input) delay after the PWRT delay is over. This ensures that the crystal oscillator or resonator has started and stabilized. The OST time-out is invoked only for XT, LP and HS modes and only on Power-on Reset or wake-up from SLEEP. Brown-Out Reset (BOR): The configuration bit, BODEN, can enable or disable the Brown-out Reset circuit. If VDD falls below VBOR (parameter D005, about 4V) for longer than TBOR (parameter #35, about 100mS), the brown-out situation will reset the device. If VDD falls below VBOR for less than TBOR, a reset may not occur. Once the brown-out occurs, the device will remain in brown-out reset until VDD rises above VBOR. The power-up timer then keeps the device in reset for TPWRT (parameter #33, about 72mS). If VDD should fall below VBOR during TPWRT, the brown-out reset process will restart when VDD rises above VBOR with the power-up timer reset. The power-up timer is always

enabled when the brown-out reset circuit is enabled regardless of the state of the PWRT configuration bit. Interrupts: The PIC16F87X family has up to 14 sources of interrupt. The interrupt control register (INTCON) records individual interrupt requests in flag bits. It also has individual land global interrupt enable bits.Individual interrupt flag bits are set, regardless of the status of their corresponding mask bit or the GIE bit. Time-out Sequence: On power-up, the time-out sequence is as follows: The PWRT delay starts (if enabled) when a POR reset occurs. Then OST starts counting 1024 oscillator cycles when PWRT ends (LP, XT, and HS). When the OST ends, the device comes out of RESET. If MCLR is kept low long enough, the time-outs will expire. Bringing MCLR high will begin execution immediately. This is useful for testing purposes or to synchronize more than one PIC16CXX device operating in parallel. Power Control/Status Register(PCON): The Power Control/Status Register, PCON, has up to two bits depending upon the device.Bit0 is Brown-out Reset Status bit; BOR. Bit BOR is unknown on a Power-on Reset. It must then be set by the user and checked on subsequent resets to see if bit BOR cleared, indicating a BOR occurred. The BOR bit is a "dont care" bit and is not necessarily predictable if the Brown-out Reset circuitry is disabled (by clearing bit BODEN in the Configuration Word).Bit1 is POR (Power-on Reset Status bit). It is cleared on a Poweron Reset and unaffected otherwise. The user must set this bit following a Power-on Reset. Context Saving During Interrupts: During an interrupt, only the return PC value is saved on the stack. Typically, users may wish to save key

registers during an interrupt, (i.e., W register and STATUS register). This will have to be implemented in software. In-Circuit Debugger: When the DEBUG bit in the configuration word is programmed to a 0, the In-Circuit Debugger functionality is enabled. This function allows simple debugging functions when used with MPLAB. When the microcontroller has this feature enabled, some of the resources are not available for general use. I/O pins Stack Program Memory Data Memory RB6, RB7 1 level Address 0000h must be NOP Last 100h words 0x070(0x0F0, 0x170, 0x1F0) 0x1EB - 0x1EF

To use the In-Circuit Debugger function of the microcontroller the design must implement In-Circuit Serial Programming connections to MCLR/VPP, VDD, GND,RB7 and RB6. Program Verification/Code Protection: If the code protection bit(s) have not been programmed, the on-chip program memory can be readout for verification purposes. ID Locations: Four memory locations (2000h - 2003h) are designated as ID locations where the user can store checksum or other codeidentification numbers. These locations are not accessible during normal execution but are readable and writable during program/verify. It is recommended that only the 4 least significant bits of the ID location are used. In-Circuit Serial Programming: PIC16F87X microcontrollers can be serially programmed while in the end application circuit. This is simply done with two lines for clock and data and three other lines for power, ground, and the programming voltage. This allows customers to

manufacture boards with unprogrammed devices, and then program the microcontroller just before shipping the product. This also allows the most recent firmware or a custom firmware to be programmed. Low Voltage ICSP Programming: The LVP bit of the configuration word enables low voltage ICSP programming. This mode allows the microcontroller to be programmed via ICSP using a VDD source in the operating voltage range. This only means that VPP does not have to be brought to VIHH, but can instead be left at the normal operating voltage. In this mode, the RB3/PGM pin is dedicated to the programming function and ceases to be a general purpose I/O pin. During programming, VDD is applied to the MCLR pin. To enter programming mode, VDD must be applied to the RB3/PGM provided the LVP bit

8.GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile communication) is a digital mobile telephony system which uses a variation of time division multiple access (TDMA) and is the most widely used of the three digital wireless telephony technologies (TDMA, GSM, and CDMA). GSM digitizes and compresses data, then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its own time slot. It operates at either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications, originally Groupe Spcial Mobile), is a standard set developed by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile phones. Mobile services based on GSM technology were first launched in Finland in 1991. Today, more than 690 mobile networks provide GSM services across 213 countries and GSM represents 82.4% of all global mobile connections. The GSM standard was developed as a replacement for first generation (1G) analog cellular networks, and originally described a digital, circuit switched network optimized for full duplex voice telephony. This was expanded over time to include data communications, first by circuit switched transport, then packet data transport via GPRS (General Packet Radio Services) and EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution or EGPRS).Further improvements were made when the 3GPP developed third generation (3G) UMTS standards followed by fourth generation (4G) LTE Advanced standards. Since many GSM network operators have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users can often continue to use their mobile phones when they travel to other countries. SIM cards (Subscriber Identity Module) holding home network access configurations may be switched to those will metered local

access, significantly reducing roaming costs while experiencing no reductions in service. GSM, together with other technologies, is part of the evolution of wireless mobile telecommunications that includes High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD), General Packet Radio System (GPRS), Enhanced Data GSM Environment (EDGE), and Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS). Mobile Frequency Range Rx: 925-960; Tx: 880-915 Multiple Access Method TDMA/FDM Duplex Method Number of Channels Channel Spacing Modulation Channel Bit Rate FDD 124 (8 users per channel) 200kHz GMSK (0.3 Gaussian Filter) 270.833Kb

NETWORK STRUCTURE The network is structured into a number of discrete sections:

The Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).

The Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.

The GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections).

The Operations support system (OSS) for maintenance of the network.

SUBSCRIBER IDENTITY MODULE (SIM) One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity Module, commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a detachable smart card containing the user's subscription information and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information after switching handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some

operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as SIM locking. GSM NETWORK OPERATORS T-Mobile and Cingular operate GSM networks in the United States on the 1,900 MHz band. GSM networks in other countries operate at 900, 1,800, or 1,900 MHz GSM SERVICE SECURITY GSM security issues such as theft of service, privacy, and legal interception continue to raise significant interest in the GSM community. GSM was designed with a moderate level of service security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using a pre-shared key and challenge-response. Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of UMTS introduces an optional Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM), that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user whereas GSM only authenticates the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation GSM/GPRS MODEMS AND MODULES A GSM modem isa wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A wireless modem behaveslike a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends and receives data through radio waves. A GSM modem can be an external device or a PC Card / PCMCIA Card. Typically, an external GSM modem is connected to a computer through a serial cable or a USB cable. A GSM modem in the form of a PC Card / PCMCIA Card is designed for use with a laptop computer. It should be inserted into one of the PC Card / PCMCIA Card slots of alaptop

computer. Like a GSM mobile phone, a GSM modem requires a SIM card from a wireless carrier in order to operate

SIM900A MODEM WITH RS232 G S M MODE M S

Description : GSM /GPRS M odem-RS232 is built with Dual Band GSM /GPRS engine- SIM 900A, works on frequencies 900/ 1800 M Hz. The M odem is coming with RS232 interface,which allows you connect PC as well as microcontroller with RS232 Chip(M AX232). The baud rate is configurable from 9600-115200 through AT command. The GSM /GPRS M odem is having internal TCP/IP stack to enable you to connect with internet via GPRS. It is suitable for SM S, Voice as well as DATA transfer application in M 2M interface. The onboard Regulated Power supply allows you to connect wide range unregulated power supply . Using this modem,you can make audio calls, SM S, Read SM S, attend the incoming calls and internet ect through simple AT commands GSM/GPRS Modem Fetures High Quality Product (Not hobby grade) Dual-Band GSM /GPRS 900/ 1800 M Hz RS232 interface for direct communication with computer or M CU kit Configurable baud rate Wire Amntenna( SM A connector with GSM Antenna Optional ) SIM Card holder. Built in Network Status LED Inbuilt Powerful TCP/IP protocol stack for internet data transfer over GPRS. Normal operation temperature: -20 C to +55 C

Input Voltage: 12V DC Downloads SIM900A AT Command Set SMS Application Note TCP/IP Application Note Search

9.CRYSTALL OSCILLATOR
A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. One of the most important features of any oscillator is its frequency stability, or in other words its ability to provide a constant frequency output under varying load conditions. Some of the factors that affect the frequency stability of an oscillator include: temperature, variations in the load and changes in the DC power supply. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits. Frequency stability of the output signal can be improved by the proper selection of the components used for the resonant feedback circuit including the amplifier but there is a limit to the stability that can be obtained from normal LC and RC tank circuits.

To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency determining device to produce other types of oscillator circuit known generally as a Quartz Crystal Oscillator. The quartz crystal used in a Quartz Crystal Oscillator is a very small, thin piece or wafer of cut quartz with the two parallel surfaces metalized to make the required electrical connections. The physical size and thickness of a piece of quartz crystal is tightly controlled since it affects the final frequency of oscillations and is called the crystals "characteristic frequency". Then once cut and shaped, the crystal cannot be used at any other frequency. In other words, its size and shape determines its frequency. The crystals characteristic or resonant frequency is inversely proportional to its physical thickness between the two metalized surfaces. A mechanically vibrating crystal can be represented by an equivalent electrical circuit consisting of low resistance, large inductance and small capacitance as shown below.

9.1 QUARTZ CRYSTAL

The equivalent circuit for the quartz crystal shows an RLC series circuit, which represents the mechanical vibrations of the crystal, in parallel with a capacitance, Cp which represents the electrical connections to the crystal. Quartz crystal oscillators operate at "parallel resonance", and the equivalent impedance of the crystal has a series resonance where Cs resonates with inductance, L and a parallel resonance where L resonates with the series combination of Cs and Cp as shown.

9.2CRYSTAL REACTANCE

The slope of the reactance against frequency above, shows that the series reactance at frequency s is inversely proportional to Cs because below s and above p the crystal appears capacitive, i.e. dX/d, where X is the reactance. Between frequencies s and p, the crystal appears inductive as the two parallel capacitances cancel out. The point where the reactance values of the capacitances and inductance cancel each other out Xc = XL is the fundamental frequency of the crystal. A quartz crystal has a resonant frequency similar to that of a electrically tuned tank circuit but with a much higher Q factor due to its low resistance, with typical frequencies ranging from 4kHz to 10MHz. The cut of the crystal also determines how it will behave as some crystals will vibrate at more than one frequency. Also, if the crystal is not of a parallel or uniform thickness it has two or more resonant frequencies having both a fundamental frequency and harmonics such as second or third harmonics.

Generally though the fundamental frequency is much more stronger or pronounced than the harmonics around it so this is the one used. The equivalent circuit above has three reactive components and there are two resonant frequencies, the lowest is a series type frequency and the highest a parallel type resonant frequency. We have seen in the previous tutorials, that an amplifier circuit will oscillate if it has a loop gain greater or equal to one and the feedback is positive. In a Quartz Crystal Oscillator circuit the oscillator will oscillate at the crystals fundamental parallel resonant frequency as the crystal always wants to oscillate when a voltage source is applied to it. However, it is also possible to "tune" a crystal oscillator to any even harmonic of the fundamental frequency, (2nd, 4th, 8th etc.) and these are known generally as Harmonic Oscillators while Overtone Oscillators vibrate at odd multiples of the fundamental frequency, 3rd, 5th, 11th etc). Generally, crystal oscillators that operate at overtone frequencies do so using their series resonant frequency.

9.3 WORKING
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. This piezo-electric effect is the property of a crystal by which an electrical charge produces a mechanical force by changing the shape of the crystal and vice versa, a mechanical force applied to the crystal produces an electrical charge. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz

crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. Then, piezo-electric devices can be classed as Transducers as they convert energy of one kind into energy of another (electrical to mechanical or mechanical to electrical). This piezo-electric effect produces mechanical vibrations or oscillations which are used to replace the LC tank circuit in the previous oscillators. Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. Most are used for consumer devices such

as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes There are many different types of crystal substances which can be used as oscillators with the most important of these for electronic circuits being the quartz minerals because of their greater mechanical strength. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with

appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. Highfrequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal.

10. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES


Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their low price, low consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources- bulbs at first place. They perform similar to common diodes with the difference that they emit light when current flows through them. A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted lowintensity red light, but modern versions are available across

the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals.

LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed unless its current is limited. This means that a conductor must be In

connected in parallel to a diode. order to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary voltage to drop know in diodes forward

direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and what colour it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below: As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get ful brightness at current of 20mA. Low Current diodes get ful brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.

TYPES The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as alphanumeric or multi-color. Miniature These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink. Typical current ratings ranges from

around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a natural upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for a heat sink. Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle. There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:

Low-current: typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption).

Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around 1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow. 3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue. 2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white.

Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct sunlight.

Five- and twelve-volt LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply. Mid-range Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and mostly utilized when an output of just a few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds{ref}. These LEDs are most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger

amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for taillights and emergency lighting. High-power High-power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a thousand lumens. Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp. Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, OsramOpto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HPLEDs manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent lights, as LEDs grow more cost competitive. The impact of Haltz's law governing the light output of LEDs over time can be readily seen in year over year increases in lumen output and efficiency. For example, the CREE XP-G series LED achieved 105 lm/W in 2009, while Nichia released the 19 series with a typical efficiency of 140 lm/W in 2010. LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the need for a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED capable of being driven

from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design. Application-specific variations

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

Bi-color LEDs are two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode, so that they can be controlled independently.

Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.

RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

Alphanumeric

LED

displays are

available

in seven-

segment and starburst format. Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use ofliquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.

ADVANTAGES

Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs. The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.

Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.

Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily attached to printed circuit boards.

On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in communications devices can have even faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting.

Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering the forward current.

Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.

Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.

Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period for an LED product.

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs, which are fragile.

Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are usually deployed, which are difficult to focus

or collimate towards the same target. DISADVANTAGES

High initial price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting

technologies. As of 2010, the cost per thousand lumens (kilolumen) was about $18. The price is expected to reach $2/kilolumen by 2015. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed.

Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment - or "thermal management" properties. Over-driving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must operate over a wide range of temperatures, which require low failure rates.

Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.

Light

quality: Most

cool-white

LEDs have

spectra

that

differ

significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.

Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light giving a spherical light distribution, but rather

a lambertian distribution. So LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a

spherical light field, however different fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or "lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees. In contrast, lasers can emit beams with divergences of 0.2 degrees or less.

Electrical polarity: Unlike incandescent light bulbs, which illuminate regardless of the electrical polarity, LEDs will only light with correct electrical polarity. To automatically match source polarity to LED devices, rectifiers can be used.

Blue hazard: There is a concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications such as ANSI/IESNA RP27.105: Recommended Practice for Photobiological Safety for Lamp and Lamp Systems.

Blue

pollution: Because

cool-white

LEDs with

high color

temperature emit proportionally more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that coolwhite LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources. The International Dark-Sky Associationdiscourages using white light sources with correlated color temperature above 3,000 K.

Droop: The efficiency of conventional InGaN based LEDs decreases as one increases current above a given leve

11. LCD DISPLAY


Liquid crystal display (LCD) is an electronically-modulated optical device shaped into a thin, flat panel made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices because it uses very small amounts of electric power. Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.

PRINCIPLE OF WORKING

The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric current is applied to them, they tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light angle passing through them. This causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter with respect to it. So little light is allowed to pass through that particular area of LCD. Thus that area becomes darker comparing to others. For making an LCD screen, a reflective mirror has to be setup in the back. An electrode plane made of indium-tin oxide is kept on top and a glass with a polarizing film is also added on the bottom side. The entire area of the LCD has to be covered by a common electrode and above it should be the liquid crystal substance. Next comes another piece of glass with an electrode in the shape of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be noted that both of them are kept at right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a temporary battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist. Thus the light is blocked from passing through. Thus that particular rectangular area appears blank. The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). LCDs are used in a wide range of applications

including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in consumer devices such as video

players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have replaced cathode (CRT) displays in most applications. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence. The LCD is more energy efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically modulated optical device made up of any number of segments filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome

JHD162A: 16 X 2 ALPHANUMERIC LCD MODULE


DESCRIPTION The JHD162A dot-matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumeric, Japanese kana characters, and symbols. It can be configured to drive a dot-matrix liquid crystal display under the control of a 4- or 8-bit microprocessor. Since all the functions such as display RAM, character generator, and liquid crystal driver, required for driving a dot-matrix liquid

crystal display are internally provided on one chip, a minimal system can be interfaced with this controller/driver The JHD162A character generator ROM is extended to generate 208 58 dot character fonts and 32510 dot character fonts for a total of 240 different character fonts. The low power supply (2.7V to 5.5V) of the JHD162A is suitable for any portable battery-driven product requiring low power dissipation.

Fig: 2-Line by 16-Character Display

FEATURES 5 8 dot matrix possible Low power operation support: 2.7 to 5.5V Wide range of liquid crystal display driver power: 3.0 to 11V Liquid crystal drive waveform A (One line frequency AC waveform) Correspond to high speed MPU bus interface 4-bit or 8-bit MPU interface enabled 80 8-bit display RAM (80 characters max.) 9,920-bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts 208 character fonts (5 8 dot) 32 character fonts (5 10 dot) 16-common 40-segment liquid crystal display driver Programmable duty cycles 1/8 for one line of 5 8 dots with cursor 1/16 for two lines of 5 8 dots with cursor Wide range of instruction functions: Display clear, cursor home, display on/off, cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, display shift 61 x 15.8 mm viewing area TTL and CMOS compatible

PIN DESCRIPTION

Pin Symbol Level Function 1 2 3 VSS VDD Vo Power, GND Power, 5V Power, for LCD Drive Register Select H: Data L: Instruction Input H: Data Read L: Data Write (MPU->LCD) Signal Input

RS

H/L

5 6

R/W E

H/L

(LCD->MPU)

H,H->L Enable Data Bus; Software selectable 4- or 8-bit mode NOT CONNECTED NOT CONNECTED

7-14 DB0-DB7 H/L 15 16 NC NC -

ADVANTAGES OF GRAPHIC LCDS Download high quality fonts of any size, style or language easily and quickly Create graphics using primitives such as bitmaps, pixels, lines, rectangles and bar graphs. Software Control Backlight & Contrast is adjustable in most models

4 different brightness settings Line wrap and Auto screen scroll

12. MAX 232


The MAX232 is an integrated circuit that converts signals from an RS-232 serial port to signals suitable for use in TTL compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual driver/receiver and typically converts the RX, TX, CTS and RTS signals. The MAX232 IC is used to convert the TTL/CMOS logic levels to RS232 logic levels during serial communication of microcontrollers with PC. The controller operates at TTL logic level (0-5V) whereas the serial communication in PC works on RS232 standards (-25 V to + 25V). This makes it difficult to establish a direct link between them to communicate with each other. The intermediate link is provided through MAX232. It is a dual driver/receiver that includes a capacitive voltage generator to supply RS232 voltage levels from a single 5V supply. Each receiver converts RS232 inputs to 5V TTL/CMOS levels. These receivers (R1 & R2) can accept 30V inputs. The drivers (T1 & T2), also called transmitters, convert the TTL/CMOS input level into RS232 level. The transmitters take input from controllers serial transmission pin and send the output to RS232s receiver. The receivers, on the other hand, take input from transmission pin of RS232 serial port and give serial output to microcontrollers receiver pin. MAX232 needs four external capacitors whose value ranges from 1F to 22F.

Microcontroller Tx Rx

MAX232 T1/2 In R1/2 Out T1/2 Out R1/2 In

RS232 Rx Tx

The drivers provide RS-232 voltage level outputs (approx. 7.5 V) from a single + 5 V supply via on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing RS-232 in devices that otherwise do not need any voltages outside the 0 V to + 5 V range, as power supply design does not need to be made more complicated just for driving the RS-232 in this case. The receivers reduce RS-232 inputs (which may be as high as 25 V), to standard 5 V TTL levels. These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 V, and a typical hysteresis of 0.5 V. Pin to pin compatible: ICL232, ST232, ADM232, and HIN232. It is helpful to understand what occurs to the voltage levels. When a MAX232 IC receives a TTL level to convert, it changes a TTL Logic 0 to between +3 and +15 V, and changes TTL Logic 1 to between -3 to -15 V, and vice versa for converting from RS232 to TTL. VOLTAGE LEVELS RS232 Voltage +3 V to +15 V TTL Voltage to/from MAX232

RS232 Line Type & Logic Level

Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 0

0V

Data Transmission (Rx/Tx) Logic 1

-3 V to -15 V 5 V

Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 0 Control Signals (RTS/CTS/DTR/DSR) Logic 1

-3 V to -15 V 5 V

+3 V to +15 V

0V

PIN DIAGRAM

PIN DESCRIPTION
Pin No Function 1 2 3 4 5 Capacitor connection pins Name Capacitor 1 + Capacitor 3 + Capacitor 1 Capacitor 2 + Capacitor 2 -

6 7 Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at RS232 logic level; connected to receiver pin of PC serial port 8 Input pin; receives serially transmitted data at RS 232 logic level; connected to transmitter pin of PC serial port 9 Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at TTL logic level; connected to receiver pin of controller. 10 11 12 Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at TTL logic level; connected to receiver pin of controller. 13 Input pin; receives serially transmitted data at RS 232 logic level; connected to transmitter pin of PC serial port 14 Output pin; outputs the serially transmitted data at RS232 logic level; connected to receiver pin of PC serial port 15 16 Ground (0V) Supply voltage; 5V (4.5V 5.5V) Input pins; receive the serial data at TTL logic level; connected to serial transmitter pin of controller.

Capacitor 4 T2 Out

R2 In

R2 Out

T2 In T1 In R1 Out

R1 In

T1 Out

Ground Vcc

RS232 serial is used to communicate external hardware like microprocessors and micro controllers with computer Serial RS-232 communication works with voltages (between -15V ... -3V are used to transmit a binary '1' and +3V ... +15V to transmit a binary '0'). On the other hand, external interfacing hardware like microprocessors and microcontrollers of modern VLSI technology are made of TTL logic operates between 0V ... +5V (roughly 0V ... +0.8V referred to as low for binary '0', +2V ... +5V for high binary '1' ). Modern low-power logic operates in the range of 0V ... +3.3V or even lower.

So, the maximum RS-232 signal levels are far too high for today's TTL logic electronic hardwares, and the negative RS-232 voltage can't be grokked at all by the TTL logic. Therefore, to receive serial data from an RS-232 interface the voltage has to be reduced, and the 0 and 1voltage levels inverted. In the other direction (sending data from some logic over RS-232) the low logic voltage has to be "bumped up", and a negative voltage has to be generated, too.

All this can be done with conventional analog electronics, e.g. a particular power supply and a couple of transistors or the once popular 1488 (transmitter) and 1489 (receiver) ICs. However, since more than a decade it has become standard in amateur electronics to do the necessary signal level conversion with an integrated circuit (IC) from the MAX232 family (typically a MAX232A or some clone). In fact, it is hard to find some RS-232 circuitry in amateur electronics without a MAX232A or some clone. It should be noted that the MAX232(A) is just a driver/receiver. It does not generate the necessary RS-232 sequence of marks and spaces with the right timing, it does not decode the RS-232 signal, it does not provide a serial/parallel conversion. All it does is to convert signal voltage levels. Generating serial data with the right timing and decoding serial data has to be done by additional circuitry, e.g. by a 16550 UART or one of these small micro controllers (e.g. Atmel AVR, Microchip PIC) getting more and more popular.

The original manufacturer (and now some clone manufacturers, too) offers a large series of similar ICs, with different numbers of receivers and drivers, voltages, built-in or external capacitors, etc. E.g. The MAX232 and MAX232A need external capacitors for the internal voltage pump, while the MAX233 has these capacitors built-in. The MAX233 is also between three and ten times more expensive in electronic shops than the MAX232A because of its internal capacitors. It is also more difficult to get the MAX233 than the garden variety MAX232A. A similar IC, the MAX3232 is nowadays available for low-power 3V logic.

MAX232 (A) DIP Package

MAX232(A) DIP Package Pin Layout Capacitor Nbr Name Purpose Signal Voltage Value MAX232 + connector 1 C1+ for capacitor C1 capacitor should stand at least 16V +10V, capacitor should stand at least 16V capacitor should stand at least 16V capacitor should stand at least 16V capacitor should stand at least 16V -10V, capacitor 1F to GND 100nF to GND 1F 100nF 1F 100nF 1F 100nF 1F to VCC 100nF to VCC 1F 100nF Capacitor Value MAX232A

V+

output of voltage pump

C1-

- connector for capacitor C1

+ connector 4 C2+ for capacitor C2

C2-

- connector for capacitor C2

output of 6 V-

voltage pump / should stand at inverter least 16V

T2out

Driver 2 output Receiver 2 input Receiver 2 output Driver 2 input Driver 1 input Receiver 1 output Receiver 1 input Driver 1 output

RS-232

R2in

RS-232

R2out

TTL

10 11

T2in T1in

TTL TTL

12

R1out

TTL

13

R1in

RS-232

14

T1out

RS-232

15 16

GND Ground VCC Power supply

0V +5V

1F to VCC see above

100nF to VCC see above

V+(2) is also connected to VCC via a capacitor (C3). V-(6) is connected to GND via a capacitor (C4). And GND(15) and VCC(16) are also connected by a capacitor (C5), as close as possible to the pins.

EQUIVALENT IC DIAGRAM:

A Typical Application The MAX232 (A) has two receivers (converts from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels) and two drivers (converts from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels). This means only two of the RS-232 signals can be converted in each direction. The old MC1488/1498 combo provided four drivers and receivers. Typically a pair of a driver/receiver of the MAX232 is used for

TX and RX

And the second one for

CTS and RTS.

There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the DTR, DSR, and DCD signals. Usually these signals can be omitted when e.g. communicating with a PC's serial interface. If the DTE really requires these

signals either a second MAX232 is needed, or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used (if it can be found in consumer electronic shops at all). An alternative for DTR/DSR is also given below. The MAX232 family in great detail, including the pin configuration and how to connect such an IC to external circuitry. This information can be used as-is in own design to get a working RS-232 interface. Maxim's data just misses one critical piece of information: How exactly to connect the RS-232 signals to the IC. So here is one possible example: MAX232 to RS232 DB9 Connection as a DCE MAX232 Pin Nbr. MAX232 Pin Name Signal Voltage DB9 Pin 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 T2out R2in R2out T2in T1in R1out R1in T1out GND RTS CTS CTS RTS TX RX TX RX GND RS-232 8 RS-232 7 TTL TTL TTL TTL n/a n/a n/a n/a

RS-232 3 RS-232 2 0 5

In addition one can directly wire DTR (DB9 pin 4) to DSR (DB9 pin 6) without going through any circuitry. This gives automatic (brain dead) DSR acknowledgment of an incoming DTR signal. Sometimes pin 6 of the MAX232 is hard wired to DCD (DB9 pin 1). This is not recommended. Pin 6 is the raw output of the voltage pump and inverter for the 10V voltage. Drawing currents from the pin leads to a rapid breakdown of the voltage, and as a consequence to a breakdown of the output voltage of the two RS-232 drivers. It is better to use software which doesn't care about DCD, but does hardware-handshaking via CTS/RTS only. The circuitry is completed by connecting five capacitors to the IC as it follows. The MAX232 needs 1.0F capacitors, the MAX232A needs 0.1F capacitors. MAX232 clones show similar differences. It is recommended to consult the corresponding data sheet. At least 16V capacitor types should be used. If electrolytic or tantalic capacitors are used, the polarity has to be observed. The first pin as listed in the following table is always where the plus pole of the capacitor should be connected to. MAX232(A) external Capacitors Capacitor + Pin - Pin Remark C1 C2 C3 1 4 2 3 5 16

C4

GND 6

This looks non-intuitive, but because pin 6 is on -10V, GND gets the + connector, and not the -

C5

16

GND

The 5V power supply is connected to


+5V: Pin 16 GND: Pin 15

13.POWER SUPPLY
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc voltage.

230V AC

D.C
50Hz

Output

Step down transformer Fig: Power supply

Bridge Rectifier

Filter Regulator

Transformer: Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level. This is done by a

transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage to a required level. Rectifier: The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Filter: Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant

until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. Voltage regulator: As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project, power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the first number 78 represents positive supply and the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage. 78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current. These regulators can provide local on-card regulation,

eliminating

the

distribution

problems

associated

with

single

point

regulation.The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.

14. RS232
RS232 is commonly used in computer serial ports. The standard defines the electrical characteristics and timing of signals, the meaning of signals, and the physical size and pin out of connectors. The current version of the standard is TIA-232-F Interface between Data Terminal Equipment and Data CircuitTerminating Equipment Employing Serial Binary Data Interchange, issued in 1997. An RS-232 port was once a standard feature of a personal computer for connections to modems, printers, mice, data storage, un-interruptible power supplies, and other peripheral devices. However, the limited transmission speed, relatively large voltage swing, and large standard connectors motivated development of the universal serial bus which has displaced RS-232 from most of its peripheral interface roles. Many modern personal computers have no RS232 ports and must use an external converter to connect to older peripherals. Some RS-232 devices are still found especially in industrial machines or scientific instruments. The RS-232 standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero levels for the data transmission and the control signal lines. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to 15 volts; the 3 V range near zero volts is not a valid RS-232 level. The standard specifies a maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts: signal levels of 5 V, 10 V, 12 V, and 15 V are all commonly seen depending on the power supplies available within a device. RS232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to 25 volts. The slew rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled. For data transmission lines (TxD, RxD and their secondary channel equivalents) logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal condition is called

marking, and has the functional significance. Logic zero is positive and the signal condition is termed spacing. Control signals are logically inverted with respect to what one sees on the data transmission lines. When one of these signals is active, the voltage on the line will be between +3 to +15 volts. The inactive state for these signals is the opposite voltage condition, between 3 and 15 volts. Examples of control lines include request to send (RTS), clear to send (CTS), data terminal ready (DTR), and data set ready (DSR). Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels. These also protect the device's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply with the slew rate requirements for data transmission. Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop. Use of a common ground limits RS-232 to applications with relatively short cables. If the two devices are far enough apart or on separate power systems, the local ground connections at either end of the cable will have differing voltages; this difference will reduce the noise margin of the signals.

15. SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR: LM7805


A critical aspect of power supplies is dc supply-voltage stability. In addition to powering circuits, a precision dc voltage is often used as a reference to which voltage signals are compared for decision making. If reference voltage fluctuates wildly, so does the decision making of the system. To solve this problem, one large voltage regulator is often located at or near the power source. However, one problem with this approach is the voltage drop along the supply line caused by wire or printed-circuit resistance. The resulting variable voltage throughout the system often degrades regulator performance. Another problem with using a single regulator is the various impedances in the system. Common impedances between terminals provide paths for unwanted coupling. This requires added decoupling and bypass circuitry which, in the long run, can degrade local regulation. These effects can be reduced or eliminated by using individual regulators at each critical circuit location A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn from the line.

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS A temperature-compensated reference voltage is developed on the IC and compared with the output voltage of an error amplifier in IC regulators. This amplifier has low-temperature drift to maintain good output-voltage stability with changing temperature. The error amplifier drives an output stage consisting of a Darlington pair. The chips also contain the necessary bias and protection circuits including short-circuit protection, thermal shutdown, and pass transistors. IC voltage regulators are three-terminal devices that provide a constant DC output voltage that is independent of the input voltage, output load current, and temperature. There are three types of IC voltage regulators: IC linear voltage regulators, IC switching voltage regulators, and DC/DC converter chips. IC linear voltage regulators use an active pass element to reduce the input voltage to a regulated output voltage. By contrast, IC switching voltage regulators store energy in an inductor, transformer, or capacitor and then use this storage device to transfer energy from the input to the output in discrete packets over a lowresistance switch. DC/DC converter chips, a third type of IC voltage regulators, also provide a regulated DC voltage output from a different, unregulated input voltage. In addition, DC/DC converters are provide noise isolation regulate power buses. For each type of IC voltage regulator, the output voltage can be fixed or adjusted to a value within a specified range. Performance specifications for IC voltage regulators include regulated output voltage, output current, and dropout voltage, quiescent current and operating temperature. The regulated output voltage (Volt) represents minimum and maximum amounts in continuous mode (DC). The output current (IOUT) is measured under specified conditions. Dropout voltage (VD) is the minimum voltage drop across the regulator that maintains output voltage regulation. IC voltage regulators that operate with small dropout voltages dissipate less internal power, but have relatively high efficiencies. Measured in amperes (A)

during the idling state, the quiescent current never makes it to the load. Instead, it flows from the battery to power the regulator itself. The operating temperature is a full-required range. IC voltage regulators are available with a variety of features. Some devices have more than one output or channel. Others have an internal circuit to control the amount of current produced, or an error flag for monitoring outputs that drop below a nominal value. Reverse voltage protection prevents damage in applications where users can accidentally reverse battery polarity. Thermal shutdown protection turns off IC voltage regulators when the temperature exceeds a predefined limit. Shutdown (inhibit) pins are used to disable regulator outputs. IC voltage regulators are available in a variety of IC package types. Dual in-line packages (DIP) can be made of ceramic (CIP) or plastic (PDIP). Quad flat packages (QFPs) contain a large number of fine, flexible, gull wing shaped leads. SC-70, one of the smallest available IC packages, is well-suited for applications where space is extremely limited. Small outline (SO) packages are available with 8, 14, or 20 pins. Transistor outline (TO) packages are commonly available. TO-92 is a single in-line package used for low power devices. TO220 is suitable for high power, medium-current, and fast-switching products. TO-263 is the surface-mount version of the TO-220 package. Other IC packages for IC voltage regulators include shrink small outline package (SSOP), small outline integrated circuit (SOIC), small outline package (SOP), small outline Jlead (SOJ), discrete package (DPAK), and power package (PPAK). LM78xx The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits, indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while

the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line are positive voltage regulators: they produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive and negative supply voltages in the same circuit. 78xx ICs have three terminals and are commonly found in the TO220 form factor, although smaller surface-mount and larger TO3 packages are available. These devices support an input voltage anywhere from a couple of volts over the intended output voltage, up to a maximum of 35 to 40 volts depending on the make, and typically provide 1 or 1.5 amperes of current (though smaller or larger packages may have a lower or higher current rating) ADVANTAGES 78xx series ICs do not require additional components to provide a constant, regulated source of power, making them easy to use, as well as economical and efficient uses of space. Other voltage regulators may require additional components to set the output voltage level, or to assist in the regulation process. Some other designs (such as a switched-mode power supply) may need substantial engineering expertise to implement. 78xx series ICs have built-in protection against a circuit drawing too much power. They have protection against overheating and short-circuits, making them quite robust in most applications. In some cases, the current-limiting features of the 78xx devices can provide protection not only for the 78xx itself, but also for other parts of the circuit. 78xx ICs are easy to use and handle but these cannot give a altering voltage required so LM317 series of ICs are available to obtain a voltage output from 1.25 volts to 37 volts.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION LM7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels. The LM7805 is a three terminal regulator available with several fixed output voltages making it useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulator the device can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM7805 is available in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating. Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor

of the power supply. For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117series provides an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V.

CONNECTION DIAGRAMS

Features Output current in excess of 1A Internal thermal overload protection No external components required Output transistor safe area protection Internal short circuit current limit Available in the aluminum TO-3 package Voltage Range: LM7805C 5V

Absolute Maximum Ratings Input Voltage (VO = 5V, 12V and 15V) : 35V Internal Power Dissipation : Internally Limited Operating Temperature Range (TA): 0C to +70C

Maximum Junction Temperature : (K Package) 150C (T Package) 150C Storage Temperature Range : 65C to +150C Lead Temperature (Soldering, 10 sec.) : TO-3 Package K 300C TO-220 Package T 230C

16. PCB DESIGNING AND FABRICATION


A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board assembly or PCB Assembly (PCBA). Printed circuit boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced electronic devices.

Alternatives to PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs are often less expensive and more reliable than these alternatives, though they require more layout effort and higher initial cost. PCBs are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production since production and soldering of PCBs can be done by automated equipment. Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are published by the IPC organization.

Manufacturing Conducting layers are typically made of thin copper foil. Insulating layers dielectric is typically laminated together with epoxy resin prepreg. The board is typically coated with a solder mask that is green in color. Other colors that are normally available are blue, black, white and red. There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known prepreg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2 (Phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (Cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (Woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (Matte glass and polyester), G-10 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (Cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (Non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (Woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (Woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important consideration especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability. FR-4 is by far the most common material used today. The board with copper on it is called "copper-clad laminate". Copper foil thickness can be specified in ounces per square foot or micrometers. One ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometers.

Patterning (etching)

The vast majority of printed circuit boards are made by bonding a layer of copper over the entire substrate, sometimes on both sides, (creating a "blank PCB") then removing unwanted copper after applying a temporary mask

(e.g., by etching), leaving only the desired copper traces. A few PCBs are made by adding traces to the bare substrate (or a substrate with a very thin layer of copper) usually by a complex process of multiple electroplating steps. The PCB manufacturing method primarily depends on whether it is for production volume or sample/prototype quantities. Double-sided boards or multi-layer boards use plated-through holes, called vias, to connect traces on either side of the substrate. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits. Photoengraving uses a photo mask and developer to selectively remove a photo resist coating. The remaining photo resist protects the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. The photo mask is usually prepared with a photo plotter from data produced by a technician using CAM, or computer-aided manufacturing software. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for photo tools; however, direct laser imaging techniques are being employed to replace photo tools for high-resolution requirements. Chemical etching

Chemical etching is done with ferric chloride, ammonium per sulfate, or sometimes hydrochloric acid. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated

with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched away.

The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates.

As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content.

The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the

resist; this can reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can "overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wirebrushing the board after etching. Lamination

Some PCBs have trace layers inside the PCB and are called multi-layer PCBs. These are formed by bonding together separately etched thin boards. Drilling

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computergenerated files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings (hollow rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.

When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.

It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by predrilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers.

The walls of the holes, for boards with 2 or more layers, are made conductive then plated with copper to form plated-through holes that electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 4 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. Removing (etching back) the smear also reveals the interior conductors as well.

PCB WIZARD

PCB Wizard is a package for designing single sided and double sidedprinter circuit boards. It provides a comprehensive range of tools covering all the traditional steps in PCB production, including schematic drawing, schematic capture, component placement and automatic routing. PCB Wizard will convert the circuit diagrams into printed circuit board. By using the default options, PCB Wizard will convert the circuit automatically. The manual option will allow the user to choose different options like manual routing, track width, hole size etc.

17.PCB LAYOUT
PIC PCB LAYOUT

PIC GENERAL VIEW

9.PROGRAM
#include<pic.h> #include<lcd.h> #include<uart.h> #define _XTAL_FREQ 16000000 __CONFIG(0X3F7A); unsigned char str[14],str1[18],j; unsignedintcc,i; void main() { uart_init(9600); lcd_init(); lcd_clear(); lcd_puts("GSM READING"); __delay_ms(1000); lcd_clear(); uart_puts("ate0\r");

__delay_ms(2000); uart_puts("at+cnmi=0,2,0,0\r"); __delay_ms(2000); uart_write('A'); uart_write('T'); uart_write('+'); uart_write('C'); uart_write('M'); uart_write('G'); uart_write('D'); uart_write('A'); uart_write('='); uart_write('"'); uart_write('D'); uart_write('E'); uart_write('L'); uart_write(' '); uart_write('A'); uart_write('L'); uart_write('L'); uart_write('"'); uart_write(0X0D); while(1) {

j=uart_read();

if(j=='C') {

j=uart_read(); if(j=='M') { j=uart_read(); if(j=='T') {

for(cc=0;cc<3;cc++) {

j=uart_read(); }

for(cc=0;cc<13;cc++) {

str[cc]=uart_read(); } str[13]='\0'; lcd_clear(); lcd_goto(1,1); lcd_puts(str); j=0; for(i=0;j!=0X0A;i++) { j=uart_read(); }

j=0; for(cc=0;j!=0x0A;cc++) { j=uart_read(); str1[cc]=j; } str1[cc-2]='\0';

lcd_cmd(0xc0);

lcd_puts(str1); uart_write('A'); uart_write('T'); uart_write('+'); uart_write('C'); uart_write('M'); uart_write('G'); uart_write('D'); uart_write('A'); uart_write('='); uart_write('"'); uart_write('D'); uart_write('E'); uart_write('L'); uart_write(' '); uart_write('A'); uart_write('L'); uart_write('L'); uart_write('"');

uart_write(0X0D);

} } } } }

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